PG71454.B00001
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Guide to the study of animal ecology

PG71454.B00002
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

PG71454.B00003
Title: Guide to the study of animal ecology

PG71454.B00004
Author: Charles C. Adams

PG71454.B00005
Release date: August 20, 2023 [eBook #71454]

PG71454.B00006
Language: English

PG71454.B00007
Original publication: New York: The Macmillan Company, 1913

PG71454.B00008
Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/71454

PG71454.B00009
Credits: The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)

PG71454.B00010
*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF ANIMAL ECOLOGY ***

PG71454.B00011
GUIDE TO THE STUDY

PG71454.B00012
OF

PG71454.B00013
ANIMAL ECOLOGY

PG71454.B00014
[Illustration]

PG71454.B00015
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK · BOSTON · CHICAGO · DALLAS ATLANTA · SAN FRANCISCO

PG71454.B00016
MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED LONDON · BOMBAY · CALCUTTA MELBOURNE

PG71454.B00017
THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD. TORONTO

PG71454.B00018
[Illustration:

PG71454.B00019
FIG. 1.--Oyster Bank in South Carolina. Showing colonies of “coon” oysters growing in area between tides. Consult Möbius, Dean, and Grave for the ecological conditions of the animals on oyster banks. This is a representative animal community. Photo. by B. Dean, loaned by U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. ]

PG71454.B00020
GUIDE TO THE STUDY

PG71454.B00021
OF

PG71454.B00022
ANIMAL ECOLOGY

PG71454.B00023
BY

PG71454.B00024
CHARLES C. ADAMS, PH.D.

PG71454.B00025
ASSOCIATE IN ANIMAL ECOLOGY, DEPARTMENT OF ZOÖLOGY UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS

PG71454.B00026
NEW YORK THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1913

PG71454.B00027
_All rights reserved_

PG71454.B00028
COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

PG71454.B00029
Set up and electrotyped. Published August, 1913.

PG71454.B00030
Norwood Press J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

PG71454.B00031
PREFACE

PG71454.B00032
During the past ten years the writer has been trying to find some consistent and satisfactory working plan for handling the almost bewildering number of facts, of ecological significance, which have been accumulating in the literature of zoölogy, biology, and the allied sciences. This book is the outgrowth of the effort as it has developed in the study and teaching of animal ecology. I have not attempted to make this an exhaustive treatment of the subject, but rather to indicate briefly some of its general bearings and a method of approach. I have tried to keep in mind the needs of the beginner in ecology.

PG71454.B00033
An ecological point of view is described more fully than the other subjects discussed, so that the student may see the need of familiarity with those tests or criteria by means of which he may be able to determine for himself ecological relations and the validity of ecological studies. The other phases are treated less fully in the discussions and with more detail bibliographically so that this may be a useful source book. The geographical (in the ordinary sense of the word) aspect has been deliberately omitted. The references should be looked upon from the standpoint presented in the general portions of this book, and if the facts and inferences aid in the interpretation of the relations which exist between animals and the sum total of their environments, one may fairly consider that they are of ecological worth.

PG71454.B00034
In the arrangement of the references I have tried to group related papers, but many defy any single system. Some of the publications deserve to be in several lists, but little duplication has been made, as this would unduly prolong the lists. The annotations will supplement the titles and their grouping in indicating the contents and importance of the papers for our purpose. It has often been difficult to select from several almost equally valuable and useful papers. Others with different interests, aims, and experience would doubtless make a different choice. It will therefore be a favor, if those who use this handbook and feel that important papers have been excluded, will communicate this fact to the author.

PG71454.B00035
This book is not intended as a treatise on the science of ecology; its aim is primarily educational. This is the justification, if any were necessary, for placing emphasis upon the point of view and the importance of an understanding of explanatory processes and of the methods of scientific investigation. Any adequate treatment of this subject would exceed the space of this volume and it is reserved for future elaboration.

PG71454.B00036
At present ecology is a science with its facts out of all proportion to their organization or integration. There is thus an immediate need of integration, and this above all requires a clear conception of the scientific method as a tool, and independent thinking as well. The fact that scientific work progresses more rapidly when consciously pursued than otherwise should serve as ample justification for this emphasis.

PG71454.B00037
A word of explanation is desirable to explain certain features of this volume. It is the outcome of coöperative work on the part of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History and certain members of the Ecological Survey Committee of the Illinois Academy of Science, Professors E. N. Transeau and T. L. Hankinson. A local ecological study was made, as a piece of coöperative work, and directions for study were to be an introductory section of my part of this report. But as this part grew on my hands, with the permission of Professor S. A. Forbes, Director of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, I decided to publish it separately. This part was written two years and a half ago, and when separate publication was decided upon, additional references to the literature were added to bring it to date. These circumstances explain the emphasis placed upon ecological surveying and also the brevity of treatment of other aspects.

PG71454.B00038
Further, I am indebted to Professor Forbes for reading the manuscript and for valuable criticisms, and likewise, for similar assistance, to my wife, Alice Norton Adams. Skillful help on the proof and index has been given by Miss Marion E. Sparks.

PG71454.B00039
CHARLES C. ADAMS.

PG71454.B00040
URBANA, ILL., U.S.A., June 9, 1913.

PG71454.B00041
CONTENTS

PG71454.B00042
PAGE

PG71454.B00043
PREFACE v

PG71454.B00044
CHAPTER

PG71454.B00045
I. AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW 1

PG71454.B00046
II. THE VALUE AND METHOD OF ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS 23

PG71454.B00047
III. FIELD STUDY 36

PG71454.B00048
IV. THE COLLECTION, PRESERVATION, AND DETERMINATION OF SPECIMENS 49

PG71454.B00049
V. REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE 55

PG71454.B00050
1. The Scientific Method 55

PG71454.B00051
2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens, Photographing, Surveying, and Other Phases of Technique 57

PG71454.B00052
3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and on Proof Reading 65

PG71454.B00053
VI. REFERENCES TO IMPORTANT SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON THE LIFE HISTORIES AND HABITS OF INSECTS AND ALLIED INVERTEBRATES 70

PG71454.B00054
VII. THE LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, OR THE “ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF EXTERNAL NATURE.”(THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT) 79

PG71454.B00055
VIII. THE LAWS OF ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF METABOLISM, GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT, PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS, AND BEHAVIOR, OR “THE LIVING ORGANISM AND THE CHANGES WHICH TAKE PLACE IN IT.” (THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ANIMAL) 92

PG71454.B00056
1. General Physiology and Development 95

PG71454.B00057
2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers 100

PG71454.B00058
3. Animal Behavior as a Process 102

PG71454.B00059
4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies 107

PG71454.B00060
5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and Behavior 108

PG71454.B00061
IX. THE CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT BETWEEN THE ENVIRONMENT AND THE ANIMAL, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO OTHER ORGANISMS. (THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATIONS OF ANIMAL ASSOCIATIONS AND AGGREGATIONS) 122

PG71454.B00062
1. The Struggle for Existence 123

PG71454.B00063
2. The Dynamic Relations of Associations and Aggregations, with Special Reference to Animal Associations 130

PG71454.B00064
_a._ The Relation of Animals to Pollination and to Plant Galls 141

PG71454.B00065
_b._ Subterranean and Cave Associations 143

PG71454.B00066
_c._ Selected References on Aggregations and Associations 145

PG71454.B00067
INDEX 151

PG71454.B00068
INDEX TO NAMES 179

PG71454.B00069
LIST OF FIGURES

PG71454.B00070
FIG. 1. An Oyster Habitat on the South Carolina Coast _Frontispiece_

PG71454.B00071
2. Struggle for Existence on a Clam Flat. Overcrowded Condition _facing page_ 7

PG71454.B00072
3. Struggle for Existence on a Clam Flat. Destruction of Clams by Predaceous Animals ” ” 8

PG71454.B00073
4. A Small Mountain Stream as an Animal Environment ” ” 86

PG71454.B00074
5. A Small River as an Animal Environment ” ” 87

PG71454.B00075
6. An Illinois Prairie Remnant as an Animal Environment ” ” 139

PG71454.B00076
7. An Illinois Deciduous Forest as an Animal Environment ” ” 146

PG71454.B00077
RELATION OF ECOLOGY TO BIOLOGY

PG71454.B00078
“I shall try to show that life is response to the order of nature.... But if it be admitted, it follows that biology is the study of response, and that the study of that order of nature to which response is made is as well within its province as the study of the living organism which responds, for all the knowledge we can get of both these aspects of nature is needed as a preparation for the study of that relation between them which constitutes life.”

PG71454.B00079
“To study life we must consider three things:

PG71454.B00080
_first_, the orderly sequence of external nature;

PG71454.B00081
_second_, the living organism and the changes which take place in it; and,

PG71454.B00082
_third_, that continuous adjustment between the two sets of phenomena which constitutes life.”

PG71454.B00083
“The physical sciences deal with the external world, and in the laboratory we study the structure and activities of organisms by very similar methods; but if we stop there, neglecting the relation of the living being to its environment, our study is not biology or the science of life.”

PG71454.B00084
W. K. BROOKS.

PG71454.B00085
ANIMAL ECOLOGY

PG71454.B00086
I. AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW

PG71454.B00087
Ecology has no aim, but ecologists have. The problems of the ecologist are not fundamentally different from those of any other kind of naturalist. The superficial differences in aim are due to the different points of view, or methods of approach, rather than to any essential difference in the character of the problems.

PG71454.B00088
The essentially biological core of ecology may be best shown by considering the relation which this science bears to other branches of biology, a relation which has been admirably expressed by the eminent physiologist, Burdon-Sanderson (’94, pp. 438-439), as follows:

PG71454.B00089
“Now the first thing that strikes us in beginning to think about the activities of an organism is that they are naturally distinguishable into two kinds, according as we consider the action of the whole organism in its relation to the external world or to other organisms, or the action of the parts or organs in their relation to each other. The distinction to which we are thus led between the _internal_ and _external_ relation of plants and animals has of course always existed, but has only lately come into such prominence that it divides biologists more or less completely into two camps--on the one hand those who make it their aim to investigate the actions of the organism and its parts by the accepted methods of physics and chemistry, carrying this investigation as far as the conditions under which each process manifests itself will permit; on the other, those who interest themselves rather in considering the place which each organism occupies, and the part which it plays in the economy of nature. It is apparent that the two lines of inquiry, although they equally relate to what the organism _does_, rather than to what it is, and therefore both have equal right to be included in the one great science of life, or biology, yet lead in directions which are scarcely even parallel. So marked, indeed, is the distinction, that Professor Haeckel some twenty years ago proposed to separate the study of organisms with reference to their place in nature under the designation of ‘œcology,’ defining it as comprising ‘the relations of the animal to its organic as well as to its inorganic environment, particularly its friendly or hostile relations to those animals or plants with which it comes into direct contact.’[1] Whether this term expresses it or not, the distinction is a fundamental one. Whether with the œcologist we regard the organism in relation to the world, or with the physiologist as a wonderful complex of vital energies, the two branches have this in common, that both studies fix their attention, not on stuffed animals, butterflies in cases, or even microscopical sections of the animal or plant body--all of which relate to the framework of life--but on life itself.”

PG71454.B00090
[1] These he identifies with “those complicated mutual relations which Darwin designates as conditions of the struggle for existence.” Along with chorology--the distribution of animals--œcology constitutes what he calls _Relations-physiologie_. Haeckel, “Entwickelungsgang u. Aufgaben der Zoologie,” Jenaische Zeitschr., 1869, Vol. V, p. 353.

PG71454.B00091
The quotations from Brooks, on a preceding page, show even more explicitly the intimate relation which exists between biology and ecology. At first glance they may seem to prove almost too much--that biology and ecology are synonymous. They show at least that ecology is concerned with fundamental biological problems--the responses of organisms to their complete environments.

PG71454.B00092
The relations which different branches of ecology bear to one another may be discussed under three headings, individual, aggregate, and associational ecology. These phases are superficially so distinct that students of one branch may be almost unaware of the existence of the coördinate branches and may not realize that each is a part of the larger unit.

PG71454.B00093
_Individual Ecology._--The study of individual ecology is the investigation of the development (_process_ of formation) of the structure, function, and behavior of a given individual or kind of animal from the standpoint of its relations and responses to the complete environment. All ecologically significant facts should be considered. Such a study may be devoted to an animal, as, for example, a bumblebee, a crawfish, or a garter snake, and may be limited to a single habitat or locality, or extended throughout the entire geographic range of an animal. From this standpoint the individual studied becomes the hub of the microcosm, from which all relations and responses radiate. Most of the physiological studies of ecological bearing and many investigations of animal behavior have been made from this viewpoint. The organism is thus considered as an agent which, transforming and utilizing substance and energy, produces a varied number of physiological conditions and forms of activity, which in turn furnish the basis for the constant process of response between the organism and its environment.

PG71454.B00094
_Aggregate Ecology._--The study of aggregate ecology is the investigation of the ecological development, relations, and responses of animals based upon hereditary or taxonomic units, as in a family community, or in genera, families, orders, etc. These groups or aggregates are made the basis for the ecologic study, as a hive of bees, birds, dragon flies (Odonata), the genus _Bombus_. From this approach the activities and responses of the group are traced throughout all environments and associations within the area studied, or throughout the world, and its responses and adjustments to the whole environment receive primary attention. The hereditary or taxonomic unit is here the hub of the microcosm. Perhaps most of the contributions to ecology by the taxonomists are made from this standpoint. Here also the aggregate is considered as an agent or entity which produces many kinds of activities and adjustments to the environment.

PG71454.B00095
_Associational Ecology._--Associational ecology is devoted to the investigation of the development, interrelations, and responses of animals which are grouped or associated in the same habitats and environments. In this case the associates in a given association and habitat are considered as a unit, whose activities and interrelations and responses are investigated in the same manner as if it were a single animal. The interactions among members of an association are to be compared to the similar relations existing between the different cells, organs, or activities of a single individual. Such groupings have a composition which has developed into an arrangement, or “spacing,” of individuals within it, and which produces a particular plan or pattern, as a result of the innumerable responsive activities on the part of the individuals which live together. For example, when the animals living in a small brook, the littoral zone of a lake, in a colony of breeding gulls, or on the floor of a forest, are treated as a unit, the entire history of the animals in the habitat is considered as a response to the conditions of life.

PG71454.B00096
In this form of study the association becomes the center of all radiating relations and responses. Such an association is an agent which transforms substance and energy, producing varied physiological conditions and responses in the continuous process of adjustment “which constitutes life.” The physiological needs and states of an association have as real existence in individual animals as have similar needs in the cell or cells which compose the animal body. The mere statement of the facts of such relations is enough to make valid such a comparison.

PG71454.B00097
For the associational aspect of ecology the German naturalist, Möbius, proposed in 1877 the term “biocœnosis.” The meaning of this he expressed very clearly and concisely, and on account of its relatively obscure publication, in a paper devoted to oyster culture, it has not gained the circulation among zoölogists which its importance merits. His statement (Möbius, ’83, p. 723) is as follows:

PG71454.B00098
“Every oyster-bed is thus, to a certain degree, a community of living beings, a collection of species, and a massing of individuals, which find here everything necessary for their growth and continuance, such as suitable soil, sufficient food, the requisite percentage of salt, and a temperature favorable to their development. Each species which lives here is represented by the greatest number of individuals which can grow to maturity subject to the conditions which surround them, for among all species the number of individuals which arrive at maturity at each breeding period is much smaller than the number of germs produced at that time. The total number of mature individuals of all the species living together in any region is the sum of the survivors of all the germs which have been produced at all past breeding or brood periods; and this sum of matured germs represents a certain quantum of life which enters into a certain number of individuals, and which, as does all life, gains permanence by means of transmission. Science possesses, as yet, no word by which such a community of living beings may be designated; no word for a community where the sum of species and individuals, beings mutually limited and selected under the average external conditions of life, have, by means of transmission, continued in possession of a certain definite territory. I propose the word _Biocænosis_[2] for such a community. Any change in any of the relative factors of a biocönose produces changes in other factors of the same. If, at any time, one of the external conditions of life should deviate for a long time from its ordinary mean, the entire biocönose, or community, would be transformed. It would also be transformed, if the number of individuals of a particular species increased or diminished through the instrumentality of man, or if one species entirely disappeared from, or a new species entered into, the community.” (See Figure 1).

PG71454.B00099
[2] From βίος, life, and κοινόειν, to have something in common.

PG71454.B00100
[Illustration:

PG71454.B00101
FIG. 2.--Struggle for Existence on a Clam Flat. Showing the overcrowded condition of a colony of Soft Clams (_Mya arenaria_) on Rowley Reef, Massachusetts. The pits mark the position of the living clams. Photo. by Belding, loaned by Mass. Comms. Fisheries and Game. ]

PG71454.B00102
The three methods of approach to ecological study are not so distinct as they appear at first thought. With perfecting knowledge the network of interrelations increases and the paths converge. Then also the study of the individual behavior of “social” animals, as ants, white ants, bees, or birds which live and breed in colonies, shows transitional stages from the individual unit to that of the family, the colony, and on to the association. Yet the advantage of each point of view should be recognized as an aid in the analysis and synthesis of any problem.

PG71454.B00103
Some students feel that the study of individual ecology should precede that of the associational. Within certain limits this is true, but if our general knowledge of biology had waited for the perfection of our knowledge of the individual cells of animals, the results would have been disastrous to all concerned. Even now our knowledge of these subjects is very incomplete. For similar reasons there should be no delay in studying animal aggregates and associations.

PG71454.B00104
A combination of ecological and taxonomic study generally appeals most strongly to those students who have made a specialty of some group of animals. They are familiar with certain forms, have some confidence in taxonomic methods, and frequently have given some attention to habits, life histories, and to collecting. To those who like the descriptive aspect of taxonomy, ecological studies also offer a new field for further description and classification. At present perhaps the majority of ecological students have entered the subject through taxonomy. It is the almost universal verdict of such students that it has required much effort on their part to make the change in the point of view. Such a change cannot be made by a simple resolve, but requires a modification of the habits of the mind, which will be attended by a distinct consciousness of effort. As in other habits, reversion to the older attitude of mind is very easy. This change in point of view is a problem in habit formation, a study of the mental behavior of the ecologist, which is in reality the main topic thus far discussed. One may attempt to make such a change and find that he does not have sufficient modifiability to make it permanent, so that it is only for the moment, during actual collision with some stubborn fact, that he is able to realize ecological relations and an ecological point of view.

PG71454.B00105
[Illustration:

PG71454.B00106
FIG. 3.--Struggle for Existence on a Clam Flat. Showing the destruction of a colony of Soft Clams by Horse-shoe Crabs (_Limulus_) and Cockles (_Lunatia_), Rowley Reef, Massachusetts. Photo. by Belding, loaned by Mass. Comms. Fisheries and Game. ]

PG71454.B00107
To the physiologist, however, individual ecology tends to appeal most strongly, and he, perhaps on account of the preponderance of analytical methods in his work, feels that this is the safest and most important aspect. This statement is perhaps also true of most students of animal behavior. This is largely due to the great present need of analytical methods in these lines, and perhaps indicates a stage in the development of their science rather than a permanent condition. Later a synthetic development will probably become more prominent, and with it will come a change in estimating relative values. Generally physiologists allow for a greater influence of the environment than do many other students. They are impressed with the dependence of organisms upon their environment, and the study of their reactions only reinforces this conception.

PG71454.B00108
The ecologist who studies the responses of animals cannot help being impressed with the processes of adjustment, and with adaptation as a _process_. It is adaptation as a process, rather than as a product, which perhaps interests him most, and emphasis needs to be placed upon this distinction. The problem of adaptation as a process may be a different and separate one from that of evolution, but individual animals must have shown adjustive adaptation, or there could have been no perpetuation to continue the struggle of adjustment. Ecological problems are likely to raise a question as to the relative importance of adaptation and evolution--if they are separate problems. The present generation has perhaps been more deeply impressed by evolution as a process, than by adaptation as a process.

PG71454.B00109
The ecology of living animals is only the latest chapter in the volume on this subject; the preceding chapters will contain a history of the indefinitely long series of ecological responses which have taken place in the geologic past. Here is where the ecologist and paleontologist and geologist find common ground. The ecology of living animals must furnish us with whatever firm basis we have for the interpretation of the conditions of life in the past, upon which the paleontologist, stratigrapher, or paleogeographer must depend, at least in part, for his interpretations.

PG71454.B00110
With still another training and interest, as in the case of those especially interested in human affairs, such as the sociologist, the physician, the sanitary expert, and the agriculturist, we may ultimately expect a greater appreciation for the associational aspect because of the social or associational character of human society. The associational is the phase of animal activity which may be considered as the form of animal behavior which has developed into the human social relations. It is a response to the complete organic and inorganic environment.

PG71454.B00111
It is rather natural that in a relatively newly recognized subject like ecology this human aspect has not been very fully discussed. For practical reasons the ecology of man has been developed largely independent of that of animals; just as human physiology and psychology have been developed relatively independent of comparative or general physiological psychology. To the mutual advantage of these subjects they are now rapidly converging, and we may anticipate a similar relation between general animal ecology and the ecology of man. In a general treatise on animal ecology the human phase should not receive undue emphasis any more than it should in a general physiology of animals or in a comparative psychology. But, nevertheless, the relationships of man and his animal associates (slaves, domestic animals, rats, mice, parasites, etc.) form as truly an animal association as do those of the animals which live associated in some forest glade; and in all probability, before any approximately complete understanding can be had of the human associations, their roots and principles of activity must be known and understood in the less aristocratic portion of his animal relatives.

PG71454.B00112
The recognition of the associational aspect of ecology, as well as that human ecology is a part of general animal ecology, is of recent origin. This is very well shown in the following quotation from Huxley (1854. On the Educational Value of the Natural History Sciences):

PG71454.B00113
“Biology deals only with living beings as isolated things--treats only of the life of the individual: but there is a higher division of science still, which considers living beings as aggregates--which deals with the relation of living beings one to another--the science which _observes_ men--whose _experiments_ are made by nations one upon another, in battlefields--whose _general propositions_ are embodied in history, morality, and religion--whose _deductions_ lead to our happiness or our misery--and whose _verifications_ so often come too late, and serve only

PG71454.B00114
‘To point a moral, or adorn a tale’--

PG71454.B00115
I mean the science of Society or _Sociology_.”

PG71454.B00116
At a later date (1876. On the Study of Biology) Huxley says: “For whatever view we may entertain about the nature of man, one thing is perfectly certain, that he is a living creature. Hence, if our definition is to be interpreted strictly, we must include man and all his ways and works under the head of Biology; in which case, we should find that psychology, politics, and political economy would be absorbed into the province of Biology. In strict logic no one can object to this course.... The real fact is that we biologists are a self-sacrificing people ... [so that] we feel that we have more than sufficient territory.... But I should like you to recollect that that is a sacrifice, and that you should not be surprised if it occasionally happens that you see a biologist apparently trespassing in the region of philosophy or politics; or meddling with human education; because, after all, that is a part of his kingdom which he has only voluntarily forsaken.”

PG71454.B00117
Whether sociology is regarded as a response of man to his fellows or to the whole of his environment is inconsequential in its bearing upon whether or not it is ecological. The response of man, as an animal, to a part or the whole of his environment is strictly ecological. Huxley recognized one relation very clearly, and that is that the ecological relations of _individuals_ do not currently include the higher synthesis which deals with them as associations, or “aggregates” as he terms them. So far as known to the writer, human activities in general have never been fully and comprehensively oriented from the ecological standpoint, even by the humanitarians themselves, although some important preliminary steps have been taken. It looks as if such a viewpoint might give a new unity to all studies of human relations.

PG71454.B00118
There is still another class of persons, particularly teachers and isolated students, who desire first of all to understand and interpret their own vicinity, and who will inquire which of the three plans their work best fits. If such a one begins with the detailed study of each species, the general survey will not be completed during his lifetime. If he uses the larger taxonomic units, he may survey the field by going over the same ground again and again, with each of the different groups successively in mind, until the entire field has been surveyed. Or, lastly, he may divide the area into associations and study the animals which are found living together, and by studying one association after another he may cover the entire field. A teacher will find certain important advantages in this plan, and certain disadvantages. One of the most important considerations in its favor is that such a study results in a familiarity with the kinds of animals one actually finds in natural groups, as when his class is on an excursion. The natural history which a farmer, a fisherman, a summer vacationist, or a sportsman acquires is grouped in this same manner. Thus to a large number of people this is the natural method of approach, and is generally of most permanent value, except possibly to some professional teachers or zoölogists. One of its greatest disadvantages is that in most of the literature which one must use, the animals are not grouped in this way, but taxinomically.

PG71454.B00119
The individual, aggregate, and associational methods of study are in themselves subject to diverse angles of approach, and each has its particular advantages and disadvantages. Of the methods of approach mention will be made of three only, the descriptive, the comparative, and the genetic or method of processes. The descriptive method must develop to some degree before the genetic problems can be adequately stated, and the mature development of the genetic may, and generally does, lag far behind that of the descriptive. The reason for this is simple, for it is evident that it is much easier to describe what we see than it is to explain how it originated or its process of development. At present biology as a science is mainly in the descriptive stage, though it is slowly but surely becoming explanatory and genetic. The developmental or explanatory method is so difficult that every possible expedient--observation, comparison, reflection, experiment, etc.--must be used to secure the proper development of the main phases of ecology. There is a marked tendency in the naturalist to master one system of work, as observation or experiment, and to use it as a tool almost exclusively, turning from one phase of the subject to another, and continuing the use of the same method. This way of working is favorable to a good technique, but its weakness is that it often tends to give its user a feeling of the great superiority and reliability of the result reached by his method, and a correspondingly less appreciative recognition of results secured by other methods. To observe, to experiment, to reflect, to dissect, to stain, and to collect are only partial methods of investigation, and this fact should be realized and be kept in mind when estimating values and planning work.

PG71454.B00120
The aim of the ecologist is professedly genetic or explanatory because it is the study of _responses_ to all conditions of the complete environment. But these responses must be described, and the conditions influencing them as well, so that a descriptive aspect is an essential part in all phases of ecology. In the study of the responses of an individual, an order, or an association, pure description of the responses is necessary; but a description which will at once describe and show the working of the processes by which the results were produced, is of quite a different order. This phase of explanation has been most concisely expressed and applied by the students of the physical sciences, and biologists may profit much from a study of their methods.

PG71454.B00121
When, however, we turn to the viewpoint of the development of the science of ecology as a whole, a symmetrical development of the subject is most desirable. The preponderating influence of any special point of view tends, like dominance in general, to smother or suppress other germinating and competing ideas. The different special interests each have their advantages and disadvantages, as does a general interest. Diversity in students leads to diversity in the development of the subject, and a variety of emotional appeals to the student has its advantages. And just as the special student should devote some attention to the general bearing of his work, so also should the student of the general aspects cultivate some special field of interest.

PG71454.B00122
The preceding discussion of the aims and methods in ecological study has been intended to indicate some of its general bearings, and to give the student some idea of the tests or criteria which may be used to aid in steering his course through the maze of observations which he may make and the opinions which he encounters. It is of equal importance for the student to be able to perceive ecological relations as recorded by others, because one person’s experience is so limited compared with the general body of recorded fact and inference. Furthermore, there are also so many degrees and kinds of work that go by the name ecological, which may or may not be, and so many also which are truly ecological but which do not pass under that name, that it is necessary that the student shall be able to see through its diverse guises and recognize its essential character. Whenever the question arises as to the ecological character of a fact, inference, or conclusion, its ecological validity may be tested in the following way:

PG71454.B00123
Do the facts, inferences, or conclusions show a _response_ to the inorganic or organic environment:

PG71454.B00124
1. As an individual of a species or kind of animal?

PG71454.B00125
2. As a group of taxonomically related animals?

PG71454.B00126
3. As an association of interacting animals?

PG71454.B00127
REFERENCES ON THE ECOLOGICAL STANDPOINT

PG71454.B00128
In this I have listed only those papers which have seemed to me particularly significant because of their point of view, regardless of whether or not they are primarily zoölogical or specifically mention ecology.

PG71454.B00129
BROOKS, W. K.

PG71454.B00130
1899. The Foundations of Zoölogy. pp. 339. New York.

PG71454.B00131
Introductory, pp. 1-29; Huxley, and the Problem of the Naturalist, pp. 33-46; Nature and Nurture, pp. 49-79.

PG71454.B00132
1906. Heredity and Variation; Logical and Biological. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. XLV, pp. 70-76.

PG71454.B00133
An extremely suggestive paper which should be read by every ecological student.

PG71454.B00134
GANONG, W. F.

PG71454.B00135
1907. The Organization of the Ecological Investigation of the Physiological Life-Histories of Plants. Bot. Gaz., Vol. XLIII, pp. 341-344.

PG71454.B00136
1904. The Cardinal Principles of Ecology. Science, N. S., Vol. XIX, pp. 493-498.

PG71454.B00137
BURDON-SANDERSON, J. S.

PG71454.B00138
1894. Biology in Relation to Other Natural Sciences. Smithsonian Report for 1893, pp. 435-463.

PG71454.B00139
MÖBIUS, K.

PG71454.B00140
1877. Die Auster und die Austernwirthschaft. pp. 126. Berlin.

PG71454.B00141
On page 72 he proposes the term “biocœnose” for the group of animals which live together in the same habitat. Not seen by writer.

PG71454.B00142
1883. The Oyster and Oyster-Culture. Rep. U. S. Fish Comm., 1880, Part VIII, pp. 683-751.

PG71454.B00143
Translation of preceding paper. On pp. 721-729 he discusses “An Oyster-Bank as a Biocönose, or a Social Community”; on page 723 he proposes the word “biocœnosis.” An illuminating paper.

PG71454.B00144
DAHL, F.

PG71454.B00145
1902. Die Ziele der vergleichenden “Ethologie” (d. i. Biologie im älteren engeren Sinne). Verh. V. Inter. Zoöl.-Cong. 1901, pp. 296-300.

PG71454.B00146
1908. Grundsätze und Grundbegriffe der biocönotischen Forschung. Zool. Anz., Bd. XXXIII, pp. 349-353.

PG71454.B00147
1898. Experimentell-statistische Ethologie. Verh. der Deutsch. Zool. Gesell. Bd., 1898, pp. 121-131.

PG71454.B00148
1901. Was ist ein Experiment, was Statistik in der Ethologie? Biol. Centralbl., Bd. XXI, pp. 675-681.

PG71454.B00149
WASMANN, E.

PG71454.B00150
1901. Biologie oder Ethologie? Biol. Centralbl., Bd. XXI, pp. 391-400.

PG71454.B00151
WHEELER, W. M.

PG71454.B00152
1902. ‘Natural History,’ ‘Œcology’ or ‘Ethology’? Science, N. S., Vol. XV, pp. 971-976.

PG71454.B00153
Advocates the use of the term ethology.

PG71454.B00154
ST. HILAIRE, I. GEOFFRAY.

PG71454.B00155
1859. Histoire Générale des Règnes Organiques, Vol. II.

PG71454.B00156
Not seen by writer. Dr. W. M. Wheeler, of Harvard University, has kindly sent me the following note from p. 285. “‘It is to ethology therefore that the fourth part of this work is devoted, to which belongs the study of the relations of organisms within the family and the society in the aggregate and in the community.’ In a volume of the same work, page xx, St. Hilaire gives his program and speaks of the general facts belonging to ethological laws. These are defined as ‘relating to the instincts, habits and more generally to the external vital manifestations of organisms.’” About the preceding Dr. Wheeler remarks: “You see this covers precisely the field which was a few years later called ‘ecology’ by Haeckel. Apparently the part of the work in which St. Hilaire wished to give a detailed account of the ethological phenomena of animals was not published. Only three volumes of the work exist. He died November 10, 1861, without having completed the work.”

PG71454.B00157
Thus ethology has priority over ecology, but to my mind this fact carries no special weight, particularly since the word has become current in botany. To use a different name for the same subject or process in botany and zoölogy is as undesirable as to use a different term for heredity in plants and in animals.

PG71454.B00158
LANKESTER, E. R.

PG71454.B00159
1889. Article “Zoölogy.” Ency. Britannica, 9th ed. Amer. Reprint. Vol. XXIV, pp. 842, 856.

PG71454.B00160
Lankester defines “Bionomics.--The lore of the farmer, gardener, sportsman, fancier, and field naturalist, including thremmatology, or the science of breeding, and the allied teleology, or science of organic adaptations: exemplified by the patriarch Jacob, the poet Vergil, Sprengel, Kirby and Spence, Wallace, and Darwin.... Buffon (1707-1788) alone among the greater writers of the three past centuries emphasized that view of living things which we call ‘bionomics.’ Buffon deliberately opposed himself to the mere exposition of the structural resemblances and differences of animals, and, disregarding classification, devoted his treatise on natural history to a consideration of the habits of animals and their adaptations to their surroundings, whilst a special volume was devoted by him to the subject of reproduction.... Buffon is the only prominent writer who can be accorded historic rank in this study.”

PG71454.B00161
As I have access to but few of Buffon’s writings, I quote the above. Bionomics is seen not to be synonymous with ecology, as defined by most students, although it includes much that is ecological. The chaotic and unorganized “lore of the farmer” has no unifying or guiding principles, and although it contains many facts, from which a science may be built, to call it science seems undesirable.

PG71454.B00162
It is of course advantageous in some ways to have agreement as to the limitations of ecology, or any science, but even the more exact sciences seem to fare little better, as is shown by the following statement: “It is not long since I heard a university professor begin a lecture on physics somewhat in this way: ‘Physics is the science of matter and energy. This field is so large that it is customary at present to break off the physics of the molecule and its reactions and call it chemistry. Also to put to one side the physics of the heavenly bodies and call this a part of astronomy,’ etc.” (Strong, Science, N. S., Vol. XXXIV, p. 409, 1911.)

PG71454.B00163
FORBES, S. A.

PG71454.B00164
1895. On Contagious Disease in the Chinch-Bug (_Blissus leucopterus_ Say). 19th Rep. State Ent. Ill. (8th Rep. of S. A. Forbes), pp. 16-176.

PG71454.B00165
In this paper Forbes defines (pp. 16-18) ecology and points out, I believe for the first time, that economic entomology is simply applied ecology. He says, “The study of œcology is thus to the economic entomologist what the study of physiology is to the physician.”

PG71454.B00166
1909. Aspects of Progress in Economic Entomology. Journ. Econ. Ent., Vol. II, pp. 25-35.

PG71454.B00167
Especially pp. 28-32 on the relation of ecology to economic entomology.

PG71454.B00168
HERDMANN, W. A.

PG71454.B00169
1896. Oceanography, Bionomics, and Aquiculture. Smithsonian Report for 1895, pp. 433-454.

PG71454.B00170
EMERY, C.

PG71454.B00171
1905. Éthologie, Phylogénie et Classification. C. R. 6me Cong. inter. de Zool. Berne, 1904, pp. 160-174.

PG71454.B00172
CLEMENTS, F. E.

PG71454.B00173
1905. The Foundations of Ecology, pp. 1-17.

PG71454.B00174
Research Methods in Ecology, pp. 334. Lincoln, Nebraska.

PG71454.B00175
ADAMS, CHAS. C.

PG71454.B00176
1906. Introductory Note. An Ecological Survey in Northern Michigan. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1905, pp. 11-12.

PG71454.B00177
1909. The Ecological Succession of Birds. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 121-154.

PG71454.B00178
SHELFORD, V. E.

PG71454.B00179
1912. Ecological Succession. V. Aspects of Physiological Classification. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 331-370.

PG71454.B00180
The standpoint of this paper is very much in harmony with that advanced in this book.

PG71454.B00181
CASE, E. C.

PG71454.B00182
1905. Œcological Features of Evolution. Bull. Wis. Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. III, pp. 169-180.

PG71454.B00183
WHEELER, W. M.

PG71454.B00184
1905. Ethology and the Mutation Theory. Science, N. S., Vol. XXI, pp. 535-540.

PG71454.B00185
FLAHAULT, C., and SCHRÖTER, C.

PG71454.B00186
1910. Phytogeographical Nomenclature. Reports and Propositions. IIIᵉ Cong. Inter. de Botanique. Bruxelles, 1910. pp. 28 + x. Zurich.

PG71454.B00187
WHITE, C. A.

PG71454.B00188
1893. The Relation of Biology to Geological Investigation. Ann. Rep. U. S. Nat. Mus. for 1892, pp. 245-368.

PG71454.B00189
This paper and the two following references illustrate the intimate relation of ecology to phases of geology.

PG71454.B00190
GRABAU, A. W.

PG71454.B00191
1899. The Relation of Marine Bionomy to Stratigraphy. Bull. Buffalo Soc. Nat. Sci., Vol. VI, pp. 319-367.

PG71454.B00192
WALTHER, J.

PG71454.B00193
1893-94. Einleitung in die Geologie als historische Wissenschaft. I. Bionomie des Meeres. II. Die Lebensweise der Meeresthiere. III. Lithogenesis der Gegenwart. Jena.

PG71454.B00194
Shows the close relation between ecology and geology. The process standpoint is emphasized and the past is interpreted in terms of processes now in operation.

PG71454.B00195
ADAMS, CHAS. C.

PG71454.B00196
1908. Some of the Advantages of an Ecological Organization of a Natural History Museum. Proc. Amer. Associa. Museums, Vol. I, pp. 170-178.

PG71454.B00197
II. THE VALUE AND METHOD OF ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS

PG71454.B00198
“I cannot too strongly emphasize the fact ... that a comprehensive survey of our entire natural history is absolutely essential to a good _working knowledge_ of those parts of it which chiefly attract popular attention,--that is, its edible fishes, its injurious and beneficial insects, and its parasitic plants. Such a survey, however, should not stop with a study of the dead forms of nature, ending in mere lists and descriptions. To have an _applicable_ value, it must treat the life of the region as an organic unit, must study it _in action_, and direct principal attention to the laws of its activity.”--S. A. FORBES. 1883.

PG71454.B00199
Natural history surveys have come down to us from the early days of zoölogy. These surveys have been of many kinds and have ranged from the adventurous accounts of early and daring explorers to those of such naturalists as Belt, Bates, Wallace, and Darwin, onward to the voluminous accounts of the “Biologia Centrali-Americana,” and in the _Challenger_ reports. These surveys have contributed greatly to our knowledge of the fundamental facts of zoölogy and to the training of naturalists.

PG71454.B00200
The most frequent form of survey is that carried on along the lines which most nearly approach individual and aggregate ecology. Most of such surveys give only slight attention to the _responsive relation_, or only to its most general aspects. Surveys of the usual character are of great importance, and with students of taxonomic training and interests only, this form of survey occurs very naturally. Most of the governmental and state surveys and museum expeditions are developed along these lines. The frequency with which such methods are used in surveys, which are expected to produce economic results, indicates that these methods are generally considered the most satisfactory. The exceptions to this rule are mainly surveys of fresh and salt waters, and are related in some way to aquatic resources. Except when detailed individual studies of certain species or some special subject has been made, the usual form of the reports of such surveys is the annotated list. It is rarely that even brief chapters discuss the groupings of the animals as they are found associated in nature. These statements show that, judging from the past, the methods currently used cannot be depended upon for a rapid and symmetrical development of ecology, or for the best development of ecological surveys. These must be developed in a more direct and deliberate manner, by carefully planned and executed ecological investigations. It is desirable also that ecological surveys should be conducted along some one of the three main avenues of approach, individual, aggregate, and associational, in order that the science may develop symmetrically. The following are some of the reasons which may be mentioned in favor of such surveys:

PG71454.B00201
As a record of the associations, their interrelations and responses to their environment--before they have become too much changed or exterminated. This is a duty to future naturalists and to future science. The animal remains in themselves are only a very incomplete record; their activities and environments are an essential part of the animals and should also be preserved.

PG71454.B00202
The study of original conditions is a simpler problem than after interference by man, but excessive modifications result in the simplicity due to annihilation and a corresponding imperfection of knowledge. The value of a knowledge of original conditions tends to increase with time, and will aid much in future interpretations when there is still more disturbance. Thus an important perspective may be developed which will aid in estimating relative values. At the present time the loss of records of original conditions is only beginning to be felt. The possibility of making certain records will vanish with each generation. It is not even desirable to _preserve all_, but it is evident that many ecological records should be preserved.

PG71454.B00203
As the importance of ecological studies, in natural environments, comes to be more generally recognized the serious encroachments of civilization upon habitats and associations is enforced upon us. Not only are the descriptions of these associations very few in number, but the interrelations of the animals in them are even less known, and the chances of preserving adequate records before their complete extinction are becoming fewer every year. Without the least disparagement of other lines of work, one can but wonder if the naturalists of the future will commend our foresight in studying with such great diligence certain aspects of biology which might be very well delayed, while ephemeral and vanishing records are allowed to be obliterated without the least concern. These changes are generally greatest where civilized man is most dominant, and in progressive attenuations, zones, or strips, the degree of change produced by him radiates. Ecology has developed only at a late stage in civilization, after much of the environment has undergone great changes, so that in order to study the original conditions, which are of such great historic and genetic significance, he must make long journeys, or invade the swamps or sterile uplands which man has not yet been able to reduce to the average conditions best suited to his needs. This state of affairs is one which, at times, makes him thankful that there are conditions which, for the present at least, man cannot cultivate and utterly change and mutilate. Some appear to think that an interest in such original conditions is of no particular scientific value, or is largely one of sentiment; still others, that such studies have no practical value. But if we come to consider that the original primeval conditions give us our best conception of the _normal processes of nature_ and are comparable to the normal health of an organism, it puts the subject in another light. A pathological condition is, of course, a state in a natural process, as is also any disturbance of the normal order of nature by man, and each should be studied scientifically. But the science of pathology has developed best as a study of the disturbances of normal processes and is interpreted primarily in terms of the normal; and the artificial should be similarly interpreted--the natural being the basis to which all standards must be referred. A comparison may also profitably be made between natural conditions and the physiological and vital optima of organisms and to the responses which are made with departures from such conditions. Similar comparisons should be made in the study of the responses of aggregations and associations in natural environments and departures from them. No matter how much we learn, the normal must remain as the ideal, and all departures from and disturbances of such conditions must be interpreted in terms of this fundamental unit.

PG71454.B00204
To study disturbed, artificial, and “pathological” conditions, without an adequate knowledge of the normal and original conditions of both the organisms and the environment, is an attempt to interpret the abnormal and artificial in terms of itself, rather than in terms of the normal. If, however, the normal is no longer preserved, then its nearest approach should be studied, but with all the more care and caution. With a proper understanding of the normal, the disturbances made by man will be capable of _interpretation in an orderly sequence strictly comparable to that found in the original and natural conditions_. The cutting down and washing of the lands, the draining and filling of depressions, the flooding of the lands, the destruction (or succession) of plant and animal associations (including crop rotation), are processes brought about or practiced by other organisms or animal agencies. An ecological standpoint gives us a consistent, comprehensive orientation of all these natural and “artificial” activities and processes, and shows the unity in all organic responses to the environment. Man’s influence in the main consists of hastening or retarding “natural processes.”

PG71454.B00205
Naturalists have for a long time spoken of the “balance of nature” and of the all-pervading influence of any serious disturbance of it. This balance is, of course, only a relative condition, and not absolutely fixed. It swings from one side, then back, sometimes showing considerable amplitude in its swing, then again its moves are very slight, mere tremblings, as it were. But now and then some local catastrophic event occurs which overturns everything, as when a volcano becomes active, or some dominant association takes possession of the field,--as in the case of man,--and a new order is initiated and a new balance is developed. The mongoose in Jamaica, our English sparrow, and rabbits in Australia are the classic examples of the overturning of the local order of nature by the agency of other organisms. Obviously this balance is not a condition limited to any particular locality or group of organisms. Balance is very generally conceded to be of fundamental importance in the study of any species or group of organisms, if its place in the economy of nature is understood. A vast number of the problems of the economic zoölogist are thus problems, not so much of individual or aggregate ecology, but ones in which the balance of the whole local biotic _association_ is concerned.

PG71454.B00206
This was the fact pointed out by Möbius when he studied the oyster and came to see that it must be studied not in isolation but as a member of a community, association of animals, or a biocœnosis, as he called these interrelated organisms. These facts are mentioned, as examples from a vast number that are recorded, to show that our applied or economic zoölogy and entomology are _fundamentally more closely related to associational ecology_ than to any other phase of zoölogy, and to suggest that it would be to the great advantage of the students of such problems if they clearly understood this relation. This is also an argument for the ecological organization of a vast number of natural history surveys, because the associational grouping of observations and responses gives the most intimate knowledge of the life of animals in the network of their environmental relations.

PG71454.B00207
In addition to the balance of nature which is found within the small associational units there are the larger ones of considerable geographic extent, which the students of faunal or floral problems frequently call zones or distinct regions. Some of these are distinct ecological units, whose _dynamic status_ should be determined, so that we may know and understand whether it is in a condition of stress, a process of adjustment, or one of relative equilibrium or balance. Under present conditions in what direction does it tend to move? At what rate? The non-ecological surveys have not put these questions or worked deliberately toward a goal which will answer them. For any comprehensive study of this character we need to have determined what may be considered as a _biotic base_, optimum, or balance, toward which relations under given conditions tend, and at which an equilibrium will become established (The Auk, 1908, Vol. XXV, p. 125). Such facts underlie all of the problems involved in the interpretation of climax biotic associations, and their application by man. Cook (1909, Bull. 145, Bur. Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, pp. 7, 8) has expressed similar relations as follows: “Unless we can form a definite idea of the original conditions we cannot expect to judge of their influence on primitive man, nor can we determine what effects man has had upon the vegetation and other natural conditions. We need what might be called a bionomic base line, an idea of the conditions which existed before man came upon the scene, the conditions which would again supervene if the human inhabitants were withdrawn.”

PG71454.B00208
It is perhaps significant that the genetic or successional relations of habitats and associations, as contrasted with their descriptive classification, both in plants and animals, have in the past been developed, not by the ecological students who live and work among conditions greatly modified by man, as in parts of Europe, but in the newer, less modified America. In this respect a parallel exists to the development of our knowledge and the process and genetic interpretation of topography, which has also developed more rapidly in America than elsewhere. The process and genetic method which has developed in this physical science has now spread to the biological sciences and has found a fertile soil there for development on account of the _relatively_ undisturbed biotic conditions which still persist in certain areas.

PG71454.B00209
In this connection it may be worth while to indicate some of the ecological disadvantages under which the non-ecological surveys are carried on. As a rule, such surveys feel no strong obligation to record fully the conditions of the environment, or its developmental processes. The environment is considered as static, and not as a changing medium; it has no past or future, it has merely horizontal extension. The problem as to its _dynamic status_, whether in a condition of stress, in the process of adjustment, or in relative equilibrium, is not raised, or if it should be, it could not be handled. The student eager for new and little-known species is not the one to study such relations, at least, as a rule, this has not been his practice. So long as the success of a day’s work is measured by the length of the list of novelties secured, rather than by the quality and quantity of ecological relations discovered, such students and surveys will not contribute greatly to our knowledge of the economy of nature in the regions surveyed.

PG71454.B00210
At the present time it is very difficult to secure trained men to do ecological surveying. Even a superficial examination of this paper should show that familiarity with ecologic methods and results is not one to be acquired offhand, but a knowledge which requires considerable special training; not only as much as is usually required for other kinds of zoölogical work, but generally more, because of its synthetic relational tendency which requires a broad knowledge as well as some special knowledge in several lines of biology and the allied sciences. Conventionally considered, a properly equipped physiologist must have a working knowledge of certain phases of modern physics and chemistry in addition to his grounding in biology. A properly trained anatomist should have a knowledge of physiological and developmental processes, or his anatomy is purely descriptive and static. A student of general zoölogy should be grounded not only in physiological and developmental processes, but also in the relations of the organisms to their complete environment. The ecologist requires also the grounding in physiological, developmental, and ecological processes of adjustment, but as well he must understand the processes by which the vegetation and the physical environment have been and are being developed and their method of mutual interrelations and adjustment. It is difficult for some students to develop the ecological phases in the field. There are many disadvantages to be overcome. The difficulties are similar, in some respects, to those of the ethnologist who is sent on some museum expedition. The wealthy donor of the funds may wish to see a room filled with specimens on the return of the ethnologist, so that materials which have bulk and make a showing take precedence over detailed studies of the habits, traditions, languages, and descriptions of the people, because such studies require appreciation rather than inspection for evaluation. The zoölogical student may meet with just the same kind of difficulty. His institutional authorities often judge values by the cubic foot and pound, rather than by the quality of relations discovered. The student himself who has had an extensive collecting experience, in which quantity and variety have been the ideal, finds it difficult to return from a day’s work with only a few pages of notes on the responses of the animals, and with perhaps only a few specimens.

PG71454.B00211
With such an understanding of the general rules of the game we may turn to the application or art of ecology, to indicate its relation to general problems. With a grounding in the general principles of organic response to the total environment, one is able to see that the disturbances due to man are a problem in the adjustment of the highest type of animal, as a member of an animal association, to its complete environment. The “control of nature” for which men strive is the process of making the environments and associations _to order_. The disturbances in the natural order may be looked upon as so many huge experiments or trial activities in this process of adjustment.

PG71454.B00212
If natural preserves are not made, how will the next generation be best grounded in the general principles of the science? Are these complex modified conditions the natural place to start the student, or should such problems be reserved for the maturely trained one? These disturbed fragmentary conditions may be likened to fragmentary fossils whose interpretation is attempted. A paleontologist whose only knowledge of animals was derived from such fragments, and who had never known a perfect living animal, would certainly be at a great disadvantage in such an investigation. The natural starting point therefore seems to be in as nearly natural normal environments and associations as is possible, and with such experience one is prepared for the more complex problems resulting from man’s activity.

PG71454.B00213
By way of conclusion, some of the main advantages of ecological surveys are:

PG71454.B00214
1. The _record_ of natural environments and their associations for future generations.

PG71454.B00215
2. The study of natural biotic conditions giving a _perspective_ not derived in any other way.

PG71454.B00216
3. The clearer conception of the _dynamic relations_ of the balance of nature, biotic base, and climax associations.

PG71454.B00217
4. Emphasis of the _process and interpretative_ phase of scientific investigation over that of purely descriptive study.

PG71454.B00218
5. Facilitating the invention of multiple working hypotheses which bear upon animal responses in nature.

PG71454.B00219
6. Furnishing important conceptions to the study of the _processes_ of adaptation and the struggle for existence.

PG71454.B00220
7. Furnishing important general principles of great value in applied ecology.

PG71454.B00221
8. Furnishing one of the best methods of learning how to get acquainted with the _living aspect_ of the animals of any region.

PG71454.B00222
III. FIELD STUDY

PG71454.B00223
“Is not the biological laboratory which leaves out the ocean and the mountains and meadows a monstrous absurdity? Was not the greatest scientific generalization of your times reached independently by two men who were eminent in their familiarity with living things in their homes?”--BROOKS, 1899, p. 41.

PG71454.B00224
In taking up field work, or any other kind of complex study, a definite working plan is of much value. For this reason this subject deserves more than a mere mention. Such a plan greatly aids in keeping in mind the general aim of the study, and particularly the lesser aims which develop with the analysis of the subject. It further aids in the proper orientation and subordination of allied subjects which crowd in from all directions.

PG71454.B00225
For many students it is a good plan to make out a general outline of any proposed study as soon as possible after the work has been started. In the beginning it is difficult to realize the radiating relations of a subject, and the attempt at such plans aids in the perception of these relationships and becomes an important guide. Such an outline will need several revisions, but these changes will come with a broadening and deepening grasp of the subject. Perhaps the greatest value of such a plan is that it facilitates the conscious effort to seek a definite goal by maintaining a standard of measurement.

PG71454.B00226
In addition to a comprehensive analytical plan others are useful. Particularly is this true when several lines of work are being done simultaneously or when the work must be interrupted frequently. Under such circumstances even a daily program may aid in utilizing many of the fragments of time which are so easily lost. In this way incomplete observations, verifications, and similar small items which are time-consuming may be made. These plans apply with particular force to field study when several lines of observation are being driven abreast. I have found it profitable to keep memoranda on note slips which will recall items needing further attention, at certain places in the field or on certain subjects. Thus, for example, if plans are suddenly changed and another locality is visited, the proper note slips indicating the points for special study at such a place are quickly secured, and one can hasten to the field prepared for the work of the day. Of course, similar plans are applicable to many kinds of work.

PG71454.B00227
To learn how to study in the field, and not simply to collect, is one of the most important habits which a field naturalist and the ecologist has to acquire. This is one which he must, to a large degree, master alone, without the ready access to assistance, as is usually the case in the laboratory study. It is also a subject about which it is difficult to give useful suggestions, other than those of the most general nature. Directions for collecting are, on the other hand, simpler and more accessible in the form of numerous manuals filled with practical suggestions.

PG71454.B00228
Field study is not confined to observations alone, but to the securing of all kinds of evidence from the field which will aid in the interpretation of the field relations of animals. Thorough intimacy with the animals can only be acquired through repeated and prolonged excursions in the field. This may mean excursions at any hour of the day or night. Part of this familiarity is best acquired by an intensive study of some limited area or association, and by thus establishing a unit for comparison so that the differences in other places are more readily perceived and described.

PG71454.B00229
Before selecting a limited area for study one should make a general examination of a much larger tract, so that one may be sure that the area selected is a fair sample and worthy of the special study. There are also many advantages in selecting areas little modified by man. Such modified areas may, to better advantage, be considered later; just as pathology should be studied after one is grounded in normal histology. Undoubtedly the normal, or its approximation, is the best foundation upon which to build, and here we have the educational argument for natural preserves for animals and their superiority over highly modified “parks” for the same purpose.

PG71454.B00230
Having selected a locality, repeated and prolonged visits, careful observation, and description of the place and animals will enable one to acquire the desired familiarity. For the study of the behavior of the animals concerned many observations can be made by remaining quiet, carefully concealed, and recording all observations. This method is particularly applicable to animals which live in exposed places, such as many insects, birds, and mammals. For other kinds, only indirect methods of observation are possible, or only when under controlled conditions. For the indirect methods of observation many forms of traps have been devised, traps not intended merely to receive the dead animal, but those also which will secure the animal and reveal something of its behavior. For the study of the habits and behavior of such animals as live in the soil or under bark, etc., both extensive collecting and examination of the animals in vivaria will also be necessary.

PG71454.B00231
Fortunately for the student of mammals, birds, and fishes we have excellent guides for the technique of study and photographing of individual and associated kinds in the works of Kearton (1907), Chapman (1900), Herrick (1905), and Reighard (1908). It is very desirable that these methods be applied to the interrelations among the animals of an association. The student of behavior in nature has much to learn from many excellent studies of animal behavior which have been carried on in recent years by laboratory students. Fortunately the line between these two methods of study is breaking down to the mutual advantage of each. The border line between these two methods will give excellent returns to any student well prepared in each line of work.

PG71454.B00232
Another essential for good field work is a clear understanding of what ecological studies attempt to do. This implies some general conception of what is worth while ecologically; it assumes a point of view or other criterion which may be applied to test the trueness of one’s aim. The ecologist will meet with much more than ecological facts, but it is to these that he should give primary attention. These accessory facts, no matter how interesting in themselves, should not divert him from the main course. The ecologist must select from this mass of experience those facts, inferences, and conclusions which help in the _interpretation_ of the responses of animals to their complete environment. It is thus evident why the ecologist must have a clearly defined aim, with criteria for estimating values, or he will be at the risk of dissipating his energies. This phase of our problem as applied to the studies of a geologist, but applying with equal force to the ecologist, has been concisely expressed by Van Hise (1904, pp. 611-612) as follows: “I have heard a man say: ‘I observe the facts as I find them, unprejudiced by any theory.’ I regard this statement as not only condemning the work of the man, but the position is an impossible one. No man has ever stated more than a small part of the facts with reference to any area. The geologist must select the facts which he regards of sufficient note to record and describe. But such selection implies theories of their importance and significance. In a given case the problem is therefore reduced to selecting the facts for record, with a broad and deep comprehension of the principles involved, a definite understanding of the rules of the game, an appreciation of what is probable and what is not probable; or else making mere random observations. All agree that the latter alternative is worse than useless, and therefore the only training which can make a geologist safe, even in his observations, is to equip him with such a knowledge of the principles concerned as will make his observations of value.”

PG71454.B00233
Early in field work one should learn that the collection of specimens is not the primary aim of excursions, that specimens are only _one_ kind of facts, but that field study should be devoted to the accumulation of specimens, and to observations on the habits, activities, interrelations, and responses of animals, as well as to all facts, inferences, and suggestions which are likely to be of use in the interpretation of the problems studied.

PG71454.B00234
We sometimes hear that reflections upon the work should be reserved for the return to the laboratory or study. This advice seems to be based upon the assumption that study in the field is not particularly stimulating and suggestive. On the other hand deliberating interpretatively in the midst of the problems under consideration is one of the most favorable conditions possible for the improvement of the quality and quantity of one’s work. It should be recalled in this connection that Darwin and Wallace’s evolutionary theory did not _originate_ in the laboratory, but while in the field in the midst of their studies, while working reflectively upon their observations and collections, as Brooks indicates in the quotation at the beginning of this chapter. The classic case of Bates discovering mimicry in his London study instead of in the forests of Brazil is to some minds not an argument for laboratory study, but one for field study. There are but few subjects which have suffered more from the preponderating influence of the laboratory.

PG71454.B00235
To be sure, it may require more time to study in the field than if one collects specimens only, but it is economical in the long run. There are, of course, certain phases of more indirect observation which can be done best in the study or laboratory, but at present, field study, as contrasted with collecting, is a phase of effort urgently needing emphasis.

PG71454.B00236
The processes of observation and field study and note taking are so intimately related that taking notes becomes one of the essential parts of careful observation. This is also one of the most difficult habits to acquire. The beginner is inclined to write them up, especially field notes, in the evening after his return from the field. Such notes are generally brief, lack details, and are usually of little value. Therefore the safest course to pursue is to describe fully whatever seems of value, then to go over these facts again and by further observations increase the number of items noted several times. These observations should be recorded _as soon as made_, for generally the lack of notes means a lack of detailed observation. Some observations can be made only at long intervals, even of many years, others only with the return of another cycle of behavior, or of another season, and still others cannot be repeated. It is such considerations as these which emphasize the need of pursuing the safest course and recording _instantly_ and fully all observations when made. An excess of notes is of very rare occurrence. In the effort to write carefully worded notes one has a very important check upon the tendency toward hasty observation, because such a description requires one to think over the observation before it can be expressed. This deliberation is thus made at the time when reobservation can be made to the best advantage, and calls attention to the weak points to which special consideration may perhaps be given a moment later, and thus affords a chance to complete the observation. Comstock (Insect Life, 1897, p. 323) has well summed up the taking of notes as follows: “Fill your notebook with descriptions, but digest them carefully, sifting out for publication only those that exhaustive study and repeated observation prove to be valuable. In making observations _be sure_ you are right and then look again.” And again as Van Hise (Science, N. S., Vol. XVI, p. 326) has said, “The difference between _bad_ observation and _good_ observation is that the former is _erroneous_; the latter is _incomplete_.”

PG71454.B00237
Notes are generally taken in one of two forms, in a book or on loose slips of paper or cards (Hopkins, 1893; Sanderson, 1904). It seems to be very generally agreed that if a book is used it should be of small size, of about 4 × 6 inches, so that it may be conveniently carried in the pocket. For a permanent record such books are a great convenience when once indexed. But when using such notes, while preparing a report, they are not so convenient as the note slips, unless one limits such a report to the form of a narrative. About ten years ago the writer began using a form of notebook in which an aluminum cover held the loose note slips. Thus while in the field one has the advantage of a book with a firm writing surface, and also that of the loose-leaf plan. This form of cover is now used by a number of field naturalists. The disadvantage of the slips not being bound might be remedied in part by using some form of punched slips which are convenient for binding.

PG71454.B00238
Each one must decide for himself which form of recording notes answers his needs most satisfactorily. There are advantages in uniformity, but with the variable nature of work, it is sometimes very convenient to use both methods of recording.

PG71454.B00239
Some students have no method of recording their observations or reflections upon their lines of interest. This seems to be unwise and suggests a method of business without bookkeeping. The efficiency of some students is greater than that of others, not so much because they possess superior mental ability, but because they have superior methods of preserving whatever useful ideas occur to them, while the others, from their lack of records, have no cumulative store upon which to draw. This is an important form of capital. Note keeping is readily seen to consist not only of observations, but also of suggestions, inferences, conclusions, and reflections of any kind which will facilitate methods of work and the interpretation of the facts.

PG71454.B00240
In describing environments, it is desirable to use the same general method for different localities so that the descriptions may be comparable and show some degree of standardization. This method has been found very useful in taxonomic studies and has similar advantages here. A brief general statement of the most conspicuous features may precede, and be followed by detailed descriptions. The order may well vary with individual workers, but a uniform method is desirable throughout any single piece of work and has obvious advantages. Thus one practical plan applied to a forest habitat is, to describe the substratum, the soil, rock, etc., then the forest litter of organic débris, then the boles of the trees and the forest crown and its character, and finally the operation of those agencies which are causing changes in the forest and which will perpetuate or change it in the future. No practical forester would be content to shut his eyes to the future crop of wood, and in the study of animal habitats we must not be content to rest below such a commercial standard. To some this seems very theoretical, and yet a farmer who counts upon a crop in five months, or a forester, in fifty years, is not so branded, and the ecologist need have no fear in using such practical methods. In other words, we should consider the future stages of the developing habitat and learn to perceive the evidences which show in which direction development or change is taking place; or to determine the “orderly sequence of external nature.” Not only should the future be considered, but we should strive also to read the record backward and interpret the past in terms of processes now in operation. In this respect the point of view of the geologist who interprets the past in terms of present processes may well merit our attention. To understand our habitats they must be studied not only in their length and breadth, but also in depth--past and future--as they have all three dimensions.

PG71454.B00241
The preceding remarks bear equally well upon observations of the activities of animals in nature, on account of the absence of controlled conditions, for these methods have almost as much significance as the study of the environments themselves; and equally careful observations and descriptions are essential, if the detailed processes of animal activities and their transformations are to be recorded.

PG71454.B00242
An experienced naturalist finds that from year to year the amount of notes which he takes increases rapidly, and in a very direct ratio to the progress which he makes in his study. Good note taking is not a passive process, but one which calls for an alert mind. The prolonged interest which is necessary to secure detailed observations implies such a frame of mind. Every one soon tires of any subject unless new features are constantly being discovered.

PG71454.B00243
In the description of the associations in any given habitat, the problem is much simplified if one has a clear idea of dominance, knows how to recognize it, and understands some of its main implications. The dominant forms are the most common and powerful individuals in the association. They may or may not be the most conspicuous, from a superficial view. Conspicuousness may depend upon size, but dominance refers to large absolute numbers and to influence exerted. We may profitably compare an association of animals in a given habitat to a play upon the stage. The environment corresponds to the stage. The dominant members of the association correspond to the leading characters, the secondary species, always present, to the essential but subordinate characters. The individual animals adjust themselves to one another, especially to the dominant forms, and to the environment, as the personalities in the play adjust themselves to the dominant characters, to one another, and to the environment. In both groups some individuals are dominant, some used and useful, some are tolerated, others pick up the crumbs, still others are predatory or parasitic, and all must be mutually adjusted to one another and to the environment.

PG71454.B00244
The number of dominant species within an association is relatively limited, a fact which holds for both plants and animals. A knowledge of perhaps 200 or 300 species of animals (and 150 plants) will enable one to work advantageously in many localities (as in the state of Illinois). Of this number perhaps not more than about one half or one third can be considered dominant. Every one who has tried to make extensive local lists of species knows that it requires many years of collecting to secure a large number of species. These rare species are generally of quite minor importance ecologically. Considerations of this character should be encouraging to those who may be intimidated by the idea of large numbers of species. Then, of course, it should be remembered that there are many aspects of ecological work which do not meet with this variety of animals.

PG71454.B00245
IV. THE COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND DETERMINATION OF SPECIMENS

PG71454.B00246
Ecological study does not end with collecting specimens, and it may not begin there. The importance of collecting and preserving specimens will vary with the phase of ecological study considered. In the field study of behavior of a single species there may be almost no collecting of animals but much collecting of notes; but if one is devoted primarily to the recognition and study of the composition of associations and their interrelations, much collecting will have to be done. Also, when studying the ecological relations of some taxonomic unit, as in aggregate ecology, the number of associates is so large that one must do rather extensive collecting. But even the exhaustive study of the behavior of any single species will necessitate considerable collecting. The necessity for this has been shown by Forbes (1880, The Food of Fishes, p. 20) as follows: “If one wishes to become acquainted with the black bass, for example, he will learn but little if he limits himself to that species. He must evidently study also the species upon which it depends for its existence, and the various conditions upon which _these_ depend. He must likewise study the species with which it comes in competition, and the entire system of conditions affecting their prosperity. Leaving out any of these, he is like one who undertakes to make out the construction of a watch, but overlooks one wheel; and by the time he has studied all these sufficiently, he will find that he has run through the whole complicated mechanism of the aquatic life of the locality, both animal and vegetable, of which his species forms but a single element.”

PG71454.B00247
Collecting is an important means of ecological study. This is particularly true in the early stages of such study, but as the student becomes familiar with species and comes to know many of them at sight, less collecting will be necessary, except in the case of very small species and in those studies which depend upon the total catch as a means of securing data, as, for example, the case of plankton organisms. On account of the large number of species, very few students will be able to determine them at sight, but this does not disqualify a student for beginning ecological study. The greatest aid in handling such a varied population is a numbering of the individuals, or lots of specimens, consecutively and recording the full data for them in the notebook. The question arises at once as to how many specimens are to be assigned to _one_ number. No rigid rule can be followed, but in general it is safe to assign a single number to all specimens which agree in _all the fundamental data_, as date, place of capture, and exact habitat. And for my own part I number all individuals taken, upon which any special observations are made, as when a Phymatid is taken with a dying or dead honeybee, or a dragon fly is taken from the web of an _Argiope_. In this way the confusion which is particularly liable to creep into one’s work, where he deals with a large number of species, and before familiarity with them is acquired, may be reduced to the minimum. For small animals I have found useful a very liberal use of vials, into which field numbers, corresponding to numbers in the field notes, are placed _immediately upon capture_ of the specimens, and not minutes or hours later when the vials have become mixed, and recollection is less sharp. Specimens which have been thoroughly numbered may thus be sent to specialists for determination. This method uses up many numbers, but, fortunately, the supply is unlimited, and it gives greater precision to one’s notes, and encourages detailed observations on individual animals.

PG71454.B00248
In the eyes of many the determination of specimens is such a formidable task that they are at once repelled from any subject which involves numerous species. But as we have previously remarked, there are phases of ecological study which involve only a minimum amount of such work. On the other hand, one may readily have an undue fear of numerous species, but no one can doubt that the smaller number of species found upon mountains or in the far north gives to a beginner certain advantages for study. But if one’s studies are confined to the more restricted habitats, the number of species involved is comparable to the more favored localities mentioned.

PG71454.B00249
An accurately determined series of specimens, conveniently arranged, will be an important aid in one’s studies. Two forms of arrangement of such determined series are very helpful; one being synoptic or systematically arranged, and the other ecologically, by associations or by a topical arrangement in harmony with the subjects being investigated. With the use of such series and proper caution, aided by the best keys in the literature, one may hope to make many of his own determinations and thus economize his time.

PG71454.B00250
There are many ways to secure the initial series of determined specimens, and some of these are the following: Our governmental departments, both national and state, and many of our large museums, universities, and academies, have numerous experts who are quite willing and even eager to aid earnest students who wish to have specimens determined. Then, in addition, there are many expert amateurs who are equally liberal, so that when all the sources of aid are considered, the list becomes a surprisingly long one. This is the fact that should be called to mind when considering large numbers of species. A student therefore does not need to work alone, but may have the coöperation of a large number of able and willing collaborators. Naturally we turn for aid to our United States National Museum as one of the first sources of assistance, to the Smithsonian Institution, and to the various scientific departments of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, particularly to the Bureaus of Plant Industry, Biological Survey, and Entomology. These sources alone are able to determine almost any reasonable series of specimens, particularly if they are well preserved. Arrangements for such determinations can probably be made by addressing the proper authorities.

PG71454.B00251
The museums of our larger cities, as the American Museum of Natural History of New York, the Carnegie Museum at Pittsburgh, the Field Museum of Chicago, and many smaller state and local museums are able to give very efficient aid in this line. Other local institutions are the State Universities and Experiment Stations, and the local natural history surveys, which often exist under the guise of a geological or agricultural organization. Frequently they are qualified and willing to do this work.

PG71454.B00252
In very difficult cases it may be necessary to have recourse to Cassell’s Naturalist’s Universal Directory (Boston, 1905), in order to find the address of some specialist in a foreign land, who can help, but generally Americans are the best informed upon their own fauna.

PG71454.B00253
Supplementary to, and in some cases a necessary substitute for, a reference series of authentically determined specimens, is one which the student is able to name for himself, by the study of the literature. Without some special training this may become dangerous ground to tread upon, but every now and then some young student begins in this way and develops such care in determining his own collections, that the method cannot be wholly condemned. Such work in itself has fascinations, and one may easily occupy all one’s time with it. From the ecological standpoint to stop with determinations only would be like acquiring a certain vocabulary, and stopping before learning how to use the language. Ecological work aims to use the names of species as the most concise method of referring to kinds of animals whose interrelations are to be described and interpreted. Taxonomy is the tool.

PG71454.B00254
V. REFERENCES TO SCIENTIFIC TECHNIQUE

PG71454.B00255
1. The Scientific Method.

PG71454.B00256
2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens, Photographing, Surveying, and Other Phases of Technique.

PG71454.B00257
3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and Proof Reading.

PG71454.B00258
_1. The Scientific Method_

PG71454.B00259
CHAMBERLIN, T. C.

PG71454.B00260
1897. The Method of Multiple Working Hypotheses. Jour. Geol., Vol. V, pp. 837-848.

PG71454.B00261
1906. The Method of the Earth Sciences. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXVI, pp. 66-75. Inter. Cong. of Arts and Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. IV, pp. 477-487.

PG71454.B00262
Very important papers and worthy of careful study.

PG71454.B00263
GILBERT, G. K.

PG71454.B00264
1886. The Inculcation of Scientific Method by Example, with an Illustration drawn from the Quaternary Geology of Utah. Amer. Jour. Sci., (3), Vol. XXXI, pp. 284-299.

PG71454.B00265
1887. Special Processes of Research. Amer. Jour. Sci., (3), Vol. XXXIII, pp. 452-473.

PG71454.B00266
MELDOLA, R.

PG71454.B00267
1895. The Speculative Method in Entomology. Trans. Ent. Soc., London, 1895, pp. XLVIII-LXXIII.

PG71454.B00268
VAN HISE, C. R.

PG71454.B00269
1902. The Training and Work of a Geologist. Science, N. S., Vol. XVI, pp. 321-334.

PG71454.B00270
KEYES, C. R.

PG71454.B00271
1898. The Genetic Classification of Geological Phenomena. Jour. Geol., Vol. VI, pp. 809-815.

PG71454.B00272
Valuable for its discussion of the criteria used in genetic studies.

PG71454.B00273
VAN HISE, C. R.

PG71454.B00274
1904. The Problems of Geology. Jour. Geol., Vol. XII, pp. 589-616; Inter. Cong. Arts and Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. IV, pp. 525-548. 1906.

PG71454.B00275
An excellent discussion of the energy, agent, and process method of investigation. I have seen no similar discussion applied to biological or zoölogical subjects.

PG71454.B00276
BOAS, F.

PG71454.B00277
1896. The Limitations of the Comparative Method of Anthropology. Science, N. S., Vol. IV, pp. 901-908.

PG71454.B00278
A suggestive paper for the student of ecology who uses the comparative method in his own work.

PG71454.B00279
1904. The History of Anthropology. Science, N. S., Vol. XX, pp. 513-524.

PG71454.B00280
Application of the genetic and historical method to the study of man.

PG71454.B00281
MILL, J. S.

PG71454.B00282
1881. A System of Logic, Ratiocinative and Inductive: Being a Connected View of the Principles of Evidence and the Methods of Scientific Investigation. Eighth Edition, pp. 659. New York.

PG71454.B00283
PEARSON, K.

PG71454.B00284
1900. The Grammar of Science. Second Edition, pp. 548. London.

PG71454.B00285
JEVONS, S.

PG71454.B00286
1879. Principles of Science. Third Edition, pp. 786. London.

PG71454.B00287
Certain chapters are of special interest.

PG71454.B00288
CRAMER, F.

PG71454.B00289
1896. The Method of Darwin. A Study in Scientific Method, pp. 232. Chicago.

PG71454.B00290
MACDOUGAL, ROBT.

PG71454.B00291
1905. On the Discrimination of Critical and Creative Attitudes. Jour. Philos. Psy. and Sci. Methods, Vol. II, pp. 287-293.

PG71454.B00292
LEBON, G.

PG71454.B00293
1898. The Life History of Scientific Ideas. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LII, pp. 251-254.

PG71454.B00294
_2. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Specimens, Photographing, Surveying, and Other Phases of Technique_

PG71454.B00295
There is such an abundance of literature on the technique of collecting and preserving specimens, and so much of it can easily be secured by any earnest student, that space will not be taken to discuss these subjects in detail. Reference will simply be made to the main convenient sources of information. It should perhaps be mentioned that very few of these papers have been especially prepared from the standpoint of the animal ecologist. The student must select and devise his methods from all available sources.

PG71454.B00296
I have included in this list a few references on the subject of camping, photography, and the use of instruments needed in the determination of the physical features of the environment. A few miscellaneous papers which are suggestive on methods of technique are also added.

PG71454.B00297
MANY AUTHORS.

PG71454.B00298
1891-1899. Bulletin 39, U. S. National Museum. Parts _A_ to _O_.

PG71454.B00299
Contain directions for collecting and preserving a great variety of animals, including marine animals, mollusks, insects, spiders, myriapods, reptiles, amphibians, birds, birds’ eggs and nests, mammals, etc.

PG71454.B00300
ANONYMOUS.

PG71454.B00301
1896. Manual for Army Cooks, pp. 306. Washington.

PG71454.B00302
The Manual used by the cooks in the U. S. Army. It includes chapters on camp cooking, a subject of much importance in certain ecological surveys.

PG71454.B00303
1905. Terms used in Forestry and Logging. Bull. 61, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 53.

PG71454.B00304
Useful in the descriptions of forest conditions.

PG71454.B00305
1904. Instructions to Field Parties and Descriptions of Soil Types. Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 198.

PG71454.B00306
Useful in the description of soils in the study of subterranean animals.

PG71454.B00307
BANKS, N.

PG71454.B00308
1907. A “Census of Four Square Feet.” Science, N. S., Vol. XXVI, p. 637.

PG71454.B00309
A criticism of McAtee (1907).

PG71454.B00310
1909. Directions for Collecting and Preserving Insects. Bull. 67, U. S. Nat. Mus. pp. 135.

PG71454.B00311
An excellent manual. Should be in the hands of every student of insects.

PG71454.B00312
BRETSCHER, K.

PG71454.B00313
1902. Beobachtung über die Oligochaeten der Schweiz, VI. Folge. Rev. Suisse de Zoöl., Ann. Soc. Zoöl. Suisse et du Mus. d’His. Nat. de Geneve, Tome 10, pp. (1-29).

PG71454.B00314
1904. Die xerophilen Enchytraeiden der Schweiz. Biol, Centralbl., Bd. XXIV, pp. 501-513.

PG71454.B00315
Quantitative studies of earthworms in the soil.

PG71454.B00316
BRUNNER, J.

PG71454.B00317
1912. Tracks and Tracking, pp. 219. New York. Outing Publishing Co.

PG71454.B00318
An illustrated guide for the identification of mammal and bird tracks or foot prints. Devoted mainly to game and fur-bearing animals. Very valuable to the student of live animals in nature. Many of our smaller species are worthy of similar treatment.

PG71454.B00319
BURNS, F. L.

PG71454.B00320
1901. A Sectional Bird Census. Wilson Bulletin, N. S., Vol. VIII, pp. 84-103.

PG71454.B00321
A quantitative study of the birds found breeding on an area of one square mile. Other similar studies should be made.

PG71454.B00322
CHAPMAN, F. M.

PG71454.B00323
1900. Bird Studies with a Camera. With Introductory Chapters on the Outfit and Methods of the Bird Photographer, pp. 218. New York.

PG71454.B00324
The title clearly indicates the character of this book.

PG71454.B00325
COMSTOCK, J. H.

PG71454.B00326
1897. Insect Life. pp. 349. New York.

PG71454.B00327
Directions for the study of insects.

PG71454.B00328
CLEMENTS, F. E.

PG71454.B00329
1905. Research Methods in Ecology. pp. 334. Lincoln, Nebraska.

PG71454.B00330
Important for methods of study in plant ecology, partly also applicable to animals; photography, and instruments for the study of environments.

PG71454.B00331
DAHL, F.

PG71454.B00332
1901. Was ist ein Experiment, was Statistik in der Ethologie? Biol. Centralbl., Bd. XXI, pp. 675-681.

PG71454.B00333
1903. Winke für ein wissenschaftlicher Sammeln von Thieren. Sitzungs-Ber. der Gesell. naturfor. Freunde zu Berlin. Jahrg. 1903, pp. 444-475.

PG71454.B00334
This contains, in addition to its suggestions on collecting, an interesting outline or classification of animal habitats (Cf. also Enderlein, 1908, pp. 72-77). This is not a genetic classification. Dahl’s list of habitats will prove very suggestive to the student who wishes to develop the genetic system of classification. Ultimately we must, of course, develop the latter system.

PG71454.B00335
1904. Kurze Anleitung zum wissenschaftlichen Sammeln und zum Conservieren von Thieren. pp. 59. Jena.

PG71454.B00336
An enlarged edition of the preceding paper.

PG71454.B00337
DAVENPORT, C. B.

PG71454.B00338
1904. Statistical Variation with Special Reference to Biological Variation. Second, Revised Edition. pp. 223. New York.

PG71454.B00339
FORBES, S. A.

PG71454.B00340
1907. An Ornithological Cross-Section of Illinois in Autumn. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. His., Vol. VII, pp. 305-335.

PG71454.B00341
1908. The Mid-Summer Bird Life of Illinois: A Statistical Study. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLII, pp. 505-519.

PG71454.B00342
FLAHAULT, C., and SCHRÖTER, C.

PG71454.B00343
1910. Phytogeographical Nomenclature. Reports and Propositions, IIIᵉ Cong. Inter. de Bot. 1910. Bruxelles. pp. 28. Zurich.

PG71454.B00344
A very valuable discussion of ecological nomenclature for plants. Defines the use of such terms as biology, ecology, habitat, association, formation, etc. It is very desirable that the plant and animal ecologists coöperate as much as possible in this subject.

PG71454.B00345
GIBSON, W. H.

PG71454.B00346
1905. Camp Life in the Woods and the Tricks of Trapping and Trap Making. pp. 300. New York.

PG71454.B00347
A book for boys, but not without value to the older student of live animals.

PG71454.B00348
HENSEN, V.

PG71454.B00349
1887. Ueber die Bestimmung des Plankton’s oder des in Meere treibenden Materials an Pflanzen und Thieren; nebst Anhang. Fünfter Ber. der Komm. zur wissensch. Untersuch. d. deutschen Meere in Kiel für die Jahre 1882 bis 1886, pp. 1-107, III-XVIII, Berlin.

PG71454.B00350
This appears to be the original account of quantitative studies as applied to plants and animals of an association. These methods have been extended to the sea bottom by Petersen, to fresh water by many students, to land animals mainly by Dahl, and in recent years to plants by Clements and others.

PG71454.B00351
HERRICK, C. L.

PG71454.B00352
1905. Home Life of Wild Birds. Revised Edition, pp. 255. New York.

PG71454.B00353
Very valuable for suggestions on the study of live birds and how to photograph them.

PG71454.B00354
HOPKINS, A. D.

PG71454.B00355
1893. Note and Record Keeping for the Economic Entomologist. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Insect Life, Vol. VI, pp. 103-108.

PG71454.B00356
JOB, H. K.

PG71454.B00357
1910. How to Study Birds. A Practical Guide for Amateur Bird-Lovers and Camera-Hunters, pp. 272. New York. Outing Publishing Co.

PG71454.B00358
Intended primarily for beginners in bird study, but contains valuable practical advice on methods of studying and photographing live birds which will aid the ecologist. Consult also Kearton (1907), Chapman (1900), and Herrick (1905).

PG71454.B00359
KEARTON, R.

PG71454.B00360
1907. Wild Life at Home: How to Study and Photograph It. New and Revised Edition, pp. 204. London.

PG71454.B00361
KEPHART, H.

PG71454.B00362
1912. The Book of Camping and Woodcraft. pp. 331. Fifth Edition. Outing Publishing Co.

PG71454.B00363
This is the best all-round book on the technique of camping and living in the wilderness which I have seen. It includes direction for selecting outfits, making camps, cookery, pests in the woods, blazes and survey lines, rations, emergency foods, getting lost, accidents, etc.

PG71454.B00364
KNAUTHE, K.

PG71454.B00365
1907. Das Süsswasser, chemische, biologische, und bakteriologische Untersuchungsmethoden unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Biologie und der fischereiwirtschaftlichen Praxis. pp. 663. Neudamm.

PG71454.B00366
A very important work on the technique of fresh water biology.

PG71454.B00367
LEE, A. B.

PG71454.B00368
1900. The Microscopist’s Vade Mecum. A Handbook on the Methods of Microscopic Anatomy. Fifth Edition, pp. 532. Phila.

PG71454.B00369
Very useful for methods of preserving delicate animals, and those in which the detailed structure of the animal must be studied.

PG71454.B00370
LIVINGSTON, B. E.

PG71454.B00371
1906. The Relation of Desert Plants to Soil Moisture and to Evaporation. Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 50. pp. 78.

PG71454.B00372
Methods of determination of moisture content of the soil and the air.

PG71454.B00373
MCATEE, W. L.

PG71454.B00374
1907. Census of Four Square Feet. Science, N. S., Vol. XXVI, pp. 447-449.

PG71454.B00375
A quantitative study of the species of invertebrates and seeds found on the forest floor and on a meadow.

PG71454.B00376
1912. Methods of Estimating the Contents of Bird Stomachs. The Auk, Vol. XXIX, pp. 449-464.

PG71454.B00377
1912. The Experimental Method of Testing the Efficiency of Warning and Cryptic Coloration in Protecting Animals from their Enemies. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1912, pp. 281-364.

PG71454.B00378
An important critical study of the value of feeding experiments, conducted in captivity, as a method of determining normal food habits. The method is strongly condemned. Valuable series of references.

PG71454.B00379
NEUMAYER, G. VON.

PG71454.B00380
1906. Anleitung zu Wissenschaftlichen Beobachtungen auf Reisen. Dritte Auflage, Bd. 1, pp. 842; Bd. 2, pp. 880. Hanover.

PG71454.B00381
A very important work, particularly for the traveling naturalist. Chapters by specialists, valuable references on collecting natural history specimens, and other phases of scientific exploration.

PG71454.B00382
PEARL, R.

PG71454.B00383
1911. Biometric Ideas and Methods in Biology; their Significance and Limitations. Scientia, Vol. X, pp. 101-119.

PG71454.B00384
PETERSEN, C. G. JOH., and JENSEN, P. B.

PG71454.B00385
1911. Valuation of the Sea. 1. Animal Life of the Sea-Bottom, its Food and Quantity. Rep. of the Danish Biol. Sta. to the Board of Agriculture, Vol. XX. pp. 76. Translated from Fiskeri-Beretning for 1910. Copenhagen.

PG71454.B00386
Methods and results of a quantitative study of animals on the sea-bottom. A very important paper. Descriptions and figures of the apparatus used.

PG71454.B00387
REIGHARD, J.

PG71454.B00388
1908. Methods of Studying the Habits of Fishes, with an Account of the Breeding Habits of the Horned Dace. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries Bull., Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1111-1136.

PG71454.B00389
1908. The Photography of Aquatic Animals in their Natural Environment. Bull. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 41-68.

PG71454.B00390
These papers also contain references to others on the habits of fishes.

PG71454.B00391
KING, L. A. L., and RUSSELL, E. S.

PG71454.B00392
1909. A Method for the Study of the Animal Ecology of the Shore. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. of Edinburgh, Vol. XVII, No. 6, pp. 225-253.

PG71454.B00393
SANDERSON, E. D.

PG71454.B00394
1904. A Card-Index System for Entomological Records. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. 46, pp. 26-34.

PG71454.B00395
Contains references to other methods of recording notes.

PG71454.B00396
SIMPSON, C. B.

PG71454.B00397
1903. Photographing Nets of Hydropsyche. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. V, pp. 93-95.

PG71454.B00398
SUMNER, F. B.

PG71454.B00399
1910. An Intensive Study of the Fauna and Flora of a Restricted Area of the Sea Bottom. Bull. U. S. Bur. of Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1225-1263.

PG71454.B00400
A study on our coast along lines similar to those of C. G. J. Petersen’s “Det Videnskabelige Udbytte af Kanonbaaden ‘Hauchs’ Togter I de Danske Have Indenfor Skagen I Aarene” 1883-1886. 1893. pp. 464. Atlas. Copenhagen.

PG71454.B00401
TRANSEAU, E. N.

PG71454.B00402
1908. The Relation of Plant Societies to Evaporation. Bot. Gaz., Vol. XLV, pp. 217-231.

PG71454.B00403
Methods of studying the relative humidity of the air in various plant associations, also applicable to certain studies of animals.

PG71454.B00404
WAINWRIGHT, D. B.

PG71454.B00405
1905. A Plane Table Manual. Department of Commerce and Labor, Report U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey for 1905. Appendix No. 7, pp. 295-341.

PG71454.B00406
In making local studies the plane table may be very helpful.

PG71454.B00407
WRIGHT, A. H.

PG71454.B00408
1907. A Graphic Method of Correlating Fish Environment and Distribution. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLI, pp. 351-354.

PG71454.B00409
WILSON, H. M.

PG71454.B00410
1905. Topographical Surveying. Second Edition. New York.

PG71454.B00411
Directions for camping, emergency surgery, photography, etc., pp. 811-884.

PG71454.B00412
In concluding this list of references I would suggest to the student the desirability of securing the following catalogues or lists of publications. A glance at the lists in this volume will show that a surprisingly large number of the papers or works are governmental publications, many of which have long been out of print, but many may still be secured from the different departments or from the Superintendent of Documents at Washington, D.C.

PG71454.B00413
1. U. S. Geological Survey. List of Publications, including maps. Washington, D.C.

PG71454.B00414
2. Superintendent of Documents. Lists of publications of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C.

PG71454.B00415
3. Smithsonian Institution. List of publications. Washington, D.C.

PG71454.B00416
4. U. S. National Museum. List of publications. Washington, D.C.

PG71454.B00417
5. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries (formerly U. S. Fish Commission). List of publications. Washington, D.C.

PG71454.B00418
6. For list of dealers in second-hand books see Banks’ Bull. 81, U. S. National Museum, pp. 117-118. This is one of the best methods of securing many publications which are out of print.

PG71454.B00419
_3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and on Proof Reading_

PG71454.B00420
The preparation of papers for publication is a practical phase of study and an art, or form of technique, about which the zoölogical student is liable to hear but little. There may be a great economy of effort, and much time saved, if early in his work the student realizes the need of cultivating the _habit_ of preparing all manuscripts in a form suitable for publication. While there is much variation in details, yet within certain limits there is a certain amount of standardization which should become _habitual_. Departures from such a standard necessitate much loss of time which must be devoted to revisions and corrections. One may work for years and fail to realize this fact, until he attempts to adjust his habits of writing to the requirements of the editors of scientific publications. The following references are intended to cover the main aspects of the preparation of manuscripts and the reading of proof.

PG71454.B00421
LEWES, GEORGE HENRY (Edited by F. N. Scott).

PG71454.B00422
1891. The Principles of Success in Literature, pp. 163. Boston. Allyn and Bacon.

PG71454.B00423
A very sane little book on writing, a subject on which it is difficult to receive and apply advice.

PG71454.B00424
WENDELL, B.

PG71454.B00425
1899. English Composition. pp. 316. New York.

PG71454.B00426
FERNALD, J. C.

PG71454.B00427
1896. English Synonyms and Antonyms with Notes on the Correct Use of Prepositions. Tenth Edition. pp. 564. New York.

PG71454.B00428
1904. Connectives of English Speech. The Correct Usage of Prepositions, Conjunctions, Relative Pronouns and Adverbs Explained and Illustrated. pp. 324. New York.

PG71454.B00429
ALLBUTT, T. C.

PG71454.B00430
1905. Notes on the Composition of Scientific Papers. pp. 164. London. Macmillan Company.

PG71454.B00431
This book is by an experienced medical editor and contains many practical suggestions.

PG71454.B00432
RICKARD, T. A.

PG71454.B00433
1910. A Guide to Technical Writing. Second Edition. pp. 172. San Francisco. Mining and Scientific Press.

PG71454.B00434
Intended primarily for writers on mining, and yet it contains much that is useful and suggestive to zoologists particularly the chapters on the need of simplicity in the language of science, and on the value of standardization.

PG71454.B00435
WARMAN, P. C.

PG71454.B00436
1903. A Plea for Better English in Science. Science, N. S., Vol. XVIII, pp. 563-568. Reprinted with revision, 1910. Washington.

PG71454.B00437
DAVIS, W. M.

PG71454.B00438
1911. The Disciplinary Value of Geography. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXVIII, pp. 105-119, 223-240.

PG71454.B00439
An illuminating paper on the “art of presentation” of scientific results in oral and written form.

PG71454.B00440
1909. The Systematic Description of Land Forms. Geogr. Jour., Vol. XXXIV, pp. 300-318.

PG71454.B00441
1909. Glacial Erosion in North Wales. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., Vol. LXV, pp. 281-350.

PG71454.B00442
1910. Experiments in Geographical Description. Bull. Amer. Geogr. Soc., Vol. XLII, pp. 401-435.

PG71454.B00443
1911. The Colorado Front Range. A Study in Physiographic Presentation. Ann. Associa. Amer. Geogr., Vol. I, pp. 21-83.

PG71454.B00444
The four preceding papers are in many respects models of presentation. They exemplify the process method applied to _regions_, a phase of much importance in certain ecologic studies, particularly ecological surveys. The last two papers are rather detailed applications of the same ideas. A very profitable study may be made of the method of presentation in these papers.

PG71454.B00445
DEVINNE, T. L.

PG71454.B00446
1902. The Practice of Typography. Correct Composition. A Treatise on Spelling, Abbreviations, the Compounding and Division of Words, the Proper Use of Figures and Numerals, Italic and Capital Letters, Notes, etc., with Observations on Punctuation and Proof-reading. Second Edition, pp. 476. New York.

PG71454.B00447
Perhaps the highest American authority on all the subjects discussed.

PG71454.B00448
WOOD, G. M.

PG71454.B00449
1909. Suggestions to Authors of Papers Submitted for Publication by the United States Geological Survey with Directions to Typewriters. U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 50. Washington.

PG71454.B00450
Can be secured gratis from the Survey.

PG71454.B00451
ANONYMOUS.

PG71454.B00452
1903. Government Printing Office Manual of Style for Use in Composition and Proof Reading, pp. 191. Washington, D.C.

PG71454.B00453
VAUX, C. B.

PG71454.B00454
1910. How to Prepare a Paper for Publication. Bull. No. 4. Wistar Inst. Anat. and Biology, pp. 20. Phila.

PG71454.B00455
1910. Style Brief. A Guide for Authors in Preparing Copy and Correcting Proof of Professional Papers and for the Use of Editors and Printer, adopted as the Standard of the Journals Published by the Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, Philadelphia. pp. 32. First Edition. Baltimore.

PG71454.B00456
The Wistar Institute publishes the “Journal of Experimental Zoölogy,” which is devoted to “original researches of an experimental or analytical nature” on many branches of zoölogy, including _ecology_ and general physiology. The “Style Brief” can be secured from the Institute.

PG71454.B00457
ORCUTT, W. D.

PG71454.B00458
1912. The Writer’s Desk Book. pp. 184. New York. F. A. Stokes Co.

PG71454.B00459
A useful handbook on punctuation, capitalization, spelling, abbreviations, numerals, etc., and with an appendix on weights and measures.

PG71454.B00460
WOOLLEY, E. C.

PG71454.B00461
1907. Handbook of Composition. A Compendium of Rules Regarding Good English, Grammar, Sentence Structure, Paragraphing, Manuscript Arrangement, Punctuation, Spelling, Essay Writing and Letter Writing. pp. 239. Boston.

PG71454.B00462
VI. IMPORTANT SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON THE LIFE HISTORIES OF INSECTS AND ALLIED INVERTEBRATES

PG71454.B00463
Insects are to-day one of the dominant forms of life and are present in almost every large animal association or habitat. They therefore form an important element in a large number of ecological studies. And although facts of ecological significance have been accumulating for many years they are so widely scattered that to find them when needed is quite a serious problem. To aid in such a search the following references are given. It should be remembered that spiders, mites, and myriapods are commonly included in entomological literature and are therefore included in this list. The list is not intended as a substitute for the more elaborate sources such as the Zoölogical Record and similar standard works to be found in large libraries, but it includes publications that are more likely to be within the grasp of teachers and students not located at library centers. Many of these are public documents, and even if out of print, can easily be secured from second-hand dealers.

PG71454.B00464
A student who has access to large libraries will find the following paper very valuable in suggestions as to the methods of finding the literature on many general zoölogical subjects.

PG71454.B00465
MINOT, C. S.

PG71454.B00466
1896. Bibliography. A Study of Resources, pp. 149-168. Biol. Lectures, Wood’s Holl, 1895. Boston.

PG71454.B00467
(Alphabetically arranged.)

PG71454.B00468
ALDRICH, J. M.

PG71454.B00469
1905. A Catalogue of North American Diptera. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., Vol. XLVI, No. 1444. pp. 680.

PG71454.B00470
Contains an extensive bibliography on flies.

PG71454.B00471
ANONYMOUS.

PG71454.B00472
1906. Catalogue of Publications Relating to Entomology in the Library of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. Library Bulletin 55. pp. 562. Washington.

PG71454.B00473
BANKS, N.

PG71454.B00474
1892. A Synopsis, Catalogue, and Bibliography of the Neuropteroid Insects of Temperate North America. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., Vol. XIX, pp. 327-373.

PG71454.B00475
1898-1905. Bibliography of the More Important Contributions to American Economic Entomology, Parts VI, VII, and VIII. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology.

PG71454.B00476
A continuation of the work begun by Henshaw (1889-1896).

PG71454.B00477
1900. A List of Works on North American Entomology. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 24 (N. S.). pp. 95.

PG71454.B00478
1902. An Index to Bulletins Nos. I-30 (N. S.), (1896-1901), of the Division of Ent. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 36 (N.S.). pp. 64.

PG71454.B00479
1910. A List of Works on North American Entomology. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. 81. pp. 120.

PG71454.B00480
This and the preceding edition (1900) form a very useful index to the systematic literature of insects, spiders, myriapods, etc.

PG71454.B00481
1910. Catalogue of the Nearctic Hemiptera-Heteroptera. Amer. Ent. Soc. pp. 103. Philadelphia.

PG71454.B00482
1910. Catalogue of Nearctic Spiders. U. S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 72. pp. 80.

PG71454.B00483
In the absence of special bibliographies these catalogues are the most convenient avenue to the literature.

PG71454.B00484
BETHUNE, C. J. S.

PG71454.B00485
1900. General Index to the Thirty Annual Reports of the Entomological Society of Ontario, 1870-1899. pp. 76. Ontario Dept. Agr.

PG71454.B00486
BEUTENMÜLLER, W.

PG71454.B00487
1891. Bibliographical Catalogue of the Described Transformations of North American Coleoptera. Jour. N. Y. Micros. Soc., Vol. VII, pp. 1-52.

PG71454.B00488
1890. Preliminary Catalogue of the Described Transformations of the Odonata of the World, pp. 165-179. In Lamborn, R. H., Dragonflies vs. Mosquitoes. New York.

PG71454.B00489
1893. On the Food Habits of the North American Rhynchophora. Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. I, pp. 36-43, 80-88.

PG71454.B00490
1896. Food-Habits of North American Cerambycidæ. Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. IV, pp. 73-81.

PG71454.B00491
CHITTENDEN, F. H.

PG71454.B00492
1893. Note on the Food Habits of Some Species of Chrysomelidæ. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. II, pp. 261-267.

PG71454.B00493
1897. General Index to the Seven Volumes of Insect Life, 1888-1895. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent.

PG71454.B00494
COMMISSIONER OF AGRICULTURE.

PG71454.B00495
1876. The General Index of the Agricultural Reports of the Patent Office for 1837-1861, and of the Department of Agriculture for 1862-1876. Washington.

PG71454.B00496
COMSTOCK, J. H.

PG71454.B00497
1879. Report upon Cotton Insects. U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 511. This report, like those of the U. S. Entomological Commission, gives very full accounts of the habits and life histories of certain species and gives particular attention to their predaceous and parasitic enemies. The predaceous insects are seldom given as detailed study as the vegetable-feeding kinds.

PG71454.B00498
COQUILLETT, D. W.

PG71454.B00499
1881. Larvæ of Lepidoptera. Tenth Ann. Rep. State Ent. Ill., pp. 145-186.

PG71454.B00500
Descriptions, figures, and keys to many common larvæ.

PG71454.B00501
CRESSON, E. T.

PG71454.B00502
1887. Synopsis of the Hymenoptera of America, North of Mexico. Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., Supplem. Vol., 1887, Pt. 2. Catalogue of Species and Bibliography, pp. 155-350. Philadelphia.

PG71454.B00503
CURRIE, R. P., and CAUDELL, A. N.

PG71454.B00504
1911. An Index to Circulars 1 to 100 (Second Series) of the Bureau of Entomology. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Circular No. 100. pp. 49.

PG71454.B00505
The circulars contain a large amount of information on life histories of insects.

PG71454.B00506
DIMMOCK, G., and KNAB, F.

PG71454.B00507
1904. Early Stages of Carabidæ. Bull. No. 1, Springfield Mus. Nat. Hist. pp. 55. Springfield, Mass.

PG71454.B00508
DODGE, C. R.

PG71454.B00509
1888. The Life and Entomological Work of the Late Townend Glover. U. S. Dept. Agric., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 18 (O. S.). pp. 68.

PG71454.B00510
DYAR, H. G.

PG71454.B00511
1894. A Classification of Lepidopterous Larvæ. Ann. N. Y. Acad. of Sci., Vol. VIII, pp. 194-232.

PG71454.B00512
EDWARDS, H.

PG71454.B00513
1889. Bibliographical Catalogue of the Described Transformations of North American Lepidoptera. U. S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 35. pp. 147.

PG71454.B00514
FELT, E. P.

PG71454.B00515
1905-06. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees. Mem. 8, N. Y. State Mus., Vol. I, pp. 1-332, a435-a459, 1905; Vol. II, pp. 333-877, 1906.

PG71454.B00516
Excellently illustrated, and with numerous references. This report and Packard’s Forest Insects form an excellent guide to the life histories and literature of forest insects.

PG71454.B00517
1899. Memorial of Life and Entomologic Work of Joseph Albert Lintner, Ph. D. N. Y. State Mus., Bull. 24, Vol. V, pp. 303-611.

PG71454.B00518
Contains an index to Lintner’s thirteen reports as State Entomologist of New York. These reports contain rather full references and good summaries of life histories.

PG71454.B00519
FOLSOM, J. W.

PG71454.B00520
1906. Entomology with Special Reference to its Biological and Economic Aspects, pp. 485. Philadelphia.

PG71454.B00521
A very useful bibliography is given on pp. 409-466.

PG71454.B00522
FORBES, S. A.

PG71454.B00523
1885. General Indexes to the First Twelve Reports of the State Entomologists of Illinois. App. to Fourteenth Rep. State Ent. Ill. pp. 120. Springfield.

PG71454.B00524
1909. Contents and Index of the Reports of the State Entomologist of Illinois, XIII-XXIV. 1884-1908. pp. 157. Office of State Entomologist.

PG71454.B00525
FORBES, W. T. M.

PG71454.B00526
1906. Field Tables of Lepidoptera. pp. 141. Worcester, Mass. Keys for the determination of larvæ.

PG71454.B00527
1910. A Structural Study of Some Caterpillars. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. III, pp. 94-132.

PG71454.B00528
Contains a very useful bibliography (pp. 125-127).

PG71454.B00529
FORBUSH, E. H., and FERNALD, C. H.

PG71454.B00530
1896. The Gypsy Moth. Mass. Board Agr. pp. 495. Boston.

PG71454.B00531
Also discusses predaceous and parasitic animals which prey upon the Gypsy Moth.

PG71454.B00532
HART, C. A.

PG71454.B00533
1895. On the Entomology of the Illinois River and Adjacent Waters. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. IV, pp. 149-284.

PG71454.B00534
Keys to immature stages of aquatic insects and many biological observations.

PG71454.B00535
HENSHAW, S.

PG71454.B00536
1887. The Entomological Writings of Dr. Alpheus Spring Packard. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 16. pp. 49.

PG71454.B00537
Biological observations.

PG71454.B00538
1889-96. Bibliography of the More Important Contributions to American Economic Entomology, Parts I-V, and index. U. S. Dept. of Agr., Div. Ent.

PG71454.B00539
HUBBARD, H. G.

PG71454.B00540
1885. Insects Affecting the Orange. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent. pp. 227.

PG71454.B00541
JOHANNSEN, O. A.

PG71454.B00542
1903, 1905. Aquatic Nematocerous Diptera. N. Y. State Mus., Bull. No. 68, pp. 328-448; Bull. No. 86, pp. 76-327.

PG71454.B00543
Immature stages of several families are rather fully treated and valuable references on life histories given.

PG71454.B00544
MACGILLIVRAY, A. D.

PG71454.B00545
1903. Aquatic Chrysomelidæ and a Table of the Families of Coleopterous Larvæ. Bull. No. 68, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 288-331.

PG71454.B00546
Gives references to the most important papers on the immature stages of beetles.

PG71454.B00547
NEEDHAM, J. G., and BETTEN, C.

PG71454.B00548
1901. Aquatic Insects in the Adirondacks. Bull. No. 47, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 383-612.

PG71454.B00549
Keys to orders to immature aquatic insects; keys to Mayfly and dragon-fly nymphs.

PG71454.B00550
NEEDHAM, J. G.

PG71454.B00551
1903. Life Histories of Odonata, Suborder Zygoptera. Bull. No. 68, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 218-276.

PG71454.B00552
Keys to nymphs.

PG71454.B00553
1905. Ephemeridæ. Bull. No. 86, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 17-59.

PG71454.B00554
Keys to genera of adults and to nymphs.

PG71454.B00555
1908. Report on the Entomologic Field Station Conducted at Old Forge, N. Y., in the Summer of 1905. Bull. No. 124, N. Y. State Mus., pp. 156-248.

PG71454.B00556
Life histories of crane flies, Tipulidæ; table of larval habits, p. 239, and fish food.

PG71454.B00557
OFFICE OF EXPERIMENT STATIONS, U. S. DEPT. AGRIC.

PG71454.B00558
1889. Experiment Station Record, Vol. I to date.

PG71454.B00559
1903. General Index to Experiment Station Record, Vols. 1-12, 1889-1901, and to Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 2. pp. 671.

PG71454.B00560
Useful for references to current literature on economic species, before they have appeared in the more slowly published bibliographies.

PG71454.B00561
PACKARD, A. S.

PG71454.B00562
1890. Forest Insects. U. S. Dept. Agr., Fifth Rep. U. S. Ent. Comm. pp. 957.

PG71454.B00563
Almost an encyclopedia on forest insects, insects listed by food plants. Very useful.

PG71454.B00564
PIERCE, W. D.

PG71454.B00565
1907. On the Biologies of the Rhynchophora of North America. Ann. Rep. Neb. St. Bd. Agr., 1906-07, pp. 247-319.

PG71454.B00566
This is an annotated list of breeding and food habits of the snout and bark beetles. References to the literature, index of plants and beetles. Very useful.

PG71454.B00567
1908. A List of Parasites Known to Attack American Rhynchophora. Jour. Econ. Ent., Vol. I, pp. 380-396.

PG71454.B00568
RILEY, C. V., PACKARD, A. S., and THOMAS, C.

PG71454.B00569
1878. First Annual Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission for the Year 1877, Relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust, etc. U. S. Geol. Surv. (Hayden). pp. 477.

PG71454.B00570
Discusses predaceous and parasitic animals which prey upon the locust.

PG71454.B00571
1880. Second Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission for the Years 1878 and 1879, Relating to the Rocky Mountain Locust, and the Western Cricket, etc. U. S. Dept. Interior. pp. 322.

PG71454.B00572
Discusses predaceous and parasitic animals which prey upon the locust.

PG71454.B00573
RLLEY, C. V.

PG71454.B00574
1880. Food Habits of the Longicorn Beetles or Wood Borers. Amer. Ent., Vol. III, pp. 237-239, 270-271.

PG71454.B00575
1881. General Index and Supplement to the Nine Reports on the Insects of Missouri. U. S. Dept. of Interior. U. S. Ent. Comm., Bull. No. 6. pp. 178.

PG71454.B00576
1885. Fourth Report of the U. S. Entomological Commission, etc. (On the Cotton and Boll Worm.) U. S. Dept. Agr. pp. 399.

PG71454.B00577
SCHWARZ, E. A.

PG71454.B00578
1890. Food-Plants and Food-Habits of Some North American Coleoptera. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash. Vol. I, pp. 231-233.

PG71454.B00579
SCUDDER, S. H.

PG71454.B00580
1889. Classified List of Food Plants of American Butterflies, drawn from Scudder’s Butterflies of the Eastern United States. Psyche, Vol. V, pp. 274-278.

PG71454.B00581
1901. Index to North American Orthoptera. Occasional Papers of the Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., VI. pp. 436.

PG71454.B00582
This is a complete alphabetical index to the literature of the species of North American Orthoptera--a unique and very useful work.

PG71454.B00583
THOMAS, C., MIDDLETON, N., and MARTIN, J.

PG71454.B00584
1881. Descriptive Catalogue of Larvæ. Tenth Rep. State Ent. Ill., pp. 60-140.

PG71454.B00585
Description and keys to saw-fly and Lepidopterous larvæ.

PG71454.B00586
TOWNSEND, C. H. T.

PG71454.B00587
1893. A General Summary of the Known Larval Food-habits of the Acalyptrate Muscidæ. Can. Ent., Vol. XXV, pp. 10-16.

PG71454.B00588
WARD, H. B., WHIPPLE, G. C., and others.

PG71454.B00589
Fresh Water Biology. (In press.) New York.

PG71454.B00590
This work consists of chapters by numerous specialists on the various groups of fresh-water animals including insects, gives keys for the determination of specimens, short chapters on their general biological relations, and references to the literature.

PG71454.B00591
VII. THE LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, OR THE “ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF EXTERNAL NATURE”

PG71454.B00592
THE DYNAMIC AND PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT

PG71454.B00593
“Of all the truths relating to phenomena, the most valuable to us are those which relate to the order of succession. On a knowledge of these is founded every reasonable anticipation of future facts, and whatever power we possess of influencing those facts to our advantage.”--JOHN STUART MILL.

PG71454.B00594
“To study life we must consider three things: first, the orderly sequence of external nature; second, the living organism and the changes which take place in it; and, third, the continuous adjustment between the two sets of phenomena which constitutes life.”--W. K. BROOKS.

PG71454.B00595
“The truth, indeed, is, that in physical inquiries, the work of theory and observation must go hand in hand, and ought to be carried on at the same time, more especially if the matter is very complicated, for there the clue of theory is necessary to direct the observer. Though a man may begin to observe without any hypothesis, he cannot continue long without seeing some general conclusion arise; and to this nascent theory it is his business to attend, because, by seeking either to verify or to disprove it, he is led to new experiments, or new observations. He is led also to the very experiments and observations that are of the greatest importance, namely to those _instantiæ crucis_, which are the criteria that naturally present themselves for the trial of every hypothesis. He is conducted to the places where the transitions of nature are most perceptible, and where the absence of former, or the presence of new circumstances, excludes the action of imaginary causes. By this correction of his first opinion, a new approximation is made to the truth; and by the repetition of the same process, certainty is finally obtained. Thus theory and observation mutually assist one another; and the spirit of system, against which there are so many and such just complaints, appears, nevertheless, as the animating principle of inductive investigation. The business of sound philosophy is not to extinguish this spirit, but to restrain and direct its efforts.”

PG71454.B00596
--J. PLAYFAIR, “Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth,” Edinburgh, 1802, pp. 524-525.

PG71454.B00597
The facts and ideas with which the animal ecologist needs to become acquainted are so widely scattered that a large amount of selective reading is necessary. The ecologist must read, select, and become an organizing center of things ecological. All of the facts and conceptions which he needs are not even confined to zoölogical or biological literature. In seeking an understanding of any problem, conventional groupings of the sciences and their arbitrary boundaries must not bar one from fertile fields. Many of the conceptions of the physical sciences, due to their more advanced stage of development, anticipate the future development of biology. This is particularly true of their dynamic conceptions. For this reason we should not hesitate to utilize and deliberately strive to secure development along similar lines in animal ecology. Elsewhere I have stated (An Ecological Survey in Northern Michigan, 1906, pp. 11, 12) that: “It is thus very apparent that as soon as ecological phenomena are investigated dynamically and expressed in terms of processes, this science will of necessity become more closely correlated with those allied sciences which have already availed themselves of such methods.... It seems a very simple matter to give assent to the idea of the law of change, yet in its practical application this simplicity often vanishes at once when it is seen that it involves the relation of cause and effect.... As this method of thinking is not generally understood, it is occasionally applied in such a crude and general sense that its bearing cannot be grasped when applied to special or concrete problems. There can be no question as to the general validity of this method, but what is now needed is to know how these processes are combined and related to produce particular environmental conditions or situations. That these difficulties are not confined to the ecologist alone, but are obstacles which arise in any attempt at scientific interpretation, is worthy of special notice. We are thus able to see why certain naturalists, apparently not recognizing or understanding the developmental processes which scientific ideas undergo, nor being acquainted with the tendencies of interpretation, dynamically considered, now making such rapid headway in ecological botany, geography, physiography, geology, and psychology, are inclined to look upon such attempts in biology as merely a fad or personal peculiarity of the student, and not of any particular consequence. Such ideas confuse the incidental with the essential and suggest a complete failure to grasp the situation or to realize the fundamental importance of stating explanations in terms of processes. Furthermore, in several of the allied sciences, the methods of dynamical interpretation have already made considerable advance. Here, then, is a resource, at present largely unworked by many biologists, where a wealth of ideas and explanations lies strewn over the surface and only need to be picked up in order to be utilized by those acquainted with this method of interpretation.... If the signs of the times are now read correctly, the most striking advance in scientific methods of thinking during the present century will be in the direction of interpretation from the standpoint of processes--dynamically.”

PG71454.B00598
For these reasons I have begun the list of literature with certain references which deal with the dynamic relations of the environment. These publications are particularly valuable not only for this method of treatment, but also for their content. These papers clearly emphasize the “orderly sequence of external nature,” a conception which must be grasped much more than superficially, if one is to interpret the development or evolution of environments. Although this is an essential part of our problem, as has been so well expressed by Brooks, yet this phase is probably one of the least understood by zoölogists. And as long as zoölogical students lack the proper training this condition will continue. To neglect this aspect in the training of an ecologist is like neglect of chemical training in a physiologist or of a physiological training in a psychologist. For one who is ignorant of the principles of “orderly sequence,” or successions of changes occurring in the physical, vegetational, and animal environments, it is manifestly impossible to realize their development; and the application of such principles to the interpretation of practical problems is utterly beyond his grasp. We are thus able to see that although the phrase “orderly sequence of external nature” is fundamentally a simple conception, it is not grasped without effort, training, and careful investigation.

PG71454.B00599
Obviously it is impossible to arrange the series of references with perfect satisfaction. The arrangement which will serve one purpose will not another, and for this reason it has been necessary to arrange the lists in more than one order. Certain general references, or some intended to facilitate the acquirement of the general _point of view_, are given first, and others are arranged alphabetically. For example, the papers listed on the processes of change in the physical and vegetational environment are approximately in an order in which they may profitably be studied to make the view as concrete as possible. It is primarily not the abstract idea of the principle of change, which is relatively easy to grasp, but to be able to apply it to any condition or location and to make it a guiding principle is very difficult. And judging from my own observation upon others and my own experience this method is very rarely mastered, if at all, unless it is actually worked out in some concrete case, and later expanded to its logical consequences.

PG71454.B00600
Only a few references are given on general physiology, metabolism, and allied subjects, but those given furnish a valuable index to further literature. Only the most arbitrary line can be drawn between papers dealing with habits, behavior, and individual ecology, and for this reason most of the references selected are arranged alphabetically.

PG71454.B00601
Particular attention should be called to the fact that it is not to be assumed that the various authors strive to make the points to which attention is here called; they may or may not do so. My aim is to call attention to the _utility_ of the publications from the _standpoint_ advocated throughout the book.

PG71454.B00602
From this point onward in this book the references form its main feature. For this reason it is important that one should not get an exaggerated idea of the value of the literature. It is perhaps true that a large part of the best ecological work has been done with little knowledge of other ecological writings. This was of course particularly true of the early workers, and the best work of to-day does not come from the largest library centers. A student looking over these lists, and finding that he has access to relatively few papers, may conclude that all effort is of no avail. The greatest need is not all or even a majority of the publications on the _general field_, but the relatively limited number which bear directly upon the problem at hand and enough of the general papers to aid him in a general orientation. It may be of some comfort to the isolated student, with his small shelf of books, to realize that there are perhaps not a half-dozen libraries in America which contain _all_ the references given in this book. The nearer one reaches the boundaries of our knowledge, the smaller the amount, and often the smaller the value of the literature, and the greater the value of a proper orientation, which comes only with a grasp of general principles.

PG71454.B00603
* * * * *

PG71454.B00604
(The laws of physical and vegetational changes and their influence upon animals. The dynamic or process relation of the environment.)

PG71454.B00605
BANCROFT, W. D.

PG71454.B00606
1911. A Universal Law. Science, N. S., Vol. XXX, pp. 159-179.

PG71454.B00607
The law of adjustment or response to strain. A very important paper viewed from the dynamic and process standpoint.

PG71454.B00608
HENDERSON, L. J.

PG71454.B00609
1913. The Fitness of the Environment. An Enquiry into the Biological Significance of the Properties of Matter, pp. 317. New York. The Macmillan Company.

PG71454.B00610
Valuable ecologically because of its exposition of the orderly sequence and _regulatory_ character of physico-chemical and physiological processes, and the application of chemical equilibria and the Phase Rule to metabolic changes. He says, “Now there can be no doubt that, when feasible, the ideal method--from the physico-chemical point of view--to describe a material system is in terms of the phase rule.” p. 260.

PG71454.B00611
CHAMBERLIN, T. C., and SALISBURY, R. D.

PG71454.B00612
1904. Geology. Geologic Processes and their Results, Vol. I. pp. 654. New York.

PG71454.B00613
To be considered from the standpoint of the _agents_ and _processes_ which change animal habitats and result in their “orderly sequence.”

PG71454.B00614
VAN HISE, C. R.

PG71454.B00615
1904. A Treatise on Metamorphism. U. S. Geol. Survey, Monog., Vol. XLVII, pp. 1-1286.

PG71454.B00616
A formidable-looking volume on account of its size, but one which will abundantly repay a careful study of its method, aside from the value of the content, for problems related to animals of the soils, etc. Particular attention should be given to the formulation of dynamic principles, and the application of the process method.

PG71454.B00617
DAVIS, W. M.

PG71454.B00618
1909. Geographical Essays, pp. 777. New York.

PG71454.B00619
Essays on the orderly sequence of changing land forms, or to the ecologist, the development of inland habitats, in so far as they are dependent upon the physiographic conditions.

PG71454.B00620
WOODWORTH, J. B.

PG71454.B00621
1894. The Relation between Baseleveling and Organic Evolution. Amer. Geol., Vol. XIV, pp. 209-235.

PG71454.B00622
The influence of baseleveling factors in the development of the gross environment and upon evolution.

PG71454.B00623
ADAMS, CHAS. C.

PG71454.B00624
1901. Baseleveling and its Faunal Significance, with Illustrations from Southeastern United States. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXV, pp. 839-852.

PG71454.B00625
The influence of baseleveling upon the sequence of changes in fresh-water and land habitats. (See Figures 4 and 5.)

PG71454.B00626
[Illustration: FIG. 4.--A small stream as an animal environment, with the preponderance of rapidly flowing water. Tumwater Cañon, Near Wenatchee Washington. Photo. by W. B. McCallum.]

PG71454.B00627
[Illustration:

PG71454.B00628
FIG. 5.--A small river as an animal environment. The rapid water conditions of a stream in an early stage of topographic development, such as is shown in Fig. 4, is here replaced by long pools of relatively quietly flowing water, connected by narrow stretches of more rapidly flowing water. Wabash River, Bluffton Indiana. Photo. by N. Miller and E. B. Williamson. ]

PG71454.B00629
BRANDT, K.

PG71454.B00630
1899. Ueber den Stoffwechsel im Meere. Wissen. Meeruntersuchungen, heraus. v. d. Komm. zur wissen. Unters. deutschen Meere in Kiel. N. F. Abth. Kiel, Bd. IV, pp. 213-230.

PG71454.B00631
1901. Life in the Ocean. Smithsonian Report for 1900, pp. 493-506.

PG71454.B00632
A translation of the preceding paper on the transformation of substance or “cycle of matter” in the sea. The extensive footnotes are omitted.

PG71454.B00633
1902. Ueber den Stoffwechsel im Meere. 2 Abhand. Wiss. Meeresunt. heraus. v. d. Komm. zur wissen. Unters. deutschen Meere in Kiel, N. F. Bd. VI, Abth. Kiel, pp. 23-79.

PG71454.B00634
1905. On the Production and Conditions of Production in the Sea. Rapports et Procés-Verbaux, Inter. Council for the Exploration of the Sea, Vol. III, Appendix D. Copenhagen.

PG71454.B00635
Not seen by the writer. Johnstone states that it is a summary of the papers of 1899 and 1902.

PG71454.B00636
JOHNSTONE, J.

PG71454.B00637
1908. Metabolism in the Sea. pp. 206-298. In “Conditions of Life in the Sea.” Cambridge, England.

PG71454.B00638
BIRGE, E. A.

PG71454.B00639
1907. The Respiration of an Inland Lake. Trans. Amer. Fisheries Soc., Vol. XXXVI, pp. 223-241.

PG71454.B00640
1904. The Thermocline and its Biological Significance. Trans. Amer. Micros. Soc., Vol. XXV, pp. 5-33. Two studies in the sequential changes in the lake habitat.

PG71454.B00641
BIRGE, E. A., and JUDAY, C.

PG71454.B00642
1911. The Inland Lakes of Wisconsin. The Dissolved Gases of the Water and their Biological Significance. Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, Bull. No. 22. pp. 259.

PG71454.B00643
PETERS, A. W.

PG71454.B00644
1907. Chemical Studies on the Cell and its Medium. Part II, Some Chemico-Biological Relations in Liquid Culture Media. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 321-346.

PG71454.B00645
A study of changes in media and their biotic succession.

PG71454.B00646
COWLES, H. C.

PG71454.B00647
1911. The Causes of Vegetative Cycles. Bot. Gaz., Vol. LI, pp. 161-183. Also Ann. Associa. Amer. Geogr., Vol. I, pp. 1-20. 1912.

PG71454.B00648
An important statement of the general principles and causes of vegetational changes. Includes a history of the subject.

PG71454.B00649
1901. The Physiographic Ecology of Chicago and Vicinity; A Study of the Origin, Development, and Classification of Plant Societies. Bot. Gaz., Vol. XXXI, pp. 73-108, 145-182.

PG71454.B00650
A study of changes in the vegetation from the process and genetic standpoint.

PG71454.B00651
CLEMENTS, F. E.

PG71454.B00652
1904. The Development and Structure of Vegetation. Bot. Surv. Nebraska, VII. pp. 175. Lincoln.

PG71454.B00653
Deals with vegetative changes from the process standpoint.

PG71454.B00654
1905. Research Methods in Ecology, pp. 334. Lincoln, Neb.

PG71454.B00655
CRAMPTON, C. B.

PG71454.B00656
1911. The Vegetation of Caithness Considered in Relation to the Geology. pp. 132. Comm. for the Survey and Study of British Vegetation.

PG71454.B00657
1912. The Geological Relations of Stable and Migratory Plant Formations. Scottish Bot. Rev., Vol. I, pp. 1-61.

PG71454.B00658
Good examples of the process standpoint as applied to the vegetation.

PG71454.B00659
WARMING, E. (Trans. by P. GROOM and I. B. BALFOUR.)

PG71454.B00660
1909. Œcology of Plants. pp. 422. Oxford.

PG71454.B00661
A treatise on the general principles of plant ecology, and an index to the literature.

PG71454.B00662
ZON, RAPHAEL.

PG71454.B00663
1906. Principles Involved in Determining Forest Types. Proc. Soc. Amer. Foresters, Vol. I, pp. 179-189.

PG71454.B00664
Discusses the sequence of change in the forest.

PG71454.B00665
OSTENFELD, C. H.

PG71454.B00666
1908. On the Ecology and Distribution of the Grass-Wrack (_Zostera marina_) in Danish Waters. Rep. Danish Biol. Sta. to Board of Agriculture, Vol. XVI, 1908. Trans. from the Fiskeri-Beretning for 1907, pp. 1-62.

PG71454.B00667
An important paper showing the controlling relation of marine vegetation upon animal associations and particularly the fish of the coast. References to related zoölogical papers.

PG71454.B00668
MOORE, J. E. S.

PG71454.B00669
1903. The Tanganyika Problem. pp. 371. London.

PG71454.B00670
On pp. 107-119 Moore describes the invasion and succession of vegetation upon alluvial flats, recently drained. A graphic account of forest invasion. Apparently a little known study.

PG71454.B00671
ERNST, A. (Trans. by A. C. SEWARD.)

PG71454.B00672
1908. The New Flora of the Volcanic Island of Krakatau. pp. 74. Cambridge.

PG71454.B00673
A study of the invasion of vegetation upon a new land surface formed by volcanic activity. Such studies as this aid one in breaking away from the older static view of vegetation and in seeing its more vital aspect.

PG71454.B00674
VAUGHAN, T. W.

PG71454.B00675
1911. The Geological Work of Mangroves in Southern Florida. Smithsonian Miscell. Coll. (Quart. Issue), Vol. LII, pp. 461-464.

PG71454.B00676
Plants as agents in the formation of animal habitats.

PG71454.B00677
WEISS, F. E.

PG71454.B00678
1909. A Preliminary Account of the Submerged Vegetation of Lake Windermere as Affecting the Feeding Ground of Fish. Mem. and Pro. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., Manchester Memoirs, 1908-1909, Vol. LIII, Mem. 11, pp. 1-9.

PG71454.B00679
TRANSEAU, E. N.

PG71454.B00680
1908. The Relation of Plant Societies to Evaporation. Bot. Gaz., Vol. XLV, pp. 217-231.

PG71454.B00681
Shows vegetational control upon the relative humidity of the air.

PG71454.B00682
FULLER, G. D.

PG71454.B00683
1911. Evaporation and Plant Succession. Bot. Gaz., Vol. LII, pp. 193-208.

PG71454.B00684
Further studies of the vegetational control of the relative evaporating power of the air.

PG71454.B00685
SHELFORD, V. E.

PG71454.B00686
1907. Preliminary Note on the Distribution of the Tiger Beetles (Cicindela) and its Relation to Plant Succession. Biol. Bull., Vol. XIV, pp. 9-14.

PG71454.B00687
The sequence of vegetational changes which determine the habitats of a predaceous insect.

PG71454.B00688
1912. Ecological Succession. IV. Vegetation and the Control of Land Animal Communities. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 59-99.

PG71454.B00689
An important paper correlating the development of the vegetation and the changing animal associations.

PG71454.B00690
COOK, O. F.

PG71454.B00691
1909. Vegetation Affected by Agriculture in Central America. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Industry, Bull. No. 145. pp. 30.

PG71454.B00692
Vegetational change in the tropics as affected by man and its relation to plant succession.

PG71454.B00693
FERNOW, B. E., and HARRINGTON, M. W., and others.

PG71454.B00694
1893. Forest Influences. U. S. Dept. Agr., Forestry Div., Bull. No. 7. pp. 197. Very valuable discussion of the atmospheric conditions in and about woodlands; temperature, evaporation, etc., in open and wooded areas. Not written from the process standpoint, but capable of such an interpretation. (See Figures 6 and 7.)

PG71454.B00695
ADAMS, CHAS. C.

PG71454.B00696
1905. The Postglacial Dispersal of the North American Biota. Biol. Bull., Vol. IX, pp. 53-71.

PG71454.B00697
Climatic sequences applied to inland habitats and the succession of their associations.

PG71454.B00698
1909. Isle Royale as a Biotic Environment. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 1-56.

PG71454.B00699
An attempt is made to treat the environment and biota from both the dynamic or process standpoint--so far as the present processes are concerned--and genetically with regard to the development of the present conditions.

PG71454.B00700
RUTHVEN, A. G.

PG71454.B00701
1906. An Ecological Survey in the Porcupine Mountains and Isle Royale, Michigan. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1905, pp. 17-55.

PG71454.B00702
The environment and biotic associations are treated from the dynamic and genetic standpoint.

PG71454.B00703
VIII. THE LAWS OF ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF METABOLISM, GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT, PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS, AND BEHAVIOR, OR “THE LIVING ORGANISM AND THE CHANGES WHICH TAKE PLACE IN IT”

PG71454.B00704
THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ANIMAL

PG71454.B00705
1. General Physiology and Development. 2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers. 3. Animal Behavior as a Process. 4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies. 5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and Behavior.

PG71454.B00706
“Seeing, then, that in all cases we may consider the external phenomena as simply in relation, and the internal phenomena also as simply in relation; the broadest and most complete definition of Life will be--The continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations.”--HERBERT SPENCER.

PG71454.B00707
“It is of the utmost importance, if we are to understand the behavior of organisms, that we think of them as dynamic--as processes, rather than as structures. The animal is something happening.”--H. S. JENNINGS (1907).

PG71454.B00708
Not only is the environment subject to an orderly sequence of changes, but this same law applies with equal thoroughness to the living animal itself. The animal is an agent which transforms, in “an orderly sequence,” by its processes of metabolism, both energy and substance, resulting in growth, differentiation, multiplication, and behavior. These activities take place in an orderly manner and are dependent upon both energy and substance derived from the environment. For these reasons the processes or changes in metabolism, growth, development, and behavior, _in so far as they are responses to the orderly sequence of environmental changes, are ecological problems_. The changes in behavior during the life of the animal or the development of its behavior give one of the main clues to the physiological conditions which determine some of the most characteristic forms of responses, and finally as a result of all these activities and processes of adjustment to the conditions of life, a relatively mature and adjusted condition of the struggle for existence in animals and associations may be reached, the culmination of animal harmonies. For this reason studies in modifications of behavior are of fundamental ecological importance, because they consider behavior not only as ready-made, but also in the process of making. Such considerations as these make it desirable to include some of the most valuable and suggestive books and papers which deal with those general physiological processes influencing growth, development, multiplication, and behavior, and _particularly those which aid one in realizing their order or successive changes, or “orderly sequence.”_

PG71454.B00709
In studying the activities of the individual animal, the normal environment to which it is _attuned_ forms the natural unit or basis for study. All processes which modify or change such an optimum will stimulate the animal, cause responses and adjustments. There are many degrees or stages in the development of these optima which change with the functional rhythms and with the development of the animal. There are those conditions which influence the activity of certain functions or organs; those which influence the general vital processes in general, the vital optimum; those which appear to condition the best development of certain families, genera, etc.; and finally those of animal associations. Of course these grade imperceptibly into one another, and a single animal may in its development, traverse all of these stages in the development of its associational optimum. Optima thus have histories, and their development and laws of transformation are of the most fundamental ecological importance (Adams, 1904, 1909; Blackman, 1905, 1906; Shelford, 1911, 1912).

PG71454.B00710
In the selection of these papers I have been guided by several considerations. Studies of common animals are given preference, also those papers which by their method of treatment and point of view are especially suggestive and may act as models for further study, and particularly those papers which treat of the activities from the standpoint of their changes, cycles, modifiability, and development. It is to such papers that we must look for suggestions regarding the methods or processes of adjustment between the animal and the environment. All of these papers are not equally ecological, but all will be of much utility in ecological work.

PG71454.B00711
(General works are listed first, followed by special papers arranged alphabetically.)

PG71454.B00712
_1. General Physiology and Development_

PG71454.B00713
VERWORN, M.

PG71454.B00714
1899. General Physiology. pp. 615. New York.

PG71454.B00715
A very good general summary, but somewhat out of date. There is a German edition of 1909 (fifth).

PG71454.B00716
ROSENTHAL, J.

PG71454.B00717
1901. Lehrbuch der Allgemeinen Physiologie. pp. 616. Leipzig.

PG71454.B00718
FÜRTH, O. VON.

PG71454.B00719
1903. Vergleichende chemische Physiologic der niederen Tiere. pp. 670. Jena.

PG71454.B00720
An excellent general work. Indispensable. Full references.

PG71454.B00721
PÜTTER, A.

PG71454.B00722
1911. Vergleichende Physiologie. pp. 721. Jena.

PG71454.B00723
WINTERSTEIN, H. (Editor).

PG71454.B00724
1910. Handbuch der vergleichenden Physiologie. (To be completed in four volumes.) Jena.

PG71454.B00725
HAMMARSTEN, O. (Trans. by J. A. MANDEL.)

PG71454.B00726
1911. A Text-Book of Physiological Chemistry. Sixth Edition, pp. 964. New York.

PG71454.B00727
DAVENPORT, C. B.

PG71454.B00728
1908. Experimental Morphology, pp. 509. New York.

PG71454.B00729
Excellent summaries and full references to the influence of various stimuli upon growth and upon protoplasm.

PG71454.B00730
LOEB, J.

PG71454.B00731
1906. The Dynamics of Living Matter. pp. 233. New York.

PG71454.B00732
PRZIBRAM, H.

PG71454.B00733
1910. Experimental-Zoologie. 3. Phylogenese. pp. 315. Leipzig and Vienna.

PG71454.B00734
JENNINGS, H. S.

PG71454.B00735
1906. Behavior of the Lower Organisms, pp. 366. New York.

PG71454.B00736
The general chapters are particularly helpful.

PG71454.B00737
MORGAN, T. H.

PG71454.B00738
1907. Experimental Zoölogy, pp. 454. New York.

PG71454.B00739
Summaries of a variety of experimental studies.

PG71454.B00740
SEMPER, K.

PG71454.B00741
1881. Animal Life as Affected by the Natural Conditions of Existence. pp. 472. New York.

PG71454.B00742
“‘The Physiology of _Organisms_,’ in contradistinction to the Physiology of _Organs_, ... [is] that branch of animal biology which regards the species of animals as actualities and investigates the reciprocal relations which adjust the balance between the existence of any species and the natural, external conditions of its existence, in the widest sense of the term.” p. 33.

PG71454.B00743
JENSEN, P.

PG71454.B00744
1907. Organische Zweckmässigkeit, Entwicklung und Vererbung vom Standpunkt der Physiologie. Jena. pp. 251.

PG71454.B00745
VERNON, H. M.

PG71454.B00746
1903. Variation in Animals and Plants. pp. 415. London.

PG71454.B00747
VARIGNY, H. DE.

PG71454.B00748
1892. Experimental Evolution, pp. 271. New York.

PG71454.B00749
BACHMETJEW, P.

PG71454.B00750
1901-1907. Experimentelle entomologische Studien vom physikalisch-chemischen Standpunkt aus. Bd. I. Temperaturverhältnisse bei Insekten. pp. 160. Leipzig. 1901. Bd. II. Einfluss der Ausseren Faktoren auf Insekten. pp. 944. Sophia. 1907.

PG71454.B00751
An extremely valuable index to environmental influences upon insects. Numerous summaries.

PG71454.B00752
HERRICK, C. L.

PG71454.B00753
1906. Applications of Dynamic Theory to Physiological Problems. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 362-375.

PG71454.B00754
RICHARDS, H. M.

PG71454.B00755
1910. On the Nature of Response to Chemical Stimulation. Science, N. S., Vol. XXXI, pp. 52-62.

PG71454.B00756
SCHÄFER, E. A.

PG71454.B00757
1912. The Nature, Origin and Maintenance of Life. Science, N. S., Vol. XXXVI, pp. 289-312.

PG71454.B00758
BASKERVILLE, C.

PG71454.B00759
1905. Life and Chemistry. Science, N. S., Vol. XXI, pp. 641-648.

PG71454.B00760
MORGAN, T. H.

PG71454.B00761
1910. Chance or Purpose in the Origin and Evolution of Adaptation. Science, N. S., Vol. XXXI, pp. 201-210.

PG71454.B00762
MATHEWS, A. P.

PG71454.B00763
1905. A Theory of the Nature of Protoplasmic Respiration and Growth. Biol. Bull., Vol. VIII, pp. 331-346.

PG71454.B00764
JENNINGS, H. S.

PG71454.B00765
1912. Age, Death and Conjugation in the Light of Work on Lower Organisms. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXX, pp. 563-577.

PG71454.B00766
Death is due to differentiation and not to a “running down” of the organism.

PG71454.B00767
LILLIE, F. R.

PG71454.B00768
1909. The Theory of Individual Development. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXV, pp. 239-252.

PG71454.B00769
HOLMES, S. J.

PG71454.B00770
1904. The Problem of Form Regulation. Archiv für Entwickelungsmechanik der Organismen (Roux), Bd. XVII, pp. 265-305.

PG71454.B00771
1907. Regeneration as Functional Adjustment. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. IV, pp. 419-430.

PG71454.B00772
WILSON, E. B.

PG71454.B00773
1905. The Problem of Development. Science, N. S., Vol. XXI, pp. 281-294.

PG71454.B00774
SHERRINGTON, C. S.

PG71454.B00775
1906. The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. pp. 411. New York.

PG71454.B00776
The activity of the nervous system is viewed as a _regulatory process_.

PG71454.B00777
The similar responses to diverse stimuli or the similar results produced by diverse causes are the conditions which make an analysis and the isolation of causes necessary. With departures from the normal and optimum into zones of stimulation and of unfavorable conditions many similar effects or results are produced. The similar results of extremes of high and low temperature as shown in Fischer’s experiments on Lepidoptera, and the effects of high temperatures, aridity, and the lack of oxygen may be cited as examples. Such effects have an important bearing upon the subject of physical and chemical _limiting factors_ which influence individuals, aggregations, and associations.

PG71454.B00778
BLACKMAN, F. F.

PG71454.B00779
1905. Optima and Limiting Factors. Ann. of Bot., Vol. XIX, pp. 281-295.

PG71454.B00780
“When a process is conditioned as to its rapidity by a number of separate factors, the rate of the process is limited by the pace of the ‘slowest’ factor.” p. 289.

PG71454.B00781
1908. The Manifestations of the Principles of Chemical Mechanics in the Living Plant. British Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1908, pp. 1-18.

PG71454.B00782
ADAMS, CHAS. C.

PG71454.B00783
1904. On the Analogy Between the Departure from Optimum Vital Conditions and Departure from Geographic Life Centers. Science, N. S., Vol. XIX, pp. 210-211.

PG71454.B00784
GREELEY, A. W.

PG71454.B00785
1901. On the Analogy Between the Effects of Loss of Water and Lowering of Temperature. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. VI, pp. 122-128.

PG71454.B00786
ZOETHOUT, W. D.

PG71454.B00787
1899. On Some Analogies Between the Physiological Effects of High Temperature, Lack of Oxygen, and Certain Poisons. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. II, pp. 220-242.

PG71454.B00788
LYON, E. P.

PG71454.B00789
1902. Effects of Potassium Cyanide and of Lack of Oxygen upon the Fertilized Eggs and the Embryos of the Sea-Urchin (_Arbacia punctulata_). Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. VII, pp. 56-75.

PG71454.B00790
PACKARD, W. H.

PG71454.B00791
1905. On Resistance to Lack of Oxygen and on a Method of Increasing this Resistance. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XV, pp. 30-41.

PG71454.B00792
1907. The Effect of Carbohydrates on Resistance to Lack of Oxygen. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 164-180.

PG71454.B00793
FISCHER, E.

PG71454.B00794
1903. Lepidopterologische Experimental-Forschungen. III. Allgem. Zeit. für Entomologie, Bd. VIII, pp. 221-228.

PG71454.B00795
These experiments illustrate in a very striking manner how abnormally high and low temperatures produce the same kind of effect or response.

PG71454.B00796
_2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers_

PG71454.B00797
(Alphabetically arranged)

PG71454.B00798
CLESSIN, S.

PG71454.B00799
1897. Über den Einfluss der Umgebung auf die Gehäuse der Schnecken. Württemberg naturw. Jahreshefte 53, pp. 68-86.

PG71454.B00800
COLTON, H. S.

PG71454.B00801
1908. Some Effects of Environment on the Growth of Lymnaea columella Say. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1908, pp. 410-448.

PG71454.B00802
KELLER, C.

PG71454.B00803
1887. Humusbildung und Bodenkultur unter dem Einfluss tierischer Thätigkeit.

PG71454.B00804
Not seen.

PG71454.B00805
KNAUTHE, K.

PG71454.B00806
1898. Zur Kenntnis des Stoffwechsels der Fische. Archiv f. d. gesammte Physiol. (Pflüger), Bd. LXXIII, pp. 490-500.

PG71454.B00807
LANG, A.

PG71454.B00808
1888. Über den Einfluss der festsitzenden Lebensweise auf die Thiere und über den Ursprung der ungeschlichtlichen Fortpflanzung durch Theilung und Knospung. pp. 166. Jena.

PG71454.B00809
LOCARD, A.

PG71454.B00810
1892. L’Influence des Milieux sur le Développement des Mollusques. pp. 140. Lyon.

PG71454.B00811
MARSHALL, F. H.

PG71454.B00812
1910. The Physiology of Reproduction. pp. 706. London.

PG71454.B00813
MILLER, N.

PG71454.B00814
1909. The American Toad (Bufo lentiginosus americanus Le Conte). Amer. Nat., Vol. XLIII, pp. 641-668, 730-745.

PG71454.B00815
A study of the natural history of a single species.

PG71454.B00816
RIDDLE, O.

PG71454.B00817
1909. The Rate of Digestion in Cold-Blooded Vertebrates,--The Influence of Season and Temperature. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XXIV, pp. 447-458.

PG71454.B00818
RUSSELL, E. S.

PG71454.B00819
1908. Environmental Studies on the Limpet. Proc. Zoöl. Soc., London, 1907, pp. 856-870.

PG71454.B00820
SCHIEMENZ, P.

PG71454.B00821
1911. Vergleichung der Fruchtbarkeit von Seen und Flussen. Aus deutscher Fischerei. pp. 75-82. Neudamm.

PG71454.B00822
A comparison of the relative productivity of fish in standing and running water environments.

PG71454.B00823
SHELFORD, V. E.

PG71454.B00824
1911. Physiological Animal Geography. Jour. Morph., Vol. XXII, pp. 551-618.

PG71454.B00825
An important paper. Explains the habitats and distribution of animals as due to physiological responses and characters. The dynamic and genetic standpoint of the present writer (p. 555) is erroneously _contrasted_ with a physiological process. The dynamic includes all processes, the physiologic process is a species of this genus. The genetic is the application of processes to explain origins. The responsive and functional processes are dynamic in character.

PG71454.B00826
1912. Ecological Succession. V. Aspects of Physiological Classification. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 331-370.

PG71454.B00827
Further studies along the lines of the preceding paper.

PG71454.B00828
VIRE, A.

PG71454.B00829
1896. Modifications Produced in the Organs of Sense and of Nutrition in Certain Arthropods by Confinement in Caves. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), Vol. XVII, pp. 407-408.

PG71454.B00830
VOSSELER, J.

PG71454.B00831
1902. Über Anpassung und chemische Vertheidigungs mittel bei nordafrikanischen Orthopteren. Verh. Deutsch. Zool. Gesell. 1902, pp. 108-120.

PG71454.B00832
1902-1903. Beiträge zur Faunistik und Biologie der Orthopteren Algeriens und Tunesiens. Zool. Jahrb. Abteilung f. Syst. Geog. u. Biol. der Tiere, Bd. XVI, pp. 337-404; Bd. XVII, pp. 1-98.

PG71454.B00833
_3. Animal Behavior as a Process_

PG71454.B00834
“The actual method of work is to first watch the organism under its natural environment, until one finds out all things it does. Then the environment is changed a little, to see what difference this makes in the behavior. We thus try all sorts of different ways of getting the animal to change its behavior,--including the application of definite chemical and physical reagents of most varied character.... We thus try to find the organism’s system of behavior and the things that influence it,--becoming acquainted with the creature as we might get acquainted with a person with whom we are thrown much in contact.”--H. S. JENNINGS (1910).

PG71454.B00835
“My object being the study of the correlative instincts of the young and adult in relation to all that could be learned about them in a natural environment, I have followed my usual custom of going out to the birds, instead of taking them into the laboratory. The facts which the laboratory can be made to yield are invaluable, but they belong to a different class from those for which we are now mainly in search, behavior under the usual or normal conditions.”--F. H. HERRICK (1910).

PG71454.B00836
“As will be seen, these studies include both field and laboratory work, especially of the American species, and I have made the field work emphatic wherever at all practicable. I have elsewhere (1909, p. 157) [Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VII] emphasized the crying need for larger attention to this phase of experimental work, believing that in many cases it is all but impossible to secure trustworthy results as to behavior of animals where the work has been done under such unusual, unnatural and artificial conditions as most laboratory provisions afford. What right has one to assume that the actions of an animal taken rudely from its natural habitat and as rudely imprisoned in some improvised cage are in any scientific sense an expression of its normal behavior, either physical or psychical? Is it within the range of the calculus of probability that conclusions drawn from observations made upon an animal in the shallow confines of a finger-bowl, but whose habitat has been the open sea, are wholly trustworthy? It is no part of my purpose to discredit the laboratory or laboratory appliances as related to such investigations. They are indispensable. But at the same time let it be recognized that they are at best but artificial make-shifts whose values, unless checked up by constant appeal to nature, must be taken at something of discount.... It seems to the writer that until one has been able to place his specimens under conditions approximating the natural, or has at least brought them to a state of semi-domestication, where in food-taking, evidence of health, etc., they are at ease, he has small right to dogmatize as to conclusions, or presume to make such conclusions the basis of so-called laws of behavior. Not a little of recent investigation along the lines of behavior has been vitiated at just this point, and must be repeated to be made trustworthy. The amazing mass of contradictory results which has loaded the literature of recent years is attributable to some extent to this misfortune.”--C. W. HARGITT (1912).

PG71454.B00837
“We are apt to contrast the extremes of instinct and intelligence, to emphasize the blindness and inflexibility of the one and the consciousness and freedom of the other. It is like contrasting the extremes of light and dark and forgetting all the transitional degrees of twilight.... Instinct is blind; so is the highest human wisdom blind. The distinction is one of degree. There is no absolute blindness on the one side, and no absolute wisdom on the other.”--C. O. WHITMAN (1899).

PG71454.B00838
The precedence here given to _changes in behavior_ is in harmony with the emphasis which is put upon _processes_ and genetic phases or sequences throughout this book. As Holmes (1905, p. 108) has well pointed out, behavior consists of relatively fixed and relatively changeable responses, with intergradations. There are thus two avenues of approach which he sums up as follows (p. 112): “In the trial and error method the random character of the movement impresses us most; in the tropisms, the element of direct determination by the environment. Both of these factors run through the behavior of all animals, but they are mingled in various proportions in different forms. In the lives of most, if not all animals both are essential elements in the adjustment of the organism to its conditions of existence.” And in regard to those responses which do not change in form with experience, he says (p. 106): “The element of spontaneous undirected activity is one of vast if not essential importance in the life of nearly all animals. The simpler animals profit by their varied experience, although they may not learn, and thus secure some of the advantages which it is generally considered the special function of intelligence to confer.” Thus to the ecologist studying the sequences of changes in the environment, and changes in the organism, it is but natural and consistent for him to apply the same methods to behavior, in order to facilitate their mutual relations and aid in their interpretation. In a study of the environment we also have the relatively stable elements and the relatively rapidly changing ones, and any adequate understanding of animals must correlate these four variables: two relatively changing, one in the organism and one in the environment; and two others relatively stable, one in the organism and the other in the environment.

PG71454.B00839
JENNINGS, H. S.

PG71454.B00840
1905. The Method of Regulation in Behavior and in Other Fields. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. II, pp. 473-494.

PG71454.B00841
HOLMES, S. J.

PG71454.B00842
1905. The Selection of Random Movements as a Factor in Phototaxis. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XV, pp. 98-112.

PG71454.B00843
JENNINGS, H. S.

PG71454.B00844
1905. Modifiability in Behavior. I. Behavior of Sea Anemones. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. II, pp. 447-472.

PG71454.B00845
1906. Modifiability in Behavior, II. Factors Determining Direction and Character of Movement in the Earthworm. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. III, pp. 435-455.

PG71454.B00846
1906. Behavior of the Lower Organisms, pp. 366. New York.

PG71454.B00847
1907. Behavior of the Starfish (_Asterias Forreri_ De Loriol). Univ. Calif. Pub. Zoöl., Vol. IV, pp. 53-185.

PG71454.B00848
WALTER, H. E.

PG71454.B00849
1907. The Reactions of Planarians to Light. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. V, pp. 35-162.

PG71454.B00850
YERKES, R. M.

PG71454.B00851
1901. The Formation of Habits in the Turtle. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LVIII, pp. 519-525.

PG71454.B00852
PEARL, R.

PG71454.B00853
1904. On the Behavior and Reactions of Limulus in Early Stages of its Development. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIV, pp. 138-164.

PG71454.B00854
HADLEY, P. B.

PG71454.B00855
1908. The Behavior of the Larval and Adolescent Stages of the American Lobster (_Homarus Americanus_). Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 199-301.

PG71454.B00856
MAYER, A. G., and SOULE, C. G.

PG71454.B00857
1906. Some Reactions of Caterpillars and Moths. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. III, pp. 415-433.

PG71454.B00858
CRAIG, W.

PG71454.B00859
1908. The Voices of Pigeons Regarded as a Means of Social Control. Amer. Jour. Sociol., Vol. XIV, pp. 86-100.

PG71454.B00860
HERRICK, F. H.

PG71454.B00861
1912. Organization of the Gull Community. Proc. Seventh Inter. Zoöl. Cong., Boston, 1907, pp. 156-158.

PG71454.B00862
YERKES, A. W.

PG71454.B00863
1906. Modifiability of Behavior in Hydroides Dianthus V. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 441-449.

PG71454.B00864
YERKES, R. M., and HUGGINS, G. E.

PG71454.B00865
1903. Habit Formation in the Crawfish, Cambarus affinis. Psychol. Rev.; Series of Monog. Suppl., Vol. IV, No. I; Harvard Psychol. Studies, Vol. I, pp. 565-577.

PG71454.B00866
YERKES, R. M.

PG71454.B00867
1905. Animal Psychology and the Criteria of the Psychic. Jour. Phil., Psychol., and Sci. Methods, Vol. II, pp. 141-149.

PG71454.B00868
1905. Concerning the Genetic Relations of Types of Action. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XV, pp. 132-137.

PG71454.B00869
ALLEE, W. C.

PG71454.B00870
1912. An Experimental Analysis of the Relation between Physiological States and Rheotaxis in Isopoda. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. XIII, pp. 269-344.

PG71454.B00871
A study of the responses of pond and stream Isopods to natural and experimental conditions.

PG71454.B00872
WASHBURN, M. F.

PG71454.B00873
1908. The Animal Mind. pp. 333. New York.

PG71454.B00874
For modifications of behavior by experience see pp. 205-269. Also many references on behavior.

PG71454.B00875
_4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies_

PG71454.B00876
1911. [Reviews of papers on animal behavior for 1910.] Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. I, pp. 393-455, 465-470.

PG71454.B00877
Reviews by Holmes, Turner, Wheeler, Watson, and Bohn.

PG71454.B00878
JENNINGS, H. S.

PG71454.B00879
1909. The Work of J. von Uexkuell on the Physiology of Movements and Behavior. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 313-336.

PG71454.B00880
CONGDON, E. D.

PG71454.B00881
1908. Recent Studies upon the Locomotor Responses of Animals to White Light. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 309-328.

PG71454.B00882
MAST, S. O.

PG71454.B00883
1910. Literature of the Past Year on the Behavior of Lower Organisms. Psychol. Bull., Vol. VII, pp. 267-280.

PG71454.B00884
1911. Recent Literature on the Behavior of the Lower Invertebrates. Psychol. Bull., Vol. VIII, pp. 263-277.

PG71454.B00885
YERKES, R. M.

PG71454.B00886
1906. George Bohn’s Studies in Animal Behavior. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 231-238.

PG71454.B00887
WASHBURN, M. F.

PG71454.B00888
1908. French Work in Comparative Psychology for the Past Two Years. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 511-520.

PG71454.B00889
WASHBURN, M. F. (Editor).

PG71454.B00890
1912. Comparative Psychology Number. Psychol. Bull., Vol. IX, No. 8, pp. 281-313.

PG71454.B00891
Reviews by Pearse, Turner, and Washburn.

PG71454.B00892
COUES, E.

PG71454.B00893
1877. Monograph of North American Rodentia. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. (Hayden), Vol. XI.

PG71454.B00894
Contains on pp. 255-264 and 951-1081 an extensive bibliography of North American mammals, and includes much on their habits.

PG71454.B00895
_5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and Behavior_

PG71454.B00896
(Alphabetically arranged)

PG71454.B00897
ANDREWS, E. A.

PG71454.B00898
1906. Egg-laying of Crayfish. Amer. Nat., Vol. XL, pp. 343-356.

PG71454.B00899
1904. Breeding Habits of Crayfish. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 165-206.

PG71454.B00900
BAKER, F. C.

PG71454.B00901
1911. Ecology of Lymnæas. pp. 19-51. Lymnæidæ of North and Middle America Recent and Fossil. Special Pub. No. 3, Chicago Acad. Sciences.

PG71454.B00902
BANTA, A. M.

PG71454.B00903
1910. A Comparison of the Reactions of a Species of Surface Isopod with those of a Subterranean Species. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VIII, Part I, Experiments with Light, pp. 243-310; Part II, pp. 439-488.

PG71454.B00904
BELDING, D. L., and LANE, F. C.

PG71454.B00905
1909. The Shellfisheries of Massachusetts: their Present Condition and Extent. Report upon the Mollusk Fisheries of Massachusetts, pp. 16-233. Boston.

PG71454.B00906
Contains some excellent photographs of the habitat.

PG71454.B00907
1910. A Report upon the Scallop Fishery of Massachusetts, including the Habits, Life History of _Pecten irradians_, its Rate of Growth, and Other Facts of Economic Value. pp. 150. Boston.

PG71454.B00908
1911. The Life History and Growth of the Quahaug (_Venus mercenaria_). Rep. Mass. Comm. Fisheries and Game for 1910, pp. 18-128. Boston.

PG71454.B00909
These papers are examples of applied ecology, and contain much on the life histories and habits of these mollusks.

PG71454.B00910
BENDIRE, C.

PG71454.B00911
1892. Life Histories of North American Birds with Special Reference to their Breeding Habits and Eggs, with Twelve Lithographic Plates. Smithsonian Inst., Special Bull. No. 1. pp. 414.

PG71454.B00912
1895. Life Histories of North American Birds, from the Parrots to the Grackles, with Special Reference to their Breeding Habits and Eggs. Smithsonian Inst., Special Bull. pp. 508.

PG71454.B00913
BLACKWALL, J.

PG71454.B00914
1873. Researches in Zoölogy. London.

PG71454.B00915
Not seen by writer.

PG71454.B00916
BÖVING, A. G.

PG71454.B00917
1910. Natural History of the Larvæ of Donaciinæ. Inter. Revue der gesamten Hydrobiol. u. Hydrog., Bd. III, Biol. Suppl., Heft I, pp. 1-108.

PG71454.B00918
BUTTEL-REEPEN, H. VON. (Trans. by M. H. GEISLER.)

PG71454.B00919
1907. Are Bees Reflex Machines? Experimental Contribution to the Natural History of the Honey-bee. pp. 48. Medina, Ohio.

PG71454.B00920
CALKINS, M. W.

PG71454.B00921
1905. The Limits of Genetic and of Comparative Psychology. Jour. of Psychol., Vol. I, pp. 261-285; Inter. Cong. of Arts and Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. V, pp. 712-734.

PG71454.B00922
CARPENTER, F. W.

PG71454.B00923
1908. Some Reactions of Drosophila, with Special Reference to Convulsive Reflexes. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psych., Vol. XVIII, pp. 483-491.

PG71454.B00924
1910. Feeding Reactions of the Rose Coral (Isophyllia). Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, Vol. XLVI, pp. 149-162.

PG71454.B00925
CASTEEL, D. B.

PG71454.B00926
1911. The Discriminative Ability of the Painted Turtle. Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. I, pp. 1-28.

PG71454.B00927
CLARKE, W. E.

PG71454.B00928
1912. Studies in Bird Migration. Vol. I, pp. 323; Vol. II, pp. 346. London.

PG71454.B00929
Bird migration may be studied as a response of the animals to the conditions of their life, and the above work is a good example of the best kind of work being done along this line.

PG71454.B00930
COLE, L. J.

PG71454.B00931
1907. An Experimental Study of the Image-Forming Powers of Various Types of Eyes. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., Vol XLII, pp. 335-417.

PG71454.B00932
A study of worms, insects, sow bug, snail, slug, and frogs.

PG71454.B00933
1913. Direction of Locomotion of the Starfish (Asterias Forbesi). Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. XIV, pp. 1-32.

PG71454.B00934
COLE, L. W.

PG71454.B00935
1907. Concerning the Intelligence of Raccoons. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVII, pp. 211-261.

PG71454.B00936
1912. Observations on the Senses and Instincts of the Raccoon. Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. II, pp. 299-309.

PG71454.B00937
COLE, L. W., and LONG, F. M.

PG71454.B00938
1909. Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 657-683.

PG71454.B00939
COLTON, H. S.

PG71454.B00940
1908. How Fulgur and Sycotypus Eat Oysters, Mussels and Clams. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1908, pp. 3-10.

PG71454.B00941
COKER, R. E.

PG71454.B00942
1906. The Natural History and Cultivation of the Diamond-Back Terrapin with Notes on other Forms of Turtles. Bull. No. 14, N. Carolina Geol. Survey, pp. 1-67.

PG71454.B00943
CRAIG, W.

PG71454.B00944
1909. The Expressions of Emotion in the Pigeons. I. The Blond Ring-Dove (_Turtor risorius_). Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 30-80.

PG71454.B00945
DAWSON, J.

PG71454.B00946
1911. The Biology of Physa. Behavior Monographs, Vol. I, No. 4, pp. 1-120.

PG71454.B00947
Behavior is related to the natural environment.

PG71454.B00948
DAVIS, H. B.

PG71454.B00949
1907. The Raccoon: A Study in Animal Intelligence. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 447-489.

PG71454.B00950
DEAN, B.

PG71454.B00951
1892. The Physical and Biological Characteristics of the Natural Oyster Grounds of South Carolina. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1890, Vol. X, pp. 335-361.

PG71454.B00952
Contains good illustrations of the oyster habitat.

PG71454.B00953
DIMON, A. C.

PG71454.B00954
1905. The Mud Snail: Nassa obsoleta. Cold Spring Harbor, Monogr. V. pp. 48.

PG71454.B00955
A behavior study of a marine snail.

PG71454.B00956
EMBODY, G. C.

PG71454.B00957
1912. A Preliminary Study of the Distribution, Food, and Reproductive Capacity of Some Fresh-water Amphipods. Inter. Revue. der gesamten Hydrobiol. u. Hydrog., Biol. Suppl. III. Serie, Heft 2, pp. 1-33.

PG71454.B00958
ENTEMAN, M. M.

PG71454.B00959
1902. Some Observations on the Behavior of Social Wasps. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. XLI, pp. 339-351.

PG71454.B00960
FABRE, J. H. (Translated.)

PG71454.B00961
1901. Insect Life. Souvenirs of a Naturalist. pp. 320. London.

PG71454.B00962
FABRE, J. H. (Trans. by MIALL, B.)

PG71454.B00963
1912. Social Life in the Insect World. pp. 327. London.

PG71454.B00964
FLORENTIN, R.

PG71454.B00965
1899. Études sur la Faune des Mares Salées de Lorraine. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Zoöl. (8ᵉ S.), Tome X, pp. 209-350.

PG71454.B00966
FOREL, A. (Trans. by WHEELER, W. M.)

PG71454.B00967
1904. Ants and Some Other Insects. Religion of Sci. Library No. 56. pp. 49. Chicago.

PG71454.B00968
FOREL, A. (Trans. by YEARSLEY, M.)

PG71454.B00969
1908. The Senses of Insects, pp. 324. London.

PG71454.B00970
GILL, T.

PG71454.B00971
1909. Contributions to the Life Histories of Fishes. Vol. I, 1904-1907. Smithsonian Institution, No. 1858.

PG71454.B00972
A collection of reprints on the natural history of fishes, including much on their habits.

PG71454.B00973
GRAVE, C.

PG71454.B00974
1904. Investigations for the Promotion of the Oyster Industry of North Carolina. Rep. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1903, pp. 247-341.

PG71454.B00975
On pp. 261-264 the growth or development of an oyster reef is described. This illustrates ecological succession on a reef. The food and the influence of storms are described.

PG71454.B00976
GROOS, K. (Trans. by BALDWIN, E. L.)

PG71454.B00977
1898. The Play of Animals. pp. 341. New York.

PG71454.B00978
GURLEY, R. R.

PG71454.B00979
1902. The Habits of Fishes. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XIII, pp. 408-425.

PG71454.B00980
An important and apparently little known paper which explains the spawning habits of fish and their distribution in terms of their physiological responses. Compare with Shelford’s Physiological Animal Geography. 1911.

PG71454.B00981
HAHN, W.

PG71454.B00982
1908. Some Habits and Sensory Adaptations of Cave-inhabiting Bats. Biol. Bull., Vol. XV, pp. 135-193.

PG71454.B00983
HARGITT, C. W.

PG71454.B00984
1906. Experiments on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. III, pp. 295-320.

PG71454.B00985
1909. Further Observations on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VII, pp. 157-187.

PG71454.B00986
1912. Observations on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids, III. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXII, pp. 67-94.

PG71454.B00987
1912. Behavior and Color Changes of Tree Frogs. Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. II, pp. 51-78.

PG71454.B00988
HARRIS, J. A.

PG71454.B00989
1903. An Ecological Catalogue of the Crayfishes belonging to the Genus _Cambarus_. Kan. Univ. Sci. Bull., Vol. II, pp. 51-187.

PG71454.B00990
Habits and distribution of crawfish. Very useful references to the stream environment and to crawfish.

PG71454.B00991
HARTMAN, C.

PG71454.B00992
1905. Observations on the Habits of Some Solitary Wasps of Texas. Univ. of Texas Bull. No. 65, Sci. Ser. No. 6, pp. 1-72.

PG71454.B00993
HERRICK, C. J.

PG71454.B00994
1903. The Organ and Sense of Taste in Fishes. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1902, Vol. XXII, pp. 237-272.

PG71454.B00995
HERRICK, F. H.

PG71454.B00996
1910. Instinct and Intelligence in Birds. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXVI, pp. 532-556; Vol. LXXVII, pp. 82-97, 122-141.

PG71454.B00997
1910. Life and Behavior of the Cuckoo. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. IX, pp. 169-233.

PG71454.B00998
Illustrates the orderly sequence of forms of behavior.

PG71454.B00999
1911. Natural History of the American Lobster. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fisheries, Vol. XXIX, pp. 149-408. Doc. No. 747.

PG71454.B01000
HODGE, C. F.

PG71454.B01001
1894. The Methods of Homing Pigeons. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. XIV, pp. 758-775.

PG71454.B01002
HOLMES, S. J.

PG71454.B01003
1901. Observations on the Habits and Natural History of Amphithoe longimana Smith. Biol. Bull., Vol. II, pp. 165-193.

PG71454.B01004
1906. Death-Feigning in Ranatra. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 200-216.

PG71454.B01005
1908. The Instinct of Feigning Death. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXII, pp. 179-185.

PG71454.B01006
1911. The Evolution of Animal Intelligence. pp. 296. New York.

PG71454.B01007
JENNINGS, H. S.

PG71454.B01008
1910. Diverse Ideals and Divergent Conclusions in the Study of Behavior in Lower Organisms. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XXI, pp. 349-370.

PG71454.B01009
Valuable for its discussion of points of view in the study of behavior.

PG71454.B01010
KELLOGG, J. L.

PG71454.B01011
1900. Observations on the Life-History of the Common Clam, Mya Arenaria. Bull. U. S. Fish and Fisheries Comm. for 1899, Vol. XIX, pp. 193-202.

PG71454.B01012
1903. Feeding Habits and Growth of Venus Mercenaria. Bull. 71, N. Y. State Museum. pp. 27. Albany.

PG71454.B01013
1904. Conditions Governing Existence and Growth of the Soft Clam (Mya Arenaria). Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries for 1903, pp. 195-224.

PG71454.B01014
A suggestive paper.

PG71454.B01015
1905. Notes on Marine Food Mollusks of Louisiana. Bull. No. 3, Gulf Biologic Station. pp. 43. Baton Rouge.

PG71454.B01016
All of these papers by Kellogg are careful studies of the relation of animals to their environment. They also show the intimate relation of ecology to economic problems. Biological surveys intended for economic results should be ecological in their method.

PG71454.B01017
1910. Shell-Fish Industries. pp. 361. New York, Henry Holt and Co.

PG71454.B01018
A popular summary of the marine shell-fish industries of the American coast, from the standpoint of their biology, culture, and utilization. The oyster, hard and soft clams, and scallops are considered. The following subjects deserve mention: ciliary action, feeding reflexes, function of mucus, and food.

PG71454.B01019
LEFEVRE, G., and CURTIS, W. C.

PG71454.B01020
1912. Studies on the Reproduction and Artificial Propagation of Fresh-water Mussels. U. S. Bur. Fisheries for 1910, Bull. Vol. XXX, pp. 105-201.

PG71454.B01021
LYON, E. P.

PG71454.B01022
1904. On Rheotropism. I. Rheotropism in Fishes. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XII, pp. 149-161.

PG71454.B01023
MAST, S. O.

PG71454.B01024
1911. Light and the Behavior of Organisms. pp. 410. New York.

PG71454.B01025
An elaborate treatise on reactions to light.

PG71454.B01026
MEAD, A. D.

PG71454.B01027
1900. The Natural History of the Star-fish. U. S. Fish Comm. Bull. for 1899, Vol. XIX, pp. 203-224.

PG71454.B01028
MICHAEL, E.

PG71454.B01029
1911. Classification and Vertical Distribution of the Chætognatha of the San Diego Region. Univ. of Calif. Pub. Zoöl., Vol. VIII, pp. 21-186.

PG71454.B01030
The distribution is studied as a response to the conditions of life, and the optima are determined.

PG71454.B01031
MILLS, W.

PG71454.B01032
1898. The Nature and Development of Animal Intelligence. pp. 307. New York.

PG71454.B01033
Valuable account of the habits of squirrels. Observations on hibernation, and on the psychic development of the young of some of the domestic animals.

PG71454.B01034
MONTGOMERY, T. H.

PG71454.B01035
1903. Studies on the Habits of Spiders, particularly those of the Mating Period. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1903, pp. 59-149.

PG71454.B01036
Contains a valuable bibliography.

PG71454.B01037
1908. Further Studies on the Activities of Araneads. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLII, pp. 697-709.

PG71454.B01038
1910. Further Studies on the Activities of Araneads, II. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1909, pp. 548-569.

PG71454.B01039
1910. The Significance of the Courtship and Secondary Sexual Characters of Araneads. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLIV, pp. 151-177.

PG71454.B01040
NEWMAN, H. H.

PG71454.B01041
1906. The Habits of Certain Tortoises. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 126-152.

PG71454.B01042
NEWMAN, H. H., and PATTERSON, J. T.

PG71454.B01043
1909. Field Studies of the Behavior of the Lizard, Sceloporus Spinosus Floridanus. Bull. Univ. of Texas, No. 137, pp. 1-24.

PG71454.B01044
ORTMANN, A. E.

PG71454.B01045
1905. The Crawfishes of the State of Pennsylvania. Mem. Carnegie Mus., Vol. II, pp. 343-523.

PG71454.B01046
Habits and habitats of crawfish.

PG71454.B01047
PARKER, G. H.

PG71454.B01048
1903. The Phototropism of the Mourning-cloak Butterfly, Vanessa Antiopa Linn. Mark Anniversary Volume, pp. 453-469. New York.

PG71454.B01049
1903. The Sense of Hearing in Fishes. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXVII, pp. 185-204.

PG71454.B01050
1905. The Functions of the Lateral-Line Organs of Fishes. U. S. Bur. Fisheries, Bull. Vol. XXIV, pp. 185-207.

PG71454.B01051
1908. The Sensory Reactions of Amphioxus. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, Vol. XLIII, pp. 415-455.

PG71454.B01052
1910. The Reactions of Sponges, with a Consideration of the Origin of the Nervous System. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VIII, pp. 1-41.

PG71454.B01053
PEARL, R.

PG71454.B01054
1903. The Movements and Reactions of Fresh Water Planarians. Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci., Vol. XLVI, pp. 509-714.

PG71454.B01055
A good example of a very detailed study of behavior of a lower animal.

PG71454.B01056
PEARSE, A. S.

PG71454.B01057
1910. The Reactions of Amphibians to Light. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, Vol. XLV, pp. 161-208.

PG71454.B01058
PECKHAM, G. W. and E. G.

PG71454.B01059
1898. On the Instincts and Habits of the Solitary Wasps. Bull. No. 2, Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. pp. 245.

PG71454.B01060
1905. Wasps, Social and Solitary. pp. 311. Boston and New York.

PG71454.B01061
A revised and enlarged edition of the preceding reference.

PG71454.B01062
PIERSOL, W. H.

PG71454.B01063
1909. The Habits and Larval State of _Plethodon cinereus erythronotus_. Trans. Canadian Inst., Vol. VIII, pp. 469-493.

PG71454.B01064
Contains a useful list of references on Amphibians.

PG71454.B01065
PORTER, J. P.

PG71454.B01066
1904. A Preliminary Study of the Psychology of the English Sparrow. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XV, pp. 313-346.

PG71454.B01067
1906. The Habits, Instincts and Mental Powers of Spiders, Genera Argiope and Epeira. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XVII, pp. 306-357.

PG71454.B01068
1906. Further Study of the English Sparrow and Other Birds. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XVII, pp. 248-271.

PG71454.B01069
Includes the Vesper Sparrow, Cowbird, Common Pigeon, Passenger Pigeon, and Red-headed Woodpecker.

PG71454.B01070
1910. Intelligence and Imitation in Birds, a Criterion of Imitation. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XXI, pp. 1-71.

PG71454.B01071
Studies of English Sparrow, Cowbird, Snowbird, White-throated Sparrow, Field Sparrow, Bluebird, White-crowned Sparrow, Fox, Song and Tree Sparrows, Blue Jay, Baltimore Oriole, and Crows.

PG71454.B01072
POULTON, E. B.

PG71454.B01073
1896. On the Courtship of Certain Acridiidæ. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, pp. 233-252.

PG71454.B01074
REIGHARD, J.

PG71454.B01075
1903. The Natural History of _Amia calva_ Linnæus. Mark Anniversary Volume, pp. 57-109.

PG71454.B01076
REYNAUD, G.

PG71454.B01077
1900. The Laws of Orientation Among Animals. Smithsonian Report for 1898, pp. 481-498.

PG71454.B01078
RILEY, C. F. C.

PG71454.B01079
1912. Observations on the Ecology of the Dragon-Fly Nymphs: Reactions to Light and Contact. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. V, pp. 273-292.

PG71454.B01080
SCHEFFER, T. H.

PG71454.B01081
1905. The Cocooning Habits of Spiders. Kans. Univ. Sci. Bull., Vol. III, pp. 85-114.

PG71454.B01082
SEITZ, A.

PG71454.B01083
1891. Allgemeine Biologie der Schmetterlinge. Zool. Jahrb., Abth. Syst. Geog. Biol. der Thiere, Bd. V, pp. 281-343.

PG71454.B01084
SETON, ERNEST THOMPSON.

PG71454.B01085
1909. Life Histories of Northern Animals. Vol. I, pp. 673, and Vol. II, pp. 677-1267. New York.

PG71454.B01086
Valuable for life histories and habits. Extensive bibliography.

PG71454.B01087
SEVERIN, H. H. P. and H. C.

PG71454.B01088
1911. An Experimental Study on the Death-Feigning of Belostoma (= Zaitha Aucct.) flumineum Say and Nepa apiculata Uhler. Behavior Monographs, Vol. I, No. 3, pp. 1-44.

PG71454.B01089
SHELFORD, V. E.

PG71454.B01090
1908. Life-Histories and Larval Habits of the Tiger Beetles (_Cicindelidæ_). Jour. Linn. Soc. Zoöl., Vol. XXX, pp. 157-184.

PG71454.B01091
SHELFORD, V. E., and ALLEE, W. C.

PG71454.B01092
1913. The Reactions of Fishes to Gradients of Dissolved Atmospheric Gases. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. XIV, pp. 207-266.

PG71454.B01093
The reaction of fish to oxygen and carbonic acid; the latter is considered the best single index to the environment.

PG71454.B01094
SIMPSON, C. T.

PG71454.B01095
1899. The Pearly Fresh-water Mussels of the United States; their Habits, Enemies, and Diseases; with Suggestions for their Protection. U. S. Fish Comm. Bull. for 1898, Vol. XVIII, pp. 279-288.

PG71454.B01096
SLADEN, F. W. L.

PG71454.B01097
1912. The Humble-Bee, its Life-History and how to Domesticate it. pp. 283. London.

PG71454.B01098
A very valuable account of the British species, with numerous suggestions on methods of studying them.

PG71454.B01099
SMALLWOOD, M. E.

PG71454.B01100
1903. The Beach Flea: Talorchestia longicornis. Cold Spring Harbor Monogr. I. pp. 27.

PG71454.B01101
1905. The Salt-Marsh Amphipod: Orchestia palustris. Cold Spring Harbor Monogr. III. pp. 21.

PG71454.B01102
Both of these papers discuss habits and life histories.

PG71454.B01103
SMITH, B. G.

PG71454.B01104
1907. The Life History and Habits of Cryptobranchus Allegheniensis. Biol. Bull., Vol. XIII, pp. 5-39.

PG71454.B01105
Contains references to other salamanders.

PG71454.B01106
STOCKARD, C. R.

PG71454.B01107
1908. Habits, Reactions, and Mating Instincts of the “Walking Stick,” Aplopus Mayeri. Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 103, pp. 43-59.

PG71454.B01108
TOWER, W. L.

PG71454.B01109
1906. Habits and Instincts in Leptinotarsa. pp. 229-257. In An Investigation of Evolution in Chrysomelid Beetles of the Genus Leptinotarsa, Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 8. Washington, D.C.

PG71454.B01110
TUTT, J. W.

PG71454.B01111
1897. The Drinking Habits of Butterflies and Moths. Proc. South London Ent. and Nat. Hist. Soc., 1897, pp. [1-9].

PG71454.B01112
VOIGT, W.

PG71454.B01113
1904. Über die Wanderungen der Strudelwürmer in unseren Gebirgsbächen. Verhand. naturhis. Ver. der preuss. Rheinlande, Westfalens und des Regiersungsbezirks Osnabrück, Jahrg. 61, pp. 103-178.

PG71454.B01114
Shows the relation of behavior to the local distributions of Planarians.

PG71454.B01115
WAGNER, W.

PG71454.B01116
1907. Psycho-biologische Untersuchungen an Hummeln mit Bezugnahme auf die Frage der Geselligkeit im Tierreich. Zoologica (Chun), Bd. XIX, Heft 46, pp. 1-239.

PG71454.B01117
An important study of the behavior of _Bombus_.

PG71454.B01118
WALTER, H. E.

PG71454.B01119
1906. The Behavior of the Pond Snail, _Lymnæus Eleodes_ Say. Cold Spring Harbor Monogr. VI. pp. 35.

PG71454.B01120
WASMANN, E. (Trans.)

PG71454.B01121
1903. Instinct and Intelligence in the Animal Kingdom. A Critical Contribution to Modern Animal Psychology. pp. 171. St. Louis, Mo. From the second and enlarged German edition.

PG71454.B01122
1905. Comparative Studies in the Psychology of Ants and of Higher Animals. pp. 200. St. Louis, Mo. Translated from the revised and enlarged second German edition.

PG71454.B01123
WATSON, J. B.

PG71454.B01124
1908. The Behavior of Noddy and Sooty Terns. Pub. 103, Carnegie Inst. pp. 187-255.

PG71454.B01125
An excellent account of bird behavior in colonial species.

PG71454.B01126
WHEELER, W. M.

PG71454.B01127
1903. Ethological Observations on an American Ant (Leptothorax Emersoni Wheeler). Jour. für Psychol. und Neurol., Bd. II, pp. (1-31).

PG71454.B01128
1910. Ants, their Structure, Development and Behavior. pp. 663. New York.

PG71454.B01129
The most useful single work on ants, ant behavior, slaves, commensals, etc.; a very important work. Extensive references.

PG71454.B01130
WHITMAN, C. O.

PG71454.B01131
1899. Animal Behavior. Biol. Lectures, Marine Biol. Lab., Wood’s Holl, 1898, pp. 285-338.

PG71454.B01132
Behavior of leech, Necturus, birds, etc.

PG71454.B01133
WICKHAM, H. F.

PG71454.B01134
1899. The Habits of American Cicindelidæ. Proc. Davenport Acad. Sci., Vol. VII, pp. 206-228.

PG71454.B01135
YERKES, R. M.

PG71454.B01136
1904. Space Perception of Tortoises. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIV, pp. 17-26.

PG71454.B01137
YOAKUM, C. S.

PG71454.B01138
1909. Some Experiments upon the Behavior of Squirrels. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 541-568.

PG71454.B01139
IX. THE CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT BETWEEN THE ENVIRONMENT AND THE ANIMAL, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO OTHER ORGANISMS

PG71454.B01140
THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATION OF ANIMAL ASSOCIATIONS AND AGGREGATIONS

PG71454.B01141
1. The Struggle for Existence.

PG71454.B01142
2. The Dynamic Relations of Aggregations and Associations, with Special Reference to Animal Associations.

PG71454.B01143
_a._ The Relation of Animals to Pollination and to Plant Galls.

PG71454.B01144
_b._ Subterranean and Cave Associations.

PG71454.B01145
_c._ Selected References on Aggregations and Associations.

PG71454.B01146
“Nothing is easier than to admit in words the truth of the universal struggle for life, or more difficult--at least I have found it so--than constantly to bear this conclusion in mind. Yet unless it be thoroughly engrained in the mind, the whole economy of nature, with every fact on distribution, rarity, abundance, extinction, and variation, will be dimly seen or quite misunderstood.”--DARWIN.

PG71454.B01147
“Every reflective biologist must know that no living being is self-sufficient, or would be what it is, or be at all, if it were not part of the natural world, although no truth is easier to lose sight of. Living things are real things, ... but their reality is in their interrelations with the rest of nature, and not in themselves.”--W. K. BROOKS. (1906.)

PG71454.B01148
_1. The Struggle for Existence_

PG71454.B01149
DARWIN, CHAS.

PG71454.B01150
1876. Struggle for Existence. pp. 43-61. In On the Origin of Species, 6th ed. New York. (See Figures 2 and 3.)

PG71454.B01151
BROOKS, W. K.

PG71454.B01152
1893. Salpa in its Relation to the Evolution of Life. Studies Biol. Lab., Johns Hopkins Univ., Vol. V, pp. 129-211. See particularly pp. 129-170.

PG71454.B01153
A remarkable and little known paper on the struggle for existence in the sea.

PG71454.B01154
FORBES, S. A.

PG71454.B01155
1887. The Lake as a Microcosm. Bull. Sci. Assoc. of Peoria, Illinois, 1887, pp. 77-87. Reprinted, with revisions, as from the Bull. Peoria Sci. Association, 1887, pp. 1-15.

PG71454.B01156
An excellent picture of the struggle for existence in a lake, where the life is considered as a microcosm or social community.

PG71454.B01157
1880. On Some Interactions of Organisms. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, No. 3, pp. 1-18. Second Edition. 1903.

PG71454.B01158
1882. The Ornithological Balance-Wheel. Trans. Ill. State Hort. Soc. for 1881, N. S., Vol. XV, pp. 120-131.

PG71454.B01159
1883. The Regulative Action of Birds upon Insect Oscillations. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, No. 6, pp. 3-32.

PG71454.B01160
These three papers are very important for their discussion of the dynamic character of the struggle among organisms, and how the balance of nature is maintained.

PG71454.B01161
1888. On the Food Relations of Fresh-Water Fishes: a Summary and Discussion. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. II, pp. 475-538.

PG71454.B01162
A summary of the food of fishes, based upon a detailed study of the contents of their stomachs.

PG71454.B01163
RODWAY, J.

PG71454.B01164
1911. In the Guiana Forest, Studies of Nature in Relation to the Struggle for Life. Second Edition, pp. 326. London.

PG71454.B01165
A graphic account of the biotic competition in the tropics.

PG71454.B01166
JOHNSTONE, J.

PG71454.B01167
1908. Conditions of Life in the Sea. pp. 332. Cambridge, England.

PG71454.B01168
An excellent study of the recent quantitative investigations of marine life.

PG71454.B01169
ADAMS, CHAS. C.

PG71454.B01170
1909. The Ecological Succession of Birds. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 121-154.

PG71454.B01171
Ecological succession is discussed from the process standpoint. References to literature on birds.

PG71454.B01172
FORBUSH, E. H.

PG71454.B01173
1899. Nature’s Foresters. Forty-sixth Ann. Rep. Sec. Mass. State Board Agr. for 1898, pp. 279-294.

PG71454.B01174
1901. Birds as Protectors of Woodlands. Forty-eighth Ann. Rep. Sec. Mass. State Board Agr. for 1900, pp. 300-321.

PG71454.B01175
1904. The Destruction of Birds by the Elements in 1903-1904. Fifty-first Ann. Rep. Sec. Mass. State Board Agr. for 1903, pp. 457-503.

PG71454.B01176
1905. Special Report on the Decrease of Certain Birds, and its Causes, with Suggestions for Bird Protection. Fifty-Second Ann. Rep. Sec. Mass. State Board Agr. for 1904, pp. 429-543.

PG71454.B01177
PALMER, T. S.

PG71454.B01178
1898. The Danger of Introducing Noxious Animals and Birds. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr. for 1898, pp. 87-110.

PG71454.B01179
RYDER, J. A.

PG71454.B01180
1892. A Geometrical Representation of the Relative Intensity of the Conflict between Organisms. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXVI, pp. 923-929.

PG71454.B01181
MCATEE, W. L.

PG71454.B01182
1912. The Experimental Method of Testing the Efficiency of Warning and Cryptic Coloration in Protecting Animals from their Enemies. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1912, pp. 281-364.

PG71454.B01183
JUDD, S. D.

PG71454.B01184
1899. The Efficiency of Some Protective Adaptations in Securing Insects from Birds. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXIII, pp. 461-484.

PG71454.B01185
1902. The Birds of a Maryland Farm. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Biol. Surv., Bull. No. 17. pp. 116.

PG71454.B01186
A study in applied ecology. One of the best detailed studies of the birds of a small tract of land and their ecological relations.

PG71454.B01187
STAHL, E.

PG71454.B01188
1888. Pflanzen und Schnecken. Biologische Studie über die Schutzmittel der Pflanzen gegen Schneckenfrass. Jena. Zeitschr. für Naturwiss. herausgegeben von der med.-naturwiss. Gesell. zu Jena, Bd. XXII, pp. 557-684.

PG71454.B01189
A study of the means by which plants are protected(?) from snails and slugs. Numerous feeding experiments.

PG71454.B01190
DAHL, F.

PG71454.B01191
1908. Die Lycosiden oder Wolfspinnen Deutschlands und ihre Stellung im Haushalte der Natur. Nova Acta der Ksl. Leop.-Carol.-Deutschen Akad. der Naturf., Bd. LXXXVII, pp. 175-678. Halle.

PG71454.B01192
Not seen by writer. Mr. J. H. Emerton writes that this paper “gives tables of comparative collecting in all kinds of country.”

PG71454.B01193
PIERCE, W. D., CUSHMAN, R. A., and HOOD, C. E.

PG71454.B01194
1912. The Insect Enemies of the Cotton Boll Weevil. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Bull. No. 100. pp. 99.

PG71454.B01195
An excellent example of the character of the competition with which an animal meets when extending its range into new territory. See diagram, p. 44.

PG71454.B01196
WHEELER, W. M.

PG71454.B01197
1906. An Ethological Study of Certain Maladjustments in the Relations of Ants to Plants. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXII, pp. 403-418.

PG71454.B01198
Competition between plants and ants.

PG71454.B01199
MASSART, J., and VANDERVELDE, E. (Trans. W. MACDONALD.)

PG71454.B01200
1907. Parasitism Organic and Social. Second Edition. Revised by J. Arthur Thompson, pp. 124. London.

PG71454.B01201
Contains many examples of responses to a parasitic environment.

PG71454.B01202
_Selected References on the Struggle for Existence_

PG71454.B01203
(Alphabetically arranged)

PG71454.B01204
BEAL, F. E. L.

PG71454.B01205
1911. Food of the Woodpeckers of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Biol. Surv., Bull. 37. pp. 64.

PG71454.B01206
CHAPMAN, F. M.

PG71454.B01207
1902. The Economic Value of Birds to the State. Seventh Rep. N. Y. Forest, Fish, and Game Comm., 1901, pp. 115-176. Reprint, pp. 66, 1903. Albany.

PG71454.B01208
Contains an extensive list of papers on the food of birds.

PG71454.B01209
EICHELBAUM, E.

PG71454.B01210
1910. Über Nahrung und Ernährungsorgane von Echinodermen. Wiss. Meeruntersuch. heraus. von der Komm. zur wiss. Unter. der deutsch. Meere in Kiel. N. F. Bd. XI, Abth. Kiel, pp. 187-275.

PG71454.B01211
FORBES, S. A.

PG71454.B01212
1883. The Food Relations of Predaceous Beetles. Twelfth Rep. State Ent. Ill., pp. 105-120.

PG71454.B01213
1903. The Food of Birds. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Second Edition, Vol. I, pp. 86-161.

PG71454.B01214
1903. Notes on Insectivorous Coleoptera. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Second Edition, Vol. I, pp. 167-176.

PG71454.B01215
1883. The Food Relations of the Carabidæ and Coccinellidæ. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. I, No. 6, pp. 33-64.

PG71454.B01216
FORBUSH, E. H.

PG71454.B01217
1907. Useful Birds and their Protection. Mass. State Board Agr. pp. 437. Boston.

PG71454.B01218
FOREL, A.

PG71454.B01219
1896. Ants’ Nests. Smithsonian Report for 1894, pp. 479-505.

PG71454.B01220
Ants’ nests, and symbiosis between plants and ants.

PG71454.B01221
GAMBLE, F. W., and KEEBLE, F.

PG71454.B01222
1903. The Bionomics of _Convoluta roscoffensis_ with Special Reference to its Green Cells. Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci., Vol. XLVII, pp. 363-431.

PG71454.B01223
A study of the ecology of a Turbellarian worm, its food, habitat, and behavior.

PG71454.B01224
HEIM.

PG71454.B01225
1898. The Biologic Relations Between Plants and Ants. Smithsonian Report for 1896, pp. 411-455.

PG71454.B01226
HOPKINS, A. D.

PG71454.B01227
1909. Insect Depredations in North American Forests and Practical Methods of Prevention and Control. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Bull. No. 58, pp. 57-101.

PG71454.B01228
Contains many facts of much ecological value showing the interrelations existing between forests and insects. Good examples of insects as initiators of successions and changes in insect associations.

PG71454.B01229
HUBBARD, H. G.

PG71454.B01230
1897. The Ambrosia Beetles of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Bull. No. 7, N. S., pp. 9-30.

PG71454.B01231
The relations of bark beetles to fungi.

PG71454.B01232
HUBER, J.

PG71454.B01233
1907. The Founding of Colonies by Atta Sexdens. Smithsonian Report for 1906, pp. 355-372.

PG71454.B01234
Ants and fungi.

PG71454.B01235
JUDD, S. D.

PG71454.B01236
1901. The Food of Nestling Birds. Yearbook U. S. Dept. Agr. for 1900, pp. 411-436.

PG71454.B01237
KEEBLE, F.

PG71454.B01238
1910. Plant Animals, A Study of Symbiosis. pp. 163. Cambridge, England.

PG71454.B01239
KIRBY, W., and SPENCE, W.

PG71454.B01240
1859. An Introduction to Entomology; or, Elements of the Natural History of Insects: Comprising an Account of Noxious and Useful Insects, of their Metamorphoses, Food, Stratagems, Habitations, Societies, Motions, Noises, Hybernation, Instinct, Etc., Etc. pp. 607. Seventh edition, London.

PG71454.B01241
MARSHALL, G. A. K., and others.

PG71454.B01242
1902. Five Years’ Observations and Experiments (1896-1901) on the Bionomics of South African Insects, chiefly directed to the Investigation of Mimicry and Warning Colours. Trans. Ent. Soc., London, 1902, pp. 287-584.

PG71454.B01243
MCATEE, W. L.

PG71454.B01244
1908. Food Habits of the Grosbeaks. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Biol. Surv., Bull. 32. pp. 92.

PG71454.B01245
1913. Index to Papers Relating to the Food of Birds by Members of the Biological Survey in Publications of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1885-1911. U. S. Dept. Agr., Biol. Surv., Bull. No. 43. pp. 69.

PG71454.B01246
The Bureau of Biological Survey, and its predecessor, the Division of Ornithology and Mammalogy, have published in the Annual Reports and in numerous bulletins elaborate studies of the foods and habits of birds and mammals.

PG71454.B01247
RAUSCHENPLAT, E.

PG71454.B01248
1901. Ueber die Nahrung von Thieren aus der Kieler Bucht. Wiss. Meeruntersuch. heraus. von der Komm. zur wiss. Unter. der deutsch. Meere in Kiel. N. F. Bd. V, Abth. Kiel, pp. 85-151.

PG71454.B01249
RILEY, C. V.

PG71454.B01250
1893. Parasitism in Insects. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. II, pp. 397-431.

PG71454.B01251
STILES, C. W.

PG71454.B01252
1893. Parasitism. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., Vol. III, pp. 1-7.

PG71454.B01253
STILES, C. W., and HASSALL, A.

PG71454.B01254
1902--. Index-Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary Zoölogy. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Animal Industry, Bull. No. 39, Parts 1-36 (1912).

PG71454.B01255
1908, 1912. Index-Catalogue of Medical and Veterinary Zoölogy. Subjects: Trematoda and trematode diseases, Bull. No. 37, pp. 401, 1908.--Subjects: Cestoda and Cestodaria, Bull. No. 85. pp. 467, 1912. Hyg. Lab., U. S. Pub. Health and Mar.-Hosp. Serv., Washington.

PG71454.B01256
These extensive bibliographies are very useful.

PG71454.B01257
SURFACE, H. A.

PG71454.B01258
1906. The Serpents of Pennsylvania. Penn. Dept. Agr., Monthly Bull., Vol. IV, pp. 113-208.

PG71454.B01259
Observations on food of serpents.

PG71454.B01260
1908. First Report on the Lizards of Pennsylvania. Penn. Dept. Agr., Zoöl. Bull., Vol. V, pp. 233-264.

PG71454.B01261
Food of lizards.

PG71454.B01262
1908. First Report on the Economy of Pennsylvania Turtles. Penn. Dept. Agr., Zoöl. Bull., Vol. VI, pp. 107-195.

PG71454.B01263
Many observations on food.

PG71454.B01264
WARD, H. B.

PG71454.B01265
1910. Internal Parasites of the Sebago Salmon. U. S. Bur. Fisheries, Bull., Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1151-1194.

PG71454.B01266
“The parasitic fauna of any animal is primarily a function of its habitat.” p. 1191.

PG71454.B01267
1912. The Influence of Hibernation and Migration on Animal Parasites. Proc. Seventh Inter. Zoöl. Cong., Boston, 1907, pp. 673-684.

PG71454.B01268
WASMANN, E.

PG71454.B01269
1894. Kritisches Verzeichniss der Myrmekophilen und Termitophilen Arthropoden. pp. 231. Berlin.

PG71454.B01270
A list of Arthropods found living with ants and termites.

PG71454.B01271
WEBSTER, F. M.

PG71454.B01272
1903. Notes upon the Food of Predaceous Beetles. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Second Edition, Vol. I, pp. 162-166.

PG71454.B01273
WEED, C. M., and DEARBORN, N.

PG71454.B01274
1903. Birds in their Relations to Man. pp. 380. Phila. Extensive bibliography on the food of birds.

PG71454.B01275
WHEELER, W. M.

PG71454.B01276
1911. Insect Parasitism and its Peculiarities. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXIX, pp. 431-449.

PG71454.B01277
1910. The Effects of Parasitic and Other Kinds of Castration in Insects. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VIII, pp. 377-438.

PG71454.B01278
ZACHARIAS, O., and others.

PG71454.B01279
1891. Die Tier- und Pflanzenwelt des Süsswassers. Bd. I, pp. 380; Bd. II, pp. 369. Leipzig.

PG71454.B01280
Contains several valuable and suggestive papers on the general biological relations of fresh-water plants and animals.

PG71454.B01281
_2. The Dynamic Relations of Aggregations and Associations, with Special Reference to Animal Associations_

PG71454.B01282
“A group or association of animals or plants is like a single organism in the fact that it brings to bear upon the outer world only the surplus of forces remaining after all conflicts interior to itself have been adjusted. Whatever expenditure of energy is necessary to maintain the existing internal balance amounts to so much power locked up, and rendered unavailable for external use. In many groups this latent energy is so considerable and is liable to such fluctuations, that a knowledge of its amounts and kinds, and of the laws governing its distribution, is extremely important to one interested in measuring or foreseeing the sum and character of the outward-tending activities of the class.”

PG71454.B01283
--S. A. FORBES (1883).

PG71454.B01284
MÖBIUS, K.

PG71454.B01285
1883. The Oyster and Oyster-Culture. U. S. Comm. of Fish and Fisheries, Report of Comm. for 1880, Part VIII, pp. 683-751.

PG71454.B01286
On pp. 721-729 the oyster is discussed as a member of a social community or “biocönosis.” He describes the succession of animals due to the overfishing of the oyster beds and the invasion of cockles and edible mussels which close up the available space and prevent the return of the oyster. One of the earliest papers to recognize clearly a social community in animals. A very important paper, which also shows the method of applying the science of ecology.

PG71454.B01287
FORBES, S. A.

PG71454.B01288
1887. The Lake as a Microcosm. Reprint from Bull. Sci. Associa. of Peoria, Illinois, 1887, pp. 1-15.

PG71454.B01289
Perhaps the first paper by an American naturalist recognizing the interrelations of the social community.

PG71454.B01290
WHEELER, W. M.

PG71454.B01291
1911. The Ant-Colony as an Organism. Jour. Morphology, Vol. XXII, pp. 307-325.

PG71454.B01292
The ant colony is considered as a unit. This paper furnishes an excellent example showing how “individual ecology” may become transformed into an “associational” unit.

PG71454.B01293
MÖBIUS, K.

PG71454.B01294
1893. Ueber die Thiere der Schleswig-Holsteinischen Austerbänke, ihre physikalischen und biologischen Lebensvershältnisse. Sitzungsber. d. Kgl. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. zu Berlin, Jhrg. 1893, I, pp. 67-92.

PG71454.B01295
The physical and biological relations of the Schleswig-Holstein oyster bank as a social community are carefully described. The animals associated are listed (in all about 100 kinds, p. 80) and their relation to the oyster is shown.

PG71454.B01296
FORBES, S. A.

PG71454.B01297
1909. The General Entomological Ecology of the Indian Corn Plant. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLIII, pp. 286-301.

PG71454.B01298
ESPINAS, ALFRED.

PG71454.B01299
1878. Des Sociétés Animales. Second Edition, pp. 588. Paris.

PG71454.B01300
Discusses associations of different species--parasites, commensals, mutuals, domestic animals; associations of the same species and related through nutrition--the colonial forms, as corals; associations based upon reproduction--the family; and associations based upon relation--as in a horde. Contains an extensive historical introduction. Valuable, although somewhat old.

PG71454.B01301
PETRUCCI, R.

PG71454.B01302
1906. Origine Polyphylétique, Homotypie, et Non Comparabilité directe des Sociétés Animales. L’Inst. de Sociologie (Solvay). Notes et Mémoires, Fascicule 7. pp. 126. Bruxelles.

PG71454.B01303
The multiple or independent origin of “social” life in diverse lines of descent is emphasized and viewed from the comparative and phylogenetic standpoint.

PG71454.B01304
WAXWEILER, E.

PG71454.B01305
1906. Esquisse d’une Sociologie. L’Inst. de Sociologie (Solvay). Notes et Mémoires, Fascicule 2. pp. 306. Bruxelles.

PG71454.B01306
A very important survey of sociology as a branch of ethology or ecology. The history of ecology, and animal societies are parts which deserve special mention. A diagram, on p. 63, gives the subdivisions of ethology.

PG71454.B01307
KROPOTKIN, P.

PG71454.B01308
1903. Mutual Aid a Factor of Evolution. pp. 348. New York.

PG71454.B01309
PARMELEE, M.

PG71454.B01310
1913. The Science of Human Behavior. Biological and Psychological Foundations. pp. 443. New York. The Macmillan Company.

PG71454.B01311
An important discussion of certain phases of animal and human responses. Communities are considered mainly from the standpoint of “aggregate ecology” and phylogeny. Little recognition is made of the “ecological association” as a fundamental unit in the study of human relations.

PG71454.B01312
ADAMS, CHAS. C.

PG71454.B01313
1909. The Ecological Succession of Birds. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 121-154.

PG71454.B01314
A study of changes in bird associations.

PG71454.B01315
SHELFORD, V. E.

PG71454.B01316
1911. Ecological Succession.

PG71454.B01317
I. Stream Fishes and the Method of Physiographic Analysis. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXI, pp. 9-34.

PG71454.B01318
1911_a_. II. Pond Fishes. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXI, pp. 127-151.

PG71454.B01319
1911_b_. III. A Reconnaissance of its Causes in Ponds with Particular Reference to Fish. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXII, pp. 1-38.

PG71454.B01320
1912. IV. Vegetation and the Control of Land Animal Communities. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 59-99.

PG71454.B01321
1912_a_. V. Aspects of Physiological Classification. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 331-370.

PG71454.B01322
A series of detailed studies on successions in standing and running water, and upon land. Intimately related to the following.

PG71454.B01323
1913. Animal Communities in Temperate America as Illustrated in the Chicago Region; A Study in Animal Ecology. Bull. Geogr. Soc. of Chicago, No. 5. pp. (In press.)

PG71454.B01324
This is the most comprehensive and detailed _local study_ of animal ecology thus far published from a distinctly modern standpoint.

PG71454.B01325
CRAIG, W.

PG71454.B01326
1908. The Voices of Pigeons Regarded as a Means of Social Control. Amer. Jour. Sociol., Vol. XIV, pp. 86-100.

PG71454.B01327
HERRICK, C. L.

PG71454.B01328
1904. The Beginnings of Social Reaction in Man and Lower Animals. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIV, pp. 118-123.

PG71454.B01329
HERRICK, F. H.

PG71454.B01330
1912. Organization of the Gull Community. Proc. Seventh Inter. Zoöl. Cong., Boston, 1907, pp. 156-158.

PG71454.B01331
WESENBERG-LUND, C.

PG71454.B01332
1908. Die littoralen Tiergesellschaften unserer grosseren Seen. _a._ Die Tiergesellschaften des Brandungsufers. Inter. Revue der gesamten Hydrobiol. u. Hydrog., Bd. I, pp. 574-609.

PG71454.B01333
Animal associations of a lake shore.

PG71454.B01334
JÄGER, G.

PG71454.B01335
1874. Deutschlands Thierwelt nach ihren Standorten eingetheilt. Bd. I, pp. 400; Bd. II, pp. 367 + XXIV. Stuttgart.

PG71454.B01336
A popular account of the fauna of Germany arranged according to habitat. A suggestive book to the student of local associations. Worthy of imitation.

PG71454.B01337
MELANDER, A. L., and BRUES, C. T.

PG71454.B01338
1903. Guests and Parasites of the Burrowing Bee Halictus. Biol. Bull., Vol. V, pp. 1-27.

PG71454.B01339
Gives a diagram of the Halictus biocönose on p. 27.

PG71454.B01340
HUBBARD, H. G.

PG71454.B01341
1894. The Insect Guests of the Florida Land Tortoise. U. S. Dept. Agr., Div. Ent., Insect Life, Vol. VI, pp. 302-315.

PG71454.B01342
HUBBARD, H. G. (Appendix by SCHWARZ, E. A.)

PG71454.B01343
1899. Insect Fauna of the Giant Cactus of Arizona: Letters from the Southwest. Psyche, Vol. VIII, Suppl., pp. 1-8, Appendix, pp. 8-14.

PG71454.B01344
HUNTER, W. D., PRATT, F. C., and MITCHELL, J. D.

PG71454.B01345
1912. The Principal Cactus Insects of the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Bull. No. 113. pp. 71.

PG71454.B01346
In addition to the insects feeding upon cacti, their enemies or parasites are listed and also the scavengers, flower visitors, and incidentally associated species. This is a social community composed of 324 species of insects, and it forms an excellent foundation for a study of their interrelations. This is more ecological than is usually the case in economic reports.

PG71454.B01347
MÖLLER, L.

PG71454.B01348
1867. Die Abhängigkeit der Insecten von ihrer Umgebung. pp. 107. Leipzig. W. Englemann.

PG71454.B01349
A very interesting and suggestive work. An excellent local habitat study from the standpoint of insects. Apparently not known to Dahl (’98, ’03) in his brief outline of the history of ecology. Möller discusses the influence of climate, soil, plants, animal substances and man upon insects, and the influence of insects in the economy of nature.

PG71454.B01350
LORENZ, J. R.

PG71454.B01351
1863. Physicalische Verhältnisse und Vertheilung der Organismen im Quarnerischen Golfe. pp. 379. Wien.

PG71454.B01352
An early and important study of the habitat and the plants and animals associated in the marine habitats. Apparently but little known. Also not mentioned by Dahl (’98, ’03).

PG71454.B01353
VERRILL, A. E.

PG71454.B01354
1873. Report upon the Invertebrate Animals of Vineyard Sound and the Adjacent Waters, with an Account of the Physical Characters of the Region. U. S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries. Rep. on the Condition of the Sea Fisheries of the South Coast of New England in 1871 and 1872. Part I. Senate Misc. Doc. No. 61, 42d Cong., 2d Sess., pp. 295-778.

PG71454.B01355
An early descriptive associational and habitat study of the marine animals of our coast. A kind of work, in its standpoint, far in advance of the times. It is remarkable that this well-known work has not been a model for other similar studies on our coast.

PG71454.B01356
DAVENPORT, C. B.

PG71454.B01357
1903. The Collembola of Cold Spring Beach, with Special Reference to the Movements of the Poduridae. Cold Spring Harbor Monogr. II. pp. 32.

PG71454.B01358
An excellent study of a single group in a habitat, and its relation to behavior.

PG71454.B01359
1903_a_. The Animal Ecology of the Cold Spring Sand Spit, with Remarks on the Theory of Adaptation. Decennial Pub. Univ. Chicago, Vol. X, pp. 157-176.

PG71454.B01360
An associational study of a sea beach.

PG71454.B01361
PETERSEN, C. G. JOH., and JENSEN, P. B.

PG71454.B01362
1911. Valuation of the Sea. I. Animal Life of the Sea-Bottom, its Food and Quantity. Rep. of Danish Biol. Sta. to Board of Agriculture, Vol. XX, pp. 1-76. Transl. from Fiskeri-Beretning for 1910. Copenhagen.

PG71454.B01363
The sea-bottom animals are studied as a community. The most important study of the kind known to the writer. Similar work should be done in American waters.

PG71454.B01364
WARMING, E., WESENBERG-LUND, C., and others.

PG71454.B01365
1904. Sur les ‘vads’ et les sables maritimes de la mer du nord. Kon. Danske Vid. Selsk. Skrift., Bd. VII, R. II, pp. 48-56.

PG71454.B01366
The sandy flats of the sea coast of Jutland and Holland are treated as a biotic association, and from a modern ecological standpoint.

PG71454.B01367
BAKER, F. C.

PG71454.B01368
1910. The Ecology of the Skokie Marsh Area, with Special Reference to the Mollusca. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. VIII, pp. 441-499.

PG71454.B01369
A descriptive account of local molluscan associations near Chicago.

PG71454.B01370
1911. The Molluscan Fauna of Tomahawk Lake, Wisconsin. Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci., Arts and Letters, Vol. XVII, pp. 200-246.

PG71454.B01371
An associational study of molluscan succession. One of the very few of its kind.

PG71454.B01372
HANCOCK, J. L.

PG71454.B01373
1911. Nature Sketches in Temperate America, pp. 451. Chicago.

PG71454.B01374
A discussion of the habitats of Orthoptera is given on pp. 317-418, and a classification of them on pp. 419-433, based upon the egg-laying sites.

PG71454.B01375
DAHL, F.

PG71454.B01376
1899. Das Leben der Vögel auf den Bismarckinseln nach eigenen Beobachtungen vergleichend dargestellt. Mitt. aus der Zoöl. Sammlung des Mus. für Naturk. in Berlin, Bd. I, Heft 3, pp. 107-222.

PG71454.B01377
The bird habitats of the Bismarck Archipelago are discussed. This is the earliest detailed study of bird habitats known to the writer.

PG71454.B01378
1901. Das Leben der Ameisen im Bismarck-Archipel, nach eigenen Beobachtungen vergleichend dargestellt. Mitt. aus. d. Zoöl. Mus. in Berlin, Bd. II, Heft 1, pp. 1-69.

PG71454.B01379
An ecological study of ants, their nesting habitats, keys to their ecological relations, and quantitative data.

PG71454.B01380
1902. Stufenfänge echter Spinnen am Riesengebirge. (Eine vergleichend ethologische Studie.) Sitz.-Ber. Ges. naturf. Freunde zu Berlin, 1902, pp. 185-203.

PG71454.B01381
A comparative study of the habitats of spiders.

PG71454.B01382
1903. Winke für ein wissenschaftliches Sammeln von Thieren. Sitzungs-Ber. der Gesell. naturfor. Freunde zu Berlin, 1903, pp. 444-475.

PG71454.B01383
Gives a classification of animal habitats, associations, and a brief history of their recognition by zoölogists. Compare the habitats with those given by Shelford, Physiological Animal Geography, 1911.

PG71454.B01384
1893. Untersuchungen über die Thierwelt der Unterelbe. Sechster Ber. Komm. zur Wissenschaft. Untersuch. der deutschen Meere in Kiel, Jahrg. XVII-XXI, Heft III, pp. 151-185. Berlin.

PG71454.B01385
Lists the fauna of the brackish waters of the lower Elbe River, discusses their relation to the environment (salinity, etc.) and gives quantitative determinations of its frequency per square meter, as determined by digging at low tide.

PG71454.B01386
MEYER, H. A., and MÖBIUS, K.

PG71454.B01387
1865. Fauna der Kieler Bucht. Bd. I. Leipzig.

PG71454.B01388
Not seen by writer.

PG71454.B01389
LOCARD, A.

PG71454.B01390
1881. De L’Habitat des Mollusques. pp. 88-128. Études sur les Variations Malacologiques d’après la Faune Vivante et Fossile de la Partie Centrale du Bassin du Rhone. Tome II, Paris et Lyon.

PG71454.B01391
This is the most detailed study and classification of the habitats of mollusks of land and fresh-water which the writer has seen. It seems to be little known to students. The volume contains many ecological observations. The classification of habitats is often very artificial. See Von Marten’s comment (Zoöl. Record for 1881, Vol. XVIII, p. 18, Moll.), which refers to English and German works along similar lines, but these have not been found by the writer.

PG71454.B01392
[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Remnant of the (original) prairie animal habitat in central Illinois. Loxa, Illinois. These areas are becoming extinct rapidly. Photo. by T. L. Hankinson.]

PG71454.B01393
KING, L. A. L., and RUSSELL, E. S.

PG71454.B01394
1909. A Method for the Study of the Animal Ecology of the Shore. Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. of Edinburgh, Vol. XVII, pp. 225-253.

PG71454.B01395
An associational study of shore animals.

PG71454.B01396
ORTMANN, A. E.

PG71454.B01397
1896. Grundzüge der marinen Tiergeographie. pp. 96. Jena.

PG71454.B01398
Contains much of ecological value.

PG71454.B01399
ENDERLEIN, G.

PG71454.B01400
1908. Biologisch-faunistische Moor- und Dünen-Studien. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis-biosynöcischer Regionen in Westprussen. 30 Ber. des Westpreussischen Bot.-Zoöl. Vereins Danzig, pp. 54-238.

PG71454.B01401
Adopts Dahl’s (1903) classification of habitats.

PG71454.B01402
HÖPPNER, H.

PG71454.B01403
1901. Die Bienenfauna der Dünen und Weserabhänge zwischen Uesen und Baden. Beitr. nordwest-deutsch. Volks- und Landesk. her. vom Naturwissen. Ver. zu Bremen, Bd. XV, pp. 231-255.

PG71454.B01404
PIERCE, W. D.

PG71454.B01405
1904. Some Hypermetamorphic Beetles and Their Hymenopterous Hosts. Univ. of Nebraska Studies, Vol. IV, No. 2, pp. 153-190.

PG71454.B01406
This gives a description of the bee community of _Epinomia triangulifera_ Vachal, a list of insects in it and valuable data on their parasitic interrelations.

PG71454.B01407
VESTAL, A. G.

PG71454.B01408
1913. An Associational Study of Illinois Sand Prairies. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. His., Vol. X, pp.

PG71454.B01409
STENROOS, K. E.

PG71454.B01410
1898. Das Thierleben im Nurmijärvi-See. Eine Faunistisch-Biologische Studie. Acta Soc. Pro Fauna et Flora Fennica, Vol. XVII, pp. 1-259.

PG71454.B01411
A descriptive associational study of a lake fauna, correlating the fauna and the vegetation.

PG71454.B01412
FORBES, S. A., and RICHARDSON, R. E.

PG71454.B01413
1909. The Fishes of Illinois. Ill. State Nat. Hist. Surv., Vol. III. pp. 357.

PG71454.B01414
Contains numerous observations on the habitats and associations of fish; a subject hitherto greatly neglected.

PG71454.B01415
WESENBERG-LUND, C.

PG71454.B01416
1908. Plankton Investigations of the Danish Lakes. Danish Freshwater Biol. Lab., Op. 5, Part I, pp. 389. Part II, Copenhagen.

PG71454.B01417
The only fresh-water plankton study known to the writer, which takes up the plankton from a distinctly modern ecological standpoint. An excellent summary of the problems of the fresh-water lake plankton. Abundant references to the literature.

PG71454.B01418
ALLEE, W. C.

PG71454.B01419
1912. Seasonal Succession in Old Forest Ponds. Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci., 1911, Vol. IV, pp. 126-131.

PG71454.B01420
To determine the complete composition of an animal association observations must cover all seasons of the year. This paper and the following ones will indicate the general character of the seasonal changes.

PG71454.B01421
WOOD, J. G. and T.

PG71454.B01422
1886. The Field Naturalist’s Handbook. pp. 167. Fourth Edition. London.

PG71454.B01423
This is a British work. It gives by months the seasonal succession of moths, butterflies, birds, flowering of plants, notes on habitat, etc.

PG71454.B01424
FRITSCH, C.

PG71454.B01425
1850. Resultate dreijähriger Beobachtungen über die jährliche Vertheilung der Papilioniden. Sitzungsber. der math.-naturw. Classe der K. Akad. der Wissensch. zu Wien, Jahresganges 1850, Bd. V, pp. 426-433.

PG71454.B01426
1851. Ueber die jährliche Vertheilung der Käfer. Sitzungsber. der math.-naturw. Classe der K. Akad. der Wissensch. zu Wien, Jahresganges 1851, Bd. VI, pp. 3-42.

PG71454.B01427
1851. Resultate zweijähriger Beobachtungen über die jährliche Vertheilung der Käfer. Sitzungsber. der math.-naturw. Classe der K. Akad. der Wissensch. zu Wien, Jahresganges 1851, Bd. VII, pp. 689-710.

PG71454.B01428
1852. Jährliche Vertheilung der Hemipteren. Sitzungsber. der math.-naturw. Classe der K. Akad. der Wissensch. zu Wien, Jahresganges 1852, Bd. IX, pp. 554-555.

PG71454.B01429
A series of papers showing the seasonal succession in insects at Prague, Bohemia.

PG71454.B01430
_a. The Relation of Animals to Pollination and to Plant Galls_

PG71454.B01431
The relation of animals to the pollination of plants and to plant galls is a phase of the _associational relation_ of organisms, but it has rarely been considered (if at all) from the standpoint of a _biotic community_. The following list will probably aid one but little in gaining this general conception, but once the student has it he will find the list of much assistance. Undoubtedly a relatively new and fertile field for investigation would be to study the interrelations of plants and their pollinators as an ecological community, the association being taken as a unit rather than the individual species of plants or animals.

PG71454.B01432
BOUVIER, E. L.

PG71454.B01433
1905. Bees and Flowers. Smithsonian Report for 1904, pp. 469-484. No. 1627.

PG71454.B01434
KNUTH, P. (APPEL, O., and LOEW, E.)

PG71454.B01435
1898-1899. Handbuch der Blütenbiologie. Unter Zugrundelegung von Hermann Müller’s Werk: “Die Befruchtung der Blumen durch Insekten.” Bd. I. Einleitung und Litteratur. 1898. Leipzig. Bd. II. Die bisher in Europa und im Arktischen Gebiet gemachten Blütenbiologischen Beobachtungen. Theil 1 und 2. 1899. Leipzig.

PG71454.B01436
APPEL, O., and LOEW, E.

PG71454.B01437
1904-1905. (Continues Knuth.) Bd. III. Die bisher in Aussereuropäischen Gebieten gemachten Blütenbiologischen Beobachtungen. Theil 1, 1904-1905, Leipzig; Theil 2, 1905, Leipzig.

PG71454.B01438
This is an encyclopedia on the relation of animals to the pollination of flowers. Plants are arranged systematically and the visitors are listed. In Bd. II, Th. 2, pp. 559-672, and Bd. III, Th. 2, pp. 259-470, are given systematic-alphabetic lists of animal visitors to flowers. Full references.

PG71454.B01439
MÜLLER, H. (Trans. by D. W. THOMPSON.)

PG71454.B01440
1883. The Fertilization of Flowers, pp. 669. London.

PG71454.B01441
NEEDHAM, J. G.

PG71454.B01442
1900. The Fruiting of the Blue Flag (Iris versicolor L.). Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXIV, pp. 361-386.

PG71454.B01443
RILEY, C. V.

PG71454.B01444
1892. The Yucca Moth and Yucca Pollination. Third Ann. Rep. Mo. Bot. Garden, pp. 99-158.

PG71454.B01445
ROBERTSON, C.

PG71454.B01446
1897. Flowers and Insects. Contributions to an Account of the Ecological Relations of the Entomophilous Flora and the Anthophilous Insect Fauna of the Neighborhood of Carlinville, Illinois. Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, Vol. VII, pp. 151-179.

PG71454.B01447
This is only one of a very extensive series of papers published in the Transactions of the St. Louis Academy, Vols. V, VI, VII, and in the Botanical Gazette--beginning with Vol. XIV, 1889, and extending to Vol. XXVIII, 1899.

PG71454.B01448
TRELEASE, W.

PG71454.B01449
1893. Further Studies of Yuccas and their Pollination. Fourth Annual Rep. Mo. Bot. Garden, pp. 181-226.

PG71454.B01450
BEUTENMÜLLER, W.

PG71454.B01451
1904. The Insect-Galls of the Vicinity of N. Y. City. Am. Mus. Jour., Vol. IV, pp. 89-124.

PG71454.B01452
A descriptive illustrated catalogue. Beutenmüller has published several important papers on galls in the Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. History.

PG71454.B01453
ADLER, H. (Trans. by C. R. STRATON.)

PG71454.B01454
1894. Alternating Generations. A Bibliogical Study of Oak Galls and Gall Flies. pp. 198. Oxford.

PG71454.B01455
COOK, M. T.

PG71454.B01456
1905. The Insect Galls of Indiana. Twenty-ninth Ann. Rep. Dept. Geol. and Natural Resources of Indiana, 1904, pp. 801-867.

PG71454.B01457
Descriptive illustrated catalogue.

PG71454.B01458
HOUARD, C.

PG71454.B01459
1908-1909. Les Zoocécidies des Plantes d’Europe et du Bassin de la Méditerranée. Tome I, pp. 569; II, pp. 573-1247. Paris.

PG71454.B01460
KIRCHNER, O. VON.

PG71454.B01461
1911. Blumen und Insekten, ihre Anpassungen aneinander und ihre Gegenseitige Abhängigkeit. pp. 436. Leipzig.

PG71454.B01462
KÜSTER, E.

PG71454.B01463
1911. Die Gallen der Pflanzen. Ein Lehrbuch für Botaniker und Entomologen. pp. 437. Leipzig.

PG71454.B01464
ROSS, H.

PG71454.B01465
1911. Die Pflanzengallen (Cecidien) Mittel- und Nord-Europas ihre Erreger und Biologie und Bestimmungstabellen. pp. 350. Jena.

PG71454.B01466
_b. Subterranean and Cave Associations_

PG71454.B01467
BANTA, A. M.

PG71454.B01468
1907. The Fauna of Mayfield’s Cave. Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 67. pp. 114.

PG71454.B01469
The cave environment, the vital optimum, and the food relations are discussed. A valuable paper.

PG71454.B01470
BLATCHLEY, W. S.

PG71454.B01471
1896. Indiana Caves and their Fauna. Twenty-first Ann. Rep. Geol. and Natural Resources of Indiana, pp. 121-212.

PG71454.B01472
DENDY, A.

PG71454.B01473
1896. The Cryptozoic Fauna of Australasia. Austr. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1895, pp. [1-21].

PG71454.B01474
On animals living under stones, logs, and bark of trees.

PG71454.B01475
DIEM, K.

PG71454.B01476
1903. Untersuchungen über die Bodenfauna in den Alpen. Jahrb. d. St. Gallischen Naturwiss. Gesellsch. f. 1901-1902, pp. 234-414.

PG71454.B01477
HAMANN, O.

PG71454.B01478
1896. Europäische Höhlenfauna. Eine Darstellung der in den Höhlen Europas lebenden Tierwelt mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Höhlenfauna Krains. pp. 296. Jena.

PG71454.B01479
MOTTER, M. G.

PG71454.B01480
1898. A Contribution to the Study of the Fauna of the Grave. A Study of One Hundred and Fifty Disinterments, with Some Additional Experimental Observations. Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., Vol. VI, pp. 201-231.

PG71454.B01481
A list of invertebrates, snails, crustacea, insects, etc., found in graves. Table compiled from Megnin shows the kinds of animals which invade bodies at the different stages of decay. This is a form of succession comparable to the changes in the animals living in a log at different stages of decay.

PG71454.B01482
PACKARD, A. S.

PG71454.B01483
1888. The Cave Fauna of North America, with Remarks on the Anatomy of the Brain and Origin of the Blind Species. Memoirs Nat. Acad. Sci., Vol. IV, pp. 1-156.

PG71454.B01484
Monographic treatment; extensive references to literature.

PG71454.B01485
SCOTT, W.

PG71454.B01486
1909. An Ecological Study of the Plankton of Shawnee Cave. With Notes on the Cave Environment. Biol. Bull., Vol. XVII, pp. 386-406.

PG71454.B01487
_c. Selected References on Aggregations and Associations_

PG71454.B01488
ADAMS, CHAS. C.

PG71454.B01489
1909. The Coleoptera of Isle Royale, Lake Superior, and their Relation to the North American Centers of Dispersal. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 157-215.

PG71454.B01490
On pp. 159-163 the habitats and succession of beetles are briefly discussed.

PG71454.B01491
1909. Notes on Isle Royale Mammals and their Ecological Relations. _Ibid._, pp. 389-422.

PG71454.B01492
Brief mention of mammal associations and successions, pp. 390-393.

PG71454.B01493
ANTIPA, G.

PG71454.B01494
1912. Die Biologie des Inundationsgebietes der unteren Donau und des Donaudeltas. Verhand. VIII. Inter. Zoöl.-Kongresses zu Graz, 1910, pp.163-208.

PG71454.B01495
Description of the biological conditions on the flooded lower Danube and its delta.

PG71454.B01496
BAKER, H. B.

PG71454.B01497
1911. Mollusca. pp. 121-176. In A Biological Survey of the Sand Dune Region on the South Shore of Saginaw Bay, Michigan. Ann. Rep. Mich. Board of Geol. and Biol. Survey for 1910. Lansing.

PG71454.B01498
Rather full notes on mollusca, grouped by habitats.

PG71454.B01499
CHAPMAN, F. M.

PG71454.B01500
1909. The Habitat Groups of North American Birds in the American Museum of Natural History. Am. Mus. Nat. His., Guide Leaflet No. 28. pp. 48.

PG71454.B01501
A descriptive illustrated account of the remarkable habitat exhibits in the museum. The most remarkable series of its kind in existence. An excellent example of the educational value of ecological ideas.

PG71454.B01502
DAHL, F.

PG71454.B01503
1896. Vergleichende Untersuchungen über die Lebensweise wirbelloser Aasfresser. Sitzungsber. d. K. Akad. Wissen. Berlin, 1896. I, pp. 17-30.

PG71454.B01504
A study of carrion-feeding insects by the trapping method. The kinds of insects attracted change with the stage of decay. There is thus a succession. Compare with Moffat’s studies (1898).

PG71454.B01505
GATES, F. C.

PG71454.B01506
1911. Summer-bird Life in the Vicinity of Havana, Illinois, in its Relation to the Prominent Plant Associations. Wilson Bulletin, Vol. XXIII, No. 74, pp. 1-27.

PG71454.B01507
One of the relatively few associational studies of birds.

PG71454.B01508
GIROD, P.

PG71454.B01509
1891. Les Sociétés chez les Animaux. pp. 342. Paris.

PG71454.B01510
GLEASON, H. A.

PG71454.B01511
1909. The Ecological Relations of the Invertebrate Fauna of Isle Royale, Michigan. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geo. Surv. for 1908, pp. 57-78.

PG71454.B01512
GRABAU, A. U.

PG71454.B01513
1898. Zoölogy: Marine Invertebrates, pp. 67-96. Grabau, A. W., and Woodman, J. E. (editors). Guide to Localities Illustrating the Geology, Marine Zoölogy, and Botany of the Vicinity of Boston. Salem, Mass.

PG71454.B01514
HART, C. A., and GLEASON, H. A.

PG71454.B01515
1907. On the Biology of the Sand Areas of Illinois. Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. VII, pp. 137-272.

PG71454.B01516
Insect associations are discussed on pp. 220-227. Habitats are figured, and associated plants and animals are listed.

PG71454.B01517
[Illustration: FIG. 7.--A deciduous forest (original) as an animal habitat. The Brownfield woods, Urbana, Illinois. Photo. by H. C. Chenoweth.]

PG71454.B01518
HANKINSON, T. L.

PG71454.B01519
1910. Ecological Notes on the Fishes of Walnut Lake, Michigan. Trans. Amer. Fisheries Soc., 1910, pp. 195-206.

PG71454.B01520
One of the few papers dealing with the fish associations in a lake.

PG71454.B01521
1910. An Ecological Study of the Fish of a Small Stream. Trans. Ill. State Acad. Sci., Vol. III, pp. 23-31.

PG71454.B01522
HERMS, W. B.

PG71454.B01523
1907. An Ecological and Experimental Study of Sarcophagidæ with Relation to Lake Beach Débris. Jour. Exper. Zoöl., Vol. IV, pp. 45-83.

PG71454.B01524
JORDAN, H.

PG71454.B01525
1883. Die Binnenmollusken der nördlich gemässigten Länder von Europa und Asien und der Arktischen Länder. Nova Acta der Ksl. Leop.-Carol.-Deutschen Akad. der Naturf., Bd. XLV, Nr. 4, pp. 181-402. Halle.

PG71454.B01526
On pp. 201-253 there are many observations on molluskan ecology, including habitats, table of habitats of freshwater mollusks, and important observations on habitat variations or forms. Most of the paper is devoted to geographic problems.

PG71454.B01527
KOFOID, C. A.

PG71454.B01528
1903. The Plankton of the Illinois River, 1894-1899, with Introductory Notes upon the Hydrography of the Illinois River and its Basin. Part I, Bull. Ill. State Lab. Nat. Hist., Vol. VI, pp. 95-629.

PG71454.B01529
The results of a prolonged, detailed study of the Illinois River plankton; capable of an associational interpretation.

PG71454.B01530
LINTNER, J. A.

PG71454.B01531
1878. Report on the Insects and Other Animal Forms of Caledonia Creek, New York. Tenth Ann. Rep. N. Y. Fishery Comm. for 1877, pp. 12-36.

PG71454.B01532
One of the relatively few studies of the animals of a small stream; a census rather than an ecological study.

PG71454.B01533
MCCREARY, O.

PG71454.B01534
1909. The Ecological Distribution of the Birds of Isle Royale, Lake Superior. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 81-95.

PG71454.B01535
Habitat preferences of birds.

PG71454.B01536
MORSE, A. P.

PG71454.B01537
1904. Researches on North American Acridiidæ. Carnegie Inst., Pub. 18. pp. 55.

PG71454.B01538
Associational groupings of the short-horned grasshoppers, with figures of habitats.

PG71454.B01539
RUTHVEN, A. G.

PG71454.B01540
1907. A Collection of Reptiles and Amphibians from Southern New Mexico and Arizona. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXIII, pp. 483-603.

PG71454.B01541
Discusses the associations, habitats, and food of the desert species.

PG71454.B01542
SCOTT, W.

PG71454.B01543
1910. The Fauna of a Solution Pond. Proc. Ind. Acad. Science for 1910, pp. 395-442.

PG71454.B01544
Includes a discussion of their interrelations.

PG71454.B01545
SIMROTH, H.

PG71454.B01546
1891. Die Entstehung der Landtiere. Ein Biologische Versuch. pp. 492. Leipzig.

PG71454.B01547
STEUER, A.

PG71454.B01548
1910. Planktonkunde. pp. 723. Leipzig.

PG71454.B01549
A general treatise on plankton.

PG71454.B01550
WATSON, J. R.

PG71454.B01551
1911. A Contribution to the Study of the Ecological Distribution of the Animal Life of North Central New Mexico with Especial Attention to the Insects. First Ann. Rep. New Mexico Nat. Resource and Conserv. Comm., pp. 67-117.

PG71454.B01552
Description, lists, and observations on the animal and plant associations of the arid region.

PG71454.B01553
WHEELER, W. M.

PG71454.B01554
1905. An Annotated List of the Ants of New Jersey. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. XXI, pp. 371-403.

PG71454.B01555
Ants grouped in the following associations: woodland, glade, field, meadow, heath, and sand.

PG71454.B01556
1908. Comparative Ethology of the European and North American Ants. Jour. für Psychol. und Neurol., Bd. XIII, pp. 404-435. (Festschrift Forel.)

PG71454.B01557
WICKHAM, H. F.

PG71454.B01558
1903. The Beetles of an Oregon Beach. Ottawa Naturalist, Vol. XVII, pp. 49-52.

PG71454.B01559
INDEX

PG71454.B01560
Abbreviations, 69

PG71454.B01561
Acalyptrate Muscidæ, larval food-habits, 78

PG71454.B01562
Accidents, 62

PG71454.B01563
Acridiidæ, courtship, 117 habitats, 148

PG71454.B01564
Adaptation, adjustive, 10 and evolution, 97 as a process, 9 as a product, 9 theory, 136

PG71454.B01565
Adirondacks, aquatic insects, 75

PG71454.B01566
Adjustment of organisms, process of, 122

PG71454.B01567
Adjustment, process of, 5, 30, 31, 33, 122

PG71454.B01568
Age of lower organisms, 97

PG71454.B01569
Aggregate, 8 as agent or entity, 4 ecology, 4, 23, 24, 133

PG71454.B01570
Aggregations, 27, 145 dynamic relations of, 130

PG71454.B01571
Agricultural reports of the U. S. patent office, index, 72

PG71454.B01572
Air, vegetational control of relative evaporating power of, 90 vegetational control of relative humidity, 90

PG71454.B01573
Alluvial flats, vegetational invasion, 89

PG71454.B01574
Alps, soil fauna, 144

PG71454.B01575
Alternating generations of oak gall flies, 143

PG71454.B01576
Ambrosia beetles, 127

PG71454.B01577
American lobster, natural history, 113

PG71454.B01578
_Amia calva_, natural history, 117

PG71454.B01579
Amphibians, associations of desert species, 148 collecting, 58 desert species, 148 food of desert species, 148 reactions to light, 116

PG71454.B01580
Amphioxus, behavior, 116 sensory reactions, 116

PG71454.B01581
Amphipods, distribution of fresh-water, 111 food of fresh-water, 111 reproductive capacity of fresh-water, 111 salt-marsh, habits and life history, 119

PG71454.B01582
_Amphithoe longimana_ Smith, habits and natural history, 113

PG71454.B01583
Animal and plant associations of arid region, 148, 149

PG71454.B01584
Animal associations, and marine vegetation, 89 and vegetation, 90 of a lake shore, 134

PG71454.B01585
Animal behavior, 107, 121 as a process, 102 Bohn’s studies in, 107 limits of study, 103

PG71454.B01586
Animal communities, 133, 134

PG71454.B01587
Animal ecology, of Chicago region, 134 of Cold Spring sand spit, 136 of seashore, 63, 64 of shore, 139

PG71454.B01588
Animal galls, 143

PG71454.B01589
Animal geography, physiological, 101

PG71454.B01590
Animal intelligence, development, 115 evolution, 114 nature, 115 raccoon, 111

PG71454.B01591
Animal life, ecological distribution in New Mexico, 148 of sea-bottom, 63, 136 of sea-bottom, food, 136 of sea-bottom, quantity, 136 mind, 106 psychology, 106, 120 societies, 132, 133, 146 substances, influence upon insects, 135 visitors to flowers, systematic alphabetic list, 142

PG71454.B01592
Animals, adjustment between environment and, 122 and plant galls, 141 and pollination, 141, 142 collecting, directions, 57 competing in new territory, 126 distribution, physiological, 101 fresh-water, 78 of Lower Elbe, 138 of seashore, 146 of small stream, 147, 148 of soils, 86 orientation, 118 play, 112 responses (locomotor) to white light, 107 seasonal succession, 140 subterranean, 58 variation, 96

PG71454.B01593
Annelids, behavior of tubicolous, 112

PG71454.B01594
Ant, ethological observations on an American, 120

PG71454.B01595
Ant-colony, as organism, 131 as unit, 131

PG71454.B01596
Anthophilous insect fauna, ecological relations to entomophilous flora, 142

PG71454.B01597
Ants, 111 and fungi, 128 and plants, 126, 127 Arthropods living with, 130 associations, 149 associations by habitats, 149 behavior, 120 bibliography, 120 development, 120 ecological study, 137 European, comparative ethology, 149 habitat associations, 149 habitats, 120 keys to ecological relations of, in Bismarck Archipelago, 137 nesting habits of, in Bismarck Archipelago, 137 nests, 127 North American, comparative ethology, 149 quantitative data on, 137 psychology, 120 slaves, 120 structure, 120

PG71454.B01598
_Aplopus Mayeri_, habits, reactions, and mating instincts, 119

PG71454.B01599
Applied ecology, 125, 131

PG71454.B01600
Application of the process method, 86

PG71454.B01601
Aquatic animals, photography, 63

PG71454.B01602
Aquatic Chrysomelidæ, 75

PG71454.B01603
Aquatic insects, 75 immature, keys, 75 in Adirondacks, 75

PG71454.B01604
Aquatic nematocerous Diptera, 75

PG71454.B01605
Aquatic resources, 24

PG71454.B01606
Aquiculture, 21

PG71454.B01607
Araneads, activities, 115 courtship of, significance, 115 secondary sexual characters, 115

PG71454.B01608
_Arbacia punctulata_, 99

PG71454.B01609
_Argiope_, habits and instincts, 117

PG71454.B01610
Arid region, animal and plant associations, 148, 149 associations, 149 habitats, 149

PG71454.B01611
Arizona, Amphibians, 148 cactus and insect fauna, 135 reptiles, 148

PG71454.B01612
Army cooks’ manual, 58

PG71454.B01613
Art, of ecology, 33 of presentation, 67

PG71454.B01614
Arthropods, effect of caves on, 101 living with ants, 130 living with termites, 130

PG71454.B01615
Artificial and “pathological” conditions, 27

PG71454.B01616
Association, 4, 5, 6, 8, 27, 60, 132, 139, 145

PG71454.B01617
Associational ecology, 5, 24, 29

PG71454.B01618
Associational optimum, 94

PG71454.B01619
Associational relation, of pollination, 141, 142

PG71454.B01620
Associational study, of birds, Illinois, 146 of lake fauna, 140 of sand prairies of Illinois, 139 of sea beach, 136 of shore animals, 139

PG71454.B01621
Associational unit, and individual ecology, 131

PG71454.B01622
Associations, amphibian, 148 animal, 137, 138 animal, local, 134 ants, 149 as agent, 5 biotic, 29 biotic, of sand areas, 146 cave, 143 climax biotic, 30 dynamic relations of, 130 fish, of Illinois, 140 fish, in lake, 147 human, 10, 11 lake fish, 147 making to order, 33 mammal, 145 marine animals, 135, 136 methods of studying local, 14 mollusks, 137, 138 natural or normal, 34 reptiles, 148 resemble plays, 47 sand flats, 136, 137 short-horned grasshoppers, 148 succession, 91

PG71454.B01623
_Asterias Forbesi_, direction of locomotion, 110

PG71454.B01624
_Asterias Forreri_ De Loriol, behavior, 105

PG71454.B01625
Atmospheric conditions about woodlands, 91

PG71454.B01626
_Atta sexdens_, colonies founded by, 128

PG71454.B01627
Authors, guide, 68 suggestions to, 68

PG71454.B01628
Australasia, cryptozoic fauna, 144

PG71454.B01629
Balance of nature, 28, 29, 123

PG71454.B01630
Bark beetles, 76 and fungi, 127

PG71454.B01631
Bark of trees, fauna under, 144

PG71454.B01632
Baseleveling, 86 faunal significance, 86

PG71454.B01633
Bass, black, as a microcosmic center, 49

PG71454.B01634
Bats, habits and sensory adaptations of cave-inhabiting, 112

PG71454.B01635
Beach, associational study of a sea, 136 beetles of an Oregon, 149

PG71454.B01636
Beach flea, habits, 119 life history, 119

PG71454.B01637
Beach, sea, as animal habitat, 136

PG71454.B01638
Bee, burrowing, 134 community of _Epinomia triangulifera_ Vachal, 139 community, parasitic interrelations, 139 fauna of dunes, 139 humble, 119

PG71454.B01639
Bees, and flowers, 141 as reflex machines, 109

PG71454.B01640
Beetles, Ambrosia, 127 bark, 76 evolution in Chrysomelid, 119 food of predaceous, 126, 130 habitats, 145 hymenopterous hosts, 139 hypermetamorphic, 139 immature stages, 75 longicorn, food habits, 77 of an Oregon beach, 149 predaceous, food, 126, 130 seasonal succession of, 140 snout, 76 succession of, 145

PG71454.B01641
Behavior, 92, 93 Amphioxus, 116 and natural environment, 110 animal, 167 animal. _See also_ Animal behavior animal, as a process, 102 ants, 120 birds, 121 _Bombus_, 120 Collembola, 136 cuckoo, 113 fixed and changeable responses, 104 human, 133 _Hydroides Dianthus_ V., modifiability, 106 ideals and conclusions, 114 Isopods, surface and subterranean, 108 laws, 103 leech, 121 _Leptinotarsa_, 119 _Limulus_, 105 lizard, 116 lobster, immature stages, 105 lower organisms, 96, 105, 107 method of regulation, 105 modifiability, 93, 105, 106 mud snail, 111 nature, study of in, 39 _Necturus_, 121 orderly sequence, 113 organisms, 115 physiology, 107 Planarians, fresh-water, 116, 120 pond snail, 120 social wasps, 111 sponges, 116 squirrels, 121 terns, noddy and sooty, 120 tree frogs, 112 tubicolous annelids, 112 Turbellarian, marine, 127 “walking stick,” 119

PG71454.B01642
_Belostoma_ (= _Zaitha_) _flumineum_ Say, death-feigning, 118

PG71454.B01643
Bibliography, 71 animals and pollination, 141, 142 ants, 120 bark beetles, 76 caterpillars, 74 ecological succession of birds, 124 economic entomology (American), 71, 75 environmental influences upon insects, 96, 97 flowers and insects, 141, 142 food of birds, 130 forest insects, 74 fresh-water biology, 78 Hymenoptera of N. America, 73 insects, 74, 75 mammals, North American, 107 medical zoölogy, 129 plant ecology, 89 snout beetles, 76 veterinary zoölogy, 129

PG71454.B01644
Biocœnose, 18 or community, 7

PG71454.B01645
Biocœnosis, 6, 7, 29

PG71454.B01646
Biocönose, 18 _Halictus_, 134

PG71454.B01647
Biocönosis, 131

PG71454.B01648
Biocönotic, 18

PG71454.B01649
Biologia Centrali-Americana, 23

PG71454.B01650
Biologic relations of plants and ants, 126, 127

PG71454.B01651
Biological significance, of dissolved gases of water, 87 of thermocline, 87

PG71454.B01652
Biological survey, of U. S., index to papers on, 128 ecological in methods, 114

PG71454.B01653
Biology, 1, 2, 18, 60 butterflies, 118 lower Danube delta, 145 Orthoptera, 101 Physa, 110 relation to geological investigation, 22 relation to man, 11, 12 sand areas of Illinois, 146

PG71454.B01654
Biometric ideas, 63

PG71454.B01655
Biometric methods, 63

PG71454.B01656
Bionomic base line, 30

PG71454.B01657
Bionomics, 19, 21 green cells of _Convoluta roscoffensis_, 127 insects, 128

PG71454.B01658
Bionomy, marine, and stratigraphy, 22

PG71454.B01659
Biota, postglacial dispersal, 91

PG71454.B01660
Biotic associations, 29, 91 sand areas, 146 sandy flats of seacoast, 136, 137

PG71454.B01661
Biotic base, 30

PG71454.B01662
Biotic community, 141

PG71454.B01663
Biotic competition in tropics, 124

PG71454.B01664
Biotic succession in media, 88

PG71454.B01665
Bird census, sectional, 59

PG71454.B01666
Bird habitats of Bismarck Archipelago, 137

PG71454.B01667
Birds, adaptations by insects to, 125 and man, 130 associational studies, 146 behavior, 121 breeding habits of North American, 109 collecting, 58 colonies, 120 decrease, 124 destruction by elements, 124 ecological succession, 21, 124, 133 economic value, 123, 126 eggs of North American, 109 food, 126, 128, 130 food of nestling, 128 habitat groups, 145, 146 habitat preferences, 148 habitats in summer, 146 instinct, 113 intelligence, 113 life histories of North American, 109 methods of study, 39, 60, 61 migration, 109 migration as a response, 109 noxious, introduction, 124 of a Maryland farm, 125 of Isle Royale, ecological distribution of, 148 photographing, 59, 61 protecting woodlands, 124 protection, 124 protection of useful, 127 quantitative study, 59, 60 regulative action upon insect oscillations, 123 statistical study, 59, 60 stomach contents, estimating, 62 study 39, 60, 61

PG71454.B01668
Birds’ eggs, collecting, 58

PG71454.B01669
Birds’ nests, collecting, 58

PG71454.B01670
Bismarck Archipelago, bird habitats, 137

PG71454.B01671
Black bass as a microcosmic center, 49

PG71454.B01672
Blind species of cave fauna, origin, 144

PG71454.B01673
_Blissus leucopterus_ Say, 20

PG71454.B01674
Blond ring-dove, 110

PG71454.B01675
Blue flag, fruiting, 142

PG71454.B01676
Bluebird, 117

PG71454.B01677
Bluejay, 117

PG71454.B01678
Bohn’s studies in animal behavior, 107

PG71454.B01679
Boll worm, report on, 77

PG71454.B01680
_Bombus_, behavior, 120 _see also_ Humble-bee

PG71454.B01681
Borers, wood, 77

PG71454.B01682
Brackish waters of Lower Elbe, fauna, 138

PG71454.B01683
Breeding habits, bark beetles, 76 birds, of North America, 109 crawfish, 108 horned dace, 63 snout beetles, 76

PG71454.B01684
_Bufo lentiginosus americanus_ Le Conte, 100

PG71454.B01685
Bumble-bee, see _Bombus_ _see also_ Humble-bee

PG71454.B01686
Burrowing bee, 134

PG71454.B01687
Butterflies, biology, 118 drinking habits, 119 food plants, 77

PG71454.B01688
Cactus, Arizona, insect fauna, 135

PG71454.B01689
Cactus, giant, and its insect fauna, 135 insects, 135

PG71454.B01690
Caithness, vegetation, 88

PG71454.B01691
Caledonia Creek, N. Y., insects and animal forms, 147, 148

PG71454.B01692
_Cambarus_, 113

PG71454.B01693
_Cambarus affinis_, habit formation, 106

PG71454.B01694
Camp cooking, 62

PG71454.B01695
Camping, 57, 60, 61, 65

PG71454.B01696
Capitalization, 69

PG71454.B01697
Carabidæ, early stages, 73 food relations, 127

PG71454.B01698
Carbohydrates, effect on resistance to lack of oxygen, 99

PG71454.B01699
Carbonic acid, reaction of fish to, 118

PG71454.B01700
Card-index system for records, 64

PG71454.B01701
Carrion-feeding insects, 146

PG71454.B01702
Castration, parasitic, in insects, 130

PG71454.B01703
Catalogues of governmental publications, 65

PG71454.B01704
Caterpillars, 74 reactions, 106

PG71454.B01705
Cave associations, 143

PG71454.B01706
Cave environment, 144, 145

PG71454.B01707
Cave fauna, European, 144 origin of blind species, 144

PG71454.B01708
Cave habitats, 112, 144

PG71454.B01709
Cave-inhabiting bats, habits and sensory adaptations, 112

PG71454.B01710
Cave life, effect on Arthropods, 101 effect on nutrition, 101 effect on sense organs, 101

PG71454.B01711
Cell and its medium, chemical studies, 88

PG71454.B01712
Census, bird, 59 invertebrates, 62 of four square feet, 58, 62

PG71454.B01713
Centers of dispersal for beetles of North America, 145

PG71454.B01714
Cerambycidæ, food habits, 72

PG71454.B01715
Cestoda and Cestodaria, index to literature of, 129

PG71454.B01716
Chætognatha, classification, 115 distribution vertically, 115 San Diego region, 115

PG71454.B01717
_Challenger_, 23

PG71454.B01718
Change, laws of, 79

PG71454.B01719
Changes, in fresh-water habitats, sequence, 86

PG71454.B01720
Changes, in land habitats, sequence, 86

PG71454.B01721
Chemical stimulations, responses to, 97

PG71454.B01722
Chemical studies on the cell and its medium, 88

PG71454.B01723
Chicago, physiographic ecology, 88

PG71454.B01724
Chicago region, animal communities, 134

PG71454.B01725
Chinch-bug, 20

PG71454.B01726
Chorology, 2

PG71454.B01727
Chrysomelid beetles, evolution, 119

PG71454.B01728
Chrysomelidæ, aquatic, 75 food habits, 72

PG71454.B01729
Cicindela, 90

PG71454.B01730
Cicindelidæ, habits, 121 life histories and larval habits, 118

PG71454.B01731
Ciliary action of shell-fish, 114

PG71454.B01732
Circulars of U. S. Bureau of Entomology, Index to, 73

PG71454.B01733
Clams, eaten by _Fulgur_, 110 eaten by _Sycotypus_, 110 growth of the soft, 114 hard, 114 life history of the common, 114 soft, 114

PG71454.B01734
Classification, 21 animal habitats, 138 genetic, 56 habitats, 139 mollusks’ habitats, 138 physiological, 21, 101, 133, 134

PG71454.B01735
Climate, influence upon insects, 135

PG71454.B01736
Climatic sequences, 91

PG71454.B01737
Climax biotic associations, 30

PG71454.B01738
Coccinellidæ, food relations, 127

PG71454.B01739
Cocooning habits of spiders, 118

PG71454.B01740
Cold-blooded vertebrates, digestion influenced by season and temperature, 100

PG71454.B01741
Cold Spring Beach, Collembola, 136

PG71454.B01742
Cold Spring sand spit, animal ecology, 136

PG71454.B01743
Coleoptera, centers of dispersal, North American, 145 food, 76, 77 insectivorous, 127 of Isle Royale, 145 transformations described, 72

PG71454.B01744
Collecting, 49, 50, 59, 61 directions for, 39 natural history specimens, 63 of specimens, 49, 50

PG71454.B01745
Collembola, Cold Spring Beach, 136

PG71454.B01746
Colonial forms, 132

PG71454.B01747
Colonies founded by _Atta sexdens_, 128

PG71454.B01748
Color changes of tree frogs, 112

PG71454.B01749
Colors of insects, warning, 128

PG71454.B01750
Commensals, 132 of ants, 120

PG71454.B01751
Community, biotic, 141 _Epinomia_, 139 gulls, 106 gulls, organization, 134 living beings, 6 social, 18, 123, 131 _See also_ Associations

PG71454.B01752
Communities of land animals, 91, 124 vegetational control, 90, 133

PG71454.B01753
Comparative method, 14, 15 limits, 56

PG71454.B01754
Comparative physiology, 95

PG71454.B01755
Comparative psychology, 120 French work in, 107 limits, 109

PG71454.B01756
Competition of animals, in new territory, 126

PG71454.B01757
Competition, ants and plants, 126 cotton boll weevil, 125

PG71454.B01758
Composition, correct, 68 handbook of, 69 scientific papers, 66

PG71454.B01759
Condition, of stress, 30, 31 pathological, 26

PG71454.B01760
Conditions, artificial and “pathological,” 27 of existence, natural, 96 of production in the sea, 87

PG71454.B01761
Conflict between organisms, geometrical representation, 125

PG71454.B01762
Conjugation, lower organisms, 97

PG71454.B01763
Contact, reactions of dragon-fly nymphs to, 118

PG71454.B01764
Control of nature, 33

PG71454.B01765
_Convoluta roscoffensis_, bionomics of green cells, 127

PG71454.B01766
Cooking, manual, 58

PG71454.B01767
Coöperation in study, 52

PG71454.B01768
Coral, rose, feeding reactions, 109

PG71454.B01769
Corn, 132 entomological ecology of Indian, 132

PG71454.B01770
Corn plant, entomological ecology of Indian, 132

PG71454.B01771
Correct composition, 68

PG71454.B01772
Cotton boll weevil, insect enemies, 125

PG71454.B01773
Cotton insects, 72 enemies, 72

PG71454.B01774
Cotton worm, report on, 77

PG71454.B01775
Courtship, _Acridiidæ_, 117

PG71454.B01776
Cowbirds, 117

PG71454.B01777
Crane flies, 76 larval habits, 76 life histories, 76

PG71454.B01778
Crawfish, breeding habits, 108 ecological catalogue, 113 egg-laying, 108 habit formation, 106 habitats, 116 Pennsylvania, 116 stream environment, references, 113

PG71454.B01779
Cricket, western, 77

PG71454.B01780
Criteria, ecological, 16 in genetic studies, 56 of the psychic, 106

PG71454.B01781
Criterion of imitation, 117

PG71454.B01782
Crop rotation, 28

PG71454.B01783
Crows, 117

PG71454.B01784
Crustacea, in grave, 144

PG71454.B01785
Cryptic coloration, 62 testing by experiment, 125

PG71454.B01786
_Cryptobranchus Allegheniensis_, habits, 119 life history, 119

PG71454.B01787
Cryptozoic fauna of Australasia, 144

PG71454.B01788
Cuckoo, behavior, 113 life, 113

PG71454.B01789
Cultivation of turtles, 110

PG71454.B01790
Cycle of matter, in the sea, 87

PG71454.B01791
Cycles, vegetative, causes, 88

PG71454.B01792
Dace, horned, 63

PG71454.B01793
Danish lakes, plankton investigations, 140

PG71454.B01794
Danish waters, ecology of grass-wrack in, 89

PG71454.B01795
Danube and its delta, biology affected by floods, 145

PG71454.B01796
Death feigning, _Belostoma_ (= _Zaitha_) _flumineum_ Say, 118 instinct, 113 _Nepa apiculata_ Say, 118 Ranatra, 113

PG71454.B01797
Death of lower organisms, 97

PG71454.B01798
Decrease of birds, 124

PG71454.B01799
Describing environments, 45

PG71454.B01800
Descriptive method, 14

PG71454.B01801
Desert species, of Amphibians, 148 of reptiles, 148

PG71454.B01802
Determination, of specimens, 49, 51 of specimens at museums, 52

PG71454.B01803
Determined specimens, series of, 52

PG71454.B01804
Development, 92, 93 ants, 120 effect of environment on mollusks, 100 environment, 45, 46 individual, 97 oysters, 112 optima, 94 problem, 98

PG71454.B01805
Developmental or explanatory method, 14, 15

PG71454.B01806
Digestion in cold-blooded vertebrates, influence of season and temperature, 100

PG71454.B01807
Diptera, aquatic nematocerous, 75 catalogue of North American, 71 North American, catalogue, 71

PG71454.B01808
Directions for collection, 39, 57

PG71454.B01809
Directory, Naturalist’s, 53

PG71454.B01810
Disadvantages of non-ecological surveys, 31

PG71454.B01811
Diseases, mussels, 119

PG71454.B01812
Distribution, fish, 64 Planarians, local, 119 vertically of Chætognatha, San Diego region, 115

PG71454.B01813
Domestic animals, 132 psychic development of young, 115

PG71454.B01814
Dominance, 47

PG71454.B01815
Dominant animals, 47, 48

PG71454.B01816
Donaciinæ, natural history of larvæ, 109

PG71454.B01817
Dragon flies, _vs._ mosquitoes, 72

PG71454.B01818
Dragon-fly nymphs, ecology, 118 keys, 75 reactions to contact and light, 118

PG71454.B01819
Drinking habits, butterflies, 119 moths, 119

PG71454.B01820
_Drosophila_, convulsive reflexes, 109 reactions, 109

PG71454.B01821
Dunes, bee fauna, 139

PG71454.B01822
Dynamic conceptions, 80

PG71454.B01823
Dynamic principles, 86

PG71454.B01824
Dynamic relation, 85

PG71454.B01825
Dynamic relations, of aggregations, 130 of associations, 130 of environment, 82

PG71454.B01826
Dynamic standpoint, 91, 101

PG71454.B01827
Dynamic status, 29, 31

PG71454.B01828
Dynamic theory and physiological problems, 97

PG71454.B01829
Dynamical interpretation, 82

PG71454.B01830
Dynamics of living matter, 96

PG71454.B01831
Earthworm, behavior modifiable, 105 movements, 105 quantitative studies, 58

PG71454.B01832
Echinoderms, food, 126

PG71454.B01833
Ecological catalogue of crawfish, 113

PG71454.B01834
Ecological criteria, 16

PG71454.B01835
Ecological distribution of birds of Isle Royale, 148

PG71454.B01836
Ecological features of evolution, 21

PG71454.B01837
Ecological ideas, educational value, 146

PG71454.B01838
Ecological organization of museums, 22

PG71454.B01839
Ecological relations, of entomophilous flora and anthophilous insect fauna of Illinois, 142 of invertebrate fauna of Isle Royale, 146

PG71454.B01840
Ecological study, of cave plankton, Shawnee Cave, 145 of lake plankton, 140

PG71454.B01841
Ecological succession, 21, 90, 101, 124 birds, 124, 133 causes in ponds, 133 fish in ponds and streams, 133 land animals, 133 mammals of Isle Royale, 145 on an oyster reef, 112

PG71454.B01842
Ecological surveys, 23, 24, 67

PG71454.B01843
Ecological training for surveys, 32

PG71454.B01844
Ecology, 1, 2, 18, 19, 20, 60 and economic problems, 114 and geology, 22 art of, 33 associational, 24 fish of Walnut Lake, 147 history, 133, 138 point of view, 8 relation to economic entomology, 21 relation to geology and paleontology, 10 relation to man, 10, 11 relation to physiology, 8 relation to sociology, 10 relation to teaching, 13, 14 research methods, 88

PG71454.B01845
Economic entomology, 29, 71, 74, 75 bibliography, 74, 75 bibliography of American, 71, 75 relation to ecology, 21

PG71454.B01846
Economic problems and ecology, 114

PG71454.B01847
Economic value, of birds, 126 of _Pecten irradians_, 108

PG71454.B01848
Economic zoölogist, 29

PG71454.B01849
Economic zoölogy, 29

PG71454.B01850
Educational value of ecological ideas, 146

PG71454.B01851
Effects, similar, of diverse stimuli, 98

PG71454.B01852
Egg-laying crawfish, 108

PG71454.B01853
Egg-laying sites, Orthoptera, 137

PG71454.B01854
Eggs, collecting birds’, 58 of birds of North America, 109

PG71454.B01855
Elbe River, fauna of lower, 138

PG71454.B01856
Emergency surgery, 65

PG71454.B01857
Emotion in pigeons, 110

PG71454.B01858
Enchytræidæ, 58

PG71454.B01859
Encroachments of civilization, 26

PG71454.B01860
Enemies, protection of animals from, 125

PG71454.B01861
English in science, better, 67

PG71454.B01862
English sparrow, 28, 117 psychology, 117

PG71454.B01863
Entomological Commission, of U. S., report on cotton and boll worm, 77 of U. S., report on Rocky Mountain locust, 76 of U. S., report on western cricket, 77

PG71454.B01864
Entomological ecology of Indian corn plant, 132

PG71454.B01865
Entomological work of Townend Glover, 73

PG71454.B01866
Entomological writings of A. S. Packard, 74

PG71454.B01867
Entomologists’ reports, Illinois, index, 74 Missouri, 77 New York, 74

PG71454.B01868
Entomology, bibliography of American economic, 71, 75 catalogue of publications on, 71 economic, _see_ Economic entomology

PG71454.B01869
Entomophilous flora, ecological relations to anthophilous insect fauna, 142

PG71454.B01870
Environment, 5 and the animal, adjustment between, 122 describing, 45 development, 45, 46 effect on development of mollusks, 100 effect on insects, 96, 97 effect on limpet, 101 effect on snails, 100 fish, 64, 118 fitness, 85 great changes, 26 gross evolution, 86 making to order, 33 natural, and behavior, 110 natural or normal, 34 orderly sequence, 79 original conditions, 25, 26 parasites, 126 sequence of changes, 104

PG71454.B01871
_Epeira_, habits, instincts, 117

PG71454.B01872
Ephemeridæ, 76

PG71454.B01873
_Epinomia triangulifera_ Vachal, bee community, 139

PG71454.B01874
Equilibrium, relative, 30, 31

PG71454.B01875
Ethological maladjustments of ants, 126

PG71454.B01876
Ethological observations on an ant, 120

PG71454.B01877
Ethological study, comparative, of spiders, 138

PG71454.B01878
Ethology, 18, 19, 21, 59 and mutation theory, 22 ants, comparative, 149 diagram of subdivisions, 133 history, 133 subdivisions, in diagrams, 133

PG71454.B01879
Europe, cave fauna, 144 plant galls, 143

PG71454.B01880
Evaporating power of air, vegetational control of, relative, 90

PG71454.B01881
Evaporation, and plant societies, 90 and soil moisture, 62 open and wooded areas, 91 plant societies and, 64

PG71454.B01882
Evolution, 9 and adaptation, 97 as a process, 10 ecological features of, 21 experimental, 96 mutual aid a factor of, 133 of life and _Salpa_, 123 organic, and baseleveling, 86

PG71454.B01883
Existence, natural conditions, 96 struggle for, 2, 122, 123

PG71454.B01884
Experiment Station Record, 76

PG71454.B01885
Experimental evolution, 96

PG71454.B01886
Experimental morphology, 95

PG71454.B01887
Experimental study, limits, 103

PG71454.B01888
Experimental zoölogy, 96

PG71454.B01889
Explanatory or developmental method, 14, 15

PG71454.B01890
Exploration, scientific, 63

PG71454.B01891
External relations, 1

PG71454.B01892
Extremes, influence, 98

PG71454.B01893
Eyes, frog, 110 insects, 110 slug, 110 snail, 110 sow bug, 110 various types and image-forming powers, 110 worms, 110

PG71454.B01894
Factor of evolution, mutual aid a, 133

PG71454.B01895
Factors, influence of the slowest, 98 limiting, 98

PG71454.B01896
Family, 132

PG71454.B01897
Fauna, and flora of the sea bottom, 64 cave, 101, 112, 143, 144, 145 cryptozoic of Australasia, 144 Germany, classified by habitat, 134 grave, 144 Indiana caves, 144 Mayfield’s Cave, 143 of brackish waters of Lower Elbe, 138 of Kiel Bay, 138 pond, 148 quantitative determination in brackish waters, 137 salt water, 111

PG71454.B01898
Faunal significance of baseleveling, 86

PG71454.B01899
Feeding habits, slugs, 125 snails, 125 _Venus mercenaria_, 114

PG71454.B01900
Feeding reactions of rose coral, 109

PG71454.B01901
Feeding reflexes of shell-fish, 114

PG71454.B01902
Fertilization of flowers, 142

PG71454.B01903
Field ants, 149

PG71454.B01904
Field naturalist, 37

PG71454.B01905
Field notes, 42 numbers in, 50, 51 recording, 42

PG71454.B01906
Field study, 36, 37, 38 plan, 36

PG71454.B01907
Field work, primary aim, 41

PG71454.B01908
Fish, associations of a lake, 147 associations of Illinois, 140 distribution, 64 ecological succession, 133 environment and distribution, 64 environment, index to, 118 feeding grounds, affected by vegetation, 90 food, 76, 123 food relations of fresh-water, 123 habitats of Illinois, 140 habits, 63, 112 Illinois, 140 lateral-line organs of, functions, 116 life histories, 112 marine vegetation, 89 metabolism, 100 methods of study, 39 of a small stream, 147 organ of sense, 113 organ of taste, 113 physiological responses of, 112 pond, 133 productivity in standing and running water, 101 reaction to atmospheric gases in water, 118 reaction to carbonic acid, 118 reaction to oxygen, 118 rheotropism in, 115 sense of hearing, 116 spawning habits of, 112 stream, 133 submerged vegetation affecting feeding ground, 90

PG71454.B01909
Fitness of environment, 85

PG71454.B01910
Floods of lower Danube affecting biological conditions, 145

PG71454.B01911
Florida mangroves forming animal habitats, 89

PG71454.B01912
Flowers, and insects, 142, 143 animal visitors, 141, 142 bees and, 141 fertilization, 142 pollination of, in relation to animals, 141, 142

PG71454.B01913
Food, beetles, 126 birds, 126, 128, 130 butterflies, 77 Coleoptera, 77 Echinoderms, 126 fish, 123 insects, 128 lizards, 129 nestling birds, 128 oysters, 112 predaceous beetles, 130 serpents, 129 snails, 125 Turbellarian, 127 woodpeckers, 126

PG71454.B01914
Food habits, back beetles, 76 Cerambycidæ, 72 Chrysomelidæ, 72 Coleoptera, 77 grosbeaks, 128 larval Acalyptrate Muscidæ, 78 longicorn beetles, 77 Rhynchophora, 72 snout beetles, 76

PG71454.B01915
Food of animals, in Kiel Bay, 129 of sea-bottom, 63, 136

PG71454.B01916
Food plants, of Coleoptera, 77 of forest insects, 76

PG71454.B01917
Food relations, Carabidæ, 127 cave animals, 144 Coccinellidæ, 127

PG71454.B01918
Forest influences, 90

PG71454.B01919
Forest insects, classified by food plants, 76 life histories, 74 literature, 74

PG71454.B01920
Forest invasion on alluvial flats, 89

PG71454.B01921
Forest types, determining, 89

PG71454.B01922
Foresters, nature’s, 124

PG71454.B01923
Forestry, 58

PG71454.B01924
Forests, insect depredations in, 127

PG71454.B01925
Form regulation, 97

PG71454.B01926
Formation, 60

PG71454.B01927
French work in comparative psychology, 107

PG71454.B01928
Fresh-water Amphipods, 111

PG71454.B01929
Fresh-water animals and plants, biological relations, 130

PG71454.B01930
Fresh-water biology, keys to organisms, 78

PG71454.B01931
Fresh-water biology, technique, 62

PG71454.B01932
Fresh-water fish, food relations, 123

PG71454.B01933
Fresh-water habitats, changes, 86

PG71454.B01934
Fresh-water mollusks, habitats, 147

PG71454.B01935
Fresh-water mussels, pearly, 119

PG71454.B01936
Fresh-water Planarians, reactions, 116

PG71454.B01937
Fresh-water plants and animals, biological relations, 130

PG71454.B01938
Fruiting of blue flag, 142

PG71454.B01939
_Fulgur_ eating oysters, mussels, and clams, 110

PG71454.B01940
Function, of lateral-line organs of fish, 116 of mucus of shell-fish, 114

PG71454.B01941
Fungi, and ants, 128 and bark beetles, 127

PG71454.B01942
Galls, animals in relation to plant, 141 insect, 143 on European plants, 143

PG71454.B01943
Gases, dissolved in water, biological significance, 87 reaction of fish to atmospheric, 118

PG71454.B01944
General physiology, 95

PG71454.B01945
General principles, value of, 41

PG71454.B01946
Genetic classification, 56

PG71454.B01947
Genetic method, 15

PG71454.B01948
Genetic psychology, limits, 109

PG71454.B01949
Genetic relation of types of action, 106

PG71454.B01950
Genetic standpoint, 91, 101

PG71454.B01951
Genetic studies, criteria in, 56

PG71454.B01952
Geographic life centers, 99

PG71454.B01953
Geologic processes, 86

PG71454.B01954
Geological investigation, relation to biology, 22

PG71454.B01955
Geology and ecology, 22

PG71454.B01956
Glade, ants, 149 associations of ants, 149

PG71454.B01957
Glover, Townend, entomological work, 73

PG71454.B01958
Governmental publications, catalogues, 65

PG71454.B01959
Grackles, 109

PG71454.B01960
Grasshoppers, short-horned, associational groupings, 148 short-horned, habitats, 148

PG71454.B01961
Grass-wrack, ecology of, in Danish waters, 89

PG71454.B01962
Grave, fauna of the, 144

PG71454.B01963
Green cells of _Convoluta roscoffensis_, bionomics, 127

PG71454.B01964
Grosbeaks, food habits, 128

PG71454.B01965
Gross environment, evolution, 86

PG71454.B01966
Growth, 92, 93, 97 affected by environment, 100 influence of stimuli upon, 95 quahaug, 108 soft clam, 114 _Venus mercenaria_, 114

PG71454.B01967
Guiana forest, struggle for life in, 124

PG71454.B01968
Gull community, organization, 106, 134

PG71454.B01969
Gypsy moth, 74 enemies of, 74

PG71454.B01970
Habitats, 5, 60 affected by baseleveling, 86 amphibians, 148 animal, formed by plants, 89, 91 animals classified by, 134 ants, 137, 149 beetles, 145 bird preferences, 148 birds, 137 birds in summer, 146 cave, 112, 143, 144 classification, 59, 138, 139 Collembola, 136 crawfish, 116 dune, 139 fish of Illinois, 140 formed by river floods, 145 fresh-water, 86 grasshoppers, 148 history of their recognition, 138 inland, 91 insects, 128, 135 invertebrate, 146 lake, 87 lake beach, 147 lake fauna, 140 lake, for fish, 147 land, 86 mammals, 145 marine animals, 135, 136, 146 marsh for mollusks, 137 mollusks, 138, 145, 147 mollusks, classification, 138 mollusks of land and fresh water, classification, 138 moor, 139 Oregon sea beach, 149 Orthoptera, 137 oyster, 111, 112, 131, 132 parasitic fauna, 129 pond, 148 preferences of birds, 148 reptiles, 148 sand areas, 146 sand prairie, 139 sandy sea flats, 136, 137 sea bottom, 136 shore animals, 139 spiders, 125, 138 stream, 147, 148 three dimensions, 46 Turbellarian, 127

PG71454.B01971
Habits, Amphipods, 119 _Amphithoe longimana_ Smith, 113 cave-inhabiting bats, 112 Cicindelidæ, 121 fish, 63, 112 formation in crawfish, 106 formation in the turtle, 105 Humble-bee, 118 _Leptinotarsa_, 119 mammals, 118 mammals of North America, 107 mating period of spiders, 115 _Plethodon_, 117 salamanders, 119 solitary wasps of Texas, 113 spiders, 117, 118 squirrels, 115 tortoises, 116 _Venus mercenaria_, 114

PG71454.B01972
Halictus, biocönose, 134 guests and parasites, 134

PG71454.B01973
Hearing in fish, sense of, 116

PG71454.B01974
Heath ants, 149

PG71454.B01975
Hemiptera, seasonal succession, 141

PG71454.B01976
Hemiptera-Heteroptera, catalogue of Nearctic, 71

PG71454.B01977
Hibernation, 115 influence on animal parasites, 130 insects, 128

PG71454.B01978
Holland, sandy flats of, animals, 136, 137

PG71454.B01979
_Homarus Americanus_, behavior of immature stages, 105

PG71454.B01980
Homing pigeons, methods, 113

PG71454.B01981
Honey-bee, natural history, 109

PG71454.B01982
Horde, 132

PG71454.B01983
Human associations, 11

PG71454.B01984
Human behavior, biological and psychological foundations, 133

PG71454.B01985
Humble-bee, domestication, 119 habits, 119 life history, 119

PG71454.B01986
Humidity of air, vegetational control of relative, 90

PG71454.B01987
Humus, effect on animal life of soil, 100

PG71454.B01988
Huttonian theory, 80

PG71454.B01989
_Hydroides Dianthus_ V., behavior modifiable, 106

PG71454.B01990
Hydropsyche, photographing nets of, 64

PG71454.B01991
Hymenoptera of N. America, bibliography, 73 catalogue of species, 73

PG71454.B01992
Hypermetamorphic beetles, 139

PG71454.B01993
Hypotheses, multiple working, 55

PG71454.B01994
Ideas, biometric, 63 life history of scientific, 57

PG71454.B01995
Illinois, ecological relations of entomophilous flora and anthophilous insect fauna, 142 fish, 140 sand areas, biology, 146 sand prairies, associational study, 139 State Entomologist’s reports, 74

PG71454.B01996
Illinois River, entomology, 74 plankton, 147

PG71454.B01997
Image-forming powers of eyes of various types, 110

PG71454.B01998
Imitation, and intelligence in birds, 117 criterion, 117

PG71454.B01999
Index, Agricultural reports of the U. S. patent office, 72 circulars, U. S. Entomology Bureau, 73 Experiment Station Record, 76 Illinois State entomologist’s reports,74 Insect Life, 72 Lintner’s New York State entomologist’s reports, 74 Missouri reports on insects, 77 Ontario entomological society reports, 72 Orthoptera of North America, 77 papers on biological survey of U. S., 128 Riley’s Missouri entomological reports, 77

PG71454.B02000
Index catalogue of medical and veterinary zoölogy, 129

PG71454.B02001
Indian corn, _see_ Corn

PG71454.B02002
Indiana, caves and their fauna, 144 insect galls, 143

PG71454.B02003
Individual development, 97

PG71454.B02004
Individual ecology, 3, 8, 23, 24 and the associational unit, 131

PG71454.B02005
Influence, of sessile habit, 100 of slowest factors, 98

PG71454.B02006
Inland habitats, 91

PG71454.B02007
Insect associations, changes in, 127

PG71454.B02008
Insect depredations in forests, 127

PG71454.B02009
Insect enemies of cotton boll weevil, 125

PG71454.B02010
Insect fauna of the giant cactus of Arizona, 135

PG71454.B02011
Insect galls, Europe, 143 Indiana, 143 New York, 143

PG71454.B02012
Insect guests of Florida land tortoise,135

PG71454.B02013
Insect Life, 111 index, 72

PG71454.B02014
Insect oscillations regulated by birds, 123

PG71454.B02015
Insectivorous Coleoptera, 127

PG71454.B02016
Insects, affecting park trees, 74 affecting the orange, 75 affecting woodland trees, 74 and animal forms of Caledonia Creek, N. Y., 147, 148 aquatic, 74 aquatic in Adirondacks, 75 bibliography, 74, 75 bionomics of, 128 cactus, 135 carrion-feeding, 146 collecting, 58 environmental influences upon, 96, 97 eyes, 110 flowers and, 142, 143 food, 128 habitats, 128, 135 hibernation, 128 Illinois, 74 in grave, 144 influence in economy of nature, 135 influenced by animal substances, 135 influenced by climate, 135 influenced by environment, 135 influenced by man, 135 influenced by plants, 135 influenced by soil, 135 initiating successions, 127 instinct, 128 life histories, 70, 73 life histories in Lintner’s New York State entomologist’s reports, 74 mimicry of South African, 128 Missouri, 77 motions, 128 Neuropteroid, synopsis, catalogue, and bibliography, 71 New Mexico, 148 New York, 74 noises, 128 parasitic and other kinds of castration in, 130 parasitism, 129, 130 preserving, 58 protective adaptations against birds by, 125 seasonal succession, 141 senses, 111 social community, 135 social life, 111 societies, 128 stratagems, 128 study, 59 systematic literature, 71 warning colors of South African, 128

PG71454.B02017
Instinct, and intelligence, 120 birds, 113 blindness of, 103 death-feigning, 113 insects, 128 Leptinotarsa, 119 raccoons, 110 spiders, 117

PG71454.B02018
Instruments, 57, 59

PG71454.B02019
Integrative action of nervous system, 98

PG71454.B02020
Intelligence, and imitation in birds, 117 and instinct, 120 animal, of the raccoon, 111 birds, 113 evolution of animal, 114 nature and development of animal, 115 raccoons, 110, 111

PG71454.B02021
Interactions of organisms, 49, 123

PG71454.B02022
Internal relations, 1

PG71454.B02023
Interpretation, dynamical, 82

PG71454.B02024
Interrelations, 5 between forests and insects, 127 of the social community, 131 parasitic, of the bee community, 139

PG71454.B02025
Introducing noxious animals, 124

PG71454.B02026
Invertebrate animals of Vineyard Sound, 136

PG71454.B02027
Invertebrate fauna of Isle Royale, ecological relations, 146

PG71454.B02028
Invertebrates, census, 62 life histories, 70, 136 marine, 136, 146

PG71454.B02029
Investigation, methods of scientific, 56

PG71454.B02030
_Iris versicolor_ L., fruiting, 142

PG71454.B02031
Isle Royale, as biotic environment, 91 birds, ecological succession, 124, 133 birds’ habitats, 148 ecology of Coleoptera, 145 ecological relations of invertebrate fauna, 146 mammals of, ecological succession, 145

PG71454.B02032
_Isophyllia_, feeding reactions, 109

PG71454.B02033
Isopods, of ponds and streams, responses, 106 physiological states and rheotaxis, 106 reactions of surface and subterranean, 108 reactions to light, 108

PG71454.B02034
Jutland, sandy flats of, animals, 136, 137

PG71454.B02035
Kiel Bay, fauna, 138 food of animals in, 129

PG71454.B02036
Krakatau, new flora, 89

PG71454.B02037
Lack of oxygen, resistance affected by carbohydrates, 99

PG71454.B02038
Lake as a microcosm, 123, 131

PG71454.B02039
Lake beach, habitat, 147 débris, Sarcophagidæ with relation to, 147

PG71454.B02040
Lake fauna, associational study, 140 correlated with vegetation, 140 habitats, 140

PG71454.B02041
Lake, fish associations of a, 147

PG71454.B02042
Lake habitat, changes in, 87 fish, 147

PG71454.B02043
Lake, respiration of an inland, 87

PG71454.B02044
Lake shore, animal associations, 134

PG71454.B02045
Lakes, gases dissolved in waters, 87 plankton investigations of Danish, 140

PG71454.B02046
Land animal communities, controlled by vegetation, 90 vegetation and control, 124, 133

PG71454.B02047
Land animals, ecological succession, 133 origin, 148

PG71454.B02048
Land forms, changing, 86

PG71454.B02049
Land habitats, changes, 86

PG71454.B02050
Land tortoise of Florida, insect guests, 135

PG71454.B02051
Larval habits of tiger beetles, 118

PG71454.B02052
Larvæ, catalogue, 77 classification of Lepidopterous, 73 Coleopterous, table of families, 75 Donaciinæ, natural history, 109 Lepidopterous, 73, 78 saw-fly, 78

PG71454.B02053
Lateral-line organs of fish, functions, 116

PG71454.B02054
Law of response to strain, 85

PG71454.B02055
Laws of change, orderly sequence, 79

PG71454.B02056
Laws of regulation, in behavior, 105 in insect oscillations, 123 in metabolism, 85

PG71454.B02057
Laws of sequence, in adjustment between animal and environment, 122 in animals, 92, 93 in environment, 79 within the animal, 92

PG71454.B02058
Leech, behavior, 121

PG71454.B02059
Lepidoptera, and temperature extremes, 99 field tables, 74 larvæ, 73, 78 larvæ, classification, 73 transformations of described, 73

PG71454.B02060
_Leptinotarsa_, behavior, 119 habits, 119 instincts, 119

PG71454.B02061
_Leptothorax Emersoni_ Wheeler, ethological observations, 120

PG71454.B02062
Life and chemistry, 97

PG71454.B02063
Life centers, geographic, 99

PG71454.B02064
Life histories, aquatic Nematocerous Diptera, 75 fish, 112 insects, 73 insects and allied invertebrates, 70 insects, in Lintner’s New York State entomologist’s reports, 74 mammals, 118 Odonata, 76 physiological, 17 salamanders, 119 tiger beetles, 118

PG71454.B02065
Life history, common clam, 114 humble-bee, 119 quahaug, 108 scientific ideas, 57

PG71454.B02066
Life, maintenance, 97 nature, 97 origin, 97

PG71454.B02067
Light, and behavior of organisms, 115 locomotor responses of animals to white, 107 reactions of Amphibians, 116 reactions of dragon-fly nymphs to, 118 reactions of Isopods to, 108 reactions of Planarians to, 105 white, locomotor responses of animals to, 107

PG71454.B02068
Limiting factors, 98

PG71454.B02069
Limpet, environmental studies, 101

PG71454.B02070
Limulus, behavior of early stages, 105

PG71454.B02071
Lists, local, 48

PG71454.B02072
Literature, limitations and value, 82, 83, 84

PG71454.B02073
Living matter, dynamics, 96

PG71454.B02074
Lizards, behavior, 116 food, 129 Pennsylvania, 129

PG71454.B02075
Lobster, behavior, 105, 113 natural history of the American, 113

PG71454.B02076
Local lists, 48

PG71454.B02077
Locomotion of starfish, direction, 110

PG71454.B02078
Locomotor responses to white light, 107

PG71454.B02079
Locust, Rocky Mountain, 77

PG71454.B02080
Logs, fauna under, 144

PG71454.B02081
Louisiana, marine food mollusks, 114

PG71454.B02082
Lower organisms, age, 97 behavior, 96, 105, 107 conjugation, 97 death, 97

PG71454.B02083
Lycosidæ, ecology, 125 habitats, 125

PG71454.B02084
_Lymnæa Columella_ Say, effects of environment on growth, 100

PG71454.B02085
Lymnæas, ecology, 108

PG71454.B02086
Lymnæidæ, ecology, 108

PG71454.B02087
_Lymnæus Eleodes_ Say, behavior, 120

PG71454.B02088
Maize, _see_ Indian Corn

PG71454.B02089
Maladjustments of plants and ants, 126

PG71454.B02090
Mammal associations, 145

PG71454.B02091
Mammal successions, 145

PG71454.B02092
Mammals, bibliography of North American, 107 collecting, 58 habits, 118 habits of North American, 107 Isle Royale, ecological succession, 145 life histories, 118 methods of study, 39

PG71454.B02093
Man, influence upon insects, 135

PG71454.B02094
Mangroves, Florida, 89

PG71454.B02095
Manual of style, 68

PG71454.B02096
Manuscript arrangement, 69

PG71454.B02097
Marine animals, and vegetation, 89 associational study, 136 associations, 135 collecting, 57 distribution, 139 food of, in Kiel Bay, 129 habitat study, 136

PG71454.B02098
Marine food mollusks of Louisiana, 114

PG71454.B02099
Marine habitats of animals, 135

PG71454.B02100
Marine invertebrates, 146

PG71454.B02101
Marine life, quantitative study, 124

PG71454.B02102
Marine vegetation and animal associations, 89

PG71454.B02103
Marsh habitats, mollusks, 137

PG71454.B02104
Maryland farm, birds of a, 125

PG71454.B02105
Massachusetts shell-fisheries, 108

PG71454.B02106
Mating instincts, of walking-stick, 119

PG71454.B02107
Mating period of spiders, habits, 115

PG71454.B02108
Mayfield Cave fauna, 143

PG71454.B02109
Mayfly nymphs, keys, 75, 76

PG71454.B02110
Meadow ants, 149

PG71454.B02111
Media, changes in, 88

PG71454.B02112
Medical zoölogy, bibliography, 129

PG71454.B02113
Metabolism, 92, 93 fish, 100 in the sea, 87

PG71454.B02114
Method, comparative, limitations, 56 genetic, 56 historical, 56 scientific, 55, 56, 57

PG71454.B02115
Methods, biometric, 63 of homing pigeons, 113 of investigation, energy, agent and process, 56 of microscopic anatomy, 62 of study, 14, 39 of studying birds, fish, mammals, 39

PG71454.B02116
Microcosm, 4 lake as a, 123, 131

PG71454.B02117
Microscopic anatomy, methods, 62

PG71454.B02118
Migration, influence on animal parasites, 130 of birds, 109 of birds, as a response, 109, 110

PG71454.B02119
Migratory plant formations, 88

PG71454.B02120
Mimicry, 42 of insects of South Africa, 128

PG71454.B02121
Missouri, insects, 77 insects, index of reports on, 77

PG71454.B02122
Modifiability of behavior of _Hydroides Dianthus_ V., 106

PG71454.B02123
Modifications, of behavior, 93 of behavior by experience, 106

PG71454.B02124
Molluscan associations, local, 137

PG71454.B02125
Molluscan succession, associational study, 137

PG71454.B02126
Mollusk fisheries of Massachusetts, 108

PG71454.B02127
Mollusks, associations, 138 collecting, 58 ecology, 147 effect of environment, 100 habitats, 138, 145, 147 habitats in fresh water, 147 of Louisiana, marine food, 114 of Skokie Marsh area, ecology, 137

PG71454.B02128
Mongoose, 28

PG71454.B02129
Morphology, experimental, 95

PG71454.B02130
Mosquitoes, Dragonflies _vs._, 72

PG71454.B02131
Moth, Yucca, 142

PG71454.B02132
Moths, drinking habits, 119 reactions, 106

PG71454.B02133
Mourning-cloak butterfly, phototropism, 116

PG71454.B02134
Movements, physiology, 107

PG71454.B02135
Mucus, function of, in shell-fish, 114

PG71454.B02136
Mud snail, behavior, 111

PG71454.B02137
Multiple working hypotheses, 55

PG71454.B02138
Muscidæ, Acalyptrate, 78

PG71454.B02139
Museum exhibit of American birds, ecological, 145, 146

PG71454.B02140
Museums, determination of specimens at, 52 relation to ecology, 22 use of ecological ideas, 145, 146

PG71454.B02141
Mussels, artificial propagation of fresh-water, 114, 115 diseases, 119 eaten by _Fulgur_, 110 eaten by _Sycotypus_, 110 enemies, 119 pearly fresh-water, enemies and diseases, 119 pearly fresh-water, habits, 119 pearly fresh-water, protection, 119 reproduction of fresh-water, 114, 115

PG71454.B02142
Mutation theory and ethology, 22

PG71454.B02143
Mutual aid, a factor of evolution, 133

PG71454.B02144
_Mya_ arenaria, growth, 114 life history, 114

PG71454.B02145
Myriapods, collecting, 58 systematic literature, 71

PG71454.B02146
_Nassa obsoleta_, 110

PG71454.B02147
Natural conditions of existence, 96

PG71454.B02148
Natural environments, 26

PG71454.B02149
Natural history, 18 American lobster, 113 _Amia calva_ L., 117 Amphithoe, 113 honey-bee, 109 larvæ of Donaciinæ, 109 starfish, 115 surveys, 23, 30

PG71454.B02150
Natural preserves, 34, 38

PG71454.B02151
Naturalist’s Directory, 53

PG71454.B02152
Nature, and nurture, 17 control, 33

PG71454.B02153
Nature’s foresters, 124

PG71454.B02154
Nearctic Hemiptera-Heteroptera, catalogue, 71

PG71454.B02155
Nearctic spiders, 72

PG71454.B02156
_Necturus_, behavior, 121

PG71454.B02157
Nematocerous Diptera, aquatic, 75 aquatic, stages, 75

PG71454.B02158
_Nepa apiculata_ Uhler, death-feigning, 118

PG71454.B02159
Nervous system, integrative action, 98 origin of, in sponges, 116 regulatory action, 98

PG71454.B02160
Nestling birds, food, 128

PG71454.B02161
Nests, ants, 127 collecting birds’, 58

PG71454.B02162
New Mexico, ecological distribution of animal life in, 148 insects, 148 reptiles, 148

PG71454.B02163
New York, insect galls, 143 State entomologist’s reports, 74

PG71454.B02164
Nomenclature, ecological, for plants, 60 phytogeographical, 22

PG71454.B02165
Non-ecological surveys, 31

PG71454.B02166
Normal, as ideal, 27 conditions, 27 departure from, 98 processes of nature, 26

PG71454.B02167
North Carolina, oyster industry, 112

PG71454.B02168
Notebook, aluminum, 44

PG71454.B02169
Note slips, 37, 44

PG71454.B02170
Note taking, 42, 45, 61

PG71454.B02171
Noxious animals, introducing, 124

PG71454.B02172
Numbering specimens, 50, 51

PG71454.B02173
Numerals, 69

PG71454.B02174
Nurmijärvi Lake, fauna and vegetation, 139

PG71454.B02175
Nurture and nature, 17

PG71454.B02176
Nutrition of Arthropods, affected by cave life, 101

PG71454.B02177
Nymphs, dragon-fly, 76 Mayfly, 76 Zygoptera, keys, 76

PG71454.B02178
Oak gall flies, and oak galls, 143

PG71454.B02179
Oceanography, 21

PG71454.B02180
Odonata, life histories, 76 transformations described, 72

PG71454.B02181
Œcology, _see_ Ecology

PG71454.B02182
Oligochæta, 58

PG71454.B02183
Ontario, Entomological Society of, index to thirty annual reports, 72

PG71454.B02184
Optima, 98 development, 94 of Chætognatha, 115 physiological, 27 vital, 27, 94

PG71454.B02185
Optimum, 30, 94 associational, 94 departure from, 98 vital conditions, 99 vital, in caves, 144

PG71454.B02186
Orange, insects affecting the, 75

PG71454.B02187
_Orchestia palustris_, habits and life history, 119

PG71454.B02188
Orderly sequence, laws, 92, 93 of behavior, 113 of disturbances by man, 27 of environment, 79

PG71454.B02189
Oregon beach, beetles of an, 149

PG71454.B02190
Orientation among animals, 118

PG71454.B02191
Origin of land animals, 148

PG71454.B02192
Original conditions, 26, 27 of environment, 25, 26

PG71454.B02193
Oriole, Baltimore, 117

PG71454.B02194
Organ of taste, fish, 113

PG71454.B02195
Organic parasitism, 126

PG71454.B02196
Organism, ant colony as an, 131 as agent, 4

PG71454.B02197
Organisms, behavior of lower, 96, 107 geometrical representations of the conflict between, 125 interactions, 49, 123 lower, behavior, 96, 107 physiology, 96 responses to light, 115

PG71454.B02198
Organization of gull community, 106, 134

PG71454.B02199
Organs, physiology, 96

PG71454.B02200
Ornithological balance-wheel, 123

PG71454.B02201
Orthoptera, biology, 101 classification of, by egg-laying sites, 137 habitats, 137 index to North American, 77

PG71454.B02202
Overfishing of oyster beds, 131

PG71454.B02203
Oxygen, effects of lack of, on sea-urchin, 99 physiological effects of lack, 99 reaction of fish to, 118 resistance to lack of, increased, 99

PG71454.B02204
Oyster, 18, 114, 131

PG71454.B02205
Oyster bank, 18 as social community, 132

PG71454.B02206
Oyster bed, 6 overfishing, 131 succession of animals on, 131

PG71454.B02207
Oyster culture, 6, 18, 131

PG71454.B02208
Oyster, development, 112 food, 112

PG71454.B02209
Oyster grounds of South Carolina, natural, 111

PG71454.B02210
Oyster habitat, 111

PG71454.B02211
Oyster industry of North Carolina, 112

PG71454.B02212
Oyster reef affected by storms, 112

PG71454.B02213
Oysters, eaten by _Fulgur_, 110 eaten by _Sycotypus_, 110

PG71454.B02214
Painted turtle, discriminative ability, 109

PG71454.B02215
Papers, composition of scientific, 66

PG71454.B02216
Papers, preparation for publication, 65, 68

PG71454.B02217
Papilionidæ, seasonal succession, 140

PG71454.B02218
Paragraphing, 69

PG71454.B02219
Parasites, 132 a function of habitat, 129 American Rhynchophora, 76 burrowing bee, 134 influence of hibernation on animal, 130 influence of migration on animal, 129 Sebago salmon, 129

PG71454.B02220
Parasitic castration in insects, 130

PG71454.B02221
Parasitic environment, 126

PG71454.B02222
Parasitic fauna, relation to habitat, 129

PG71454.B02223
Parasitic interrelations of bee community, 139

PG71454.B02224
Parasitism, 129 insect, 129, 130 organic, 126 social, 126

PG71454.B02225
Park trees, insects affecting, 74

PG71454.B02226
Parks for ecological study, 38

PG71454.B02227
Parrots, 109

PG71454.B02228
Passenger pigeon, 117

PG71454.B02229
Pathological condition, 26

PG71454.B02230
Pathological conditions, artificial and, 27

PG71454.B02231
_Pecten irradians_, economic value, 108 growth, 108 habits, 108 life history, 108

PG71454.B02232
Pennsylvania, crawfish, 116 lizards, 129 serpents, 129 turtles, 129

PG71454.B02233
Phase rule, 85

PG71454.B02234
Photography, 57, 59, 61, 65 aquatic animals, 63, 64 birds, 39 fish, 39 mammals, 39 nets of Hydropsyche (aquatic), 64

PG71454.B02235
Phototaxis and random movements, 105

PG71454.B02236
Phototropism of Mourning-cloak butterfly, 116

PG71454.B02237
Phylogeny, 21, 96 of human behavior, 133

PG71454.B02238
Physa, biology, 110

PG71454.B02239
Physical change, influence upon animals, 85

PG71454.B02240
Physiographic ecology of Chicago, 88

PG71454.B02241
Physiological chemistry, 95

PG71454.B02242
Physiological classification, and ecological succession, 21 in ecology, 101, 133, 134

PG71454.B02243
Physiological conditions, 92, 93

PG71454.B02244
Physiological life histories of plants, 17

PG71454.B02245
Physiological problems and dynamic theory, 97

PG71454.B02246
Physiological responses, distribution due to, 101, 112, 136 of fish, 112

PG71454.B02247
Physiological states and rheotaxis in Isopoda, 106

PG71454.B02248
Physiology, comparative, 95 general, 95 of organisms, 96 of organs, 96 of reproduction, 100

PG71454.B02249
Phytogeographical nomenclature, 22, 60

PG71454.B02250
Pigeon, common, 117 homing, 113 passenger, 117

PG71454.B02251
Pigeons, emotion in, 110 methods of homing, 113 voices as means of social control, 106, 134

PG71454.B02252
Planarians, behavior, 120 distribution locally, 120 reactions of fresh-water, 116 reactions to light, 105

PG71454.B02253
Plane table manual, 64

PG71454.B02254
Plankton, 60, 148 ecological study, 140 investigations of Danish lakes, 140 of Illinois river, 147 of Shawnee Cave, ecological study, 145 organisms, 50

PG71454.B02255
Plant animals, 128

PG71454.B02256
Plant ecology, 59 bibliography, 89 general principles, 88, 89

PG71454.B02257
Plant formations, stable and migratory, 88

PG71454.B02258
Plant galls, 143 animals in relation to, 141 biology and causes of European, 143

PG71454.B02259
Plant societies, relation to evaporation, 64, 90 relation to humidity, 90 study of Chicago, 88

PG71454.B02260
Plant succession, 90 relation to distribution of tiger beetles, 90

PG71454.B02261
Plants, and ants, 126, 127 and snails, 125 forming animal habitats, 89 influence upon insects, 135 life histories, physiological, 17 seasonal succession, 140 variation, 96

PG71454.B02262
Play of animals, 112

PG71454.B02263
_Plethodon cinereus erythronotus_, habits, 117 larval state, 117

PG71454.B02264
Poduridæ, behavior and habitat, 136 movements, 136

PG71454.B02265
Poisons, physiological effect of certain, 99

PG71454.B02266
Pollination, animals in relation to, 141

PG71454.B02267
Pollination of flowers, animals in relation, 141, 142

PG71454.B02268
Pollination of Yucca, 142

PG71454.B02269
Pond, fauna, 148 fish, ecological succession, 133 habitat, 148 Isopods, 106

PG71454.B02270
Pond snail, behavior, 120

PG71454.B02271
Pond, solution, 148

PG71454.B02272
Ponds, seasonal succession in old forest, 140

PG71454.B02273
Porcupine mountains, 91

PG71454.B02274
Postglacial dispersal of biota, 91

PG71454.B02275
Potassium cyanide, effects on sea-urchin, 99

PG71454.B02276
Potato beetles, _see Leptinotarsa_

PG71454.B02277
Predaceous beetles, food, 126, 130

PG71454.B02278
Preservation of specimens, 49, 50

PG71454.B02279
Preserves, natural, 34, 38

PG71454.B02280
Principles, value of general, 41

PG71454.B02281
Process, animal behavior as a, 102

PG71454.B02282
Process method, application, 86 of investigation, 56

PG71454.B02283
Process of adjustment, 30, 31 in organisms, 122

PG71454.B02284
Process of response, 4

PG71454.B02285
Process standpoint, 91, 101 applied to vegetation, 88

PG71454.B02286
Processes, geologic, 86 of behavior, 93 of development, 93 of growth, 93 of metabolism, 93 of research, 55 regulatory character of physico-chemical and physiological, 85 standpoint, 80, 81, 82

PG71454.B02287
Production, conditions of, in the sea, 87

PG71454.B02288
Proof, correction, 68

PG71454.B02289
Proof-reading, 65, 68

PG71454.B02290
Propagation, artificially, of fresh-water mussels, 114, 115

PG71454.B02291
Protection, of birds, 124 of useful birds, 127

PG71454.B02292
Protective coloration, 62

PG71454.B02293
Protoplasm, influence of stimuli upon, 95

PG71454.B02294
Protoplasmic respiration, 97

PG71454.B02295
Psychic, criteria, 106 development of young domestic animals, 115

PG71454.B02296
Psychology, comparative, 120 comparative, French work in, 107 English sparrow, 117 limits of comparative and genetic, 109 of ants, 120

PG71454.B02297
Publication, preparation of papers for, 65, 68

PG71454.B02298
Punctuation, 68, 69

PG71454.B02299
Quahaug, growth, 108 life history, 108

PG71454.B02300
Quantitative determination of fauna of lower Elbe, 138

PG71454.B02301
Quantitative study, 61 animal life of sea-bottom, 63, 124, 136 of birds, 59, 60 of life of sea-bottom, 63, 124, 136

PG71454.B02302
Quarnerian Gulf, animals associated in the, 135

PG71454.B02303
Rabbits, 28

PG71454.B02304
Raccoon, animal intelligence, 111

PG71454.B02305
Raccoons, instincts, 110 intelligence, 110 sense, 110 visual discrimination, 110

PG71454.B02306
Ranatra, death-feigning, 113

PG71454.B02307
Random movements and phototaxis, 105

PG71454.B02308
Rations, 62

PG71454.B02309
Record keeping, 61

PG71454.B02310
Recording notes, 64

PG71454.B02311
Red-headed woodpecker, 117

PG71454.B02312
Reef, ecological succession on an oyster, 112

PG71454.B02313
Regeneration as functional adjustment, 98

PG71454.B02314
Regulation, in behavior, 105 of insect oscillations by birds, 123 regeneration as functional, 98

PG71454.B02315
Regulative action of nervous system, 98

PG71454.B02316
Regulatory character of physico-chemical and physiological processes, 85

PG71454.B02317
Relative equilibrium, 30, 31

PG71454.B02318
Reproduction, fresh-water mussels, 114, 115 physiology, 100

PG71454.B02319
Reptiles, Arizona, 148 associations of desert species, 148 collecting, 58 desert species, 148 food of desert species, 148 New Mexico, 148

PG71454.B02320
Research methods, in plant ecology, 59, 88

PG71454.B02321
Research, processes, 55 speculative method in, 55

PG71454.B02322
Respiration, of an inland lake, 87 protoplasmic, 97

PG71454.B02323
Response, bird migration as a, 109 to strain, 85

PG71454.B02324
Responses, Isopods of ponds and streams, 106 study, 15 to chemical stimulations, 97

PG71454.B02325
Rheotaxis in Isopoda, 106

PG71454.B02326
Rheotropism in fish, 115

PG71454.B02327
Rhynchophora, biologies, 76 food habits, 72 parasites, 76

PG71454.B02328
Ring-dove, blond, 110

PG71454.B02329
River entomology, Illinois, 75

PG71454.B02330
River fauna, Danube delta, 145 lower Elbe, 138

PG71454.B02331
River habitat, flooded delta, 145

PG71454.B02332
River plankton, Illinois, 147

PG71454.B02333
Rocky Mountain locust, enemies, 77

PG71454.B02334
Rodentia, 107

PG71454.B02335
Rose coral, feeding reactions, 109

PG71454.B02336
Running water, effect on productivity of fish, 101

PG71454.B02337
Salamanders, habits, 119

PG71454.B02338
Salmon, internal parasites of Sebago, 129

PG71454.B02339
_Salpa_ and evolution of life, 123

PG71454.B02340
Salt-marsh Amphipod, habits and life history, 119

PG71454.B02341
Salt-water fauna, 111. _See also_ Marine animals

PG71454.B02342
San Diego region, Chætognatha of, 115

PG71454.B02343
Sand, ants, 149 areas of Illinois, biology, 146 prairies of Illinois, associational study, 139

PG71454.B02344
Sandy flats of the sea coast as a biotic association, 136, 137

PG71454.B02345
Sarcophagidæ, relation to lake beach débris, 147

PG71454.B02346
Saw-fly, larvæ, 78

PG71454.B02347
Scallop fishery, 108

PG71454.B02348
Scallops, 114

PG71454.B02349
_Sceloporus spinosus floridanus_, behavior, 116

PG71454.B02350
Schleswig-Holstein oyster bank described, 132

PG71454.B02351
Science, better English in, 67

PG71454.B02352
Scientific exploration, 63

PG71454.B02353
Scientific ideas, life history, 57

PG71454.B02354
Scientific investigation, methods, 56

PG71454.B02355
Scientific method, 55, 56, 57

PG71454.B02356
Scientific papers, composition, 66

PG71454.B02357
Scientific technique, 55

PG71454.B02358
Sea anemone, behavior modifiable, 105

PG71454.B02359
Sea beach, associational study, 136

PG71454.B02360
Sea-bottom, animal life, 63, 136 fauna and flora, 64 quantitative study of animals, 63

PG71454.B02361
Sea, conditions of life in, 134 conditions of production in, 87 cycle of matter in, 87 metabolism in, 87 struggle for existence in, 123 valuation of the, 136

PG71454.B02362
Seashore, animal ecology, 63, 64 animals, 146

PG71454.B02363
Season, influence on digestion of cold-blooded vertebrates, 100

PG71454.B02364
Seasonal succession, animals, 140 beetles, 140 butterflies, 140 Hemiptera, 141 in old forest ponds, 140 plants, 140

PG71454.B02365
Sea-urchin, 99 resistance to lack of oxygen, 99 resistance to potassium cyanide, 99

PG71454.B02366
Sebago salmon, internal parasites, 129

PG71454.B02367
Second-hand books, dealers in, 65

PG71454.B02368
Sense organ, Arthropods, effect of caves on, 101 of fish, 113

PG71454.B02369
Senses of insects, 111

PG71454.B02370
Sensory adaptations of cave-inhabiting bats, 112

PG71454.B02371
Sensory reactions of Amphioxus, 116

PG71454.B02372
Sequence of changes in environment, 104

PG71454.B02373
Sessile habit, influence, 100

PG71454.B02374
Serpents, food, 129 Pennsylvania, 129

PG71454.B02375
Sexual characters of Araneads, secondary, 115

PG71454.B02376
Shawnee Cave plankton, ecological study, 145

PG71454.B02377
Shell-fish, ciliary action, 114 feeding reflexes, 114 food, 114 function of mucus, 114

PG71454.B02378
Shell-fish industries, biology, 114 culture, 114 utilization, 114

PG71454.B02379
Shell-fisheries of Massachusetts, 108

PG71454.B02380
Shore, animal ecology of the, 139

PG71454.B02381
Shore animals, associational study, 139

PG71454.B02382
Significance of courtship of Araneads, 115

PG71454.B02383
Skokie Marsh area, ecology of mollusca, 137

PG71454.B02384
Slaves of ants, 120

PG71454.B02385
Slug, eyes, 110 feeding habits, 125

PG71454.B02386
Snail, eyes, 110 mud, 111 pond, 120

PG71454.B02387
Snails, and plants, 125 feeding habits, 125 food, 125 in grave, 144 influence of environment on, 100

PG71454.B02388
Snout-beetles, 76

PG71454.B02389
Snowbird, 117

PG71454.B02390
Social community, 18, 123 animals, 131 insects, 135 interrelations, 131 oyster bank, 132 sea-bottom, 136

PG71454.B02391
Social control, by voices among pigeons, 106, 134

PG71454.B02392
Social life, from comparative and phylogenetic standpoint, 132 insects, 111 multiple origin, 132 origin, 132

PG71454.B02393
Social parasitism, 126

PG71454.B02394
Social reaction, beginnings in lower animals, 134 beginnings in man, 134

PG71454.B02395
Social wasps, 117 behavior, 111

PG71454.B02396
Societies, insects, 128

PG71454.B02397
Sociology, a branch of ecology or ethology, 132 relation to ecology, 10, 11, 12

PG71454.B02398
Soil, animal life influenced by humus and tillage, 100 animals of the, 86 fauna of Alps, 144 influence upon insects, 135

PG71454.B02399
Soils, moisture, 62 study, 58

PG71454.B02400
Solitary wasps, habits, 116, 117 habits in Texas, 113 instincts, 116

PG71454.B02401
Solution pond, fauna, 148

PG71454.B02402
South Africa, insects, 128

PG71454.B02403
South Carolina, natural oyster grounds, 111

PG71454.B02404
Sow bug, eyes, 110

PG71454.B02405
Space, perception by tortoises, 121

PG71454.B02406
Sparrow, field, 117 fox, 117 song, 117 tree, 117 vesper, 117 white-crowned, 117 white-throated, 117

PG71454.B02407
Spawning habits of fish, 112

PG71454.B02408
Specimens, collecting natural history, 63 collection, 49, 50 determination, 49, 51 determined, 52 numbering, 50, 51 preservation, 49, 50

PG71454.B02409
Spiders, cocooning habits, 118 collecting, 58 habitats, 125, 138 habits, 117 instincts, 117 mating habits, 115 mental powers, 117 Nearctic, 72 systematic literature, 71

PG71454.B02410
Sponges, behavior, 116 reactions, 116

PG71454.B02411
Squirrels, behavior, 121 habits, 115

PG71454.B02412
Stable plant formations, 88

PG71454.B02413
Starfish, behavior, 105 locomotion, 110 natural history, 115

PG71454.B02414
Status, dynamic, 29, 31

PG71454.B02415
Stimulations, responses to chemical, 97

PG71454.B02416
Stimuli, influence upon growth, 95 influence upon protoplasm, 95 similar effects of diverse, 98

PG71454.B02417
Stones, fauna under, 144

PG71454.B02418
Stratigraphy, relation of marine bionomy to, 22

PG71454.B02419
Stream, animals of a small, 147, 148 environment, references to, 113 fish, ecological succession, 133 fish of a small, 147 habitat, 147, 148 Isopods, 106

PG71454.B02420
Stress, condition, 30, 31

PG71454.B02421
Struggle among organisms, 123

PG71454.B02422
Struggle for existence, 2, 122, 123 in a lake, 123 in Guiana forests, 124 in the sea, 123 references, 126

PG71454.B02423
Studies, quantitative, 61

PG71454.B02424
Style brief, Wistar Institute, 68

PG71454.B02425
Style manual, 68

PG71454.B02426
Subterranean. _See also_ Cave

PG71454.B02427
Subterranean animals, 58, 86, 143, 144, 145

PG71454.B02428
Subterranean Isopods, behavior, 108

PG71454.B02429
Succession, animals in oyster beds, 131 associations of inland habitats, 91

PG71454.B02430
Succession, beetles, 145 ecological, 101 ecological, birds, 21, 124, 133 ecological, in the grave, 144 ecological, on oyster reef, 112 in stages of decay, 144, 146 mammal, 145 mollusks, 137 seasonal, 140

PG71454.B02431
Successions, initiated by insects, 127

PG71454.B02432
Suggestions to authors, 68

PG71454.B02433
Summer-bird life near Havana, Illinois, 146

PG71454.B02434
Surgery, emergency, 65

PG71454.B02435
Surveying, 65

PG71454.B02436
Surveys, ecological, 23, 67 ecological training for, 32 natural history, 23, 30 non-ecological, 31

PG71454.B02437
_Sycotypus_ eating oysters, mussels, and clams, 110

PG71454.B02438
Symbiosis, 127, 128, 130

PG71454.B02439
_Talorchestia longicornis_, habits and life history, 119

PG71454.B02440
Tanganyika problem, 89

PG71454.B02441
Taste, fish’s organ of, 112

PG71454.B02442
Taxonomy, 54 relation to ecology, 8

PG71454.B02443
Teaching, relation to ecology, 13

PG71454.B02444
Technique, 15, 57 of fresh-water biology, 62 scientific, 55

PG71454.B02445
Temperature, effect of extremes, 99 in open and wooded areas, 91 influence on digestion of cold-blooded vertebrates, 100 lowering of, and loss of water, 99 physiological effects of high temperature, 99

PG71454.B02446
Termites, Arthropods living with, 130

PG71454.B02447
Terns, noddy and sooty, behavior, 120

PG71454.B02448
Terrapin, diamond-back, cultivation, 110 natural history, 110

PG71454.B02449
Texas, habits of solitary wasps, 113 wasps, solitary, habits, 113

PG71454.B02450
Theory, use, 40

PG71454.B02451
Thermocline, biological significance, 87

PG71454.B02452
Tiger beetles, larval habits, 118 life histories, 118 relation of distribution to plant succession, 90

PG71454.B02453
Tipulidæ, 76

PG71454.B02454
Toad, American, 100

PG71454.B02455
Tomahawk Lake, Wis., Mollusca of, 137

PG71454.B02456
Tortoise, Florida land, 135 habits, 116 perception of space, 121

PG71454.B02457
Tracks and tracking, 58

PG71454.B02458
Trapping, 39, 60

PG71454.B02459
Tree frogs, behavior, 112 color changes, 112

PG71454.B02460
Trees, insects affecting, 74

PG71454.B02461
Trematoda and trematode diseases, index to literature, 129

PG71454.B02462
Trial and error, 104

PG71454.B02463
Tubicolous Annelids, behavior, 112

PG71454.B02464
Turbellarian, behavior, 127 ecology, 127 food, 127 habitat, 127

PG71454.B02465
Turtles, cultivation, 110 discriminative ability of painted, 109 food, 129 formation of habits, 105 natural history, 110 Pennsylvania, 129

PG71454.B02466
_Turtur risorius_, 110

PG71454.B02467
Types of eyes, image-forming powers of various, 110

PG71454.B02468
Typography, 68

PG71454.B02469
Use of theory, 40

PG71454.B02470
Utah, 55

PG71454.B02471
_Vanessa antiopa_ Linn., phototropism, 116

PG71454.B02472
Variation, in animals, 96 in plants, 96 statistical, 60

PG71454.B02473
Vegetation, and animal associations, 90 and control of land animal communities, 133 Caithness, 88 changes in, 88 controlling land animal communities, 90 correlated with lake fauna, 140 development and structure, 88 invading alluvial flats, 89 invading new land surface, 89

PG71454.B02474
Vegetational change, influence upon animals, 85

PG71454.B02475
Vegetational control, of relative evaporating power of the air, 90 of relative humidity of air, 90

PG71454.B02476
Vegetative cycles, causes, 88

PG71454.B02477
_Venus mercenaria_, growth, 108, 114 habits, 114 life history, 108

PG71454.B02478
Veterinary zoölogy, bibliography, 129

PG71454.B02479
Vineyard Sound, invertebrate animals of, 136

PG71454.B02480
Visual discrimination in raccoons, 110

PG71454.B02481
Vital conditions, optimum, 99

PG71454.B02482
Vital optimum, 94

PG71454.B02483
Voices of pigeons as means of social control, 106, 134

PG71454.B02484
Volcanic activity and new land surface, 89

PG71454.B02485
Volcanic islands, new flora, 89

PG71454.B02486
“Walking stick,” behavior, 119 habits, 119 mating instincts, 119 reactions, 119

PG71454.B02487
Walnut Lake, ecological relations of fish, 147 fish ecology, 147

PG71454.B02488
Warning coloration, 62 testing by experiment, 125

PG71454.B02489
Warning colors, insects of South Africa, 128

PG71454.B02490
Wasps, social, 117 behavior, 110

PG71454.B02491
Wasps, solitary, habits, 116, 117 habits, of Texas, 113 instincts, 116, 117

PG71454.B02492
Water, loss of and lowering of temperature, 99 running, effect on productivity of fish, 101 standing, effect on productivity of fish, 101

PG71454.B02493
Weights and measures, 69

PG71454.B02494
Wild life, photography, 61 study, 61

PG71454.B02495
Windermere, Lake, 90

PG71454.B02496
Wisdom, blindness of, 103

PG71454.B02497
Wistar Institute, style brief, 68

PG71454.B02498
Wood borers, 77

PG71454.B02499
Woodcraft, 61

PG71454.B02500
Woodland, ants, 149 associations of ants, 149 atmospheric conditions about, 91 birds as protectors, 124

PG71454.B02501
Woodland trees, insects affecting, 74

PG71454.B02502
Woodpecker, red-headed, 117

PG71454.B02503
Woodpeckers, food, 126

PG71454.B02504
Worms, eyes, 110

PG71454.B02505
Yucca, moth, 142 pollination, 142

PG71454.B02506
Zoölogical Record, 70

PG71454.B02507
Zoölogist, economic, 29

PG71454.B02508
Zoölogy, experimental, 96

PG71454.B02509
_Zostera marina_, ecology in Danish waters, 89

PG71454.B02510
Zygoptera, life histories, 76

PG71454.B02511
INDEX TO NAMES

PG71454.B02512
Adams, Chas. C., 21, 22, 86, 91, 94, 99, 124, 133, 145

PG71454.B02513
Adler, H., 143

PG71454.B02514
Aldrich, J. M., 71

PG71454.B02515
Allbutt, T. C., 66

PG71454.B02516
Allee, W. C., 106, 118, 140

PG71454.B02517
Andrews, E. A., 108

PG71454.B02518
Antipa, G., 145

PG71454.B02519
Appel, O., 141, 142

PG71454.B02520
Bachmetjew, P., 96

PG71454.B02521
Baker, F. C., 108, 137

PG71454.B02522
Baker, H. B., 145

PG71454.B02523
Baldwin, E. L., 112

PG71454.B02524
Balfour, I. B., 89

PG71454.B02525
Bancroft, W. D., 85

PG71454.B02526
Banks, N., 58, 65, 71

PG71454.B02527
Banta, A. M., 108, 143

PG71454.B02528
Baskerville, C., 97

PG71454.B02529
Bates, 23, 42

PG71454.B02530
Beal, F. E. L., 126

PG71454.B02531
Belding, D. L., 108

PG71454.B02532
Belt, 23

PG71454.B02533
Bendire, C., 109

PG71454.B02534
Bethune, C. J. S., 72

PG71454.B02535
Betten, C., 75

PG71454.B02536
Beutenmüller, W., 72, 143

PG71454.B02537
Birge, E. A., 87

PG71454.B02538
Blackman, 94, 98

PG71454.B02539
Blackwall, J., 108

PG71454.B02540
Blatchley, W. S., 144

PG71454.B02541
Boas, F., 56

PG71454.B02542
Bohn, G., 107

PG71454.B02543
Bouvier, E. L., 141

PG71454.B02544
Böving, A. G., 109

PG71454.B02545
Brandt, K., 87

PG71454.B02546
Bretscher, K., 58

PG71454.B02547
Brooks, W. K., 3, 17, 36, 42, 79, 82, 122, 123

PG71454.B02548
Brues, C. T., 134

PG71454.B02549
Brunner, J., 58

PG71454.B02550
Buffon, 20

PG71454.B02551
Burdon-Sanderson, J. K., 1, 18

PG71454.B02552
Burns, F. L., 59

PG71454.B02553
Buttel-Reepen, H. von, 109

PG71454.B02554
Calkins, M. W., 109

PG71454.B02555
Carpenter, F. W., 109

PG71454.B02556
Case, E. C., 21

PG71454.B02557
Cassell, 53

PG71454.B02558
Casteel, D. B., 109

PG71454.B02559
Caudell, A. N., 73

PG71454.B02560
Chamberlin, T. C., 55, 86

PG71454.B02561
Chapman, F. M., 39, 59, 61, 126, 145

PG71454.B02562
Chittenden, F. H., 72

PG71454.B02563
Clarke, W. E., 109

PG71454.B02564
Clements, F. E., 21, 59, 61, 88

PG71454.B02565
Clessin, S., 100

PG71454.B02566
Coker, R. E., 110

PG71454.B02567
Cole, L. J., 110

PG71454.B02568
Cole, L. W., 110

PG71454.B02569
Colton, H. S., 100, 110

PG71454.B02570
Comstock, J. H., 43, 59, 72

PG71454.B02571
Congdon, E. D., 107

PG71454.B02572
Cook, M. T., 143

PG71454.B02573
Cook, O. F., 30, 90

PG71454.B02574
Coquillett, D. W., 73

PG71454.B02575
Coues, E., 107

PG71454.B02576
Cowles, H. C., 88

PG71454.B02577
Craig, W., 106, 110, 134

PG71454.B02578
Cramer, F., 56

PG71454.B02579
Crampton, C. B., 88

PG71454.B02580
Cresson, E. T., 73

PG71454.B02581
Currie, R. P., 73

PG71454.B02582
Curtis, W. C., 114

PG71454.B02583
Cushman, R. A., 125

PG71454.B02584
Dahl, F., 18, 59, 61, 125, 135, 137, 139, 146

PG71454.B02585
Darwin, Charles, 2, 20, 23, 41, 56, 122, 123

PG71454.B02586
Davenport, C. B., 60, 95, 136

PG71454.B02587
Davis, H. B., 111

PG71454.B02588
Davis, W. M., 67, 86

PG71454.B02589
Dawson, J., 110

PG71454.B02590
Dean, B., 111

PG71454.B02591
Dearborn, N., 130

PG71454.B02592
Dendy, A., 144

PG71454.B02593
De Vinne, T. L., 68

PG71454.B02594
Diem, K., 144

PG71454.B02595
Dimmock, G., 73

PG71454.B02596
Dimon, A. C., 111

PG71454.B02597
Dodge, C. R., 73

PG71454.B02598
Dyar, H. G., 73

PG71454.B02599
Edwards, H., 73

PG71454.B02600
Eichelbaum, E., 126

PG71454.B02601
Embody, G. C., 111

PG71454.B02602
Emerton, J. H., 125

PG71454.B02603
Emery, C., 21

PG71454.B02604
Enderlein, G., 59, 139

PG71454.B02605
Enteman, M. M., 111

PG71454.B02606
Ernst, A., 89

PG71454.B02607
Espinas, Alfred, 132

PG71454.B02608
Fabre, J. H., 111

PG71454.B02609
Felt, E. P., 74

PG71454.B02610
Fernald, C. H., 74

PG71454.B02611
Fernald, J. C., 66

PG71454.B02612
Fernow, B. E., 90

PG71454.B02613
Fischer, E., 98, 99

PG71454.B02614
Flahault, C., 22, 60

PG71454.B02615
Florentin, R., 111

PG71454.B02616
Folsom, J. W., 74

PG71454.B02617
Forbes, S. A., 20, 21, 23, 49, 60, 74, 123, 126, 131, 132, 140

PG71454.B02618
Forbes, W. T. M., 74

PG71454.B02619
Forbush, E. H., 74, 124, 127

PG71454.B02620
Forel, A., 111, 127

PG71454.B02621
Fritsch, C., 140

PG71454.B02622
Fuller, G. D., 90

PG71454.B02623
Fürth, O. von, 95

PG71454.B02624
Gamble, F. W., 127

PG71454.B02625
Ganong, W. F., 17

PG71454.B02626
Gates, F. C., 146

PG71454.B02627
Geisler, M. H., 109

PG71454.B02628
Gibson, W. H., 60

PG71454.B02629
Gilbert, G. K., 55

PG71454.B02630
Gill, T., 112

PG71454.B02631
Girod, P., 146

PG71454.B02632
Gleason, H. A., 146

PG71454.B02633
Glover, Townend, 73

PG71454.B02634
Grabau, A. W., 22, 146

PG71454.B02635
Grave, C., 112

PG71454.B02636
Greeley, A. W., 99

PG71454.B02637
Groom, P., 89

PG71454.B02638
Groos, K., 112

PG71454.B02639
Gurley, R. R., 112

PG71454.B02640
Hadley, P. B., 105

PG71454.B02641
Haeckel, E., 2, 19

PG71454.B02642
Hahn, W., 112

PG71454.B02643
Hamann, O., 144

PG71454.B02644
Hammarsten, O., 95

PG71454.B02645
Hancock, J. L., 137

PG71454.B02646
Hankinson, T. L., 147

PG71454.B02647
Hargitt, C. W., 103, 112

PG71454.B02648
Harrington, M. W., 90

PG71454.B02649
Harris, J. A., 113

PG71454.B02650
Hart, C. A., 75, 146

PG71454.B02651
Hartman, C., 113

PG71454.B02652
Hassall, A., 129

PG71454.B02653
Hayden, F. P., 77

PG71454.B02654
Heim, 127

PG71454.B02655
Henderson, L. J., 85

PG71454.B02656
Hensen, V., 60

PG71454.B02657
Henshaw, S., 71, 75

PG71454.B02658
Herdmann, W. A., 21

PG71454.B02659
Herms, W. B., 147

PG71454.B02660
Herrick, C. J., 113

PG71454.B02661
Herrick, C. L., 39, 61, 97, 134

PG71454.B02662
Herrick, F. H., 102, 106, 113, 134

PG71454.B02663
Hodge, C. F., 113

PG71454.B02664
Holmes, S. J., 97, 104, 105, 107, 113

PG71454.B02665
Hood, C. E., 125

PG71454.B02666
Hopkins, A. D., 43, 61, 127

PG71454.B02667
Höppner, H., 139

PG71454.B02668
Houard, C., 143

PG71454.B02669
Hubbard, H. G., 75, 127, 135

PG71454.B02670
Huber, J., 128

PG71454.B02671
Huggins, G. E., 106

PG71454.B02672
Hunter, W. D., 135

PG71454.B02673
Huxley, T. H., 11, 12, 13, 17

PG71454.B02674
Jacob, 19

PG71454.B02675
Jager, G., 134

PG71454.B02676
Jennings, H. S., 92, 96, 97, 102, 105, 107, 114

PG71454.B02677
Jensen, P. B., 63, 96, 136

PG71454.B02678
Jevons, S., 56

PG71454.B02679
Job, H. K., 61

PG71454.B02680
Johannsen, O. A., 75

PG71454.B02681
Johnstone, J., 87, 124

PG71454.B02682
Jordan, H., 147

PG71454.B02683
Juday, C., 87

PG71454.B02684
Judd, S. D., 125, 128

PG71454.B02685
Kearton, R., 39, 61

PG71454.B02686
Keeble, F., 127, 128

PG71454.B02687
Keller, C., 100

PG71454.B02688
Kellogg, J. L., 114

PG71454.B02689
Kephart, H., 61

PG71454.B02690
Keyes, C. R., 56

PG71454.B02691
King, L. A. L., 63, 139

PG71454.B02692
Kirby, W., 19, 128

PG71454.B02693
Kirchner, O. von, 143

PG71454.B02694
Knab, F., 73

PG71454.B02695
Knauthe, K., 62, 100

PG71454.B02696
Knuth, P., 141, 142

PG71454.B02697
Kofoid, C. A., 147

PG71454.B02698
Kropotkin, P., 133

PG71454.B02699
Küster, E., 143

PG71454.B02700
Lamborn, R. H., 72

PG71454.B02701
Lane, E. C., 108

PG71454.B02702
Lang, A., 100

PG71454.B02703
Lankester, E. R., 19

PG71454.B02704
LeBon, G., 57

PG71454.B02705
Lee, A. B., 62

PG71454.B02706
Lefevre, G., 114

PG71454.B02707
Lewes, G. H., 66

PG71454.B02708
Lillie, F. R., 97

PG71454.B02709
Livingston, B. E., 62

PG71454.B02710
Lintner, J. A., 74, 147

PG71454.B02711
Locard, A., 100, 138

PG71454.B02712
Loeb, J., 96

PG71454.B02713
Loew, E., 141, 142

PG71454.B02714
Long, F. M., 110

PG71454.B02715
Lorenz, J. R., 135

PG71454.B02716
Lyon, E. P., 99, 115

PG71454.B02717
McAtee, W. L., 58, 62, 125, 128

PG71454.B02718
McCreary, O., 148

PG71454.B02719
Macdonald, W., 126

PG71454.B02720
MacDougal, R., 57

PG71454.B02721
MacGillivray, A. D., 75

PG71454.B02722
Mandel, J. A., 95

PG71454.B02723
Marshall, F. H., 100

PG71454.B02724
Marshall, G. A. K., 128

PG71454.B02725
Martin, J., 77

PG71454.B02726
Massart, J., 126

PG71454.B02727
Mast, S. O., 107, 115

PG71454.B02728
Mathews, A. P., 97

PG71454.B02729
Mayer, A. G., 106

PG71454.B02730
Mead, A. D., 115

PG71454.B02731
Melander, A. L., 134

PG71454.B02732
Meldola, R., 55

PG71454.B02733
Meyer, H. A., 138

PG71454.B02734
Miall, B., 111

PG71454.B02735
Michael, E., 115

PG71454.B02736
Middleton, N., 77

PG71454.B02737
Mill, J. S., 56, 79

PG71454.B02738
Miller, N., 100

PG71454.B02739
Mills, W., 115

PG71454.B02740
Minot, C. S., 71

PG71454.B02741
Mitchell, J. D., 135

PG71454.B02742
Möbius, K., 6, 18, 29, 131, 138

PG71454.B02743
Moffat, 146

PG71454.B02744
Möller, L., 135

PG71454.B02745
Montgomery, T. H., 115

PG71454.B02746
Moore, J. E. S., 89

PG71454.B02747
Morgan, T. H., 96, 97

PG71454.B02748
Morse, A. P., 148

PG71454.B02749
Motter, M. G., 144

PG71454.B02750
Müller, H., 141, 142

PG71454.B02751
Needham, J. G., 75, 76, 142

PG71454.B02752
Neumayer, G. von, 63

PG71454.B02753
Newman, H. H., 116

PG71454.B02754
Orcutt, W. D., 69

PG71454.B02755
Ortmann, A. E., 116, 139

PG71454.B02756
Ostenfeld, C. H., 89

PG71454.B02757
Packard, A. S., 74, 76, 144

PG71454.B02758
Packard, W. H., 99

PG71454.B02759
Palmer, T. S., 124

PG71454.B02760
Parker, G. H., 116

PG71454.B02761
Parmelee, M., 133

PG71454.B02762
Patterson, J. T., 116

PG71454.B02763
Pearl, R., 63, 105, 116

PG71454.B02764
Pearse, A. S., 107, 116

PG71454.B02765
Pearson, K., 56

PG71454.B02766
Peckham, E. G., 116

PG71454.B02767
Peckham, G. W., 116

PG71454.B02768
Peters, A. W., 88

PG71454.B02769
Petersen, C. G. Joh., 61, 63, 64, 136

PG71454.B02770
Petrucci, R., 132

PG71454.B02771
Pierce, W. D., 76, 125, 139

PG71454.B02772
Piersol, W. H., 117

PG71454.B02773
Playfair, J., 80

PG71454.B02774
Porter, J. P., 117

PG71454.B02775
Poulton, E. B., 117

PG71454.B02776
Pratt, F. C., 135

PG71454.B02777
Przibram, H., 96

PG71454.B02778
Pütter, A., 95

PG71454.B02779
Rauschenplat, E., 129

PG71454.B02780
Reighard, J., 39, 63, 117

PG71454.B02781
Reynaud, G., 118

PG71454.B02782
Richards, H. M., 97

PG71454.B02783
Richardson, R. E., 140

PG71454.B02784
Rickard, T. A., 67

PG71454.B02785
Riddle, O., 100

PG71454.B02786
Riley, C. F. Curtis, 118

PG71454.B02787
Riley, C. V., 76, 77, 129, 142

PG71454.B02788
Robertson, C., 142

PG71454.B02789
Rodway, J., 124

PG71454.B02790
Rosenthal, J., 95

PG71454.B02791
Ross, H., 143

PG71454.B02792
Russell, E. S., 63, 101, 139

PG71454.B02793
Ruthven, A. G., 91, 148

PG71454.B02794
Ryder, J. A., 124

PG71454.B02795
St. Hilaire, I. Geoffray, 19

PG71454.B02796
Salisbury, R. D., 86

PG71454.B02797
Sanderson, E. D., 44, 64

PG71454.B02798
Schäfer, E. A., 97

PG71454.B02799
Scheffer, T. H., 118

PG71454.B02800
Schiemenz, P., 101

PG71454.B02801
Schröter, C., 22, 60

PG71454.B02802
Schwarz, E. A., 77, 135

PG71454.B02803
Scott, F. N., 66

PG71454.B02804
Scott, W., 145, 148

PG71454.B02805
Scudder, S. H., 77

PG71454.B02806
Seitz, A., 118

PG71454.B02807
Semper, K., 96

PG71454.B02808
Seton, Ernest Thompson, 118

PG71454.B02809
Severin, H. C., 118

PG71454.B02810
Severin, H. H. P., 118

PG71454.B02811
Seward, A. C., 89

PG71454.B02812
Shelford, V. E., 21, 90, 94, 101, 112, 118, 133, 138

PG71454.B02813
Sherrington, C. S., 98

PG71454.B02814
Simpson, C. B., 64

PG71454.B02815
Simpson, C. T., 119

PG71454.B02816
Simroth, H., 148

PG71454.B02817
Sladen, F. W. L., 119

PG71454.B02818
Smallwood, M. E., 119

PG71454.B02819
Smith, B. G., 119

PG71454.B02820
Soule, C. G., 106

PG71454.B02821
Spence, W., 19, 128

PG71454.B02822
Spencer, Herbert, 92

PG71454.B02823
Sprengel, 19

PG71454.B02824
Stahl, E., 125

PG71454.B02825
Stenroos, K. E., 139

PG71454.B02826
Steuer, A., 148

PG71454.B02827
Stiles, C. W., 129

PG71454.B02828
Stockard, C. R., 119

PG71454.B02829
Straton, C. R., 143

PG71454.B02830
Strong, 20

PG71454.B02831
Sumner, F. B., 64

PG71454.B02832
Surface, H. A., 129

PG71454.B02833
Thomas, C., 76, 77

PG71454.B02834
Thompson, D. W., 142

PG71454.B02835
Tower, W. L., 119

PG71454.B02836
Townsend, C. H. T., 78

PG71454.B02837
Transeau, E. N., 64, 90

PG71454.B02838
Trelease, W., 142

PG71454.B02839
Turner, 107

PG71454.B02840
Tutt, J. W., 119

PG71454.B02841
Uexkuell, J. von, 107

PG71454.B02842
Vandervelde, E., 126

PG71454.B02843
Van Hise, C. R., 40, 43, 55, 56, 86

PG71454.B02844
Varigny, H. de, 96

PG71454.B02845
Vaughan, T. W., 89

PG71454.B02846
Vaux, C. B., 68

PG71454.B02847
Vergil, 19

PG71454.B02848
Vernon, H. M., 96

PG71454.B02849
Verrill, A. E., 136

PG71454.B02850
Verworn, M., 95

PG71454.B02851
Vestal, A. G., 139

PG71454.B02852
Vire, A., 101

PG71454.B02853
Voigt, W., 119

PG71454.B02854
Von Marten, 138

PG71454.B02855
Vosseler, J., 101

PG71454.B02856
Wagner, W., 120

PG71454.B02857
Wainwright, D. B., 64

PG71454.B02858
Wallace, 19, 23, 41

PG71454.B02859
Walter, H. E., 105, 120

PG71454.B02860
Walther, J., 22

PG71454.B02861
Ward, H. B., 78, 129

PG71454.B02862
Warman, P. C., 67

PG71454.B02863
Warming, E., 89, 136

PG71454.B02864
Washburn, M. F., 106, 107

PG71454.B02865
Wasmann, E., 18, 120, 130

PG71454.B02866
Watson, J. B., 107, 120

PG71454.B02867
Watson, J. R., 148

PG71454.B02868
Waxweiler, E., 132

PG71454.B02869
Webster, F. M., 130

PG71454.B02870
Weed, C. M., 130

PG71454.B02871
Weiss, F. E., 90

PG71454.B02872
Wendell, B., 66

PG71454.B02873
Wesenberg-Lund, C., 134, 136, 140

PG71454.B02874
Wheeler, W. M., 18, 19, 22, 107, 111, 120, 126, 130, 131, 149

PG71454.B02875
Whipple, G. C., 78

PG71454.B02876
White, C. A., 22

PG71454.B02877
Whitman, C. O., 103, 121

PG71454.B02878
Wickham, H. F., 121, 149

PG71454.B02879
Wilson, E. B., 98

PG71454.B02880
Wilson, H. M., 65

PG71454.B02881
Winterstein, H., 95

PG71454.B02882
Wood, G. M., 68

PG71454.B02883
Wood, J. G., 140

PG71454.B02884
Wood, T., 140

PG71454.B02885
Woodman, J. E., 146

PG71454.B02886
Woodworth, J. B., 86

PG71454.B02887
Woolley, E. C., 69

PG71454.B02888
Wright, A. H., 64

PG71454.B02889
Yearsley, M., 111

PG71454.B02890
Yerkes, A. W., 106

PG71454.B02891
Yerkes, R. M., 105, 106, 107, 121

PG71454.B02892
Yoakum, C. S., 121

PG71454.B02893
Zacharias, O., 130

PG71454.B02894
Zoethout, W. D., 99

PG71454.B02895
Zon, Raphael, 89

PG71454.B02896
The following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects.

PG71454.B02897
=Genetics.= An Introduction to the Study of Heredity

PG71454.B02898
BY HERBERT EUGENE WALTER Assistant Professor of Biology, Brown University

PG71454.B02899
_Cloth, 12mo, $1.50 net; postpaid, $1.63_

PG71454.B02900
In his “Genetics” Professor Walter summarizes the more recent phases of the study of heredity and gives to the non-technical readers a clear introduction to questions that are at present agitating the biological world.

PG71454.B02901
Professor Walter’s conception of sexual reproduction is that it is a device for doubling the possible variations in the offspring, by the mingling of two strains of germ plasm. The weight of probability, he concludes, is decidedly against the time-honored belief in the inheritance of acquired characters. Professor Walter also predicts that the key to this whole problem will be furnished by the chemist, and that the final analysis of the matter of the “heritage carriers” will be seen to be chemical rather than morphological in nature. In the practical application of this theory to human conservation or eugenics, it would follow that the only control that a man has over the inheritance of his children is in selecting his wife. Professor Walter holds, if only modifications of the germ plasm can count in inheritance, and if these modifications come wholly from the combination of two germ plasms, then the only method of hereditary influence is in this selection.

PG71454.B02902
“I find that it is a very useful study for an introduction to the subject. Professor Walter has certainly made one of the clearest statements of the matters involved that I have seen, and has made a book which students will find very useful because he keeps everything in such entirely simple and clear outlines, and at the same time he has brought the book up to date.”--PROFESSOR LOOMIS of Amherst College.

PG71454.B02903
“I am much pleased with it and congratulate you upon securing so excellent a treatment. It is one of the most readable scientific books I have, and goes unerringly to the fundamentals of our most recent advances in the experimental study of heredity as well as those of the older studies.”--PROFESSOR GEORGE H. SHULL, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y.

PG71454.B02904
“There was a decided need for just such a work. The book strikes me as most excellently done.”--PROFESSOR H. S. JENNINGS, Johns Hopkins University.

PG71454.B02905
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY =Publishers= =64-66 Fifth Avenue= =New York=

PG71454.B02906
The Fitness of the Environment

PG71454.B02907
BY LAWRENCE J. HENDERSON Assistant Professor of Biological Chemistry in Harvard University

PG71454.B02908
_Cloth, 12mo, $1.50 net_

PG71454.B02909
“Darwinian fitness is compounded of a mutual relationship between the organism and the environment. Of this, fitness of environment is quite as essential a component as the fitness which arises in the process of organic evolution; and in fundamental characteristics the actual environment is the fittest possible abode of life.” Such is the thesis which this work seeks to establish through discussions of the physical and chemical characteristics of life and cosmogony, and through critical study of the properties of matter in their biological relations.

PG71454.B02910
Water and carbonic acid are shown to be the primary constituents of the environment. Analysis shows their properties, together with those of the component elements, hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon, to make up a series of maxima, among all known compounds and elements, so numerous, so varied, and so highly favorable, to the organic mechanism that the fitness of the world for life assumes an importance not less than the fitness which has been won by adaptation in the course of organic evolution.

PG71454.B02911
A final chapter discusses the bearing of these conclusions upon theories of organic evolution, modern vitalism, including the views of M. Bergson, and the old natural theology, and seeks to harmonize implications of design with the mechanistic view of nature.

PG71454.B02912
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY =Publishers= =64-66 Fifth Avenue= =New York=

PG71454.B02913
COLLEGE ZOÖLOGY

PG71454.B02914
By

PG71454.B02915
ROBERT W. HEGNER, Ph.D.

PG71454.B02916
Assistant Professor of Zoölogy in the University of Michigan

PG71454.B02917
_Illustrated, Cloth, 12mo, xxiv + 733 pp., $2.60 net_

PG71454.B02918
This book is intended to serve as a text for beginning students in universities and colleges, or for students who have already taken a course in general biology and wish to gain a more comprehensive view of the animal kingdom. It differs from many of the college text-books of zoölogy now on the market in several important respects: (1) the animals and their organs are not only described, but their functions are pointed out; (2) the animals described are in most cases native species; and (3) the relations of the animals to man are emphasized. Besides serving as a text-book, it is believed that this book will be of interest to the general reader, since it gives a bird’s-eye view of the entire animal kingdom as we know it at the present time.

PG71454.B02919
Within the past decade there has been a tendency for teachers of zoölogy to pay less attention to morphology and more to physiology. As a prominent morphologist recently said, “Morphology ... is no longer in favor ... and among a section of the zoölogical world has almost fallen into disgrace” (Bourne). The study of the form and structure of animals is, however, of fundamental importance, and is absolutely necessary before physiological processes can be fully understood; but a course which is built up on the “old-fashioned morphological lines” is no longer adequate for the presentation of zoölogical principles.

PG71454.B02920
The present volume has not been made by merely adding a description of the vertebrates to the author’s “Introduction to Zoölogy” (for a brief account of which see the last pages of this circular). On the contrary, it is a new work throughout, although the same general method of treatment, which proved so successful in the earlier book, has been employed in this one. Similarly, in the preparation of this book the author has submitted the manuscript of each chapter to a scholar and teacher of unquestioned authority in the particular field. The criticisms and suggestions thus secured have greatly increased both the accuracy and the practicability of the text.

PG71454.B02921
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY =Publishers= =64-66 Fifth Avenue= =New York=

PG71454.B02922
An Introduction to Zoölogy

PG71454.B02923
By

PG71454.B02924
ROBERT W. HEGNER, Ph.D.

PG71454.B02925
Instructor in Zoölogy in the University of Michigan

PG71454.B02926
_Illustrated, 12mo, $1.90 net_

PG71454.B02927
Only a few animals belonging to the more important phyla, as viewed from an evolutionary standpoint, are considered. They are, however, intensively studied in an endeavor to teach the fundamental principles of Zoölogy in a way that is not possible when a superficial examination of types from all the phyla is made. Furthermore, morphology is not specially emphasized, but is coördinated with physiology, ecology, and behavior, and serves to illustrate by a comparative study the probable course of evolution. The animals are not treated as inert objects for dissection, but as living organisms whose activities are of fundamental importance. No arguments are necessary to justify the “type course,” developed with the problems of organic evolution in mind, and dealing with dynamic as well as static phenomena.

PG71454.B02928
“I have read your chapter (The Crayfish and Arthropods in General) and can express my satisfaction with reference to the general arrangement of the matter, as well as with reference to the detail. The whole treatment is up to date, taking account of the modern advancement in our knowledge of the crayfishes, and, chief of all, the more important features in the natural history of these animals are very properly separated from the unimportant ones. I think this chapter gives the essence of what we know about crayfishes, and any student might use the book advantageously. In fact, I know no other text-book which gives such a wealth of information upon so few pages.”--Professor A. E. ORTHMANN, Carnegie Museum.

PG71454.B02929
“The plan is very satisfactory, and the book will be very instructive for class use. I am very glad that you have chosen the bee as your insect type.” (Chapter XII.)--Dr. E. E. PHILLIPS, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

PG71454.B02930
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY =Publishers= =64-66 Fifth Avenue= =New York=

PG71454.B02931
Household Bacteriology

PG71454.B02932
BY

PG71454.B02933
ESTELLE D. BUCHANAN, M.S.

PG71454.B02934
Recently Assistant Professor of Botany, Iowa State College

PG71454.B02935
AND

PG71454.B02936
ROBERT EARLE BUCHANAN, PH.D.

PG71454.B02937
Professor of Bacteriology, Iowa State College, and Bacteriologist of the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station

PG71454.B02938
_Cloth, 8vo, xv + 536 pp., index, $2.25 net_

PG71454.B02939
The word Household is used as an extension rather than a limitation of the title. In a thoroughly scientific manner the authors treat the subject-matter of general as well as of household bacteriology and include, therefore, the true bacteria as well as the yeasts, molds, and protozoa. The volume is, therefore, a general textbook of micro-biology in which special attention is given to those problems which are of particular interest to the student of household science. The main divisions of the book treat (1) the micro-organisms themselves, (2) fermentations with special reference to those affecting foods, (3) the relations of bacteria and other micro-organisms to health. A fully illustrated key (comprising 37 pages) to the families and genera of common molds, supplements the unusually extended discussion of the morphology and classification of yeasts and molds, and makes possible the satisfactory identification of all forms ordinarily encountered by the student. The work embodies the results of the most recent researches. The book is exceptionally well written, the different topics are treated consistently and with a good sense of proportion. While concise in statement, it is thorough in method and scope. It is, therefore, well adapted for use as a text not only _for students of household science_, but _also_ for those to whom it is desired to present the science of bacteriology from _an economic and sanitary rather than from a strictly medical point of view_.

PG71454.B02940
“The book is a concisely written work on micro-biology, a branch of economic science that the public is beginning gradually to understand, has important relationship to the total welfare and prosperity of the community.... The manual can be recommended as a very good elementary bacteriology. It comprises about all there is of practical domestic value.”--_Boston Advertiser._

PG71454.B02941
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY =Publishers= =64-66 Fifth Avenue= =New York=

PG71454.B02942
A Laboratory Guide to the Study of Parasitology

PG71454.B02943
BY W. B. HERMS

PG71454.B02944
University of California, Berkeley, California; Author of “Malaria: Cause and Control”

PG71454.B02945
_Cloth, 8vo, xv + 72 pages, 80 cents net_

PG71454.B02946
PART I--MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY PART II--HELMINTHOLOGY PART III--LIFE HISTORY STUDIES ON LIVING PARASITES

PG71454.B02947
With the rapid growth of parasitology there is also a growing demand for laboratory instruction in this field. The author’s greatest desire during the time that he has been engaged in teaching this subject has been to place the work upon a good systematic footing, giving it proper rank with other phases of applied biology. The exercises in this volume are based upon two standard courses given at the University of California during the last four years. These courses are Human Parasitology (first half-year) and Veterinary Parasitology (second half-year). Each exercise has had careful testing in the laboratory and is practical.

PG71454.B02948
The aim of this guide is to give the student a wide, practical view of the field, so that he may have a fair grasp of the general subject in its application to the health and well-being of man and beast. The exercises are in sufficient detail to enable the student to continue work on some specific group or species if he so chooses.

PG71454.B02949
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY =Publishers= =64-66 Fifth Avenue= =New York=

PG71454.B02950
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GUIDE TO THE STUDY OF ANIMAL ECOLOGY ***

PG71454.B02951
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.

PG71454.B02952
Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

PG71454.B02953
START: FULL LICENSE

PG71454.B02954
THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG™ LICENSE

PG71454.B02955
PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

PG71454.B02956
To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license.

PG71454.B02957
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg electronic works

PG71454.B02958
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

PG71454.B02959
1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

PG71454.B02960
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg License when you share it without charge with others.

PG71454.B02961
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country other than the United States.

PG71454.B02962
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

PG71454.B02963
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

PG71454.B02964
This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

PG71454.B02965
1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

PG71454.B02966
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

PG71454.B02967
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg.

PG71454.B02968
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg License.

PG71454.B02969
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

PG71454.B02970
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

PG71454.B02971
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg electronic works provided that:

PG71454.B02972
• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”

PG71454.B02973
• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.

PG71454.B02974
• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work.

PG71454.B02975
• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

PG71454.B02976
1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

PG71454.B02977
1.F.

PG71454.B02978
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

PG71454.B02979
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

PG71454.B02980
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

PG71454.B02981
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

PG71454.B02982
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

PG71454.B02983
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

PG71454.B02984
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg

PG71454.B02985
Project Gutenberg is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

PG71454.B02986
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

PG71454.B02987
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

PG71454.B02988
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

PG71454.B02989
The Foundation’s business office is located at 41 Watchung Plaza #516, Montclair NJ 07042, USA, +1 (862) 621-9288. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

PG71454.B02990
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

PG71454.B02991
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

PG71454.B02992
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

PG71454.B02993
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

PG71454.B02994
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

PG71454.B02995
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

PG71454.B02996
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg electronic works

PG71454.B02997
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.

PG71454.B02998
Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.

PG71454.B02999
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org.

PG71454.B03000
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.