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      "text": "Charles Babbage Dorset Street Manchester Square 8 June, 1832",
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      "text": "[*Footnote: I am happy to avail myself of this occasion of expressing my obligations to the Right Hon. Manners Sutton, the Speaker of the House of Commons, to whom I am indebted for copies of a considerable collection of those reports.]",
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      "text": "Preface to the Second Edition",
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      "text": "In two months from the publication of the first edition of this volume, three thousand copies were in the hands of the public. Very little was spent in advertisements; the booksellers, instead of aiding, impeded its sale; * it formed no part of any popular series and yet the public, in a few weeks, purchased the whole edition. Some small part of this success, perhaps, was due to the popular exposition of those curious processes which are carried on in our workshops, and to the endeavour to take a short view of the general principles which direct the manufactories of the country. But the chief reason was the commanding attraction of the subject, and the increasing desire to become acquainted with the pursuits and interests of that portion of the people which has recently acquired so large an accession of political influence.",
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      "text": "[*Footnote: I had good evidence of this fact from various quarters; and being desirous of verifying it, I myself applied for a copy at the shop of a bookseller of respectability, who is probably not aware that he refused to procure one even for its author.]",
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      "text": "A greater degree of attention than I had expected has been excited by what I have stated in the first edition, respecting the 'Book-trade'. Until I had commenced the chapter, 'On the separate cost of each process of a manufacture', I had no intention of alluding to that subject: but the reader will perceive that I have throughout this volume, wherever I could, employed as illustrations, objects of easy access to the reader; and, in accordance with that principle, I selected the volume itself. When I arrived at the chapter, 'On combinations of masters against the public', I was induced, for the same reason, to expose a combination connected with literature, which, in my opinion, is both morally and politically wrong. I entered upon this enquiry without the slightest feeling of hostility to that trade, nor have I any wish unfavourable to it; but I think a complete reform in its system would add to its usefulness and respectability. As the subject of that chapter has been much discussed, I have thought it right to take a view of the various arguments which have been advanced, and to offer my own opinion respecting their validity--and there I should have left the subject, content to allow my general character to plead for me against insinuations respecting my motives--but as the remarks of some of my critics affect the character of another person, I think it but just to state circumstances which will clearly disprove them.",
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      "text": "Mr Fellowes, of Ludgate Street, who had previously been the publisher of some other volumes for me, had undertaken the publication of the first edition of the present work. A short time previous to its completion, I thought it right to call his attention to the chapter in which the book-trade is discussed; with the view both of making him acquainted with what I had stated, and also of availing myself of his knowledge in correcting any accidental error as to the facts. Mr Fellowes, 'differing from me entirely respecting the conclusions I had arrived at', then declined the publication of the volume. If I had then chosen to apply to some of those other booksellers, whose names appear in the Committee of 'The Trade', it is probable that they also would have declined the office of publishing for me; and, had my object been to make a case against the trade, such a course would have assisted me. But I had no such feeling; and having procured a complete copy of the whole work, I called with it on Mr Knight, of Pall Mall East, whom until that day I had never seen, and with whom I had never previously had the slightest communication. I left the book in Mr Knight's hands, with a request that, when he had read it, I might be informed whether he would undertake the publication of it; and this he consented to do. Mr Knight, therefore, is so far from being responsible for a single opinion in the present volume, that he saw it only, for a short time, a few days previous to its publication.",
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      "text": "It has been objected to me, that I have exposed too freely the secrets of trade. The only real secrets of trade are industry, integrity, and knowledge: to the possessors of these no exposure can be injurious; and they never fail to produce respect and wealth.",
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      "text": "68. It is often of great importance, both for regulations of excise as well as for the interest of the proprietor, to know the quantity of spirits or of other liquors which have been drawn off by those persons who are allowed to have access to the vessels during the absence of the inspectors or principals. This may be accomplished by a peculiar kind of stop-cock--which will, at each opening, discharge only a certain measure of fluid the number of times the cock has been turned being registered by a counting apparatus accessible only to the master.",
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      "text": "69. The time and labour consumed in gauging the contents of casks partly filled, has led to an improvement which, by the simplest means, obviates a considerable inconvenience, and enables any person to read off, on a scale, the number of gallons contained in any vessel, as readily as he does the degree of heat indicated by his thermometer. A small stop-cock connects the bottom of the cask with a glass tube of narrow bore fixed to a scale on the side of the cask, and rising a little above its top. The plug of the cock may be turned into three positions: in the first, it cuts off all communication with the cask: in the second, it opens a communication between the cask and the glass tube: and, in the third. It cuts off the connection between the cask and the tube, and opens a communication between the tube and any vessel held beneath the cock to receive its contents. The scale of the tube is graduated by pouring into the cask successive quantities of water, while the communication between the cask and the tube is open. Lines are then drawn on the scale opposite the places in the tube to which the water rises at each addition, and the scale being thus formed by actual measurement,(2*) the contents of each cask are known by inspection, and the tedious process of gauging is altogether dispensed with. Other advantages accrue from this simple contrivance, in the great economy of time which it introduces in making mixtures of different spirits, in taking stock, and in receiving spirit from the distiller.",
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      "text": "70. The gas-meter, by which the quantity of gas used by each consumer is ascertained, is another instrument of this kind. They are of various forms, but all of them intended to register the number of cubic feet of gas which has been delivered. It is very desirable that these meters should be obtainable at a moderate price, and that every consumer should employ them; because, by making each purchaser pay only for what he consumes, and by preventing that extravagant waste of gas which we frequently observe, the manufacturer of gas will be enabled to make an equal profit at a diminished price to the consumer.",
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      "text": "71. The sale of water by the different companies in London, might also, with advantage, be regulated by a meter. If such a system were adopted, much water which is now allowed to run to waste would be saved, and an unjust inequality between the rates charged on different houses by the same company be avoided.",
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      "text": "72. Another most important object to which a meter might be applied, would be to register the quantity of water passing into the boilers of steam-engines. Without this, our knowledge of the quantity evaporated by different boilers, and with fireplaces of different constructions, as well as our estimation of the duty of steam-engines, must evidently be imperfect.",
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      "text": "73. Another purpose to which machinery for registering operations is applied with much advantage is the determination of the average effect of natural or artificial agents. The mean height of the barometer, for example, is ascertained by noting its height at a certain number of intervals during the twenty-four hours. The more these intervals are contracted, the more correctly will the mean be ascertained; but the true mean ought to be influenced by each momentary change which has occurred. Clocks have been proposed and made with this object, by which a sheet of paper is moved, slowly and uniformly, before a pencil fixed to a float upon the surface of the mercury in the cup of the barometer. Sir David Brewster proposed, several years ago to suspend a barometer, and swing it as a pendulum. The variations in the atmosphere would thus alter the centre of oscillation, and the comparison of such an instrument with a good clock, would enable us to ascertain the mean altitude of the barometer during any interval of the observer's absence.(3*)",
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      "text": "An instrument for measuring and registering the quantity of rain, was invented by Mr John Taylor, and described by him in the Philosophical Magazine. It consists of an apparatus in which a vessel that receives the rain falling into the reservoir tilts over as soon as it is full, and then presents another similar vessel to be filled, which in like manner, when full, tilts the former one back again. The number of times these vessels are emptied is registered by a train of wheels; and thus, without the presence of the observer, the quantity of rain falling during a whole year may be measured and recorded.",
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      "text": "Instruments might also be contrived to determine the average force of traction of horses--of the wind--of a stream or of any irregular and fluctuating effort of animal or other natural force.",
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      "text": "74. Clocks and watches may be considered as instruments for registering the number of vibrations performed by a pendulum or a balance. The mechanism by which these numbers are counted is technically called a scapement. It is not easy to describe: but the various contrivances which have been adopted for this purpose, are amongst the most interesting and most ingenious to which mechanical science has given birth. Working models, on an enlarged scale, are almost necessary to make their action understood by the unlearned reader; and, unfortunately, these are not often to be met with. A very fine collection of such models exists amongst the collection of instruments at the University of Prague.",
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      "text": "Instruments of this kind have been made to extend their action over considerable periods of time, and to register not merely the hour of the day, but the days of the week, of the month, of the year, and also to indicate the occurrence of several astronomical phenomena.",
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      "text": "Repeating clocks and watches may be considered as instruments for registering time, which communicate their information only when the owner requires it, by pulling a string, or by some similar application.",
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      "text": "An apparatus has recently been applied to watches, by which the hand which indicates seconds leaves a small dot of ink on the dial-plate whenever a certain stop or detent is pushed in. Thus, whilst the eye is attentively fixed on the phenomenon to be observed, the finger registers on the face of the watch-dial the commencement and the end of its appearance.",
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      "text": "75. Several instruments have been contrived for awakening the attention of the observer at times previously fixed upon. The various kinds of alarums connected with clocks and watches are of this kind. In some instances it is desirable to be able to set them so as to give notice at many successive and distant points of time, such as those of the arrival of given stars on the meridian. A clock of this kind is used at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich.",
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      "text": "76. An earthquake is a phenomenon of such frequent occurrence, and so interesting, both from its fearful devastations as well as from its connection with geological theories, that it becomes important to possess an instrument which shall, if possible, indicate the direction of the shock, as well as its intensity. An observation made a few years since at Odessa, after an earthquake which happened during the night, suggests a simple instrument by which the direction of the shock may be determined.",
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      "text": "A glass vase, partly filled with water, stood on the table of a room in a house at Odessa; and, from the coldness of the glass, the inner part of the vessel above the water was coated with dew. Several very perceptible shocks of an earthquake happened between three and four o'clock in the morning; and when the observer got up, he remarked that the dew was brushed off at two opposite sides of the glass by a wave which the earthquake had caused in the water. The line joining the two highest points of this wave was, of course, that in which the shock travelled. This circumstance, which was accidentally noticed by an engineer at Odessa,(4*) suggests the plan of keeping, in countries subject to earthquakes, glass vessels partly filled with treacle, or some unctuous fluid, so that when any lateral motion is communicated to them from the earth, the adhesion of the liquid to the glass shall enable the observer, after some interval of time, to determine the direction of the shock.",
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      "text": "Chapter 9",
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      "text": "Economy of the Materials Employed",
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      "text": "77. The precision with which all operations by machinery are executed, and the exact similarity of the articles thus made, produce a degree of economy in the consumption of the raw material which is, in some cases, of great importance. The earliest mode of cutting the trunk of a tree into planks, was by the use of the hatchet or the adze. It might, perhaps, be first split into three or four portions, and then each portion was reduced to a uniform surface by those instruments. With such means the quantity of plank produced would probably not equal the quantity of the raw material wasted by the process: and, if the planks were thin, would certainly fall far short of it. An improved tool, completely reverses the case: in converting a tree into thick planks, the saw causes a waste of a very small fractional part; and even in reducing it to planks of only an inch in thickness, does not waste more than an eighth part of the raw material. When the thickness of the plank is still further reduced, as is the case in cutting wood for veneering, the quantity of material destroyed again begins to bear a considerable proportion to that which is used; and hence circular saws, having a very thin blade, have been employed for such purposes. In order to economize still further the more valuable woods, Mr Brunel contrived a machine which, by a system of blades, cut off the veneer in a continuous shaving, thus rendering the whole of the piece of timber available.",
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      "text": "78. The rapid improvements which have taken place in the printing press during the last twenty years, afford another instance of saving in the materials consumed, which has been well ascertained by measurement, and is interesting from its connection with literature. In the old method of inking type, by large hemispherical balls stuffed and covered with leather, the printer, after taking a small portion of ink from the ink-block, was continually rolling the balls in various directions against each other, in order that a thin layer of ink might be uniformly spread over their surface. This he again transferred to the type by a kind of rolling action. In such a process, even admitting considerable skill in the operator, it could not fail to happen that a large quantity of ink should get near the edges of the balls, which, not being transferred to the type, became hard and useless, and was taken off in the form of a thick black crust. Another inconvenience also arose--the quantity of ink spread on the block not being regulated by measure, and the number and direction of the transits of the inking-balls over each other depending on the will of the operator, and being consequently irregular, it was impossible to place on the type a uniform layer of ink, of the quantity exactly sufficient for the impression. The introduction of cylindrical rollers of an elastic substance, formed by the mixture of glue and treacle, superseded the inking-balls, and produced considerable saving in the consumption of ink: but the most perfect economy was only to be produced by mechanism. When printing-presses, moved by the power of steam, were introduced, the action of these rollers was found to be well adapted to their performance; and a reservoir of ink was formed, from which a roller regularly abstracted a small quantity at each impression. From three to five other rollers spread this portion uniformly over a slab (by most ingenious contrivances varied in almost each kind of press), and another travelling roller, having fed itself on the slab, passed and repassed over the type just before it gave the impression to the paper.",
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      "text": "In order to shew that this plan of inking puts the proper quantity of ink upon the type, we must prove, first--that the quantity is not too little: this would soon have been discovered from the complaints of the public and the booksellers; and, secondly that it is not too great. This latter point was satisfactorily established by an experiment. A few hours after one side of a sheet of paper has been printed upon, the ink is sufficiently dry to allow it to receive the impression upon the other; and, as considerable pressure is made use of, the tympan on which the side first printed is laid, is guarded from soiling it by a sheet of paper called the set-off sheet. This paper receives, in succession, every sheet of the work to be printed, acquiring from them more or less of the ink, according to their dryness, or the quantity upon them. It was necessary in the former process, after about one hundred impressions, to change this set-off sheet, which then became too much soiled for further use. In the new method of printing by machinery, no such sheet is used, but a blanket is employed as its substitute; this does not require changing above once in five thousand impressions, and instances have occurred of its remaining sufficiently clean for twenty thousand. Here, then, is a proof that the quantity of superfluous ink put upon the paper in machine-printing is so small, that, if multiplied by five thousand, and in some instances even by twenty thousand, it is only sufficient to render useless a single piece of clean cloth.(1*) The following were the results of an accurate experiment upon the effect of the process just described, made at one of the largest printing establishments in the metropolis.(2*) Two hundred reams of paper were printed off, the old method of inking with balls being employed; two hundred reams of the same paper, and for the same book, were then printed off in the presses which inked their own type. The consumption of ink by the machine was to that by the balls as four to nine, or rather less than one-half.",
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      "text": "NOTES:",
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      "text": "81. Of all the operations of mechanical art, that of turning is the most perfect. If two surfaces are worked against each other, whatever may have been their figure at the commencement, there exists a tendency in them both to become portions of spheres. Either of them may become convex, and the other concave, with various degrees of curvature. A plane surface is the line of separation between convexity and concavity, and is most difficult to hit; it is more easy to make a good circle than to produce a straight line. A similar difficulty takes place in figuring specula for telescopes; the parabola is the surface which separates the hyperbolic from the elliptic figure, and is the most difficult to form. If a spindle, not cylindrical at its end, be pressed into a hole not circular, and kept constantly turning, there is a tendency in these two bodies so situated to become conical, or to have circular sections. If a triangular-pointed piece of iron be worked round in a circular hole the edges will gradually wear, and it will become conical. These facts, if they do not explain, at least illustrate the principles on which the excellence of work formed in the lathe depends.",
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      "text": "Chapter 11",
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      "text": "Of Copying",
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      "text": "82. The two last-mentioned sources of excellence in the work produced by machinery depend on a principle which pervades a very large portion of all manufactures, and is one upon which the cheapness of the articles produced seems greatly to depend. The principle alluded to is that of copying, taken in its most extensive sense. Almost unlimited pains are, in some instances, bestowed on the original, from which a series of copies is to be produced; and the larger the number of these copies, the more care and pains can the manufacturer afford to lavish upon the original. It may thus happen, that the instrument or tool actually producing the work, shall cost five or even ten thousand times the price of each individual specimen of its power.",
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      "text": "As the system of copying is of so much importance, and of such extensive use in the arts, it will be convenient to classify a considerable number of those processes in which it is employed. The following enumeration however is not offered as a complete list; and the explanations are restricted to the shortest possible detail which is consistent with a due regard to making the subject intelligible.",
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      "text": "Operations of copying are effected under the following circumstances:",
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      "text": "by printing from cavities by stamping by printing from surface by punching by casting with elongation by moulding with altered dimensions",
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      "text": "Chapter 15",
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      "text": "On the Influence of Verification on Price",
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      "text": "181. The money price of an article at any given period is usually stated to depend upon the proportion between the supply and the demand. The average price of the same article during a long period, is said to depend, ultimately, on the power of producing and selling it with the ordinary profits of capital. But these principles, although true in their general sense, are yet so often modified by the influence of others, that it becomes necessary to examine a little into the disturbing forces.",
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      "text": "182. With respect to the first of these propositions, it may be observed, that the cost of any article to the purchaser includes, besides the ratio of the supply to the demand, another element, which, though often of little importance, is, in many cases, of great consequence. The cost, to the purchaser, is the price he pays for any article, added to the cost of verifying the fact of its having that degree of goodness for which he contracts. In some cases the goodness of the article is evident on mere inspection: and in those cases there is not much difference of price at different shops. The goodness of loaf sugar, for instance, can be discerned almost at a glance; and the consequence is, that the price is so uniform, and the profit upon it so small, that no grocer is at all anxious to sell it; whilst, on the other hand, tea, of which it is exceedingly difficult to judge, and which can be adulterated by mixture so as to deceive the skill even of a practised eye, has a great variety of different prices, and is that article which every grocer is most anxious to sell to his customers.",
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      "text": "The difficulty and expense of verification are, in some instances, so great, as to justify the deviation from well-established principles. Thus it is a general maxim that Government can purchase any article at a cheaper rate than that at which they can manufacture it themselves. But it has nevertheless been considered more economical to build extensive flour-mills (such are those at Deptford), and to grind their own corn, than to verify each sack of purchased flour, and to employ persons in devising methods of detecting the new modes of adulteration which might be continually resorted to.",
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      "text": "\"Question. How long have you been in the trade? Answer. Nearly thirty years. Question. The trade is at present much depressed? Answer. Yes, sadly. Question. What is your opinion of the cause of that distress? Answer. I think it is owing to a number of watches that have been made so exceedingly bad that they will hardly look at them in the foreign markets; all with a handsome outside show, and the works hardly fit for anything. Question. Do you mean to say, that all the watches made in this country are of that description? Answer. No; only a number which are made up by some of the Jews, and other low manufacturers. I recollect something of the sort years ago, of a falloff of the East India work, owing to there being a number of handsome-looking watches sent out, for instance, with hands on and figures, as if they shewed seconds, and had not any work regular to shew the seconds: the hand went round, but it was not regular. Question. They had no perfect movements? Answer. No, they had not; that was a long time since, and we had not any East India work for a long time afterwards.\"",
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      "text": "In the home market, inferior but showy watches are made at a cheap rate, which are not warranted by the maker to go above half an hour; about the time occupied by the Jew pedlar in deluding his country customer.",
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      "text": "188. The practice, in retail linen-drapers' shops, of calling certain articles yard wide when the real width is perhaps, only seven-eighths or three-quarters, arose at first from fraud, which being detected, custom was pleaded in its defence: but the result is, that the vender is constantly obliged to measure the width of his goods in the customer's presence. In all these instances the object of the seller is to get a higher price than his goods would really produce if their quality were known; and the purchaser, if not himself a skilful judge (which rarely happens to be the case), must pay some person, in the shape of an additional money price, who has skill to distinguish, and integrity to furnish, articles of the quality agreed on. But as the confidence of persons in their own judgement is usually great, large numbers will always flock to the cheap dealer, who thus, attracting many customers from the honest tradesman, obliges him to charge a higher price for his judgement and character than, without such competition, he could afford to do.",
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      "ref": "PG4238.B00431",
      "bookId": 4238,
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      "text": "189. There are few things which the public are less able to judge of than the quality of drugs; and when these are compounded into medicines it is scarcely possible, even for medical men, to decide whether pure or adulterated ingredients have been employed. This circumstance, concurring with the present injudicious mode of paying for medical assistance, has produced a curious effect on the price of medicines. Apothecaries, instead of being paid for their services and skill, are remunerated by being allowed to place a high charge upon their medicines, which are confessedly of very small pecuniary value. The effect of such a system is an inducement to prescribe more medicine than is necessary; and in fact, even with the present charges, the apothecary, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, cannot be fairly remunerated unless the patient either takes, or pays for, more physic than he really requires. The apparent extravagance of the charge of eighteen pence for a two-ounce phial(1*) of medicine, is obvious to many who do not reflect on the fact that a great part of the charge is, in reality, payment for the exercise of professional skill. As the same charge is made by the apothecary, whether he attends the patient or merely prepares the prescription of a physician, the chemist and druggist soon offered to furnish the same commodity at a greatly diminished price. But the eighteen pence charged by the apothecary might have been fairly divided into two parts, three pence for medicine and bottle, and fifteen pence for attendance. The chemist, therefore, who never attends his customers, if he charges only a shilling for the same medicine, realizes a profit of 200 or 300 per cent upon its value. This enormous profit has called into existence a multitude of competitors; and in this instance the impossibility of verifying has, in a great measure, counteracted the beneficial effects of competition. The general adulteration of drugs, even at the extremely high price at which they are retailed as medicine, enables those who are supposed to sell them in an unadulterated state to make large profits, whilst the same evil frequently disappoints the expectation, and defeats the skill, of the most eminent physician.",
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      "text": "It is difficult to point out a remedy for this evil without suggesting an almost total change in the system of medical practice. If the apothecary were to charge for his visits, and to reduce his medicines to one-fourth or one-fifth of their present price, he would still have an interest in procuring the best drugs, for the sake of his own reputation or skill. Or if the medical attendant, who is paid more highly for his time, were to have several pupils, he might himself supply the medicines without a specific charge, and his pupils would derive improvement from compounding them, as well as from examining the purity of the drugs he would purchase. The public would gain several advantages by this arrangement. In the first place, it would be greatly for the interest of the medical practitioner to have the best drugs; it would be in his interest also not to give more physic than needful; and it would enable him, through some of his more advanced pupils, to watch more frequently the changes of any malady.",
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      "text": "190. There are many articles of hardware which it is impossible for the purchaser to verify at the time of purchase, or even afterwards, without defacing them. Plated harness and coach furniture may be adduced as examples: these are usually of wrought iron covered with silver, owing their strength to the one and a certain degree of permanent beauty to the other metal. Both qualities are, occasionally, much impaired by substituting cast- for wrought-iron, and by plating with soft solder (tin and lead) instead of with hard solder (silver and brass). The loss of strength is the greatest evil in this case; for cast iron, though made for this purpose more tough than usual by careful annealing, is still much weaker than wrought-iron, and serious accidents often arise from harness giving way. In plating with soft solder, a very thin plate of silver is made to cover the iron, but it is easily detached, particularly by a low degree of heat. Hard soldering gives a better coat of silver, which is very firmly attached, and is not easily injured unless by a very high degree of heat. The inferior can be made to look nearly as well as the better article, and the purchaser can scarcely discover the difference without cutting into it.",
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      "text": "191. The principle that price, at any moment, is dependent on the relation of the supply to the demand, is true to the full extent only when the whole supply is in the hands of a very large number of small holders, and the demand is caused by the wants of another set of persons, each of whom requires only a very small quantity. And the reason appears to be, that it is only in such circumstances that a uniform average can be struck between the feelings, the passions, the prejudices, the opinions, and the knowledge, of both parties. If the supply, or present stock in hand, be entirely in the possession of one person, he will naturally endeavour to put such a price upon it as shall produce by its sale the greatest quantity of money; but he will be guided in this estimate of the price at which he will sell, both by the knowledge that increased price will cause a diminished consumption, and by the desire to realize his profit before a new supply shall reach the market from some other quarter. If, however, the same stock is in the hands of several dealers, there will be an immediate competition between them, arising partly from their different views of the duration of the present state of supply, and partly from their own peculiar circumstances with respect to the employment of their capital.",
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      "text": "On the Influence of Durability on Price",
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      "text": "197. Having now considered the circumstances that modify what may be called the momentary amount of price, we must next examine a principle which seems to have an effect on its permanent average. The durability of any commodity influences its cost in a permanent manner. We have already stated that what may be called the momentary price of any commodity depends upon the proportion existing between the supply and demand, and also upon the cost of verification. The average price, during a long period, will depend upon the labour required for producing and bringing it to market, as well as upon the average supply and demand; but it will also be influenced by the durability of the article manufactured.",
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      "text": "Many things in common use are substantially consumed in using: a phosphorus match, articles of food, and a cigar, are examples of this description. Some things after use become inapplicable to their former purposes, as paper which has been printed upon: but it is yet available for the cheesemonger or the trunk-maker. Some articles, as pens, are quickly worn out by use; and some are still valuable after a long continued wear. There are others, few perhaps in number, which never wear out; the harder precious stones, when well cut and polished, are of this later class: the fashion of the gold or silver mounting in which they are set may vary with the taste of the age, and such ornaments are constantly exposed for sale as second-hand, but the gems themselves, when removed from their supports, are never so considered. A brilliant which has successively graced the necks of a hundred beauties, or glittered for a century upon patrician brows, is weighed by the diamond merchant in the same scale with another which has just escaped from the wheel of the lapidary, and will be purchased or sold by him at the same price per carat. The great mass of commodities is intermediate in its character between these two extremes, and the periods of respective duration are very various. It is evident that the average price of those things which are consumed in the act of using them, can never be less than that of the labour of bringing them to market. They may for a short time be sold for less, but under such circumstances their production must soon cease altogether. On the other hand, if an article never wears out, its price may continue permanently below the cost of the labour expended in producing it; and the only consequence will be, that no further production will take place: its price will continue to be regulated by the relation of the supply to the demand; and should that at any aftertime rise, for a considerable period, above the cost of production, it will be again produced.",
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      "text": "198. Articles become old from actual decay, or the wearing out of their parts; from improved modes of constructing them; or from changes in their form and fashion, required by the varying taste of the age. In the two latter cases, their utility is but little diminished; and, being less sought after by those who have hitherto employed them, they are sold at a reduced price to a class of society rather below that of their former possessors. Many articles of furniture, such as well-made tables and chairs, are thus found in the rooms of those who would have been quite unable to have purchased them when new; and we find constantly, even in the houses of the more opulent, large looking-glasses which have passed successively through the hands of several possessors, changing only the fashion of their frames; and in some instances even this alteration is omitted, an additional coat of gilding saving them from the character of being second-hand. Thus a taste for luxuries is propagated downwards in society', and, after a short period, the numbers who have acquired new wants become sufficient to excite the ingenuity of the manufacturer to reduce the cost of supplying them, whilst he is himself benefited by the extended scale of demand.",
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      "text": "199. There is a peculiarity in looking-glasses with reference to the principle just mentioned. The most frequent occasion of injury to them arises from accidental violence; and the peculiarity is, that, unlike most other articles, when broken they are still of some value. If a large mirror is accidentally cracked, it is immediately cut into two or more smaller ones, each of which may be perfect. If the degree of violence is so great as to break it into many fragments, these smaller pieces may be cut into squares for dressing-glasses; and if the silvering is injured, it can either be resilvered or used as plate-glass for glazing windows. The addition from our manufactories to the stock of plate-glass in the country is annually about two hundred and fifty thousand square feet. It would be very difficult to estimate the quantity annually destroyed or exported, but it is probably small; and the effect of these continual additions is seen in the diminished price and increased consumption of the article. Almost all the better order of shop fronts are now glazed with it. If it were quite indestructible, the price would continually diminish; and unless an increased demand arose from new uses, or from a greater number of customers, a single manufactory, unchecked by competition, would ultimately be compelled to shut up, driven out of the market by the permanance of its own productions.",
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      "text": "200. The metals are in some degree permanent, although several of them are employed in such forms that they are ultimately lost.",
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      "text": "202. I have taken some pains to assure myself of the accuracy of the above table: at different periods of the years quoted the prices may have varied; but I believe it may be considered as a fair approximation. In the course of my enquiries I have been favoured with another list, in which many of the same articles occur, but in this last instance the prices quoted are separated by an interval of twenty years. It is extracted from the books of a highly respectable house at Birmingham; and the prices confirm the accuracy of the former table, so far as they relate to the articles which are found in that list.",
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      "text": "Prices of 1812 and 1832 Reduction per cent in price of Description 1812 1832 1812 s. d. s. d.",
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      "text": "Anvils cwt 25 0 14 0 44 Awls, Liverpool blades gross 3 6 1 0 71 Candlesticks, iron, plain 3 103/4 2 31/2 41 screwed 6 41/2 3 9 41 Bed screws, 6 inch square head gross 7 6 4 6 40 flat head gross 8 6 4 8 45 Curry-combs, 6 barred dozen 4 01/2 1 0 75",
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      "text": "Reduction per cent in price of Description 1812 1832 1812 s. d. s. d.",
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      "text": "Curry-combs, 8 barred dozen 5 51/2 1 5 74 patent, 6 barred dozen 7 11/2 1 5 80 8 barred dozen 8 63/4 1 10 79 Fire-irons, iron head, No. 1. 1 41/2 0 73/4 53 No. 2 1 6 0 81/2 53 No. 3 1 81/4 0 91/2 53 No. 4 1 101/2 0 101/2 53 Gun-locks, single roller each 7 21/2 1 11 73 Locks, 1 1/4 brass, port. pad 16 0 2 6 85 2 1/2 inch 3 keyed till-locks each 2 2 0 9 65 Shoe tacks gross 5 0 2 0 60 Spoons, tinned, iron table gross 22 6 7 0 69 Stirrups. com. tinned, 2 bar dozen 7 0 2 9 61 Trace-chains, iron cwt 46 91/2 15 0 68",
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      "text": "Chapter 19",
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      "text": "On the Division of Labour",
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      "text": "217. Perhaps the most important principle on which the economy of a manufacture depends, is the division of labour amongst the persons who perform the work. The first application of this principle must have been made in a very early stage of society, for it must soon have been apparent, that a larger number of comforts and conveniences could be acquired by each individual, if one man restricted his occupation to the art of making bows, another to that of building houses, a third boats, and so on. This division of labour into trades was not, however, the result of an opinion that the general riches of the community would be increased by such an arrangement; but it must have arisen from the circumstance of each individual so employed discovering that he himself could thus make a greater profit of his labour than by pursuing more varied occupations. Society must have made considerable advances before this principle could have been carried into the workshop; for it is only in countries which have attained a high degree of civilization, and in articles in which there is a great competition amongst the producers, that the most perfect system of the division of labour is to be observed. The various principles on which the advantages of this system depend, have been much the subject of discussion amongst writers on political economy; but the relative importance of their influence does not appear, in all cases, to have been estimated with sufficient precision. It is my intention, in the first instance, to state shortly those principles, and then to point out what appears to me to have been omitted by those who have previously treated the subject.",
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      "text": "218. 1. Of the time required for learning. It will readily be admitted, that the portion of time occupied in the acquisition of any art will depend on the difficulty of its execution; and that the greater the number of distinct processes, the longer will be the time which the apprentice must employ in acquiring it. Five or seven years have been adopted, in a great many trades, as the time considered requisite for a lad to acquire a sufficient knowledge of his art, and to enable him to repay by his labour, during the latter portion of his time, the expense incurred by his master at its commencement. If, however, instead of learning all the different processes for making a needle, for instance, his attention be confined to one operation, the portion of time consumed unprofitably at the commencement of his apprenticeship will be small, and all the rest of it will be beneficial to his master: and, consequently, if there be any competition amongst the masters, the apprentice will be able to make better terms, and diminish the period of his servitude. Again, the facility of acquiring skill in a single process, and the early period of life at which it can be made a source of profit, will induce a greater number of parents to bring up their children to it; and from this circumstance also, the number of workmen being increased, the wages will soon fall.",
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      "text": "219. 2. Of waste of materials in learning. A certain quantity of material will, in all cases, be consumed unprofitably, or spoiled by every person who learns an art; and as he applies himself to each new process, he will waste some of the raw material, or of the partly manufactured commodity. But if each man commit this waste in acquiring successively every process, the quantity of waste will be much greater than if each person confine his attention to one process; in this view of the subject, therefore, the division of labour will diminish the price of production.",
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      "text": "220. 3. Another advantage resulting from the division of labour is, the saving of that portion of time which is always lost in changing from one occupation to another. When the human hand, or the human head, has been for some time occupied in any kind of work, it cannot instantly change its employment with full effect. The muscles of the limbs employed have acquired a flexibility during their exertion, and those not in action a stiffness during rest, which renders every change slow and unequal in the commencement. Long habit also produces in the muscles exercised a capacity for enduring fatigue to a much greater degree than they could support under other circumstances. A similar result seems to take place in any change of mental exertion; the attention bestowed on the new subject not being so perfect at first as it becomes after some exercise.",
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      "text": "221. 4. Change of tools. The employment of different tools in the successive processes is another cause of the loss of time in changing from one operation to another. If these tools are simple, and the change is not frequent, the loss of time is not considerable; but in many processes of the arts the tools are of great delicacy, requiring accurate adjustment every time they are used; and in many cases the time employed in adjusting bears a large proportion to that employed in using the tool. The sliding-rest, the dividing and the drilling-engine, are of this kind; and hence, in manufactories of sufficient extent, it is found to be good economy to keep one machine constantly employed in one kind of work: one lathe, for example, having a screw motion to its sliding-rest along the whole length of its bed, is kept constantly making cylinders; another, having a motion for equalizing the velocity of the work at the point at which it passes the tool, is kept for facing surfaces; whilst a third is constantly employed in cutting wheels.",
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      "text": "222. 5. Skill acquired by frequent repetition of the same processes. The constant repetition of the same process necessarily produces in the workman a degree of excellence and rapidity in his particular department, which is never possessed by a person who is obliged to execute many different processes. This rapidity is still further increased from the circumstance that most of the operations in factories, where the division of labour is carried to a considerable extent, are paid for as piece-work. It is difficult to estimate in numbers the effect of this cause upon production. In nail-making, Adam Smith has stated, that it is almost three to one; for, he observes, that a smith accustomed to make nails, but whose whole business has not been that of a nailer, can make only from eight hundred to a thousand per day; whilst a lad who had never exercised any other trade, can make upwards of two thousand three hundred a day.",
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      "text": "223. In different trades, the economy of production arising from the last-mentioned cause will necessarily be different. The case of nail-making is, perhaps, rather an extreme one. It must, however, be observed, that, in one sense, this is not a permanent source of advantage; for, though it acts at the commencement of an establishment, yet every month adds to the skill of the workmen; and at the end of three or four years they will not be very far behind those who have never practised any other branch of their art. Upon an occasion when a large issue of bank-notes was required, a clerk at the Bank of England signed his name, consisting of seven letters, including the initial of his Christian name, five thousand three hundred times during eleven working hours, besides arranging the notes he had signed in parcels of fifty each.",
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      "text": "224. 6. The division of labour suggests the contrivance of tools and machinery to execute its processes. When each processes, by which any article is produced, is the sole occupation of one individual, his whole attention being devoted to a very limited and simple operation, improvements in the form of his tools, or in the mode of using them, are much more likely to occur to his mind, than if it were distracted by a greater variety of circumstances. Such an improvement in the tool is generally the first step towards a machine. If a piece of metal is to be cut in a lathe, for example, there is one particular angle at which the cutting-tool must be held to insure the cleanest cut; and it is quite natural that the idea of fixing the tool at that angle should present itself to an intelligent workman. The necessity of moving the tool slowly, and in a direction parallel to itself, would suggest the use of a screw, and thus arises the sliding-rest. It was probably the idea of mounting a chisel in a frame, to prevent its cutting too deeply, which gave rise to the common carpenter's plane. In cases where a blow from a hammer is employed, experience teaches the proper force required. The transition from the hammer held in the hand to one mounted upon an axis, and lifted regularly to a certain height by some mechanical contrivance, requires perhaps a greater degree of invention than those just instanced; yet it is not difficult to perceive, that, if the hammer always falls from the same height, its effect must be always the same.",
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      "text": "225. When each process has been reduced to the use of some simple tool, the union of all these tools, actuated by one moving power, constitutes a machine. In contriving tools and simplifying processes, the operative workmen are, perhaps, most successful; but it requires far other habits to combine into one machine these scattered arts. A previous education as a workman in the peculiar trade, is undoubtedly a valuable preliminary; but in order to make such combinations with any reasonable expectation of success, an extensive knowledge of machinery, and the power of making mechanical drawings, are essentially requisite. These accomplishments are now much more common than they were formerly, and their absence was, perhaps, one of the causes of the multitude of failures in the early history of many of our manufactures.",
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      "text": "226. Such are the principles usually assigned as the causes of the advantage resulting from the division of labour. As in the view I have taken of the question, the most important and influential cause has been altogether unnoticed, I shall restate those principles in the words of Adam Smith:",
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      "text": "\"The great increase in the quantity of work, which, in consequence of the division of labour, the same number of people are capable of performing, is owing to three different circumstances: first, to the increase of dexterity in every particular workman; secondly, to the saving of time, which is commonly lost in passing from one species of work to another; and, lastly, to the invention of a great number of machines which facilitate and abridge labour, and enable one man to do the work of many.\"",
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      "text": "Now, although all these are important causes, and each has its influence on the result; yet it appears to me, that any explanation of the cheapness of manufactured articles, as consequent upon the division of labour, would be incomplete if the following principle were omitted to be stated.",
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      "text": "That the master manufacturer, by dividing the work to be executed into different processes, each requiring different degrees of skill or of force, can purchase exactly that precise quantity of both which is necessary for each process; whereas, if the whole work were executed by one workman, that person must possess sufficient skill to perform the most difficult, and sufficient strength to execute the most laborious, of the operations into which the art is divided.(1*)",
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      "text": "227. As the clear apprehension of this principle, upon which a great part of the economy arising from the division of labour depends, is of considerable importance, it may be desirable to point out its precise and numerical application in some specific manufacture. The art of making needles is, perhaps, that which I should have selected for this illustration, as comprehending a very large number of processes remarkably different in their nature; but the less difficult art of pinmaking, has some claim to attention, from its having been used by Adam Smith; and I am confirmed in the choice of it, by the circumstance of our possessing a very accurate and minute description of that art, as practised in France above half a century ago.",
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      "text": "228. Pin-making. In the manufacture of pins in England the following processes are employed:",
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      "text": "1. Wire-drawing. (a) The brass wire used for making pins is purchased by the manufacturer in coils of about twenty-two inches in diameter, each weighing about thirty-six pounds. (b) The coils are wound off into smaller ones of about six inches in diameter, and between one and two pounds' weight. (c) The diameter of this wire is now reduced, by drawing it repeatedly through holes in steel plates, until it becomes of the size required for the sort of pins intended to be made. During this process the wire is hardened, and to prevent its breaking, it must be annealed two or three times, according to the diminution of diameter required. (d) The coils are then soaked in sulphuric acid, largely diluted with water, in order to clean them, and are then beaten on stone, for the purpose of removing any oxidated coating which may adhere to them. These operations are usually performed by men, who draw and clean from thirty to thirty-six pounds of wire a day. They are paid at the rate of five farthings per pound, and generally earn about 3s. 6d. per day.",
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      "text": "246. The proceeding of M. Prony, in this celebrated system of calculation, much resembles that of a skilful person about to construct a cotton or silk mill, or any similar establishment. Having, by his own genius, or through the aid of his friends, found that some improved machinery may be successfully applied to his pursuit, he makes drawings of his plans of the machinery, and may himself be considered as constituting the first section. He next requires the assistance of operative engineers capable of executing the machinery he has designed, some of whom should understand the nature of the processes to be carried on; and these constitute his second section. When a sufficient number of machines have been made, a multitude of other persons, possessed of a lower degree of skill, must be employed in using them; these form the third section: but their work, and the just performance of the machines, must be still superintended by the second class.",
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      "text": "247. As the possibility of performing arithmetical calculations by machinery may appear to non-mathematical readers to be rather too large a postulate, and as it is connected with the subject of the division of labour, I shall here endeavour, in a few lines, to give some slight perception of the manner in which this can be done--and thus to remove a small portion of the veil which covers that apparent mystery.",
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      "text": "248. That nearly all tables of numbers which follow any law, however complicated, may be formed, to a greater or less extent, solely by the proper arrangement of the successive addition and subtraction of numbers befitting each table, is a general principle which can be demonstrated to those only who are well acquainted with mathematics; but the mind, even of the reader who is but very slightly acquainted with that science, will readily conceive that it is not impossible, by attending to the following example.",
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      "text": "The subjoined table is the beginning of one in very extensive use, which has been printed and reprinted very frequently in many countries, and is called a table of square numbers.",
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      "text": "Terms of Table A Table B first Difference C second Difference",
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      "text": "1 1 3 2 4 2 5 3 9 2 7 4 16 2 9 5 25 2 11 6 36 2 13 7 49",
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      "text": "Any number in the table, column A, may be obtained, by multiplying the number which expresses the distance of that term from the commencement of the table by itself; thus, 25 is the fifth term from the beginning of the table, and 5 multiplied by itself, or by 5, is equal to 25. Let us now subtract each term of this table from the next succeeding term, and place the results in another column (B), which may be called first difference column. If we again subtract each term of this first difference from the succeeding term, we find the result is always the number 2, (column C); and that the same number will always recur in that column, which may be called the second difference, will appear to any person who takes the trouble to carry on the table a few terms further. Now when once this is admitted, it is quite clear that, provided the first term (1) of the table, the first term (3) of the first differences, and the first term (2) of the second or constant difference, are originally given, we can continue the table of square numbers to any extent, merely by addition: for the series of first differences may be formed by repeatedly adding the constant difference (2) to (3) the first number in column B, and we then have the series of numbers, 3, 5, 6, etc.: and again, by successively adding each of these to the first number (1) of the table, we produce the square numbers.",
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      "text": "1. That a considerable part of the wages received by each person employed should depend on the profits made by the establishment; and,",
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      "text": "2. That every person connected with it should derive more advantage from applying any improvement he might discover, to the factory in which he is employed, than he could by any other course.",
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      "text": "309. It would be difficult to prevail on the large capitalist to enter upon any system, which would change the division of the profits arising from the employment of his capital in setting skill and labour in action; any alteration, therefore, must be expected rather from the small capitalist, or from the higher class of workmen, who combine the two characters; and to these latter classes, whose welfare will be first affected, the change is most important. I shall therefore first point out the course to be pursued in making the experiment; and then, taking a particular branch of trade as an illustration, I shall examine the merits and defects of the proposed system as applied to it.",
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      "text": "310. Let us suppose, in some large manufacturing town, ten or twelve of the most intelligent and skilful workmen to unite, whose characters for sobriety and steadiness are good, and are well known among their own class. Such persons will each possess some small portion of capital; and let them join with one or two others who have raised themselves into the class of small master manufacturers, and, therefore possess rather a larger portion of capital. Let these persons, after well considering the subject, agree to establish a manufactory of fire-irons and fenders; and let us suppose that each of the ten workmen can command forty pounds, and each of the small capitalists possesses two hundred pounds: thus they have a capital of L800 with which to commence business; and, for the sake of simplifying, let us further suppose the labour of each of these twelve persons to be worth two pounds a week. One portion of their capital will be expended in procuring the tools necessary for their trade, which we shall take at L400, and this must be considered as their fixed capital. The remaining L400 must be employed as circulating capital, in purchasing the iron with which their articles are made, in paying the rent of their workshops, and in supporting themselves and their families until some portion of it is replaced by the sale of the goods produced.",
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      "text": "311. Now the first question to be settled is, what proportion of the profit should be allowed for the use of capital, and what for skill and labour? It does not seem possible to decide this question by any abstract reasoning: if the capital supplied by each partner is equal, all difficulty will be removed; if otherwise, the proportion must be left to find its level, and will be discovered by experience; and it is probable that it will not fluctuate much. Let us suppose it to be agreed that the capital of L800 shall receive the wages of one workman. At the end of each week every workman is to receive one pound as wages, and one pound is to be divided amongst the owners of the capital. After a few weeks the returns will begin to come in; and they will soon become nearly uniform. Accurate accounts should be kept of every expense and of all the sales; and at the end of each week the profit should be divided. A certain portion should be laid aside as a reserved fund, another portion for repair of the tools, and the remainder being divided into thirteen parts, one of these parts would be divided amongst the capitalists and one belong to each workman. Thus each man would, in ordinary circumstances, make up his usual wages of two pounds weekly. If the factory went on prosperously, the wages of the men would increase; if the sales fell off they would be diminished. It is important that every person employed in the establishment, whatever might be the amount paid for his services, whether he act as labourer or porter, as the clerk who keeps the accounts, or as bookkeeper employed for a few hours once a week to superintend them, should receive one half of what his service is worth in fixed salary, the other part varying with the success of the undertaking.",
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      "text": "312. In such a factory, of course, division of labour would be introduced: some of the workmen would be constantly employed in forging the fire-irons, others in polishing them, others in piercing and forming the fenders. It would be essential that the time occupied in each process, and also its expense, should be well ascertained; information which would soon be obtained very precisely. Now, if a workman should find a mode of shortening any of the processes, he would confer a benefit on the whole party, even if they received but a small part of the resulting profit. For the promotion of such discoveries, it would be desirable that those who make them should either receive some reward, to be determined after a sufficient trial by a committee assembling periodically; or if they be of high importance, that the discoverer should receive one-half, or twothirds, of the profit resulting from them during the next year, or some other determinate period, as might be found expedient. As the advantages of such improvements would be clear gain to the factory, it is obvious that such a share might be allowed to the inventor, that it would be for his interest rather to give the benefit of them to his partners, than to dispose of them in any other way.",
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      "text": "313. The result of such arrangements in a factory would be,",
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      "text": "1. That every person engaged in it would have a direct interest in its prosperity; since the effect of any success, or falling off, would almost immediately produce a corresponding change in his own weekly receipts.",
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      "text": "3. The talents of all connected with it would be strongly directed to its improvement in every department.",
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      "text": "4. None but workmen of high character and qualifications could obtain admission into such establishments; because when any additional hands were required, it would be the common interest of all to admit only the most respectable and skilful; and it would be far less easy to impose upon a dozen workmen than upon the single proprietor of a factory.",
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      "text": "5. When any circumstance produced a glut in the market, more skill would be directed to diminishing the cost of production; and a portion of the time of the men might then be occupied in repairing and improving their tools, for which a reserved fund would pay, thus checking present, and at the same time facilitating future production.",
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      "text": "6. Another advantage, of no small importance, would be the total removal of all real or imaginary causes for combinations. The workmen and the capitalist would so shade into each other-- would so evidently have a common interest, and their difficulties and distresses would be mutually so well understood that, instead of combining to oppress one another, the only combination which could exist would be a most powerful union between both parties to overcome their common difficulties.",
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      "text": "314. One of the difficulties attending such a system is, that capitalists would at first fear to embark in it, imagining that the workmen would receive too large a share of the profits: and it is quite true that the workmen would have a larger share than at present: but, at the same time, it is presumed the effect of the whole system would be, that the total profits of the establishment being much increased, the smaller proportion allowed to capital under this system would yet be greater in actual amount, than that which results to it from the larger share in the system now existing.",
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      "text": "315. It is possible that the present laws relating to partnerships might interfere with factories so conducted. If this interference could not be obviated by confining their purchases under the proposed system to ready money, it would be desirable to consider what changes in the law would be necessary to its existence: and this furnishes another reason for entering into the question of limited partnerships.",
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      "text": "316. A difficulty would occur also in discharging workmen who behaved ill, or who were not competent to their work; this would arise from their having a certain interest in the reserved fund, and, perhaps, from their possessing a certain portion of the capital employed; but without entering into detail, it may be observed, that such cases might be determined on by meetings of the whole establishment; and that if the policy of the laws favoured such establishments, it would scarcely be more difficult to enforce just regulations, than it now is to enforce some which are unjust, by means of combinations either amongst the masters or the men.",
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      "text": "317. Some approach to this system is already practised in several trades: the mode of conducting the Cornish mines has already been alluded to; the payment to the crew of whaling ships is governed by this principle; the profits arising from fishing with nets on the south coast of England are thus divided: one-half the produce belongs to the owner of the boat and net; the other half is divided in equal portions between the persons using it, who are also bound to assist in repairing the net when injured.",
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      "text": "NOTES:",
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      "text": "1. For a detailed account of the method of working the Cornish mines, see a paper of Mr John Taylor's Transactions of the Geological Society, vol. ii, p. 309.",
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      "text": "PREFACE",
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      "text": "In the spring of 1918 I was invited by Leland Stanford Junior University to give a series of three lectures upon the West Memorial Foundation. One of the topics included within the scope of the Foundation is Human Conduct and Destiny. This volume is the result, as, according to the terms of the Foundation, the lectures are to be published. The lectures as given have, however, been rewritten and considerably expanded. An Introduction and Conclusion have been added. The lectures should have been published within two years from delivery. Absence from the country rendered strict compliance difficult; and I am indebted to the authorities of the University for their indulgence in allowing an extension of time, as well as for so many courtesies received during the time when the lectures were given.",
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      "text": "Perhaps the sub-title requires a word of explanation. The book does not purport to be a treatment of social psychology. But it seriously sets forth a belief that an understanding of habit and of different types of habit is the key to social psychology, while the operation of impulse and intelligence gives the key to individualized mental activity. But they are secondary to habit so that mind can be understood in the concrete only as a system of beliefs, desires and purposes which are formed in the interaction of biological aptitudes with a social environment. J. D. February, 1921",
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      "text": "CONTENTS",
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      "text": "PAGE INTRODUCTION 1 Contempt for human nature; pathology of goodness; freedom; value of science.",
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      "text": "_PART ONE_ THE PLACE OF HABIT IN CONDUCT",
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      "text": "SECTION I: HABITS AS SOCIAL FUNCTIONS 14 Habits as functions and arts; social complicity; subjective factor. SECTION II: HABITS AND WILL 24 Active means; ideas of ends; means and ends; nature of character. SECTION III: CHARACTER AND CONDUCT 43 Good will and consequences; virtues and natural goods; objective and subjective morals. SECTION IV: CUSTOM AND HABIT 58 Human psychology is social; habit as conservative; mind and body. SECTION V: CUSTOM AND MORALITY 75 Customs as standards; authority of standards; class conflicts. SECTION VI: HABIT AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 84 Isolation of individuality; newer movements.",
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      "text": "_PART TWO_ THE PLACE OF IMPULSE IN CONDUCT",
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      "text": "SECTION I: IMPULSES AND CHANGE OF HABITS 89 Present interest in instincts; impulses as re-organizing. SECTION II: PLASTICITY OF IMPULSE 95 Impulse and education; uprush of impulse; fixed codes. SECTION III: CHANGING HUMAN NATURE 106 Habits the inert factor; modification of impulses; war a social function; economic regimes as social products; nature of motives. SECTION IV: IMPULSE AND CONFLICT OF HABITS 125 Possibility of social betterment; conservatism. SECTION V: CLASSIFICATION OF INSTINCTS 131 False simplifications; \"self-love\"; will to power; acquisitive and creative. SECTION VI: NO SEPARATE INSTINCTS 149 Uniqueness of acts; possibilities of operation; necessity of play and art; rebelliousness. SECTION VII: IMPULSE AND THOUGHT 169",
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      "text": "_PART THREE_ THE PLACE OF INTELLIGENCE IN CONDUCT",
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      "text": "SECTION I: HABIT AND INTELLIGENCE 172 Habits and intellect; mind, habit and impulse. SECTION II: THE PSYCHOLOGY OF THINKING 181 The trinity of intellect; conscience and its alleged separate subject-matter. SECTION III: THE NATURE OF DELIBERATION 189 Deliberation as imaginative rehearsal; preference and choice; strife of reason and passion; nature of reason. SECTION IV: DELIBERATION AND CALCULATION 199 Error in utilitarian theory; place of the pleasant; hedonistic calculus; deliberation and prediction. SECTION V: THE UNIQUENESS OF GOOD 210 Fallacy of a single good; applied to utilitarianism; profit and personality; means and ends. SECTION VI: THE NATURE OF AIMS 223 Theory of final ends; aims as directive means; ends as justifying means; meaning well as an aim; wishes and aims. SECTION VII: THE NATURE OF PRINCIPLES 238 Desire for certainty; morals and probabilities; importance of generalizations. SECTION VIII: DESIRE AND INTELLIGENCE 248 Object and consequence of desire; desire and quiescence; self-deception in desire; desire needs intelligence; nature of idealism; living in the ideal. SECTION IX: THE PRESENT AND FUTURE 265 Subordination of activity to result; control of future; production and consummation; idealism and distant goals.",
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      "text": "_PART FOUR_ CONCLUSION",
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      "text": "SECTION I: THE GOOD OF ACTIVITY 278 Better and worse; morality a process; evolution and progress; optimism; Epicureanism; making others happy. SECTION II: MORALS ARE HUMAN 295 Humane morals; natural law and morals; place of science. SECTION III: WHAT IS FREEDOM? 303 Elements in freedom; capacity in action; novel possibilities; force of desire. SECTION IV: MORALITY IS SOCIAL 314 Conscience and responsibility; social pressure and opportunity; exaggeration of blame; importance of social psychology; category of right; the community as religious symbol.",
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      "text": "INTRODUCTION",
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      "text": "\"Give a dog a bad name and hang him.\" Human nature has been the dog of professional moralists, and consequences accord with the proverb. Man's nature has been regarded with suspicion, with fear, with sour looks, sometimes with enthusiasm for its possibilities but only when these were placed in contrast with its actualities. It has appeared to be so evilly disposed that the business of morality was to prune and curb it; it would be thought better of if it could be replaced by something else. It has been supposed that morality would be quite superfluous were it not for the inherent weakness, bordering on depravity, of human nature. Some writers with a more genial conception have attributed the current blackening to theologians who have thought to honor the divine by disparaging the human. Theologians have doubtless taken a gloomier view of man than have pagans and secularists. But this explanation doesn't take us far. For after all these theologians are themselves human, and they would have been without influence if the human audience had not somehow responded to them.",
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      "text": "There are others who take seriously the idea of morals separated from the ordinary actualities of humanity and who attempt to live up to it. Some become engrossed in spiritual egotism. They are preoccupied with the state of their character, concerned for the purity of their motives and the goodness of their souls. The exaltation of conceit which sometimes accompanies this absorption can produce a corrosive inhumanity which exceeds the possibilities of any other known form of selfishness. In other cases, persistent preoccupation with the thought of an ideal realm breeds morbid discontent with surroundings, or induces a futile withdrawal into an inner world where all facts are fair to the eye. The needs of actual conditions are neglected, or dealt with in a half-hearted way, because in the light of the ideal they are so mean and sordid. To speak of evils, to strive seriously for change, shows a low mind. Or, again, the ideal becomes a refuge, an asylum, a way of escape from tiresome responsibilities. In varied ways men come to live in two worlds, one the actual, the other the ideal. Some are tortured by the sense of their irreconcilability. Others alternate between the two, compensating for the strains of renunciation involved in membership in the ideal realm by pleasurable excursions into the delights of the actual.",
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      "text": "If we turn from concrete effects upon character to theoretical issues, we single out the discussion regarding freedom of will as typical of the consequences that come from separating morals from human nature. Men are wearied with bootless discussion, and anxious to dismiss it as a metaphysical subtlety. But nevertheless it contains within itself the most practical of all moral questions, the nature of freedom and the means of its achieving. The separation of morals from human nature leads to a separation of human nature in its moral aspects from the rest of nature, and from ordinary social habits and endeavors which are found in business, civic life, the run of companionships and recreations. These things are thought of at most as places where moral notions need to be applied, not as places where moral ideas are to be studied and moral energies generated. In short, the severance of morals from human nature ends by driving morals inwards from the public open out-of-doors air and light of day into the obscurities and privacies of an inner life. The significance of the traditional discussion of free will is that it reflects precisely a separation of moral activity from nature and the public life of men.",
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      "text": "One has to turn from moral theories to the general human struggle for political, economic and religious liberty, for freedom of thought, speech, assemblage and creed, to find significant reality in the conception of freedom of will. Then one finds himself out of the stiflingly close atmosphere of an inner consciousness and in the open-air world. The cost of confining moral freedom to an inner region is the almost complete severance of ethics from politics and economics. The former is regarded as summed up in edifying exhortations, and the latter as connected with arts of expediency separated from larger issues of good.",
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      "text": "In short, there are two schools of social reform. One bases itself upon the notion of a morality which springs from an inner freedom, something mysteriously cooped up within personality. It asserts that the only way to change institutions is for men to purify their own hearts, and that when this has been accomplished, change of institutions will follow of itself. The other school denies the existence of any such inner power, and in so doing conceives that it has denied all moral freedom. It says that men are made what they are by the forces of the environment, that human nature is purely malleable, and that till institutions are changed, nothing can be done. Clearly this leaves the outcome as hopeless as does an appeal to an inner rectitude and benevolence. For it provides no leverage for change of environment. It throws us back upon accident, usually disguised as a necessary law of history or evolution, and trusts to some violent change, symbolized by civil war, to usher in an abrupt millennium. There is an alternative to being penned in between these two theories. We can recognize that all conduct is _interaction_ between elements of human nature and the environment, natural and social. Then we shall see that progress proceeds in two ways, and that freedom is found in that kind of interaction which maintains an environment in which human desire and choice count for something. There are in truth forces in man as well as without him. While they are infinitely frail in comparison with exterior forces, yet they may have the support of a foreseeing and contriving intelligence. When we look at the problem as one of an adjustment to be intelligently attained, the issue shifts from within personality to an engineering issue, the establishment of arts of education and social guidance.",
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      "text": "The idea persists that there is something materialistic about natural science and that morals are degraded by having anything seriously to do with material things. If a sect should arise proclaiming that men ought to purify their lungs completely before they ever drew a breath it ought to win many adherents from professed moralists. For the neglect of sciences that deal specifically with facts of the natural and social environment leads to a side-tracking of moral forces into an unreal privacy of an unreal self. It is impossible to say how much of the remediable suffering of the world is due to the fact that physical science is looked upon as merely physical. It is impossible to say how much of the unnecessary slavery of the world is due to the conception that moral issues can be settled within conscience or human sentiment apart from consistent study of facts and application of specific knowledge in industry, law and politics. Outside of manufacturing and transportation, science gets its chance in war. These facts perpetuate war and the hardest, most brutal side of modern industry. Each sign of disregard for the moral potentialities of physical science drafts the conscience of mankind away from concern with the interactions of man and nature which must be mastered if freedom is to be a reality. It diverts intelligence to anxious preoccupation with the unrealities of a purely inner life, or strengthens reliance upon outbursts of sentimental affection. The masses swarm to the occult for assistance. The cultivated smile contemptuously. They might smile, as the saying goes, out of the other side of their mouths if they realized how recourse to the occult exhibits the practical logic of their own beliefs. For both rest upon a separation of moral ideas and feelings from knowable facts of life, man and the world.",
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      "text": "It is not pretended that a moral theory based upon realities of human nature and a study of the specific connections of these realities with those of physical science would do away with moral struggle and defeat. It would not make the moral life as simple a matter as wending one's way along a well-lighted boulevard. All action is an invasion of the future, of the unknown. Conflict and uncertainty are ultimate traits. But morals based upon concern with facts and deriving guidance from knowledge of them would at least locate the points of effective endeavor and would focus available resources upon them. It would put an end to the impossible attempt to live in two unrelated worlds. It would destroy fixed distinction between the human and the physical, as well as that between the moral and the industrial and political. A morals based on study of human nature instead of upon disregard for it would find the facts of man continuous with those of the rest of nature and would thereby ally ethics with physics and biology. It would find the nature and activities of one person coterminous with those of other human beings, and therefore link ethics with the study of history, sociology, law and economics.",
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      "text": "Such a morals would not automatically solve moral problems, nor resolve perplexities. But it would enable us to state problems in such forms that action could be courageously and intelligently directed to their solution. It would not assure us against failure, but it would render failure a source of instruction. It would not protect us against the future emergence of equally serious moral difficulties, but it would enable us to approach the always recurring troubles with a fund of growing knowledge which would add significant values to our conduct even when we overtly failed--as we should continue to do. Until the integrity of morals with human nature and of both with the environment is recognized, we shall be deprived of the aid of past experience to cope with the most acute and deep problems of life. Accurate and extensive knowledge will continue to operate only in dealing with purely technical problems. The intelligent acknowledgment of the continuity of nature, man and society will alone secure a growth of morals which will be serious without being fanatical, aspiring without sentimentality, adapted to reality without conventionality, sensible without taking the form of calculation of profits, idealistic without being romantic.",
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      "text": "PART ONE",
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      "text": "THE PLACE OF HABIT IN CONDUCT",
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      "text": "I",
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      "text": "Habits may be profitably compared to physiological functions, like breathing, digesting. The latter are, to be sure, involuntary, while habits are acquired. But important as is this difference for many purposes it should not conceal the fact that habits are like functions in many respects, and especially in requiring the cooperation of organism and environment. Breathing is an affair of the air as truly as of the lungs; digesting an affair of food as truly as of tissues of stomach. Seeing involves light just as certainly as it does the eye and optic nerve. Walking implicates the ground as well as the legs; speech demands physical air and human companionship and audience as well as vocal organs. We may shift from the biological to the mathematical use of the word function, and say that natural operations like breathing and digesting, acquired ones like speech and honesty, are functions of the surroundings as truly as of a person. They are things done _by_ the environment by means of organic structures or acquired dispositions. The same air that under certain conditions ruffles the pool or wrecks buildings, under other conditions purifies the blood and conveys thought. The outcome depends upon what air acts upon. The social environment acts through native impulses and speech and moral habitudes manifest themselves. There are specific good reasons for the usual attribution of acts to the person from whom they immediately proceed. But to convert this special reference into a belief of exclusive ownership is as misleading as to suppose that breathing and digesting are complete within the human body. To get a rational basis for moral discussion we must begin with recognizing that functions and habits are ways of using and incorporating the environment in which the latter has its say as surely as the former.",
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      "text": "We may borrow words from a context less technical than that of biology, and convey the same idea by saying that habits are arts. They involve skill of sensory and motor organs, cunning or craft, and objective materials. They assimilate objective energies, and eventuate in command of environment. They require order, discipline, and manifest technique. They have a beginning, middle and end. Each stage marks progress in dealing with materials and tools, advance in converting material to active use. We should laugh at any one who said that he was master of stone working, but that the art was cooped up within himself and in no wise dependent upon support from objects and assistance from tools.",
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      "text": "In morals we are however quite accustomed to such a fatuity. Moral dispositions are thought of as belonging exclusively to a self. The self is thereby isolated from natural and social surroundings. A whole school of morals flourishes upon capital drawn from restricting morals to character and then separating character from conduct, motives from actual deeds. Recognition of the analogy of moral action with functions and arts uproots the causes which have made morals subjective and \"individualistic.\" It brings morals to earth, and if they still aspire to heaven it is to the heavens of the earth, and not to another world. Honesty, chastity, malice, peevishness, courage, triviality, industry, irresponsibility are not private possessions of a person. They are working adaptations of personal capacities with environing forces. All virtues and vices are habits which incorporate objective forces. They are interactions of elements contributed by the make-up of an individual with elements supplied by the out-door world. They can be studied as objectively as physiological functions, and they can be modified by change of either personal or social elements.",
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      "text": "If an individual were alone in the world, he would form his habits (assuming the impossible, namely, that he would be able to form them) in a moral vacuum. They would belong to him alone, or to him only in reference to physical forces. Responsibility and virtue would be his alone. But since habits involve the support of environing conditions, a society or some specific group of fellow-men, is always accessory before and after the fact. Some activity proceeds from a man; then it sets up reactions in the surroundings. Others approve, disapprove, protest, encourage, share and resist. Even letting a man alone is a definite response. Envy, admiration and imitation are complicities. Neutrality is non-existent. Conduct is always shared; this is the difference between it and a physiological process. It is not an ethical \"ought\" that conduct _should_ be social. It _is_ social, whether bad or good.",
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      "text": "Washing one's hands of the guilt of others is a way of sharing guilt so far as it encourages in others a vicious way of action. Non-resistance to evil which takes the form of paying no attention to it is a way of promoting it. The desire of an individual to keep his own conscience stainless by standing aloof from badness may be a sure means of causing evil and thus of creating personal responsibility for it. Yet there are circumstances in which passive resistance may be the most effective form of nullification of wrong action, or in which heaping coals of fire on the evil-doer may be the most effective way of transforming conduct. To sentimentalize over a criminal--to \"forgive\" because of a glow of feeling--is to incur liability for production of criminals. But to suppose that infliction of retributive suffering suffices, without reference to concrete consequences, is to leave untouched old causes of criminality and to create new ones by fostering revenge and brutality. The abstract theory of justice which demands the \"vindication\" of law irrespective of instruction and reform of the wrong-doer is as much a refusal to recognize responsibility as is the sentimental gush which makes a suffering victim out of a criminal.",
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      "text": "Courses of action which put the blame exclusively on a person as if his evil will were the sole cause of wrong-doing and those which condone offense on account of the share of social conditions in producing bad disposition, are equally ways of making an unreal separation of man from his surroundings, mind from the world. Causes for an act always exist, but causes are not excuses. Questions of causation are physical, not moral except when they concern future consequences. It is as causes of future actions that excuses and accusations alike must be considered. At present we give way to resentful passion, and then \"rationalize\" our surrender by calling it a vindication of justice. Our entire tradition regarding punitive justice tends to prevent recognition of social partnership in producing crime; it falls in with a belief in metaphysical free-will. By killing an evil-doer or shutting him up behind stone walls, we are enabled to forget both him and our part in creating him. Society excuses itself by laying the blame on the criminal; he retorts by putting the blame on bad early surroundings, the temptations of others, lack of opportunities, and the persecutions of officers of the law. Both are right, except in the wholesale character of their recriminations. But the effect on both sides is to throw the whole matter back into antecedent causation, a method which refuses to bring the matter to truly moral judgment. For morals has to do with acts still within our control, acts still to be performed. No amount of guilt on the part of the evil-doer absolves us from responsibility for the consequences upon him and others of our way of treating him, or from our continuing responsibility for the conditions under which persons develop perverse habits.",
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      "ref": "PG41386.B00060",
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      "text": "We need to discriminate between the physical and the moral question. The former concerns what _has_ happened, and how it happened. To consider this question is indispensable to morals. Without an answer to it we cannot tell what forces are at work nor how to direct our actions so as to improve conditions. Until we know the conditions which have helped form the characters we approve and disapprove, our efforts to create the one and do away with the other will be blind and halting. But the moral issue concerns the future. It is prospective. To content ourselves with pronouncing judgments of merit and demerit without reference to the fact that our judgments are themselves facts which have consequences and that their value depends upon _their_ consequences, is complacently to dodge the moral issue, perhaps even to indulge ourselves in pleasurable passion just as the person we condemn once indulged himself. The moral problem is that of modifying the factors which now influence future results. To change the working character or will of another we have to alter objective conditions which enter into his habits. Our own schemes of judgment, of assigning blame and praise, of awarding punishment and honor, are part of these conditions.",
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      "ref": "PG41386.B00064",
      "bookId": 41386,
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      "text": "Yet the distinctively personal or subjective factors in habit count. Taste for flowers may be the initial step in building reservoirs and irrigation canals. The stimulation of desire and effort is one preliminary in the change of surroundings. While personal exhortation, advice and instruction is a feeble stimulus compared with that which steadily proceeds from the impersonal forces and depersonalized habitudes of the environment, yet they may start the latter going. Taste, appreciation and effort always spring from some accomplished objective situation. They have objective support; they represent the liberation of something formerly accomplished so that it is useful in further operation. A genuine appreciation of the beauty of flowers is not generated within a self-enclosed consciousness. It reflects a world in which beautiful flowers have already grown and been enjoyed. Taste and desire represent a prior objective fact recurring in action to secure perpetuation and extension. Desire for flowers comes after actual enjoyment of flowers. But it comes before the work that makes the desert blossom, it comes before _cultivation_ of plants. Every ideal is preceded by an actuality; but the ideal is more than a repetition in inner image of the actual. It projects in securer and wider and fuller form some good which has been previously experienced in a precarious, accidental, fleeting way.",
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      "text": "II",
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      "bookId": 41386,
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      "text": "It is a significant fact that in order to appreciate the peculiar place of habit in activity we have to betake ourselves to bad habits, foolish idling, gambling, addiction to liquor and drugs. When we think of such habits, the union of habit with desire and with propulsive power is forced upon us. When we think of habits in terms of walking, playing a musical instrument, typewriting, we are much given to thinking of habits as technical abilities existing apart from our likings and as lacking in urgent impulsion. We think of them as passive tools waiting to be called into action from without. A bad habit suggests an inherent tendency to action and also a hold, command over us. It makes us do things we are ashamed of, things which we tell ourselves we prefer not to do. It overrides our formal resolutions, our conscious decisions. When we are honest with ourselves we acknowledge that a habit has this power because it is so intimately a part of ourselves. It has a hold upon us because we are the habit.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41386.B00067",
      "bookId": 41386,
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      "text": "Our self-love, our refusal to face facts, combined perhaps with a sense of a possible better although unrealized self, leads us to eject the habit from the thought of ourselves and conceive it as an evil power which has somehow overcome us. We feed our conceit by recalling that the habit was not deliberately formed; we never intended to become idlers or gamblers or rouès. And how can anything be deeply ourselves which developed accidentally, without set intention? These traits of a bad habit are precisely the things which are most instructive about all habits and about ourselves. They teach us that all habits are affections, that all have projectile power, and that a predisposition formed by a number of specific acts is an immensely more intimate and fundamental part of ourselves than are vague, general, conscious choices. All habits are demands for certain kinds of activity; and they constitute the self. In any intelligible sense of the word will, they _are_ will. They form our effective desires and they furnish us with our working capacities. They rule our thoughts, determining which shall appear and be strong and which shall pass from light into obscurity.",
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      "text": "We may think of habits as means, waiting, like tools in a box, to be used by conscious resolve. But they are something more than that. They are active means, means that project themselves, energetic and dominating ways of acting. We need to distinguish between materials, tools and means proper. Nails and boards are not strictly speaking means of a box. They are only materials for making it. Even the saw and hammer are means only when they are employed in some actual making. Otherwise they are tools, or potential means. They are actual means only when brought in conjunction with eye, arm and hand in some specific operation. And eye, arm and hand are, correspondingly, means proper only when they are in active operation. And whenever they are in action they are cooperating with external materials and energies. Without support from beyond themselves the eye stares blankly and the hand moves fumblingly. They are means only when they enter into organization with things which independently accomplish definite results. These organizations are habits.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41386.B00069",
      "bookId": 41386,
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      "text": "This fact cuts two ways. Except in a contingent sense, with an \"if,\" neither external materials nor bodily and mental organs are in themselves means. They have to be employed in coordinated conjunction with one another to be actual means, or habits. This statement may seem like the formulation in technical language of a common-place. But belief in magic has played a large part in human history. And the essence of all hocus-pocus is the supposition that results can be accomplished without the joint adaptation to each other of human powers and physical conditions. A desire for rain may induce men to wave willow branches and to sprinkle water. The reaction is natural and innocent. But men then go on to believe that their act has immediate power to bring rain without the cooperation of intermediate conditions of nature. This is magic; while it may be natural or spontaneous, it is not innocent. It obstructs intelligent study of operative conditions and wastes human desire and effort in futilities.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41386.B00070",
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      "text": "Belief in magic did not cease when the coarser forms of superstitious practice ceased. The principle of magic is found whenever it is hoped to get results without intelligent control of means; and also when it is supposed that means can exist and yet remain inert and inoperative. In morals and politics such expectations still prevail, and in so far the most important phases of human action are still affected by magic. We think that by feeling strongly enough about something, by wishing hard enough, we can get a desirable result, such as virtuous execution of a good resolve, or peace among nations, or good will in industry. We slur over the necessity of the cooperative action of objective conditions, and the fact that this cooperation is assured only by persistent and close study. Or, on the other hand, we fancy we can get these results by external machinery, by tools or potential means, without a corresponding functioning of human desires and capacities. Often times these two false and contradictory beliefs are combined in the same person. The man who feels that _his_ virtues are his own personal accomplishments is likely to be also the one who thinks that by passing laws he can throw the fear of God into others and make them virtuous by edict and prohibitory mandate.",
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      "text": "Recently a friend remarked to me that there was one superstition current among even cultivated persons. They suppose that if one is told what to do, if the right _end_ is pointed to them, all that is required in order to bring about the right act is will or wish on the part of the one who is to act. He used as an illustration the matter of physical posture; the assumption is that if a man is told to stand up straight, all that is further needed is wish and effort on his part, and the deed is done. He pointed out that this belief is on a par with primitive magic in its neglect of attention to the means which are involved in reaching an end. And he went on to say that the prevalence of this belief, starting with false notions about the control of the body and extending to control of mind and character, is the greatest bar to intelligent social progress. It bars the way because it makes us neglect intelligent inquiry to discover the means which will produce a desired result, and intelligent invention to procure the means. In short, it leaves out the importance of intelligently controlled habit.",
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      "text": "We may cite his illustration of the real nature of a physical aim or order and its execution in its contrast with the current false notion.[1] A man who has a bad habitual posture tells himself, or is told, to stand up straight. If he is interested and responds, he braces himself, goes through certain movements, and it is assumed that the desired result is substantially attained; and that the position is retained at least as long as the man keeps the idea or order in his mind. Consider the assumptions which are here made. It is implied that the means or effective conditions of the realization of a purpose exist independently of established habit and even that they may be set in motion in opposition to habit. It is assumed that means are there, so that the failure to stand erect is wholly a matter of failure of purpose and desire. It needs paralysis or a broken leg or some other equally gross phenomenon to make us appreciate the importance of objective conditions.",
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      "text": "[1] I refer to Alexander, \"Man's Supreme Inheritance.\"",
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      "text": "Now in fact a man who _can_ stand properly does so, and only a man who can, does. In the former case, fiats of will are unnecessary, and in the latter useless. A man who does not stand properly forms a habit of standing improperly, a positive, forceful habit. The common implication that his mistake is merely negative, that he is simply failing to do the right thing, and that the failure can be made good by an order of will is absurd. One might as well suppose that the man who is a slave of whiskey-drinking is merely one who fails to drink water. Conditions have been formed for producing a bad result, and the bad result will occur as long as those conditions exist. They can no more be dismissed by a direct effort of will than the conditions which create drought can be dispelled by whistling for wind. It is as reasonable to expect a fire to go out when it is ordered to stop burning as to suppose that a man can stand straight in consequence of a direct action of thought and desire. The fire can be put out only by changing objective conditions; it is the same with rectification of bad posture.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41386.B00078",
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      "text": "Only the man who can maintain a correct posture has the stuff out of which to form that idea of standing erect which can be the starting point of a right act. Only the man whose habits are already good can know what the good is. Immediate, seemingly instinctive, feeling of the direction and end of various lines of behavior is in reality the feeling of habits working below direct consciousness. The psychology of illusions of perception is full of illustrations of the distortion introduced by habit into observation of objects. The same fact accounts for the intuitive element in judgments of action, an element which is valuable or the reverse in accord with the quality of dominant habits. For, as Aristotle remarked, the untutored moral perceptions of a good man are usually trustworthy, those of a bad character, not. (But he should have added that the influence of social custom as well as personal habit has to be taken into account in estimating who is the good man and the good judge.)",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41386.B00079",
      "bookId": 41386,
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      "text": "What is true of the dependence of execution of an idea upon habit is true, then, of the formation and quality of the idea. Suppose that by a happy chance a right concrete idea or purpose--concrete, not simply correct in words--has been hit upon: What happens when one with an incorrect habit tries to act in accord with it? Clearly the idea can be carried into execution only with a mechanism already there. If this is defective or perverted, the best intention in the world will yield bad results. In the case of no other engine does one suppose that a defective machine will turn out good goods simply because it is invited to. Everywhere else we recognize that the design and structure of the agency employed tell directly upon the work done. Given a bad habit and the \"will\" or mental direction to get a good result, and the actual happening is a reverse or looking-glass manifestation of the usual fault--a compensatory twist in the opposite direction. Refusal to recognize this fact only leads to a separation of mind from body, and to supposing that mental or \"psychical\" mechanisms are different in kind from those of bodily operations and independent of them. So deep seated is this notion that even so \"scientific\" a theory as modern psycho-analysis thinks that mental habits can be straightened out by some kind of purely psychical manipulation without reference to the distortions of sensation and perception which are due to bad bodily sets. The other side of the error is found in the notion of \"scientific\" nerve physiologists that it is only necessary to locate a particular diseased cell or local lesion, independent of the whole complex of organic habits, in order to rectify conduct.",
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      "ref": "PG41386.B00080",
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      "text": "Means are means; they are intermediates, middle terms. To grasp this fact is to have done with the ordinary dualism of means and ends. The \"end\" is merely a series of acts viewed at a remote stage; and a means is merely the series viewed at an earlier one. The distinction of means and end arises in surveying the _course_ of a proposed _line_ of action, a connected series in time. The \"end\" is the last act thought of; the means are the acts to be performed prior to it in time. To _reach_ an end we must take our mind off from it and attend to the act which is next to be performed. We must make that the end. The only exception to this statement is in cases where customary habit determines the course of the series. Then all that is wanted is a cue to set it off. But when the proposed end involves any deviation from usual action, or any rectification of it--as in the case of standing straight--then the main thing is to find some act which is different from the usual one. The discovery and performance of this unaccustomed act is the \"end\" to which we must devote all attention. Otherwise we shall simply do the old thing over again, no matter what is our conscious command. The only way of accomplishing this discovery is through a flank movement. We must stop even thinking of standing up straight. To think of it is fatal, for it commits us to the operation of an established habit of standing wrong. We must find an act within our power which is disconnected from any thought about standing. We must start to do another thing which on one side inhibits our falling into the customary bad position and on the other side is the beginning of a series of acts which may lead into the correct posture.[2] The hard-drinker who keeps thinking of not drinking is doing what he can to initiate the acts which lead to drinking. He is starting with the stimulus to his habit. To succeed he must find some positive interest or line of action which will inhibit the drinking series and which by instituting another course of action will bring him to his desired end. In short, the man's true aim is to discover some course of action, having nothing to do with the habit of drink or standing erect, which will take him where he wants to go. The discovery of this other series is at once his means and his end. Until one takes intermediate acts seriously enough to treat them as ends, one wastes one's time in any effort at change of habits. Of the intermediate acts, the most important is the _next_ one. The first or earliest means is the most important _end_ to discover.",
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      "text": "[2]The technique of this process is stated in the book of Mr. Alexander already referred to, and the theoretical statement given is borrowed from Mr. Alexander's analysis.",
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      "text": "Means and ends are two names for the same reality. The terms denote not a division in reality but a distinction in judgment. Without understanding this fact we cannot understand the nature of habits nor can we pass beyond the usual separation of the moral and non-moral in conduct. \"End\" is a name for a series of acts taken collectively--like the term army. \"Means\" is a name for the same series taken distributively--like this soldier, that officer. To think of the end signifies to extend and enlarge our view of the act to be performed. It means to look at the next act in perspective, not permitting it to occupy the entire field of vision. To bear the end in mind signifies that we should not stop thinking about our _next_ act until we form some reasonably clear idea of the _course_ of action to which it commits us. To attain a remote end means on the other hand to treat the end as a series of means. To say that an end is remote or distant, to say in fact that it is an end at all, is equivalent to saying that obstacles intervene between us and it. If, however, it remains a distant end, it becomes a _mere_ end, that is a dream. As soon as we have projected it, we must begin to work backward in thought. We must change _what_ is to be done into a _how_, the means whereby. The end thus re-appears as a series of \"what nexts,\" and the what next of chief importance is the one nearest the present state of the one acting. Only as the end is converted into means is it definitely conceived, or intellectually defined, to say nothing of being executable. Just as end, it is vague, cloudy, impressionistic. We do not _know_ what we are really after until a _course_ of action is mentally worked out. Aladdin with his lamp could dispense with translating ends into means, but no one else can do so.",
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      "text": "Now the thing which is closest to us, the means within our power, is a habit. Some habit impeded by circumstances is the source of the projection of the end. It is also the primary means in its realization. The habit is propulsive and moves anyway toward some end, or result, whether it is projected as an end-in-view or not. The man who can walk does walk; the man who can talk does converse--if only with himself. How is this statement to be reconciled with the fact that we are not always walking and talking; that our habits seem so often to be latent, inoperative? Such inactivity holds only of _overt_, visibly obvious operation. In actuality each habit operates all the time of waking life; though like a member of a crew taking his turn at the wheel, its operation becomes the dominantly characteristic trait of an act only occasionally or rarely.",
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    {
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      "text": "The habit of walking is expressed in what a man sees when he keeps still, even in dreams. The recognition of distances and directions of things from his place at rest is the obvious proof of this statement. The habit of locomotion is latent in the sense that it is covered up, counteracted, by a habit of seeing which is definitely at the fore. But counteraction is not suppression. Locomotion is a potential energy, not in any metaphysical sense, but in the physical sense in which potential energy as well as kinetic has to be taken account of in any scientific description. Everything that a man who has the habit of locomotion does and thinks he does and thinks differently on that account. This fact is recognized in current psychology, but is falsified into an association of sensations. Were it not for the continued operation of all habits in every act, no such thing as character could exist. There would be simply a bundle, an untied bundle at that, of isolated acts. Character is the interpenetration of habits. If each habit existed in an insulated compartment and operated without affecting or being affected by others, character would not exist. That is, conduct would lack unity being only a juxtaposition of disconnected reactions to separated situations. But since environments overlap, since situations are continuous and those remote from one another contain like elements, a continuous modification of habits by one another is constantly going on. A man may give himself away in a look or a gesture. Character can be read through the medium of individual acts.",
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      "text": "Of course interpenetration is never total. It is most marked in what we call strong characters. Integration is an achievement rather than a datum. A weak, unstable, vacillating character is one in which different habits alternate with one another rather than embody one another. The strength, solidity of a habit is not its own possession but is due to reinforcement by the force of other habits which it absorbs into itself. Routine specialization always works against interpenetration. Men with \"pigeon-hole\" minds are not infrequent. Their diverse standards and methods of judgment for scientific, religious, political matters testify to isolated compartmental habits of action. Character that is unable to undergo successfully the strain of thought and effort required to bring competing tendencies into a unity, builds up barriers between different systems of likes and dislikes. The emotional stress incident to conflict is avoided not by readjustment but by effort at confinement. Yet the exception proves the rule. Such persons are successful in keeping different ways of reacting apart from one another in consciousness rather than in action. Their character is marked by stigmata resulting from this division.",
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      "text": "The mutual modification of habits by one another enables us to define the nature of the moral situation. It is not necessary nor advisable to be always considering the interaction of habits with one another, that is to say the effect of a particular habit upon character--which is a name for the total interaction. Such consideration distracts attention from the problem of building up an effective habit. A man who is learning French, or chess-playing or engineering has his hands full with his particular occupation. He would be confused and hampered by constant inquiry into its effect upon character. He would resemble the centipede who by trying to think of the movement of each leg in relation to all the others was rendered unable to travel. At any given time, certain habits must be taken for granted as a matter of course. Their operation is not a matter of moral judgment. They are treated as technical, recreational, professional, hygienic or economic or esthetic rather than moral. To lug in morals, or ulterior effect on character at every point, is to cultivate moral valetudinarianism or priggish posing. Nevertheless any act, even that one which passes ordinarily as trivial, may entail such consequences for habit and character as upon occasion to require judgment from the standpoint of the whole body of conduct. It then comes under moral scrutiny. To know when to leave acts without distinctive moral judgment and when to subject them to it is itself a large factor in morality. The serious matter is that this relative pragmatic, or intellectual, distinction between the moral and non-moral, has been solidified into a fixed and absolute distinction, so that some acts are popularly regarded as forever within and others forever without the moral domain. From this fatal error recognition of the relations of one habit to others preserves us. For it makes us see that character is the name given to the working interaction of habits, and that the cumulative effect of insensible modifications worked by a particular habit in the body of preferences may at any moment require attention.",
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      "text": "The word habit may seem twisted somewhat from its customary use when employed as we have been using it. But we need a word to express that kind of human activity which is influenced by prior activity and in that sense acquired; which contains within itself a certain ordering or systematization of minor elements of action; which is projective, dynamic in quality, ready for overt manifestation; and which is operative in some subdued subordinate form even when not obviously dominating activity. Habit even in its ordinary usage comes nearer to denoting these facts than any other word. If the facts are recognized we may also use the words attitude and disposition. But unless we have first made clear to ourselves the facts which have been set forth under the name of habit, these words are more likely to be misleading than is the word habit. For the latter conveys explicitly the sense of operativeness, actuality. Attitude and, as ordinarily used, disposition suggest something latent, potential, something which requires a positive stimulus outside themselves to become active. If we perceive that they denote positive forms of action which are released merely through removal of some counteracting \"inhibitory\" tendency, and then become overt, we may employ them instead of the word habit to denote subdued, non-patent forms of the latter.",
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      "text": "In this case, we must bear in mind that the word disposition means predisposition, readiness to act overtly in a specific fashion whenever opportunity is presented, this opportunity consisting in removal of the pressure due to the dominance of some overt habit; and that attitude means some special case of a predisposition, the disposition waiting as it were to spring through an opened door. While it is admitted that the word habit has been used in a somewhat broader sense than is usual, we must protest against the tendency in psychological literature to limit its meaning to repetition. This usage is much less in accord with popular usage than is the wider way in which we have used the word. It assumes from the start the identity of habit with routine. Repetition is in no sense the essence of habit. Tendency to repeat acts is an incident of many habits but not of all. A man with the habit of giving way to anger may show his habit by a murderous attack upon some one who has offended. His act is nonetheless due to habit because it occurs only once in his life. The essence of habit is an acquired predisposition to _ways_ or modes of response, not to particular acts except as, under special conditions, these express a way of behaving. Habit means special sensitiveness or accessibility to certain classes of stimuli, standing predilections and aversions, rather than bare recurrence of specific acts. It means will.",
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      "text": "III",
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      "text": "The dynamic force of habit taken in connection with the continuity of habits with one another explains the unity of character and conduct, or speaking more concretely of motive and act, will and deed. Moral theories have frequently separated these things from each other. One type of theory, for example, has asserted that only will, disposition, motive counts morally; that acts are external, physical, accidental; that moral good is different from goodness in act since the latter is measured by consequences, while moral good or virtue is intrinsic, complete in itself, a jewel shining by its own light--a somewhat dangerous metaphor however. The other type of theory has asserted that such a view is equivalent to saying that all that is necessary to be virtuous is to cultivate states of feeling; that a premium is put on disregard of the actual consequences of conduct, and agents are deprived of any objective criterion for the rightness and wrongness of acts, being thrown back on their own whims, prejudices and private peculiarities. Like most opposite extremes in philosophic theories, the two theories suffer from a common mistake. Both of them ignore the projective force of habit and the implication of habits in one another. Hence they separate a unified deed into two disjoined parts, an inner called motive and an outer called act.",
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      "text": "One is the fact that we are inclined to take the notions of goodness in character and goodness in results in too fixed a way. Persistent disparity between virtuous disposition and actual outcome shows that we have misjudged either the nature of virtue or of success. Judgments of both motive and consequences are still, in the absence of methods of scientific analysis and continuous registration and reporting, rudimentary and conventional. We are inclined to wholesale judgments of character, dividing men into goats and sheep, instead of recognizing that all character is speckled, and that the problem of moral judgment is one of discriminating the complex of acts and habits into tendencies which are to be _specifically_ cultivated and condemned. We need to study consequences more thoroughly and keep track of them more continuously before we shall be in a position where we can pass with reasonable assurance upon the good and evil in either disposition or results. But even when proper allowances are made, we are forcing the pace when we assume that there is or ever can be an exact equation of disposition and outcome. We have to admit the rôle of accident.",
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      "text": "We cannot get beyond tendencies, and must perforce content ourselves with judgments of tendency. The honest man, we are told, acts upon \"principle\" and not from considerations of expediency, that is, of particular consequences. The truth in this saying is that it is not safe to judge the worth of a proposed act by its probable consequences in an isolated case. The word \"principle\" is a eulogistic cover for the fact of _tendency_. The word \"tendency\" is an attempt to combine two facts, one that habits have a certain causal efficacy, the other that their outworking in any particular case is subject to contingencies, to circumstances which are unforeseeable and which carry an act one side of its usual effect. In cases of doubt, there is no recourse save to stick to \"tendency,\" that is, to the probable effect of a habit in the long run, or as we say upon the whole. Otherwise we are on the lookout for exceptions which favor our immediate desire. The trouble is that we are not content with modest probabilities. So when we find that a good disposition may work out badly, we say, as Kant did, that the working-out, the consequence, has nothing to do with the moral quality of an act, or we strain for the impossible, and aim at some infallible calculus of consequences by which to measure moral worth in each specific case.",
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      "text": "Human conceit has played a great part. It has demanded that the whole universe be judged from the standpoint of desire and disposition, or at least from that of the desire and disposition of the good man. The effect of religion has been to cherish this conceit by making men think that the universe invariably conspires to support the good and bring the evil to naught. By a subtle logic, the effect has been to render morals unreal and transcendental. For since the world of actual experience does not guarantee this identity of character and outcome, it is inferred that there must be some ulterior truer reality which enforces an equation that is violated in this life. Hence the common notion of another world in which vice and virtue of character produce their exact moral meed. The idea is equally found as an actuating force in Plato. Moral realities must be supreme. Yet they are flagrantly contradicted in a world where a Socrates drinks the hemlock of the criminal, and where the vicious occupy the seats of the mighty. Hence there must be a truer ultimate reality in which justice is only and absolutely justice. Something of the same idea lurks behind every aspiration for realization of abstract justice or equality or liberty. It is the source of all \"idealistic\" utopias and also of all wholesale pessimism and distrust of life.",
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      "text": "Utilitarianism illustrates another way of mistreating the situation. Tendency is not good enough for the utilitarians. They want a mathematical equation of act and consequence. Hence they make light of the steady and controllable factor, the factor of disposition, and fasten upon just the things which are most subject to incalculable accident--pleasures and pains--and embark upon the hopeless enterprise of judging an act apart from character on the basis of definite results. An honestly modest theory will stick to the probabilities of tendency, and not import mathematics into morals. It will be alive and sensitive to consequences as they actually present themselves, because it knows that they give the only instruction we can procure as to the meaning of habits and dispositions. But it will never assume that a moral judgment which reaches certainty is possible. We have just to do the best we can with habits, the forces most under our control; and we shall have our hands more than full in spelling out their general tendencies without attempting an exact judgment upon each deed. For every habit incorporates within itself some part of the objective environment, and no habit and no amount of habits can incorporate the entire environment within itself or themselves. There will always be disparity between them and the results actually attained. Hence the work of intelligence in observing consequences and in revising and readjusting habits, even the best of good habits, can never be foregone. Consequences reveal unexpected potentialities in our habits whenever these habits are exercised in a different environment from that in which they were formed. The assumption of a stably uniform environment (even the hankering for one) expresses a fiction due to attachment to old habits. The utilitarian theory of equation of acts with consequences is as much a fiction of self-conceit as is the assumption of a fixed transcendental world wherein moral ideals are eternally and immutably real. Both of them deny in effect the relevancy of time, of change, to morals, while time is of the essence of the moral struggle.",
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      "text": "We thus come, by an unexpected path, upon the old question of the objectivity or subjectivity of morals. Primarily they are objective. For will, as we have seen, means, in the concrete, habits; and habits incorporate an environment within themselves. They are adjustments _of_ the environment, not merely _to_ it. At the same time, the environment is many, not one; hence will, disposition, is plural. Diversity does not of itself imply conflict, but it implies the possibility of conflict, and this possibility is realized in fact. Life, for example, involves the habit of eating, which in turn involves a unification of organism and nature. But nevertheless this habit comes into conflict with other habits which are also \"objective,\" or in equilibrium with _their_ environments. Because the environment is not all of one piece, man's house is divided within itself, against itself. Honor or consideration for others or courtesy conflict with hunger. Then the notion of the complete objectivity of morals gets a shock. Those who wish to maintain the idea unimpaired take the road which leads to transcendentalism. The empirical world, they say, is indeed divided, and hence any natural morality must be in conflict with itself. This self-contradiction however only points to a higher fixed reality with which a true and superior morality is alone concerned. Objectivity is saved but at the expense of connection with human affairs. Our problem is to see what objectivity signifies upon a naturalistic basis; how morals are objective and yet secular and social. Then we may be able to decide in what crisis of experience morals become legitimately dependent upon character or self--that is, \"subjective.\"",
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      "text": "The family into which one is born is a family in a village or city which interacts with other more or less integrated systems of activity, and which includes a diversity of groupings within itself, say, churches, political parties, clubs, cliques, partnerships, trade-unions, corporations, etc. If we start with the traditional notion of mind as something complete in itself, then we may well be perplexed by the problem of how a common mind, common ways of feeling and believing and purposing, comes into existence and then forms these groups. The case is quite otherwise if we recognize that in any case we must start with grouped action, that is, with some fairly settled system of interaction among individuals. The problem of origin and development of the various groupings, or definite customs, in existence at any particular time in any particular place is not solved by reference to psychic causes, elements, forces. It is to be solved by reference to facts of action, demand for food, for houses, for a mate, for some one to talk to and to listen to one talk, for control of others, demands which are all intensified by the fact already mentioned that each person begins a helpless, dependent creature. I do not mean of course that hunger, fear, sexual love, gregariousness, sympathy, parental love, love of bossing and of being ordered about, imitation, etc., play no part. But I do mean that these words do not express elements or forces which are psychic or mental in their first intention. They denote _ways of behavior_. These ways of behaving involve interaction, that is to say, and prior groupings. And to understand the existence of organized ways or habits we surely need to go to physics, chemistry and physiology rather than to psychology.",
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      "text": "There is doubtless a great mystery as to why any such thing as being conscious should exist at all. But _if_ consciousness exists at all, there is no mystery in its being connected with what it is connected with. That is to say, if an activity which is an interaction of various factors, or a grouped activity, comes to consciousness it seems natural that it should take the form of an emotion, belief or purpose that reflects the interaction, that it should be an \"our\" consciousness or a \"my\" consciousness. And by this is meant both that it will be shared by those who are implicated in the associative custom, or more or less alike in them all, and that it will be felt or thought to concern others as well as one's self. A family-custom or organized habit of action comes into contact and conflict for example with that of some other family. The emotions of ruffled pride, the belief about superiority or being \"as good as other people,\" the intention to hold one's own are naturally _our_ feeling and idea of _our_ treatment and position. Substitute the Republican party or the American nation for the family and the general situation remains the same. The conditions which determine the nature and extent of the particular grouping in question are matters of supreme import. But they are not as such subject-matter of psychology, but of the history of politics, law, religion, economics, invention, the technology of communication and intercourse. Psychology comes in as an indispensable tool. But it enters into the matter of understanding these various special topics, not into the question of what psychic forces form a collective mind and therefore a social group. That way of stating the case puts the cart a long way before the horse, and naturally gathers obscurities and mysteries to itself. In short, the primary facts of social psychology center about collective habit, custom. In addition to the general psychology of habit--which _is_ general not individual in any intelligible sense of that word--we need to find out just how different customs shape the desires, beliefs, purposes of those who are affected by them. The problem of social psychology is not how either individual or collective mind forms social groups and customs, but how different customs, established interacting arrangements, form and nurture different minds. From this general statement we return to our special problem, which is how the rigid character of past custom has unfavorably influenced beliefs, emotions and purposes having to do with morals.",
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      "text": "We come back to the fact that individuals begin their career as infants. For the plasticity of the young presents a temptation to those having greater experience and hence greater power which they rarely resist. It seems putty to be molded according to current designs. That plasticity also means power to change prevailing custom is ignored. Docility is looked upon not as ability to learn whatever the world has to teach, but as subjection to those instructions of others which reflect _their_ current habits. To be truly docile is to be eager to learn all the lessons of active, inquiring, expanding experience. The inert, stupid quality of current customs perverts learning into a willingness to follow where others point the way, into conformity, constriction, surrender of scepticism and experiment. When we think of the docility of the young we first think of the stocks of information adults wish to impose and the ways of acting they want to reproduce. Then we think of the insolent coercions, the insinuating briberies, the pedagogic solemnities by which the freshness of youth can be faded and its vivid curiosities dulled. Education becomes the art of taking advantage of the helplessness of the young; the forming of habits becomes a guarantee for the maintenance of hedges of custom.",
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      "text": "Of course it is not wholly forgotten that habits are abilities, arts. Any striking exhibition of acquired skill in physical matters, like that of an acrobat or billiard-player, arouses universal admiration. But we like to have innovating power limited to technical matters and reserve our admiration for those manifestations that display virtuosity rather than virtue. In moral matters it is assumed that it is enough if some ideal has been exemplified in the life of a leader, so that it is now the part of others to follow and reproduce. For every branch of conduct, there is a Jesus or Buddha, a Napoleon or Marx, a Froebel or Tolstoi, whose pattern of action, exceeding our own grasp, is reduced to a practicable copy-size by passage through rows and rows of lesser leaders.",
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      "text": "The notion that it suffices if the idea, the end, is present in the mind of some authority dominates formal schooling. It permeates the unconscious education derived from ordinary contact and intercourse. Where following is taken to be normal, moral originality is pretty sure to be eccentric. But if independence were the rule, originality would be subjected to severe, experimental tests and be saved from cranky eccentricity, as it now is in say higher mathematics. The regime of custom assumes that the outcome is the same whether an individual understands what he is about or whether he goes through certain motions while mouthing the words of others--repetition of formulæ being esteemed of greater importance, upon the whole, than repetition of deeds. To say what the sect or clique or class says is the way of proving that one also understands and approves what the clique clings to. In theory, democracy should be a means of stimulating original thought, and of evoking action deliberately adjusted in advance to cope with new forces. In fact it is still so immature that its main effect is to multiply occasions for imitation. If progress in spite of this fact is more rapid than in other social forms, it is by accident, since the diversity of models conflict with one another and thus give individuality a chance in the resulting chaos of opinions. Current democracy acclaims success more boisterously than do other social forms, and surrounds failure with a more reverberating train of echoes. But the prestige thus given excellence is largely adventitious. The achievement of thought attracts others not so much intrinsically as because of an eminence due to multitudinous advertising and a swarm of imitators.",
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      "text": "At some place on the globe, at some time, every kind of practice seems to have been tolerated or even praised. How is the tremendous diversity of institutions (including moral codes) to be accounted for? The native stock of instincts is practically the same everywhere. Exaggerate as much as we like the native differences of Patagonians and Greeks, Sioux Indians and Hindoos, Bushmen and Chinese, their original differences will bear no comparison to the amount of difference found in custom and culture. Since such a diversity cannot be attributed to an original identity, the development of native impulse must be stated in terms of acquired habits, not the growth of customs in terms of instincts. The wholesale human sacrifices of Peru and the tenderness of St. Francis, the cruelties of pirates and the philanthropies of Howard, the practice of Suttee and the cult of the Virgin, the war and peace dances of the Comanches and the parliamentary institutions of the British, the communism of the Southsea islander and the proprietary thrift of the Yankee, the magic of the medicine man and the experiments of the chemist in his laboratory, the non-resistance of Chinese and the aggressive militarism of an imperial Prussia, monarchy by divine right and government by the people; the countless diversity of habits suggested by such a random list springs from practically the same capital-stock of native instincts.",
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      "text": "It would be pleasant if we could pick and choose those institutions which we like and impute them to human nature, and the rest to some devil; or those we like to our kind of human nature, and those we dislike to the nature of despised foreigners on the ground they are not really \"native\" at all. It would appear to be simpler if we could point to certain customs, saying that they are the unalloyed products of certain instincts, while those other social arrangements are to be attributed wholly to other impulses. But such methods are not feasible. The same original fears, angers, loves and hates are hopelessly entangled in the most opposite institutions. The thing we need to know is how a native stock has been modified by interaction with different environments.",
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      "text": "Yet it goes without saying that original, unlearned activity has its distinctive place and that an important one in conduct. Impulses are the pivots upon which the re-organization of activities turn, they are agencies of deviation, for giving new directions to old habits and changing their quality. Consequently whenever we are concerned with understanding social transition and flux or with projects for reform, personal and collective, our study must go to analysis of native tendencies. Interest in progress and reform is, indeed, the reason for the present great development of scientific interest in primitive human nature. If we inquire why men were so long blind to the existence of powerful and varied instincts in human beings, the answer seems to be found in the lack of a conception of orderly progress. It is fast becoming incredible that psychologists disputed as to whether they should choose between innate ideas and an empty, passive, wax-like mind. For it seems as if a glance at a child would have revealed that the truth lay in neither doctrine, so obvious is the surging of specific native activities. But this obtuseness to facts was evidence of lack of interest in what could be done with impulses, due, in turn, to lack of interest in modifying existing institutions. It is no accident that men became interested in the psychology of savages and babies when they became interested in doing away with old institutions.",
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      "text": "A combination of traditional individualism with the recent interest in progress explains why the discovery of the scope and force of instincts has led many psychologists to think of them as the fountain head of all conduct, as occupying a place before instead of after that of habits. The orthodox tradition in psychology is built upon isolation of individuals from their surroundings. The soul or mind or consciousness was thought of as self-contained and self-enclosed. Now in the career of an individual if it is regarded as complete in itself instincts clearly come before habits. Generalize this individualistic view, and we have an assumption that all customs, all significant episodes in the life of individuals can be carried directly back to the operation of instincts.",
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      "text": "But, as we have already noted, if an individual be isolated in this fashion, along with the fact of primacy of instinct we find also the fact of death. The inchoate and scattered impulses of an infant do not coordinate into serviceable powers except through social dependencies and companionships. His impulses are merely starting points for assimilation of the knowledge and skill of the more matured beings upon whom he depends. They are tentacles sent out to gather that nutrition from customs which will in time render the infant capable of independent action. They are agencies for transfer of existing social power into personal ability; they are means of reconstructive growth. Abandon an impossible individualistic psychology, and we arrive at the fact that native activities are organs of re-organization and re-adjustment. The hen precedes the egg. But nevertheless this particular egg may be so treated as to modify the future type of hen.",
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      "text": "II",
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      "text": "In the case of the young it is patent that impulses are highly flexible starting points for activities which are diversified according to the ways in which they are used. Any impulse may become organized into almost any disposition according to the way it interacts with surroundings. Fear may become abject cowardice, prudent caution, reverence for superiors or respect for equals; an agency for credulous swallowing of absurd superstitions or for wary scepticism. A man may be chiefly afraid of the spirits of his ancestors, of officials, of arousing the disapproval of his associates, of being deceived, of fresh air, or of Bolshevism. The actual outcome depends upon how the impulse of fear is interwoven with other impulses. This depends in turn upon the outlets and inhibitions supplied by the social environment.",
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      "text": "From a humane standpoint our study of history is still all too primitive. It is possible to study a multitude of histories, and yet permit history, the record of the transitions and transformations of human activities, to escape us. Taking history in separate doses of this country and that, we take it as a succession of isolated finalities, each one in due season giving way to another, as supernumeraries succeed one another in a march across the stage. We thus miss the fact of history and also its lesson; the diversity of institutional forms and customs which the same human nature may produce and employ. An infantile logic, now happily expelled from physical science, taught that opium put men to sleep because of its dormitive potency. We follow the same logic in social matters when we believe that war exists because of bellicose instincts; or that a particular economic regime is necessary because of acquisitive and competitive impulses which must find expression.",
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      "text": "Pugnacity and fear are no more native than are pity and sympathy. The important thing morally is the way these native tendencies interact, for their interaction may give a chemical transformation not a mechanical combination. Similarly, no social institution stands alone as a product of one dominant force. It is a phenomenon or function of a multitude of social factors in their mutual inhibitions and reinforcements. If we follow an infantile logic we shall reduplicate the unity of result in an assumption of unity of force behind it--as men once did with natural events employing teleology as an exhibition of causal efficiency. We thus take the same social custom twice over: once as an existing fact and then as an original force which produced the fact, and utter sage platitudes about the unalterable workings of human nature or of race. As we account for war by pugnacity, for the capitalistic system by the necessity of an incentive of gain to stir ambition and effort, so we account for Greece by power of esthetic observation, Rome by administrative ability, the middle ages by interest in religion and so on. We have constructed an elaborate political zoology as mythological and not nearly as poetic as the other zoology of phoenixes, griffins and unicorns. Native racial spirit, the spirit of the people or of the time, national destiny are familiar figures in this social zoo. As names for effects, for existing customs, they are sometimes useful. As names for explanatory forces they work havoc with intelligence.",
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      "text": "An immense debt is due William James for the mere title of his essay: The Moral Equivalents of War. It reveals with a flash of light the true psychology. Clans, tribes, races, cities, empires, nations, states have made war. The argument that this fact proves an ineradicable belligerent instinct which makes war forever inevitable is much more respectable than many arguments about the immutability of this and that social tradition. For it has the weight of a certain empirical generality back of it. Yet the suggestion of an _equivalent_ for war calls attention to the medley of impulses which are casually bunched together under the caption of belligerent impulse; and it calls attention to the fact that the elements of this medley may be woven together into many differing types of activity, some of which may function the native impulses in much better ways than war has ever done.",
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      "text": "Pugnacity, rivalry, vainglory, love of booty, fear, suspicion, anger, desire for freedom from the conventions and restrictions of peace, love of power and hatred of oppression, opportunity for novel displays, love of home and soil, attachment to one's people and to the altar and the hearth, courage, loyalty, opportunity to make a name, money or a career, affection, piety to ancestors and ancestral gods--all of these things and many more make up the war-like force. To suppose there is some one unchanging native force which generates war is as naive as the usual assumption that our enemy is actuated solely by the meaner of the tendencies named and we only by the nobler. In earlier days there was something more than a verbal connection between pugnacity and fighting; anger and fear moved promptly through the fists. But between a loosely organized pugilism and the highly organized warfare of today there intervenes a long economic, scientific and political history. Social conditions rather than an old and unchangeable Adam have generated wars; the ineradicable impulses that are utilized in them are capable of being drafted into many other channels. The century that has witnessed the triumph of the scientific doctrine of the convertibility of natural energies ought not to balk at the lesser miracle of social equivalences and substitutes.",
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      "text": "It is likely that if Mr. James had witnessed the world war, he would have modified his mode of treatment. So many new transformations entered into the war, that the war seems to prove that though an equivalent has not been found for war, the psychological forces traditionally associated with it have already undergone profound changes. We may take the Iliad as a classic expression of war's traditional psychology as well as the source of the literary tradition regarding its motives and glories. But where are Helen, Hector and Achilles in modern warfare? The activities that evoke and incorporate a war are no longer personal love, love of glory, or the soldier's love of his own privately amassed booty, but are of a collective, prosaic political and economic nature.",
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      "text": "The young are not as yet as subject to the full impact of established customs. Their life of impulsive activity is vivid, flexible, experimenting, curious. Adults have their habits formed, fixed, at least comparatively. They are the subjects, not to say victims, of an environment which they can directly change only by a maximum of effort and disturbance. They may not be able to perceive clearly the needed changes, or be willing to pay the price of effecting them. Yet they wish a different life for the generation to come. In order to realize that wish they may create a special environment whose main function is education. In order that education of the young be efficacious in inducing an improved society, it is not necessary for adults to have a formulated definite ideal of some better state. An educational enterprise conducted in this spirit would probably end merely in substituting one rigidity for another. What is necessary is that habits be formed which are more intelligent, more sensitively percipient, more informed with foresight, more aware of what they are about, more direct and sincere, more flexibly responsive than those now current. Then they will meet their own problems and propose their own improvements.",
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      "text": "Educative development of the young is not the only way in which the life of impulse may be employed to effect social ameliorations, though it is the least expensive and most orderly. No adult environment is all of one piece. The more complex a culture is, the more certain it is to include habits formed on differing, even conflicting patterns. Each custom may be rigid, unintelligent in itself, and yet this rigidity may cause it to wear upon others. The resulting attrition may release impulse for new adventures. The present time is conspicuously a time of such internal frictions and liberations. Social life seems chaotic, unorganized, rather than too fixedly regimented. Political and legal institutions are now inconsistent with the habits that dominate friendly intercourse, science and art. Different institutions foster antagonistic impulses and form contrary dispositions.",
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      "ref": "PG41386.B00209",
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      "text": "If we had to wait upon exhortations and unembodied \"ideals\" to effect social alterations, we should indeed wait long. But the conflict of patterns involved in institutions which are inharmonious with one another is already producing great changes. The significant point is not whether modifications shall continue to occur, but whether they shall be characterized chiefly by uneasiness, discontent and blind antagonistic struggles, or whether intelligent direction may modulate the harshness of conflict, and turn the elements of disintegration into a constructive synthesis. At all events, the social situation in \"advanced\" countries is such as to impart an air of absurdity to our insistence upon the rigidity of customs. There are plenty of persons to tell us that the real trouble lies in lack of fixity of habit and principle; in departure from immutable standards and structures constituted once for all. We are told that we are suffering from an excess of instinct, and from laxity of habit due to surrender to impulse as a law of life. The remedy is said to be to return from contemporary fluidity to the stable and spacious patterns of a classic antiquity that observed law and proportion: for somehow antiquity is always classic. When instability, uncertainty, erratic change are diffused throughout the situation, why dwell upon the evils of fixed habit and the need of release of impulse as an initiator of reorganizations? Why not rather condemn impulse and exalt habits of reverencing order and fixed truth?",
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      "text": "The question is natural, but the remedy suggested is futile. It is not easy to exaggerate the extent to which we now pass from one kind of nurture to another as we go from business to church, from science to the newspaper, from business to art, from companionship to politics, from home to school. An individual is now subjected to many conflicting schemes of education. Hence habits are divided against one another, personality is disrupted, the scheme of conduct is confused and disintegrated. But the remedy lies in the development of a new morale which can be attained only as released impulses are intelligently employed to form harmonious habits adapted to one another in a new situation. A laxity due to decadence of old habits cannot be corrected by exhortations to restore old habits in their former rigidity. Even though it were abstractly desirable it is impossible. And it is not desirable because the inflexibility of old habits is precisely the chief cause of their decay and disintegration. Plaintive lamentations at the prevalence of change and abstract appeals for restoration of senile authority are signs of personal feebleness, of inability to cope with change. It is a \"defense reaction.\"",
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      "text": "V",
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      "text": "For any activity is original when it first occurs. As conditions are continually changing, new and _primitive_ activities are continually occurring. The traditional psychology of instincts obscures recognition of this fact. It sets up a hard-and-fast preordained class under which specific acts are subsumed, so that their own quality and originality are lost from view. This is why the novelist and dramatist are so much more illuminating as well as more interesting commentators on conduct than the schematizing psychologist. The artist makes perceptible individual responses and thus displays a new phase of human nature evoked in new situations. In putting the case visibly and dramatically he reveals vital actualities. The scientific systematizer treats each act as merely another sample of some old principle, or as a mechanical combination of elements drawn from a ready-made inventory.",
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      "ref": "PG41386.B00248",
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      "text": "When we recognize the diversity of native activities and the varied ways in which they are modified through interactions with one another in response to different conditions, we are able to understand moral phenomena otherwise baffling. In the career of any impulse activity there are speaking generally three possibilities. It may find a surging, explosive discharge--blind, unintelligent. It may be sublimated--that is, become a factor coordinated intelligently with others in a continuing course of action. Thus a gust of anger may, because of its dynamic incorporation into disposition, be converted into an abiding conviction of social injustice to be remedied, and furnish the dynamic to carry the conviction into execution. Or an excitation of sexual attraction may reappear in art or in tranquil domestic attachments and services. Such an outcome represents the normal or desirable functioning of impulse; in which, to use our previous language, the impulse operates as a pivot, or reorganization of habit. Or again a released impulsive activity may be neither immediately expressed in isolated spasmodic action, nor indirectly employed in an enduring interest. It may be \"suppressed.\"",
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      "text": "Suppression is not annihilation. \"Psychic\" energy is no more capable of being abolished than the forms we recognize as physical. If it is neither exploded nor converted, it is turned inwards, to lead a surreptitious, subterranean life. An isolated or spasmodic manifestation is a sign of immaturity, crudity, savagery; a suppressed activity is the cause of all kinds of intellectual and moral pathology. One form of the resulting pathology constitutes \"reaction\" in the sense in which the historian speaks of reactions. A conventionally familiar instance is Stuart license after Puritan restraint. A striking modern instance is the orgy of extravagance following upon the enforced economies and hardships of war, the moral let-down after its highstrung exalted idealisms, the deliberate carelessness after an attention too intense and too narrow. Outward manifestation of many normal activities had been suppressed. But activities were not suppressed. They were merely dammed up awaiting their chance.",
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      "text": "Now such \"reactions\" are simultaneous as well as successive. Resort to artificial stimulation, to alcoholic excess, sexual debauchery, opium and narcotics are examples. Impulses and interests that are not manifested in the regular course of serviceable activity or in recreation demand and secure a special manifestation. And it is interesting to note that there are two opposite forms. Some phenomena are characteristic of persons engaged in a routine monotonous life of toil attended with fatigue and hardship. And others are found in persons who are intellectual and executive, men whose activities are anything but monotonous, but are narrowed through over-specialization. Such men think too much, that is, too much along a _particular_ line. They carry too heavy responsibilities; that is, their offices of service are not adequately shared with others. They seek relief by escape into a more sociable and easy-going world. The imperative demand for companionship not satisfied in ordinary activity is met by convivial indulgence. The other class has recourse to excess because its members have in ordinary occupations next to no opportunity for imagination. They make a foray into a more highly colored world as a substitute for a normal exercise of invention, planning and judgment. Having no regular responsibilities, they seek to recover an illusion of potency and of social recognition by an artificial exaltation of their submerged and humiliated selves.",
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      "text": "Hence the love of pleasure against which moralists issue so many warnings. Not that love of pleasures is in itself in any way demoralizing. Love of the pleasures of cheerfulness, of companionship is one of the steadying influences in conduct. But pleasure has often become identified with special thrills, excitations, ticklings of sense, stirrings of appetite for the express purpose of enjoying the immediate stimulation irrespective of results. Such pleasures are signs of dissipation, dissoluteness, in the literal sense. An activity which is deprived of regular stimulation and normal function is piqued into isolated activity, and the result is division, disassociation. A life of routine and of over-specialization in non-routine lines seek occasions in which to arouse by abnormal means a _feeling_ of satisfaction without any accompanying objective fulfilment. Hence, as moralists have pointed out, the insatiable character of such appetites. Activities are not really satisfied, that is fulfilled in objects. They continue to seek for gratification in more intensified stimulations. Orgies of pleasure-seeking, varying from saturnalia to mild sprees, result.",
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      "text": "III",
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      "text": "So far the discussion has ignored the fact that there is an influential school of moralists (best represented in contemporary thought by the utilitarians) which also insists upon the natural, empirical character of moral judgments and beliefs. But unfortunately this school has followed a false psychology; and has tended, by calling out a reaction, actually to strengthen the hands of those who persist in assigning to morals a separate domain of action and in demanding a separate agent of moral knowledge. The essentials of this false psychology consist in two traits. The first, that knowledge originates from sensations (instead of from habits and impulses); and the second, that judgment about good and evil in action consists in calculation of agreeable and disagreeable consequences, of profit and loss. It is not surprising that this view seems to many to degrade morals, as well as to be false to facts. If the logical outcome of an empirical view of moral knowledge is that all morality is concerned with calculating what is expedient, politic, prudent, measured by consequences in the ways of pleasurable and painful sensations, then, say moralists of the orthodox school, we will have naught to do with such a sordid view: It is a reduction to the absurd of its premisses. We will have a separate department for morals and a separate organ of moral knowledge.",
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      "text": "Our first problem is then to investigate the nature of ordinary judgments upon what it is best or wise to do, or, in ordinary language, the nature of deliberation. We begin with a summary assertion that deliberation is a dramatic rehearsal (in imagination) of various competing possible lines of action. It starts from the blocking of efficient overt action, due to that conflict of prior habit and newly released impulse to which reference has been made. Then each habit, each impulse, involved in the temporary suspense of overt action takes its turn in being tried out. Deliberation is an experiment in finding out what the various lines of possible action are really like. It is an experiment in making various combinations of selected elements of habits and impulses, to see what the resultant action would be like if it were entered upon. But the trial is in imagination, not in overt fact. The experiment is carried on by tentative rehearsals in thought which do not affect physical facts outside the body. Thought runs ahead and foresees outcomes, and thereby avoids having to await the instruction of actual failure and disaster. An act overtly tried out is irrevocable, its consequences cannot be blotted out. An act tried out in imagination is not final or fatal. It is retrievable.",
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      "text": "Each conflicting habit and impulse takes its turn in projecting itself upon the screen of imagination. It unrolls a picture of its future history, of the career it would have if it were given head. Although overt exhibition is checked by the pressure of contrary propulsive tendencies, this very inhibition gives habit a chance at manifestation in thought. Deliberation means precisely that activity is disintegrated, and that its various elements hold one another up. While none has force enough to become the center of a re-directed activity, or to dominate a course of action, each has enough power to check others from exercising mastery. Activity does not cease in order to give way to reflection; activity is turned from execution into intra-organic channels, resulting in dramatic rehearsal.",
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      "text": "If activity were directly exhibited it would result in certain experiences, contacts with the environment. It would succeed by making environing objects, things and persons, co-partners in its forward movement; or else it would run against obstacles and be troubled, possibly defeated. These experiences of contact with objects and their qualities give meaning, character, to an otherwise fluid, unconscious activity. We find out what seeing means by the objects which are seen. They constitute the significance of visual activity which would otherwise remain a blank. \"Pure\" activity is for consciousness pure emptiness. It acquires a content or filling of meanings only in static termini, what it comes to rest in, or in the obstacles which check its onward movement and deflect it. As has been remarked, the object is that which objects.",
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      "text": "There is no difference in this respect between a visible course of conduct and one proposed in deliberation. We have no direct consciousness of what we purpose to do. We can judge its nature, assign its meaning, only by following it into the situations whither it leads, noting the objects against which it runs and seeing how they rebuff or unexpectedly encourage it. In imagination as in fact we know a road only by what we see as we travel on it. Moreover the objects which prick out the course of a proposed act until we can see its design also serve to direct eventual overt activity. Every object hit upon as the habit traverses its imaginary path has a direct effect upon existing activities. It reinforces, inhibits, redirects habits already working or stirs up others which had not previously actively entered in. In thought as well as in overt action, the objects experienced in following out a course of action attract, repel, satisfy, annoy, promote and retard. Thus deliberation proceeds. To say that at last it ceases is to say that choice, decision, takes place.",
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      "text": "What then is choice? Simply hitting in imagination upon an object which furnishes an adequate stimulus to the recovery of overt action. Choice is made as soon as some habit, or some combination of elements of habits and impulse, finds a way fully open. Then energy is released. The mind is made up, composed, unified. As long as deliberation pictures shoals or rocks or troublesome gales as marking the route of a contemplated voyage, deliberation goes on. But when the various factors in action fit harmoniously together, when imagination finds no annoying hindrance, when there is a picture of open seas, filled sails and favoring winds, the voyage is definitely entered upon. This decisive direction of action constitutes choice. It is a great error to suppose that we have no preferences until there is a choice. We are always biased beings, tending in one direction rather than another. The occasion of deliberation is an _excess_ of preferences, not natural apathy or an absence of likings. We want things that are incompatible with one another; therefore we have to make a choice of what we _really_ want, of the course of action, that is, which most fully releases activities. Choice is not the emergence of preference out of indifference. It is the emergence of a unified preference out of competing preferences. Biases that had held one another in check now, temporarily at least, reinforce one another, and constitute a unified attitude. The moment arrives when imagination pictures an objective consequence of action which supplies an adequate stimulus and releases definitive action. All deliberation is a search for a _way_ to act, not for a final terminus. Its office is to facilitate stimulation.",
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      "text": "Hence there is reasonable and unreasonable choice. The object thought of may simply stimulate some impulse or habit to a pitch of intensity where it is temporarily irresistible. It then overrides all competitors and secures for itself the sole right of way. The object looms large in imagination; it swells to fill the field. It allows no room for alternatives; it absorbs us, enraptures us, carries us away, sweeps us off our feet by its own attractive force. Then choice is arbitrary, unreasonable. But the object thought of may be one which stimulates by unifying, harmonizing, different competing tendencies. It may release an activity in which all are fulfilled, not indeed, in their original form, but in a \"sublimated\" fashion, that is in a way which modifies the original direction of each by reducing it to a component along with others in an action of transformed quality. Nothing is more extraordinary than the delicacy, promptness and ingenuity with which deliberation is capable of making eliminations and recombinations in projecting the course of a possible activity. To every shade of imagined circumstance there is a vibrating response; and to every complex situation a sensitiveness as to its integrity, a feeling of whether it does justice to all facts, or overrides some to the advantage of others. Decision is reasonable when deliberation is so conducted. There may be error in the result, but it comes from lack of data not from ineptitude in handling them.",
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      "text": "These facts give us the key to the old controversy as to the respective places of desire and reason in conduct. It is notorious that some moralists have deplored the influence of desire; they have found the heart of strife between good and evil in the conflict of desire with reason, in which the former has force on its side and the latter authority. But reasonableness is in fact a quality of an effective relationship among desires rather than a thing opposed to desire. It signifies the order, perspective, proportion which is achieved, during deliberation, out of a diversity of earlier incompatible preferences. Choice is reasonable when it induces us to act reasonably; that is, with regard to the claims of each of the competing habits and impulses. This implies, of course, the presence of a comprehensive object, one which coordinates, organizes and functions each factor of the situation which gave rise to conflict, suspense and deliberation. This is as true when some \"bad\" impulses and habits enter in as when approved ones require unification. We have already seen the effects of choking them off, of efforts at direct suppression. Bad habits can be subdued only by being utilized as elements in a new, more generous and comprehensive scheme of action, and good ones be preserved from rot only by similar use.",
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      "text": "The nature of the strife of reason and passion is well stated by William James. The cue of passion, he says in effect, is to keep imagination dwelling upon those objects which are congenial to it, which feed it, and which by feeding it intensify its force, until it crowds out all thought of other objects. An impulse or habit which is strongly emotional magnifies all objects that are congruous with it and smothers those which are opposed whenever they present themselves. A passionate activity learns to work itself up artificially--as Oliver Cromwell indulged in fits of anger when he wanted to do things that his conscience would not justify. A presentiment is felt that if the thought of contrary objects is allowed to get a lodgment in imagination, these objects will work and work to chill and freeze out the ardent passion of the moment.",
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      "text": "A certain tragic fate seems to attend all intellectual movements. That of utilitarianism is suggested in the not infrequent criticism that it exaggerated the rôle of rational thought in human conduct, that it assumed that everybody is moved by conscious considerations and that all that is really necessary is to make the process of consideration sufficiently enlightened. Then it is objected that a better psychology reveals that men are not moved by thought but rather by instinct and habit. Thus a partially sound criticism is employed to conceal the one factor in utilitarianism from which we ought to learn something; is used to foster an obscurantist doctrine of trusting to impulse, instinct or intuition. Neither the utilitarians nor any one else can exaggerate the proper office of reflection, of intelligence, in conduct. The mistake lay not here but in a false conception of what constitutes reflection, deliberation. The truth that men are not moved by consideration of self-interest, that men are not good judges of where their interests lie and are not moved to act by these judgments, cannot properly be converted into the belief that consideration of consequences is a negligible factor in conduct. So far as it is negligible in fact it evinces the rudimentary character of civilization. We may indeed safely start from the assumption that impulse and habit, not thought, are the primary determinants of conduct. But the conclusion to be drawn from these facts is that the need is therefore the greater for cultivation of thought. The error of utilitarianism is not at this point. It is found in its wrong conception of what thought, deliberation, is and does.",
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      "text": "VI",
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      "text": "Our problem now concerns the nature of ends, that is ends-in-view or aims. The essential elements in the problem have already been stated. It has been pointed out that the ends, objectives, of conduct are those foreseen consequences which influence present deliberation and which finally bring it to rest by furnishing an adequate stimulus to overt action. Consequently ends arise and function within action. They are not, as current theories too often imply, things lying beyond activity at which the latter is directed. They are not strictly speaking ends or termini of action at all. They are terminals of deliberation, and so turning points _in_ activity. Many opposed moral theories agree however in placing ends beyond action, although they differ in their notions of what the ends are. The utilitarian sets up pleasure as such an outside-and-beyond, as something necessary to induce action and in which it terminates. Many harsh critics of utilitarianism have however agreed that there is some end in which action terminates, a final goal. They have denied that pleasure is such an outside aim, and put perfection or self-realization in its place. The entire popular notion of \"ideals\" is infected with this conception of some fixed end beyond activity at which we should aim. According to this view ends-in-themselves come before aims. We have a moral aim only as our purpose coincides with some end-in-itself. We _ought_ to aim at the latter whether we actually do or not.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41386.B00341",
      "bookId": 41386,
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      "text": "When men believed that fixed ends existed for all normal changes in nature, the conception of similar ends for men was but a special case of a general belief. If the changes in a tree from acorn to full-grown oak were regulated by an end which was somehow immanent or potential in all the less perfect forms, and if change was simply the effort to realize a perfect or complete form, then the acceptance of a like view for human conduct was consonant with the rest of what passed for science. Such a view, consistent and systematic, was foisted by Aristotle upon western culture and endured for two thousand years. When the notion was expelled from natural science by the intellectual revolution of the seventeenth century, logically it should also have disappeared from the theory of human action. But man is not logical and his intellectual history is a record of mental reserves and compromises. He hangs on to what he can in his old beliefs even when he is compelled to surrender their logical basis. So the doctrine of fixed ends-in-themselves at which human acts are--or should be--directed and by which they are regulated if they are regulated at all persisted in morals, and was made the cornerstone of orthodox moral theory. The immediate effect was to dislocate moral from natural science, to divide man's world as it never had been divided in prior culture. One point of view, one method and spirit animated inquiry into natural occurrences; a radically opposite set of ideas prevailed about man's affairs. Completion of the scientific change begun in the seventeenth century thus depends upon a revision of the current notion of ends of action as fixed limits and conclusions.",
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      "ref": "PG41386.B00342",
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      "text": "In fact, ends are ends-in-view or aims. They arise out of natural effects or consequences which in the beginning are hit upon, stumbled upon so far as any purpose is concerned. Men _like_ some of the consequences and _dislike_ others. Henceforth (or till attraction and repulsion alter) attaining or averting similar consequences are aims or ends. These consequences constitute the meaning and value of an activity as it comes under deliberation. Meantime of course imagination is busy. Old consequences are enhanced, recombined, modified in imagination. Invention operates. Actual consequences, that is effects which have happened in the past, become possible future consequences of acts still to be performed. This operation of imaginative thought complicates the relation of ends to activity, but it does not alter the substantial fact: Ends are foreseen consequences which arise in the course of activity and which are employed to give activity added meaning and to direct its further course. They are in no sense ends _of_ action. In being ends of _deliberation_ they are redirecting pivots _in_ action.",
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      "text": "Men shoot and throw. At first this is done as an \"instinctive\" or natural reaction to some situation. The result when it is observed gives a new meaning to the activity. Henceforth men in throwing and shooting think of it in terms of its outcome; they act intelligently or have an end. Liking the activity in its acquired meaning, they not only \"take aim\" when they throw instead of throwing at random, but they find or make targets at which to aim. This is the origin and nature of \"goals\" of action. They are ways of defining and deepening the meaning of activity. Having an end or aim is thus a characteristic of _present_ activity. It is the means by which an activity becomes adapted when otherwise it would be blind and disorderly, or by which it gets meaning when otherwise it would be mechanical. In a strict sense an end-in-view is a _means_ in present action; present action is not a means to a remote end. Men do not shoot because targets exist, but they set up targets in order that throwing and shooting may be more effective and significant.",
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      "text": "A mariner does not sail towards the stars, but by noting the stars he is aided in conducting his present activity of sailing. A port or harbor is his objective, but only in the sense of _reaching_ it not of taking possession of it. The harbor stands in his thought as a significant point at which his activity will need re-direction. Activity will not cease when the port is attained, but merely the _present direction_ of activity. The port is as truly the beginning of another mode of activity as it is the termination of the present one. The only reason we ignore this fact is because it is empirically taken for granted. We know without thinking that our \"ends\" are perforce beginnings. But theories of ends and ideals have converted a theoretical ignoring which is equivalent to practical acknowledgment into an intellectual denial, and have thereby confused and perverted the nature of ends.",
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      "text": "Even the most important among all the consequences of an act is not necessarily its aim. Results which are objectively most important may not even be thought of at all; ordinarily a man does not think in connection with exercise of his profession that it will sustain him and his family in existence. The end-thought-of is uniquely important, but it is indispensable to state the respect in which it is important. It gives the decisive clew to the act to be performed under the existing circumstances. It is that particular foreseen object that will stimulate the act which relieves existing troubles, straightens out existing entanglements. In a temporary annoyance, even if only that caused by the singing of a mosquito, the thought of that which gives relief may engross the mind in spite of consequences much more important, objectively speaking. Moralists have deplored such facts as evidence of levity. But the remedy, if a remedy be needed, is not found in insisting upon the importance of ends in general. It is found in a change of the dispositions which make things either immediately troublesome or tolerable or agreeable.",
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      "text": "When ends are regarded as literally ends to action rather than as directive stimuli to present choice they are frozen and isolated. It makes no difference whether the \"end\" is \"natural\" good like health or a \"moral\" good like honesty. Set up as complete and exclusive, as demanding and justifying action as a means to itself, it leads to narrowness; in extreme cases fanaticism, inconsiderateness, arrogance and hypocrisy. Joshua's reputed success in getting the sun to stand still to serve his desire is recognized to have involved a miracle. But moral theorists constantly assume that the continuous course of events can be arrested at the point of a particular object; that men can plunge with their own desires into the unceasing flow of changes, and seize upon some object as their end irrespective of everything else. The use of intelligence to discover the object that will best operate as a releasing and unifying stimulus in the existing situation is discounted. One reminds one's self that one's end is justice or charity or professional achievement or putting over a deal for a needed public improvement, and further questionings and qualms are stilled.",
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      "text": "It is customary to suppose that such methods merely ignore the question of the morality of the means which are used to secure the end desired. Common sense revolts against the maxim, conveniently laid off upon Jesuits or other far-away people, that the end justifies the means. There is no incorrectness in saying that the question of means employed is overlooked in such cases. But analysis would go further if it were also pointed out that overlooking means is only a device for failing to note those ends, or consequences, which, if they were noted would be seen to be so evil that action would be estopped. Certainly nothing can justify or condemn means except ends, results. But we have to include consequences impartially. Even admitting that lying will save a man's soul, whatever that may mean, it would still be true that lying will have other consequences, namely, the usual consequences that follow from tampering with good faith and that lead lying to be condemned. It is wilful folly to fasten upon some single end or consequence which is liked, and permit the view of that to blot from perception all other undesired and undesirable consequences. It is like supposing that when a finger held close to the eye covers up a distant mountain the finger is really larger than the mountain. Not _the_ end--in the singular--justifies the means; for there is no such thing as the single all-important end. To suppose that there is such an end is like working over again, in behalf of our private wishes, the miracle of Joshua in arresting the course of nature. It is not possible adequately to characterize the presumption, the falsity and the deliberate perversion of intelligence involved in refusal to note the plural effects that flow from any act, a refusal adopted in order that we may justify an act by picking out that one consequence which will enable us to do what we wish to do and for which we feel the need of justification.",
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      "text": "Yet this assumption is continually made. It is made by implication in the current view of purposes or ends-in-view as objects in themselves, instead of means to unification and liberation of present conflicting, confused habits and impulses. There is something almost sinister in the desire to label the doctrine that the end justifies the means with the name of some one obnoxious school. Politicians, especially if they have to do with the foreign affairs of a nation and are called statesmen, almost uniformly act upon the doctrine that the welfare of their own country justifies any measure irrespective of all the demoralization it works. Captains of industry, great executives in all lines, usually work upon this plan. But they are not the original offenders by any means. Every man works upon it so far as he permits himself to become so absorbed in one aspect of what he is doing that he loses a view of its varied consequences, hypnotizing his attention by consideration of just those consequences which in the abstract are desirable and slurring over other consequences equally real. Every man works upon this principle who becomes over-interested in any cause or project, and who uses its desirability in the abstract to justify himself in employing any means that will assist him in arriving, ignoring all the collateral \"ends\" of his behavior. It is frequently pointed out that there is a type of executive-man whose conduct seems to be as non-moral as the action of the forces of nature. We all tend to relapse into this non-moral condition whenever we want any one thing intensely. In general, the identification of the end prominent in conscious desire and effort with _the_ end is part of the technique of avoiding a reasonable survey of consequences. The survey is avoided because of a subconscious recognition that it would reveal desire in its true worth and thus preclude action to satisfy it--or at all events give us an uneasy conscience in striving to realize it. Thus the doctrine of the isolated, complete or fixed end limits intelligent examination, encourages insincerity, and puts a pseudo-stamp of moral justification upon success at any price.",
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      "text": "Moralistic persons are given to escaping this evil by falling into another pit. They deny that consequences have anything at all to do with the morality of acts. Not ends but motives they say justify or condemn acts. The thing to do, accordingly, is to cultivate certain motives or dispositions, benevolence, purity, love of perfection, loyalty. The denial of consequences thus turns out formal, verbal. In reality a consequence is set up at which to aim, only it is a subjective consequence. \"Meaning well\" is selected as _the_ consequence or end to be cultivated at all hazards, an end which is all-justifying and to which everything else is offered up in sacrifice. The result is a sentimental futile complacency rather than the brutal efficiency of the executive. But the root of both evils is the same. One man selects some external consequence, the other man a state of internal feeling, to serve as the end. The doctrine of meaning well as _the_ end is if anything the more contemptible of the two, for it shrinks from accepting any responsibility for actual results. It is negative, self-protective and sloppy. It lends itself to complete self-deception.",
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      "text": "Why have men become so attached to fixed, external ends? Why is it not universally recognized that an end is a device of intelligence in guiding action, instrumental to freeing and harmonizing troubled and divided tendencies? The answer is virtually contained in what was earlier said about rigid habits and their effect upon intelligence. Ends are, in fact, literally endless, forever coming into existence as new activities occasion new consequences. \"Endless ends\" is a way of saying that there are no ends--that is no fixed self-enclosed finalities. While however we cannot actually prevent change from occurring we can and do regard it as evil. We strive to retain action in ditches already dug. We regard novelties as dangerous, experiments as illicit and deviations as forbidden. Fixed and separate ends reflect a projection of our own fixed and non-interacting compartmental habits. We see only consequences which correspond to our habitual courses. As we have said, men did not begin to shoot because there were ready-made targets to aim at. They made things into targets by shooting at them, and then made special targets to make shooting more significantly interesting. But if generation after generation were shown targets they had had no part in constructing, if bows and arrows were thrust into their hands, and pressure were brought to bear upon them to keep them shooting in season and out, some wearied soul would soon propound to willing listeners the theory that shooting was unnatural, that man was naturally wholly at rest, and that targets existed in order that men might be forced to be active; that the duty of shooting and the virtue of hitting are externally imposed and fostered, and that otherwise there would be no such thing as a shooting-activity--that is, morality.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41386.B00351",
      "bookId": 41386,
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      "text": "The doctrine of fixed ends not only diverts attention from examination of consequences and the intelligent creation of purpose, but, since means and ends are two ways of regarding the same actuality, it also renders men careless in their inspection of existing conditions. An aim not framed on the basis of a survey of those present conditions which are to be employed as means of its realization simply throws us back upon past habits. We then do not do what we intended to do but what we have got used to doing, or else we thrash about in a blind ineffectual way. The result is failure. Discouragement follows, assuaged perhaps by the thought that in any case the end is too ideal, too noble and remote, to be capable of realization. We fall back on the consoling thought that our moral ideals are too good for this world and that we must accustom ourselves to a gap between aim and execution. Actual life is then thought of as a compromise with the best, an enforced second or third best, a dreary exile from our true home in the ideal, or a temporary period of troubled probation to be followed by a period of unending attainment and peace. At the same time, as has been repeatedly pointed out, persons of a more practical turn of mind accept the world \"as it is,\" that is as past customs have made it to be, and consider what advantages for themselves may be extracted from it. They form aims on the basis of existing habits of life which may be turned to their own private account. They employ intelligence in framing ends and selecting and arranging means. But intelligence is confined to manipulation; it does not extend to construction. It is the intelligence of the politician, administrator and professional executive--the kind of intelligence which has given a bad meaning to a word that ought to have a fine meaning, opportunism. For the highest task of intelligence is to grasp and realize genuine opportunity, possibility.",
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      "text": "Roughly speaking, the course of forming aims is as follows. The beginning is with a wish, an emotional reaction against the present state of things and a hope for something different. Action fails to connect satisfactorily with surrounding conditions. Thrown back upon itself, it projects itself in an imagination of a scene which if it were present would afford satisfaction. This picture is often called an aim, more often an ideal. But in itself it is a fancy which may be only a fantasy, a dream, a castle in the air. In itself it is a romantic embellishment of the present; at its best it is material for poetry or the novel. Its natural home is not in the future but in the dim past or in some distant and supposedly better part of the present world. Every such idealized object is suggested by something actually experienced, as the flight of birds suggests the liberation of human beings from the restrictions of slow locomotion on dull earth. It becomes an aim or end only when it is worked out in terms of concrete conditions available for its realization, that is in terms of \"means.\"",
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      "text": "VII",
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      "text": "Intelligence is concerned with foreseeing the future so that action may have order and direction. It is also concerned with principles and criteria of judgment. The diffused or wide applicability of habits is reflected in the _general_ character of principles: a principle is intellectually what a habit is for direct action. As habits set in grooves dominate activity and swerve it from conditions instead of increasing its adaptability, so principles treated as fixed rules instead of as helpful methods take men away from experience. The more complicated the situation, and the less we really know about it, the more insistent is the orthodox type of moral theory upon the prior existence of some fixed and universal principle or law which is to be directly applied and followed. Ready-made rules available at a moment's notice for settling any kind of moral difficulty and resolving every species of moral doubt have been the chief object of the ambition of moralists. In the much less complicated and less changing matters of bodily health such pretensions are known as quackery. But in morals a hankering for certainty, born of timidity and nourished by love of authoritative prestige, has led to the idea that absence of immutably fixed and universally applicable ready-made principles is equivalent to moral chaos.",
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    {
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      "text": "In fact, situations into which change and the unexpected enter are a challenge to intelligence to create new principles. Morals must be a growing science if it is to be a science at all, not merely because all truth has not yet been appropriated by the mind of man, but because life is a moving affair in which old moral truth ceases to apply. Principles are methods of inquiry and forecast which require verification by the event; and the time honored effort to assimilate morals to mathematics is only a way of bolstering up an old dogmatic authority, or putting a new one upon the throne of the old. But the experimental character of moral judgments does not mean complete uncertainty and fluidity. Principles exist as hypotheses with which to experiment. Human history is long. There is a long record of past experimentation in conduct, and there are cumulative verifications which give many principles a well earned prestige. Lightly to disregard them is the height of foolishness. But social situations alter; and it is also foolish not to observe how old principles actually work under new conditions, and not to modify them so that they will be more effectual instruments in judging new cases. Many men are now aware of the harm done in legal matters by assuming the antecedent existence of fixed principles under which every new case may be brought. They recognize that this assumption merely puts an artificial premium on ideas developed under bygone conditions, and that their perpetuation in the present works inequity. Yet the choice is not between throwing away rules previously developed and sticking obstinately by them. The intelligent alternative is to revise, adapt, expand and alter them. The problem is one of continuous, vital readaptation.",
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      "text": "The popular objection to casuistry is similar to the popular objection to the maxim that the end justifies the means. It is creditable to practical moral sense, but not to popular logical consistency. For recourse to casuistry is the only conclusion which can be drawn from belief in fixed universal principles, just as the Jesuit maxim is the only conclusion proper to be drawn from belief in fixed ends. Every act, every deed is individual. What is the sense in having fixed general rules, commandments, laws, unless they are such as to confer upon individual cases of action (where alone instruction is finally needed) something of their own infallible certainty? Casuistry, so-called, is simply the systematic effort to secure for particular instances of conduct the advantage of general rules which are asserted and believed in. By those who accept the notion of immutable regulating principles, casuistry ought to be lauded for sincerity and helpfulness, not dispraised as it usually is. Or else men ought to carry back their aversion to manipulation of particular cases, until they will fit into the procrustean beds of fixed rules, to the point where it is clear that all principles are empirical generalizations from the ways in which previous judgments of conduct have practically worked out. When this fact is apparent, these generalizations will be seen to be not fixed rules for deciding doubtful cases, but instrumentalities for their investigation, methods by which the net value of past experience is rendered available for present scrutiny of new perplexities. Then it will also follow that they are hypotheses to be tested and revised by their further working.[8]",
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      "text": "[8] Among contemporary moralists, Mr. G. E. Moore may be cited as almost alone in having the courage of the convictions shared by many. He insists that it is the true business of moral theory to enable men to arrive at precise and sure judgments in concrete cases of moral perplexity.",
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      "text": "Every such statement meets with prompt objection. We are told that in deliberation rival goods present themselves. We are faced by competing desires and ends which are incompatible with one another. They are all attractive, seductive. How then shall we choose among them? We can choose rationally among values, the argument continues, only if we have some fixed measure of values, just as we decide the respective lengths of physical things by recourse to the fixed foot-rule. One might reply that after all there is no fixed foot-rule, no fixed foot \"in itself\" and that the standard length or weight of measure is only another special portion of matter, subject to change from heat, moisture and gravitational position, defined only by conditions, relations. One might reply that the foot-rule is a tool which has been worked out in actual prior comparisons of concrete things for use in facilitating further comparisons. But we content ourselves with remarking that we find in this conception of a fixed antecedent standard another manifestation of the desire to escape the strain of the actual moral situation, its genuine uncertainty of possibilities and consequences. We are confronted with another case of the all too human love of certainty, a case of the wish for an intellectual patent issued by authority. The issue after all is one of fact. The critic is not entitled to enforce against the facts his private wish for a ready-made standard which will relieve him from the burden of examination, observation and continuing generalization and test.",
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      "text": "Control of the future is indeed precious in exact proportion to its difficulty, its moderate degree of attainability. Anything that actually tends to make that control less than it now is would be a movement backward into sloth and triviality. But there is a difference between future improvement as a result and as a direct aim. To make it an aim is to throw away the surest means of attaining it, namely attention to the full use of present resources in the present situation. Forecast of future conditions, scientific study of past and present in order that the forecast may be intelligent, are indeed necessities. Concentration of intellectual concern upon the future, solicitude for scope and precision of estimate characteristic of any well conducted affair, naturally give the impression that their animating purpose is control of the future. But thought about future happenings is the only way we can judge the present; it is the only way to appraise its significance. Without such projection, there can be no projects, no plans for administering present energies, overcoming present obstacles. Deliberately to subordinate the present to the future is to subject the comparatively secure to the precarious, exchange resources for liabilities, surrender what is under control to what is, relatively, incapable of control.",
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      "text": "The _amount_ of control which will come into existence in the future is not within control. But such an amount as turns out to be practicable accrues only in consequence of the best possible management of present means and obstacles. Dominating _intellectual_ pre-occupation with the future is the way by which efficiency in dealing with the present is attained. It is a way, not a goal. And, upon the very most hopeful outlook, study and planning are more important in the meaning, the enrichment of content, which they add to present activity than is the increase of external control they effect. Nor is this doctrine passivistic in tendency. What sense is there in increased external control except to increase the intrinsic significance of living? The future that is foreseen is a future that is sometime to be a present. Is the value of _that_ present also to be postponed to a future date, and so on indefinitely? Or, if the good we are struggling to attain in the future is one to be actually realized when that future becomes present, why should not the good of _this_ present be equally precious? And is there, again, any intelligent way of modifying the future except to attend to the full possibilities of the present? Scamping the present in behalf of the future leads only to rendering the future less manageable. It increases the probability of molestation by future events.",
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      "text": "Remarks cast in this form probably seem too much like a logical manipulation of the concepts of present and future to be convincing. Building a house is a typical instance of an intelligent activity. It is an activity directed by a plan, a design. The plan is itself based upon a foresight of future uses. This foresight is in turn dependent upon an organized survey of past experiences and of present conditions, a recollection of former experiences of living in houses and an acquaintance with present materials, prices, resources, etc. Now if a legitimate case of subordination of present to regulation of the future may anywhere be found, it is in such a case as this. For a man usually builds a house for the sake of the comfort and security, the \"control,\" thereby afforded to future living rather than just for the fun--or the trouble--of building. If in such a case inspection shows that, after all, intellectual concern with the past and future is for the sake of directing present activity and giving it meaning, the conclusion may be accepted for other cases.",
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      "text": "Note that the present activity is the only one really under control. The man may die before the house is built, or his financial conditions may change, or he may need to remove to another place. If he attempts to provide for all contingencies, he will never do anything; if he allows his attention to be much distracted by them, he won't do well his present planning and execution. The more he considers the future uses to which the house will probably be put the better he will do his present job which is the activity of building. Control of future living, such as it may turn out to be, is wholly dependent upon taking his present activity, seriously and devotedly, as an end, not a means. And a man has his hands full in doing well what now needs to be done. Until men have formed the habit of using intelligence fully as a guide to present action they will never find out how much control of future contingencies is possible. As things are, men so habitually scamp present action in behalf of future \"ends\" that the facts for estimating the extent of the possibility of reduction of future contingencies have not been disclosed. What a man _is_ doing limits both his direct control and his responsibility. We must not confuse the act of building with the house when built. The latter _is_ a means, not a fulfilment. But it is such only because it enters into a new activity which is present not future. Life is continuous. The act of building in time gives way to the acts connected with a domicile. But everywhere the good, the fulfilment, the meaning of activity, resides in a present made possible by judging existing conditions in their connections.",
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      "text": "If we seek for an illustration on a larger scale, education furnishes us with a poignant example. As traditionally conducted, it strikingly exhibits a subordination of the living present to a remote and precarious future. To prepare, to get ready, is its key-note. The actual outcome is lack of adequate preparation, of intelligent adaptation. The professed exaltation of the future turns out in practice a blind following of tradition, a rule of thumb muddling along from day to day; or, as in some of the projects called industrial education, a determined effort on the part of one class of the community to secure _its_ future at the expense of another class. If education were conducted as a process of fullest utilization of present resources, liberating and guiding capacities that are now urgent, it goes without saying that the lives of the young would be much richer in meaning than they are now. It also follows that intelligence would be kept busy in studying all indications of power, all obstacles and perversions, all products of the past that throw light upon present capacity, and in forecasting the future career of impulse and habit now active--not for the sake of subordinating the latter but in order to treat them intelligently. As a consequence whatever fortification and expansion of the future that is possible will be achieved--as it is now dismally unattained.",
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      "text": "A more complicated instance is found in the dominant quality of our industrial activity. It may be dogmatically declared that the roots of its evils are found in the separation of production from consumption--that is, actual consummation, fulfilment. A normal case of their relationship is found in the taking of food. Food is consumed and vigor is produced. The difference between the two is one of directions or dimensions distinguished by intellect. In reality there is simply conversion of energy from one form to another wherein it is more available--of greater significance. The activity of the artist, the sportsman, the scientific inquirer exemplifies the same balance. Activity should be productive. This is to say it should have a bearing on the future, should effect control of it. But so far as a productive action is intrinsically creative, it has its own intrinsic value. Reference to future products and future enjoyments is but a way of enhancing perception of an immanent meaning. A skilled artisan who enjoys his work is aware that what he is making is made for future use. Externally his action is one technically labeled \"production.\" It seems to illustrate the subjection of present activity to remote ends. But actually, morally, psychologically, the sense of the utility of the article produced is a factor in the present significance of action due to the present utilization of abilities, giving play to taste and skill, accomplishing something now. The moment production is severed from immediate satisfaction, it becomes \"labor,\" drudgery, a task reluctantly performed.",
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      "text": "Translated by James Legge",
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      "text": "PART 1.",
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      "text": "Ch. 1. 1. The Tao that can be trodden is not the enduring and unchanging Tao. The name that can be named is not the enduring and unchanging name.",
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      "text": "2. (Conceived of as) having no name, it is the Originator of heaven and earth; (conceived of as) having a name, it is the Mother of all things.",
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      "text": "3.",
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      "text": "Always without desire we must be found, If its deep mystery we would sound; But if desire always within us be, Its outer fringe is all that we shall see.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00022",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 1655,
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      "text": "4. Under these two aspects, it is really the same; but as development takes place, it receives the different names. Together we call them the Mystery. Where the Mystery is the deepest is the gate of all that is subtle and wonderful.",
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      "text": "2. 1. All in the world know the beauty of the beautiful, and in doing this they have (the idea of) what ugliness is; they all know the skill of the skilful, and in doing this they have (the idea of) what the want of skill is.",
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      "text": "2. So it is that existence and non-existence give birth the one to (the idea of) the other; that difficulty and ease produce the one (the idea of) the other; that length and shortness fashion out the one the figure of the other; that (the ideas of) height and lowness arise from the contrast of the one with the other; that the musical notes and tones become harmonious through the relation of one with another; and that being before and behind give the idea of one following another.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00025",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 2624,
      "end": 2742,
      "sha256": "171b6e22a0f70a245b0f75fc442940ad1ffa5146699fb4078ff1daf49fcec8ad",
      "text": "3. Therefore the sage manages affairs without doing anything, and conveys his instructions without the use of speech.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00026",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 2746,
      "end": 3055,
      "sha256": "dfe3723f88f655cedf1a8631bdd55061d033b11752bd39902af0df074e720a74",
      "text": "4. All things spring up, and there is not one which declines to show itself; they grow, and there is no claim made for their ownership; they go through their processes, and there is no expectation (of a reward for the results). The work is accomplished, and there is no resting in it (as an achievement).",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00027",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 3062,
      "end": 3154,
      "sha256": "df18526753e6a3bf6f597b5b957809ac6917485bc941c58935baec5cee128c39",
      "text": "The work is done, but how no one can see; 'Tis this that makes the power not cease to be.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00028",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 3160,
      "end": 3480,
      "sha256": "55aa755e4925eba46c7d881889ddc18bb2f2ce3b5a9c6d03dd64bc669a33eb90",
      "text": "3. 1. Not to value and employ men of superior ability is the way to keep the people from rivalry among themselves; not to prize articles which are difficult to procure is the way to keep them from becoming thieves; not to show them what is likely to excite their desires is the way to keep their minds from disorder.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00029",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 3484,
      "end": 3635,
      "sha256": "d0f400efbf43cef51bed7807f85e881d69a350c5e9ca3ff789d270c62f216dfd",
      "text": "2. Therefore the sage, in the exercise of his government, empties their minds, fills their bellies, weakens their wills, and strengthens their bones.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00030",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 3639,
      "end": 3876,
      "sha256": "363369b57979d80223cb6a74ee5d54507ceefc0461028f21598fd0da2b36a098",
      "text": "3. He constantly (tries to) keep them without knowledge and without desire, and where there are those who have knowledge, to keep them from presuming to act (on it). When there is this abstinence from action, good order is universal.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00031",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 3882,
      "end": 4093,
      "sha256": "c4004dde8396cdddb58b6e44fb06b2479fe1caa123bcfec9ac7d021debfe82ba",
      "text": "4. 1. The Tao is (like) the emptiness of a vessel; and in our employment of it we must be on our guard against all fulness. How deep and unfathomable it is, as if it were the Honoured Ancestor of all things!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00032",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 4097,
      "end": 4342,
      "sha256": "09ddab5fe0a832c8ff502146ceb1b53f156a9091c6edb20ddee8111a60f1ba7f",
      "text": "2. We should blunt our sharp points, and unravel the complications of things; we should attemper our brightness, and bring ourselves into agreement with the obscurity of others. How pure and still the Tao is, as if it would ever so continue!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00033",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 4346,
      "end": 4422,
      "sha256": "cda05d7ed3f68a3bba0b3afc963f6ef444fc85acf8bd79c2d681cb3eed94bb97",
      "text": "3. I do not know whose son it is. It might appear to have been before God.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00036",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 4777,
      "end": 4964,
      "sha256": "119c42cc64778a9007a31da4f4309febd2dedc9dc2178ef7c35f930ba0f1cc72",
      "text": "'Tis emptied, yet it loses not its power; 'Tis moved again, and sends forth air the more. Much speech to swift exhaustion lead we see; Your inner being guard, and keep it free.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00037",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 4970,
      "end": 4972,
      "sha256": "d80edd7fb074b51d1fbf46a3dcf5cae5237ceb888dcdd8bd1b7df117d53afdc4",
      "text": "6.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00038",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 4979,
      "end": 5263,
      "sha256": "2abd085feeaf0905f58c99e137c391c460a30ce4822e1b5fd74c654bb755965c",
      "text": "The valley spirit dies not, aye the same; The female mystery thus do we name. Its gate, from which at first they issued forth, Is called the root from which grew heaven and earth. Long and unbroken does its power remain, Used gently, and without the touch of pain.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00039",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 5269,
      "end": 5505,
      "sha256": "5ce6ce81f1befd4aabe6aa7bb3f9dbd22bd278dacd92dbaaf37f73eea4249936",
      "text": "7. 1. Heaven is long-enduring and earth continues long. The reason why heaven and earth are able to endure and continue thus long is because they do not live of, or for, themselves. This is how they are able to continue and endure.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00040",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 5509,
      "end": 5782,
      "sha256": "94ca473a7c02fd01ea7a81e813474252ad3e3e37d32c6d580eebd0e9b58281d8",
      "text": "2. Therefore the sage puts his own person last, and yet it is found in the foremost place; he treats his person as if it were foreign to him, and yet that person is preserved. Is it not because he has no personal and private ends, that therefore such ends are realised?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00041",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 5788,
      "end": 6049,
      "sha256": "55e405172fd09cfda8f331b56fabed5eebf4c4ab46132a0e0187f90bcefdf844",
      "text": "8. 1. The highest excellence is like (that of) water. The excellence of water appears in its benefiting all things, and in its occupying, without striving (to the contrary), the low place which all men dislike. Hence (its way) is near to (that of) the Tao.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00042",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 6053,
      "end": 6396,
      "sha256": "672ad675d75812fcc0c8054725d362acf637ca644a64d254caad3a475c2e4409",
      "text": "2. The excellence of a residence is in (the suitability of) the place; that of the mind is in abysmal stillness; that of associations is in their being with the virtuous; that of government is in its securing good order; that of (the conduct of) affairs is in its ability; and that of (the initiation of) any movement is in its timeliness.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00043",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 6400,
      "end": 6518,
      "sha256": "2d601cfb583de873791baef068608f666786ea944d097cc7400922a5152febd7",
      "text": "3. And when (one with the highest excellence) does not wrangle (about his low position), no one finds fault with him.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00044",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 6524,
      "end": 6717,
      "sha256": "959dc3dab85288a1bac32995f053676ddfa2f3fd17ae40033dcdb98e3f561fb3",
      "text": "9. 1. It is better to leave a vessel unfilled, than to attempt to carry it when it is full. If you keep feeling a point that has been sharpened, the point cannot long preserve its sharpness.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00045",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 6721,
      "end": 6990,
      "sha256": "8d8ec58c58e846959038f60a68b9b365e65350ebaf6fe463267f0796586d4586",
      "text": "2. When gold and jade fill the hall, their possessor cannot keep them safe. When wealth and honours lead to arrogancy, this brings its evil on itself. When the work is done, and one's name is becoming distinguished, to withdraw into obscurity is the way of Heaven.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00046",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 6996,
      "end": 7359,
      "sha256": "b4f0c6dbf647471a143a343f7492e6e5d2bf4640316753127ace33672fc1a166",
      "text": "10. 1. When the intelligent and animal souls are held together in one embrace, they can be kept from separating. When one gives undivided attention to the (vital) breath, and brings it to the utmost degree of pliancy, he can become as a (tender) babe. When he has cleansed away the most mysterious sights (of his imagination), he can become without a flaw.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00047",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 7363,
      "end": 7646,
      "sha256": "26e20efd9a3a276b4d789b996a626e2a527f4e114a9b359daceb3298e9c6f89d",
      "text": "2. In loving the people and ruling the state, cannot he proceed without any (purpose of) action? In the opening and shutting of his gates of heaven, cannot he do so as a female bird? While his intelligence reaches in every direction, cannot he (appear to) be without knowledge?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00048",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 7650,
      "end": 7918,
      "sha256": "1c2d3c50aaacceb7e127036594c390f90b62322b90f460a2601fc628668779bb",
      "text": "3. (The Tao) produces (all things) and nourishes them; it produces them and does not claim them as its own; it does all, and yet does not boast of it; it presides over all, and yet does not control them. This is what is called 'The mysterious Quality' (of the Tao).",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00049",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 7924,
      "end": 8407,
      "sha256": "95afb549b14abd28c8ea68dca545a5309b92207d8561243bc168cf5b6ef420da",
      "text": "11. The thirty spokes unite in the one nave; but it is on the empty space (for the axle), that the use of the wheel depends. Clay is fashioned into vessels; but it is on their empty hollowness, that their use depends. The door and windows are cut out (from the walls) to form an apartment; but it is on the empty space (within), that its use depends. Therefore, what has a (positive) existence serves for profitable adaptation, and what has not that for (actual) usefulness.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00050",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 8413,
      "end": 8416,
      "sha256": "25602777cecc667d222cfeb509c62be1591a64d751c3142c1381dee13677a294",
      "text": "12.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00051",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 8420,
      "end": 8422,
      "sha256": "c977dbe785221d34114d345fdf8ff4e18bb4af66750751dbea29407f9738735f",
      "text": "1.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00052",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 8429,
      "end": 8739,
      "sha256": "0f7e120922d0a3f52ccb4bd0494047a5dc51ee5a3d6797682bd1309f7c73afbe",
      "text": "Colour's five hues from th' eyes their sight will take; Music's five notes the ears as deaf can make; The flavours five deprive the mouth of taste; The chariot course, and the wild hunting waste Make mad the mind; and objects rare and strange, Sought for, men's conduct will to evil change.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00053",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 8743,
      "end": 8919,
      "sha256": "6e4bf54debb5796b87c8cd7304bebb3dce8acae60f50320617567a0f7b6387ce",
      "text": "2. Therefore the sage seeks to satisfy (the craving of) the belly, and not the (insatiable longing of the) eyes. He puts from him the latter, and prefers to seek the former.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00054",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 8925,
      "end": 9071,
      "sha256": "19c9ba8240bf519dcaaf08c457041c52a7950ea4825bd3fa2d0a0776394e58c9",
      "text": "13. 1. Favour and disgrace would seem equally to be feared; honour and great calamity, to be regarded as personal conditions (of the same kind).",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00060",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 10594,
      "end": 10859,
      "sha256": "b964bed0ed4812da5b8595a12d1c6f988a5e19202e2252fd265599dcb7de709f",
      "text": "3. We meet it and do not see its Front; we follow it, and do not see its Back. When we can lay hold of the Tao of old to direct the things of the present day, and are able to know it as it was of old in the beginning, this is called (unwinding) the clue of Tao.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00061",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 10865,
      "end": 11155,
      "sha256": "8f535c7c0b7826fde79d9955a1c545df78ce2aa3ecc7bb6d64752845f7fd2c19",
      "text": "15. 1. The skilful masters (of the Tao) in old times, with a subtle and exquisite penetration, comprehended its mysteries, and were deep (also) so as to elude men's knowledge. As they were thus beyond men's knowledge, I will make an effort to describe of what sort they appeared to be.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00062",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 11159,
      "end": 11491,
      "sha256": "9869842d2aac12e7f3ae0ee9ed74d9ee07c8ddf74d244db04ad1c3e0a6a76476",
      "text": "2. Shrinking looked they like those who wade through a stream in winter; irresolute like those who are afraid of all around them; grave like a guest (in awe of his host); evanescent like ice that is melting away; unpretentious like wood that has not been fashioned into anything; vacant like a valley, and dull like muddy water.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00063",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 11495,
      "end": 11700,
      "sha256": "6e10781353aff9a31c1acfa9c0348768d1ac562fb2431254794fd5b0ab8801eb",
      "text": "3. Who can (make) the muddy water (clear)? Let it be still, and it will gradually become clear. Who can secure the condition of rest? Let movement go on, and the condition of rest will gradually arise.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00064",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 11704,
      "end": 11906,
      "sha256": "2918f17e3bde8e039532954a48e5ceee6b16f6b5357f2ef25ee41036fadcf5ef",
      "text": "4. They who preserve this method of the Tao do not wish to be full (of themselves). It is through their not being full of themselves that they can afford to seem worn and not appear new and complete.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00065",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 11912,
      "end": 12435,
      "sha256": "db630aa1eaa43701f976b1d5c6cd5ce2f35818d1ee2b04599adfc045171fd35b",
      "text": "16. 1. The (state of) vacancy should be brought to the utmost degree, and that of stillness guarded with unwearying vigour. All things alike go through their processes of activity, and (then) we see them return (to their original state). When things (in the vegetable world) have displayed their luxuriant growth, we see each of them return to its root. This returning to their root is what we call the state of stillness; and that stillness may be called a reporting that they have fulfilled their appointed end.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00066",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 12439,
      "end": 13064,
      "sha256": "b0fab2c5c842e8a66f6c28c0d61290c40c5c979877bd1d2e6b9578c7b47de0a3",
      "text": "2. The report of that fulfilment is the regular, unchanging rule. To know that unchanging rule is to be intelligent; not to know it leads to wild movements and evil issues. The knowledge of that unchanging rule produces a (grand) capacity and forbearance, and that capacity and forbearance lead to a community (of feeling with all things). From this community of feeling comes a kingliness of character; and he who is king-like goes on to be heaven-like. In that likeness to heaven he possesses the Tao. Possessed of the Tao, he endures long; and to the end of his bodily life, is exempt from all danger of decay.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00067",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 13070,
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      "sha256": "65ec7fe52815fe4678d4598cde89eb7a25b0c4dfe2e1a403c158c7ad334c7fb2",
      "text": "17. 1. In the highest antiquity, (the people) did not know that there were (their rulers). In the next age they loved them and praised them. In the next they feared them; in the next they despised them. Thus it was that when faith (in the Tao) was deficient (in the rulers) a want of faith in them ensued (in the people).",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00068",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 13401,
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      "text": "2. How irresolute did those (earliest rulers) appear, showing (by their reticence) the importance which they set upon their words! Their work was done and their undertakings were successful, while the people all said, 'We are as we are, of ourselves!'",
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      "text": "18. 1. When the Great Tao (Way or Method) ceased to be observed, benevolence and righteousness came into vogue. (Then) appeared wisdom and shrewdness, and there ensued great hypocrisy.",
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      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 13852,
      "end": 14029,
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      "text": "2. When harmony no longer prevailed throughout the six kinships, filial sons found their manifestation; when the states and clans fell into disorder, loyal ministers appeared.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "bookId": 216,
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      "sha256": "cc64a006455f4b2bcf3df81e1cf61a262351e1a4dbea0d24b773031aaa70cce2",
      "text": "19. 1. If we could renounce our sageness and discard our wisdom, it would be better for the people a hundredfold. If we could renounce our benevolence and discard our righteousness, the people would again become filial and kindly. If we could renounce our artful contrivances and discard our (scheming for) gain, there would be no thieves nor robbers.",
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    },
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      "text": "2.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00073",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 14406,
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      "sha256": "8346667079836ddd07b1ef1e87dbc8e7cb34fce4db359881da02343db98a32a8",
      "text": "Those three methods (of government) Thought olden ways in elegance did fail And made these names their want of worth to veil; But simple views, and courses plain and true Would selfish ends and many lusts eschew.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00074",
      "bookId": 216,
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      "text": "20.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00075",
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      "text": "1.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00076",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 14656,
      "end": 14880,
      "sha256": "0c504fd11a1ea9d654d8992ff1110e987775fc6ae9f9e342057b11e1c1dd75c7",
      "text": "When we renounce learning we have no troubles. The (ready) 'yes,' and (flattering) 'yea;'-- Small is the difference they display. But mark their issues, good and ill;-- What space the gulf between shall fill?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00079",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 15496,
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      "sha256": "42f38fe30e6eef6e76f644d7c70c9517f2c9412f7405d6a26b772bb60790c5c3",
      "text": "Ordinary men look bright and intelligent, while I alone seem to be benighted. They look full of discrimination, while I alone am dull and confused. I seem to be carried about as on the sea, drifting as if I had nowhere to rest. All men have their spheres of action, while I alone seem dull and incapable, like a rude borderer. (Thus) I alone am different from other men, but I value the nursing-mother (the Tao).",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00080",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 15923,
      "end": 15926,
      "sha256": "92c62d38adae151110fd21c184e24a07500c5e96361f3fcaa539d68d11cf14d6",
      "text": "21.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00081",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 15934,
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      "sha256": "3123d5c89584d83e913fa8afa4b6cc89515c2b1c6a9df38befbe87c99e7575ec",
      "text": "The grandest forms of active force From Tao come, their only source. Who can of Tao the nature tell? Our sight it flies, our touch as well. Eluding sight, eluding touch, The forms of things all in it crouch; Eluding touch, eluding sight, There are their semblances, all right. Profound it is, dark and obscure; Things' essences all there endure. Those essences the truth enfold Of what, when seen, shall then be told. Now it is so; 'twas so of old. Its name--what passes not away; So, in their beautiful array, Things form and never know decay.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00082",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 16557,
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      "sha256": "dc353c75a9dd97d075b4074e1878190ba6e062d63c05c02cc73eac83feade08c",
      "text": "How know I that it is so with all the beauties of existing things? By this (nature of the Tao).",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00083",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 16660,
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      "sha256": "3a06302422be855f0a179be5cfdf3ef112f3527bf2be5b455efeb5eb67f85cd0",
      "text": "22. 1. The partial becomes complete; the crooked, straight; the empty, full; the worn out, new. He whose (desires) are few gets them; he whose (desires) are many goes astray.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00084",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 16841,
      "end": 17296,
      "sha256": "e70646d563cd15470e65b8878be97a58561d1ccb7e80f4866abea510af91c490",
      "text": "2. Therefore the sage holds in his embrace the one thing (of humility), and manifests it to all the world. He is free from self-display, and therefore he shines; from self-assertion, and therefore he is distinguished; from self-boasting, and therefore his merit is acknowledged; from self-complacency, and therefore he acquires superiority. It is because he is thus free from striving that therefore no one in the world is able to strive with him.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00085",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 17300,
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      "sha256": "6f87d6c4d3ec4a065cb6aa60b2c6e5dae2d3a81d8465265192158b4d85f0e2d1",
      "text": "3. That saying of the ancients that 'the partial becomes complete' was not vainly spoken:--all real completion is comprehended under it.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00086",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 17443,
      "end": 17794,
      "sha256": "2e41ff7f06908a4d39e0794c9c1c88875b1fa162343fe650e4d10b4ce6a29573",
      "text": "23. 1. Abstaining from speech marks him who is obeying the spontaneity of his nature. A violent wind does not last for a whole morning; a sudden rain does not last for the whole day. To whom is it that these (two) things are owing? To Heaven and Earth. If Heaven and Earth cannot make such (spasmodic) actings last long, how much less can man!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00087",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 17798,
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      "sha256": "b5eed540bc53b9c3c3f7d3fdc48480c8acc1d4f9b9c498a551d651b9f0a323f1",
      "text": "2. Therefore when one is making the Tao his business, those who are also pursuing it, agree with him in it, and those who are making the manifestation of its course their object agree with him in that; while even those who are failing in both these things agree with him where they fail.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00088",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 18093,
      "end": 18490,
      "sha256": "630cc962c53c065b0873acbf564502303599d74d7ae4a7c172c1c51321cba544",
      "text": "3. Hence, those with whom he agrees as to the Tao have the happiness of attaining to it; those with whom he agrees as to its manifestation have the happiness of attaining to it; and those with whom he agrees in their failure have also the happiness of attaining (to the Tao). (But) when there is not faith sufficient (on his part), a want of faith (in him) ensues (on the part of the others).",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00089",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 18496,
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      "sha256": "ade52403e0be32b42a39cd6c948cdb3abacde2cb7c4436f2cae1e4222891cfbe",
      "text": "24. He who stands on his tiptoes does not stand firm; he who stretches his legs does not walk (easily). (So), he who displays himself does not shine; he who asserts his own views is not distinguished; he who vaunts himself does not find his merit acknowledged; he who is self-conceited has no superiority allowed to him. Such conditions, viewed from the standpoint of the Tao, are like remnants of food, or a tumour on the body, which all dislike. Hence those who pursue (the course) of the Tao do not adopt and allow them.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00090",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 19035,
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      "sha256": "e77bbba7f8d03649a1ea2afbcbbda38cf9215cd418b35d2b93931ffad6216685",
      "text": "25. 1. There was something undefined and complete, coming into existence before Heaven and Earth. How still it was and formless, standing alone, and undergoing no change, reaching everywhere and in no danger (of being exhausted)! It may be regarded as the Mother of all things.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00091",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 19322,
      "end": 19479,
      "sha256": "9e908e853a06dfaea764cfd3eec5d8c2818d99dfb70798a5e499cb77eae65b92",
      "text": "2. I do not know its name, and I give it the designation of the Tao (the Way or Course). Making an effort (further) to give it a name I call it The Great.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00092",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 19483,
      "end": 19777,
      "sha256": "27d8b7861d1f0b697603ef39e92405b38ea87d2a7b9b3b5984211256d569667e",
      "text": "3. Great, it passes on (in constant flow). Passing on, it becomes remote. Having become remote, it returns. Therefore the Tao is great; Heaven is great; Earth is great; and the (sage) king is also great. In the universe there are four that are great, and the (sage) king is one of them.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00093",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 19781,
      "end": 19936,
      "sha256": "a82e048e0f923ecbe4b359ee1e3f91c377354f70e0528c1d6ca32042bbb13f0e",
      "text": "4. Man takes his law from the Earth; the Earth takes its law from Heaven; Heaven takes its law from the Tao. The law of the Tao is its being what it is.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00106",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 22793,
      "end": 22995,
      "sha256": "9496aea50d12b6bd10cf71140068a0fc4f51462b6616d0558ab496e3062b0cd4",
      "text": "The course and nature of things is such that What was in front is now behind; What warmed anon we freezing find. Strength is of weakness oft the spoil; The store in ruins mocks our toil.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00107",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 22999,
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      "sha256": "3c3c1fe35bb10b07963af38133e534272d7954a08a56b6b6024f595ee2897711",
      "text": "Hence the sage puts away excessive effort, extravagance, and easy indulgence.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00108",
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      "text": "30. 1. He who would assist a lord of men in harmony with the Tao will not assert his mastery in the kingdom by force of arms. Such a course is sure to meet with its proper return.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00109",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 23269,
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      "sha256": "3752dc2d7531f5d3282a5f63f7a1fdb694ad055ab69bace3c8696f0572c1946d",
      "text": "2. Wherever a host is stationed, briars and thorns spring up. In the sequence of great armies there are sure to be bad years.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00110",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 23400,
      "end": 23755,
      "sha256": "3636848247b8bf1f614123e998f2f2c11a0b604fad29a27b9d7955b2d421951e",
      "text": "3. A skilful (commander) strikes a decisive blow, and stops. He does not dare (by continuing his operations) to assert and complete his mastery. He will strike the blow, but will be on his guard against being vain or boastful or arrogant in consequence of it. He strikes it as a matter of necessity; he strikes it, but not from a wish for mastery.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00111",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 23759,
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      "sha256": "5ab954429d6d733ce43c5875c19fd4871567f8abcc589f8b3a69e4dd08ffd3df",
      "text": "4. When things have attained their strong maturity they become old. This may be said to be not in accordance with the Tao: and what is not in accordance with it soon comes to an end.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00112",
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      "text": "31. 1. Now arms, however beautiful, are instruments of evil omen, hateful, it may be said, to all creatures. Therefore they who have the Tao do not like to employ them.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00113",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 24124,
      "end": 24634,
      "sha256": "7c50ae5921219ce390a3b8373047c8153d663c2c24edee30039680551cc2af17",
      "text": "2. The superior man ordinarily considers the left hand the most honourable place, but in time of war the right hand. Those sharp weapons are instruments of evil omen, and not the instruments of the superior man;--he uses them only on the compulsion of necessity. Calm and repose are what he prizes; victory (by force of arms) is to him undesirable. To consider this desirable would be to delight in the slaughter of men; and he who delights in the slaughter of men cannot get his will in the kingdom.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00114",
      "bookId": 216,
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      "end": 25105,
      "sha256": "a8b3f30def213fcf05732cde610c58bb5f61df282ca6215231ab9720a19f10f8",
      "text": "3. On occasions of festivity to be on the left hand is the prized position; on occasions of mourning, the right hand. The second in command of the army has his place on the left; the general commanding in chief has his on the right;--his place, that is, is assigned to him as in the rites of mourning. He who has killed multitudes of men should weep for them with the bitterest grief; and the victor in battle has his place (rightly) according to those rites.",
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    {
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      "text": "32. 1. The Tao, considered as unchanging, has no name.",
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    {
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      "sha256": "82af5976e14a6df36872cefce254145cc148feaae9f133d47a7d8aa802b60c2c",
      "text": "2. Though in its primordial simplicity it may be small, the whole world dares not deal with (one embodying) it as a minister. If a feudal prince or the king could guard and hold it, all would spontaneously submit themselves to him.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00117",
      "bookId": 216,
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      "text": "3. Heaven and Earth (under its guidance) unite together and send down the sweet dew, which, without the directions of men, reaches equally everywhere as of its own accord.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00118",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 25585,
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      "text": "4. As soon as it proceeds to action, it has a name. When it once has that name, (men) can know to rest in it. When they know to rest in it, they can be free from all risk of failure and error.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00119",
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      "sha256": "5739070ffa9777aba07c4ee141058de043979234c0ae4fb4455ff6af85a5ce1e",
      "text": "5. The relation of the Tao to all the world is like that of the great rivers and seas to the streams from the valleys.",
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      "text": "33. 1. He who knows other men is discerning; he who knows himself is intelligent. He who overcomes others is strong; he who overcomes himself is mighty. He who is satisfied with his lot is rich; he who goes on acting with energy has a (firm) will.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00121",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 26166,
      "end": 26295,
      "sha256": "8647300e2a8a76180b7f06fcb1b98cbbb08219bbf533187def7103a85851df6c",
      "text": "2. He who does not fail in the requirements of his position, continues long; he who dies and yet does not perish, has longevity.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00122",
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      "text": "34. 1. All-pervading is the Great Tao! It may be found on the left hand and on the right.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00123",
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      "text": "2. All things depend on it for their production, which it gives to them, not one refusing obedience to it. When its work is accomplished, it does not claim the name of having done it. It clothes all things as with a garment, and makes no assumption of being their lord;--it may be named in the smallest things. All things return (to their root and disappear), and do not know that it is it which presides over their doing so;--it may be named in the greatest things.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00124",
      "bookId": 216,
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      "text": "3. Hence the sage is able (in the same way) to accomplish his great achievements. It is through his not making himself great that he can accomplish them.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00125",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 27038,
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      "sha256": "262e76fb69b60d0945e0c2638d6fe6eb83e4b63ca5c79051a6c3388ca66ea3e8",
      "text": "35. 1. To him who holds in his hands the Great Image (of the invisible Tao), the whole world repairs. Men resort to him, and receive no hurt, but (find) rest, peace, and the feeling of ease.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00126",
      "bookId": 216,
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      "text": "2. Music and dainties will make the passing guest stop (for a time). But though the Tao as it comes from the mouth, seems insipid and has no flavour, though it seems not worth being looked at or listened to, the use of it is inexhaustible.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00127",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 27483,
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      "text": "36. 1. When one is about to take an inspiration, he is sure to make a (previous) expiration; when he is going to weaken another, he will first strengthen him; when he is going to overthrow another, he will first have raised him up; when he is going to despoil another, he will first have made gifts to him:--this is called 'Hiding the light (of his procedure).'",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00128",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 27853,
      "end": 27909,
      "sha256": "0cc51760c0dd2b83210b9987ea329f7d38f61911378e72500c075a8ffffc390d",
      "text": "2. The soft overcomes the hard; and the weak the strong.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00129",
      "bookId": 216,
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      "end": 28031,
      "sha256": "75da443659cc5f3f3c083d5815da22af50d458952353fb5788d30a89d629601e",
      "text": "3. Fishes should not be taken from the deep; instruments for the profit of a state should not be shown to the people.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00130",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 28037,
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      "sha256": "f3d38f54c7bf93b4d11be154cc1a75cabcd8d003e77274086a75b67356f79706",
      "text": "37. 1. The Tao in its regular course does nothing (for the sake of doing it), and so there is nothing which it does not do.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00131",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 28165,
      "end": 28270,
      "sha256": "95f0b1ca79d04cb5f37642f610c59928ea5248242a058fc4b4650db1e8323efd",
      "text": "2. If princes and kings were able to maintain it, all things would of themselves be transformed by them.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00132",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 28274,
      "end": 28389,
      "sha256": "3b4c3e58b280015fc92e551a845325a54851e73b13264f752c22d182b544ad68",
      "text": "3. If this transformation became to me an object of desire, I would express the desire by the nameless simplicity.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00133",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 28396,
      "end": 28537,
      "sha256": "6e6a837eadecd8dc11c970b54d5efc181911a0068d98e6547b6a4047cfb9725e",
      "text": "Simplicity without a name Is free from all external aim. With no desire, at rest and still, All things go right as of their will.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00134",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 28549,
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      "sha256": "1f1fb02ae92f2396a1b6d1e85ed77e4081e1fc553c1d6fc9c1610a82f7a06209",
      "text": "PART II.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00135",
      "bookId": 216,
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      "text": "38. 1. (Those who) possessed in highest degree the attributes (of the Tao) did not (seek) to show them, and therefore they possessed them (in fullest measure). (Those who) possessed in a lower degree those attributes (sought how) not to lose them, and therefore they did not possess them (in fullest measure).",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00136",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 28881,
      "end": 29105,
      "sha256": "afbdc69ad4b8945e3475f49f35cf687241b9afb5a8faeb09b23fc86d2c352ca3",
      "text": "2. (Those who) possessed in the highest degree those attributes did nothing (with a purpose), and had no need to do anything. (Those who) possessed them in a lower degree were (always) doing, and had need to be so doing.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00137",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 29109,
      "end": 29348,
      "sha256": "067c6f966aaa32dc15a665f2a3c9d31f88d4f5aaaf5b350ff93b77ca37b6055b",
      "text": "3. (Those who) possessed the highest benevolence were (always seeking) to carry it out, and had no need to be doing so. (Those who) possessed the highest righteousness were (always seeking) to carry it out, and had need to be so doing.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00138",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 29352,
      "end": 29524,
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      "text": "4. (Those who) possessed the highest (sense of) propriety were (always seeking) to show it, and when men did not respond to it, they bared the arm and marched up to them.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00139",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 29528,
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      "text": "5. Thus it was that when the Tao was lost, its attributes appeared; when its attributes were lost, benevolence appeared; when benevolence was lost, righteousness appeared; and when righteousness was lost, the proprieties appeared.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00140",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 29765,
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      "text": "6. Now propriety is the attenuated form of leal-heartedness and good faith, and is also the commencement of disorder; swift apprehension is (only) a flower of the Tao, and is the beginning of stupidity.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00141",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 29973,
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      "sha256": "687dbe889a50a23f36b78f98330fd0d6be64b19ba91305c79406fdd0c5b32d5b",
      "text": "7. Thus it is that the Great man abides by what is solid, and eschews what is flimsy; dwells with the fruit and not with the flower. It is thus that he puts away the one and makes choice of the other.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00142",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 30182,
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      "sha256": "a569c1a1b965b607caa2320c5e0456268d80bf48cc8653679bd069dc8e5c7a09",
      "text": "39. 1. The things which from of old have got the One (the Tao) are--",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00143",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 30257,
      "end": 30540,
      "sha256": "2673aa387272f0c1c7b22113d174d4e9492c84b01d75833008f167e784d4d5f1",
      "text": "Heaven which by it is bright and pure; Earth rendered thereby firm and sure; Spirits with powers by it supplied; Valleys kept full throughout their void All creatures which through it do live Princes and kings who from it get The model which to all they give.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00144",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 30544,
      "end": 30587,
      "sha256": "e0685a37cb5493aadce05eac62899f5bb3dffd31529614c8074ba72a81054773",
      "text": "All these are the results of the One (Tao).",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00145",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 30591,
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      "sha256": "6bc54f13bea593dc5e1c8e6b16249e669d1ce99cbeac65f2a10f36e1d86f1fd4",
      "text": "2.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00146",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 30600,
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      "sha256": "9c8c29ee72e5d1cabf0518a363759b149a54325d89a3479da4fc24cb990d1a6a",
      "text": "If heaven were not thus pure, it soon would rend; If earth were not thus sure, 'twould break and bend; Without these powers, the spirits soon would fail; If not so filled, the drought would parch each vale; Without that life, creatures would pass away; Princes and kings, without that moral sway, However grand and high, would all decay.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00147",
      "bookId": 216,
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      "sha256": "92e3b0deb08db3ecaad073ab032d15bd7e0cf3051e6ae96549827b0189820902",
      "text": "3. Thus it is that dignity finds its (firm) root in its (previous) meanness, and what is lofty finds its stability in the lowness (from which it rises). Hence princes and kings call themselves 'Orphans,' 'Men of small virtue,' and as 'Carriages without a nave.' Is not this an acknowledgment that in their considering themselves mean they see the foundation of their dignity? So it is that in the enumeration of the different parts of a carriage we do not come on what makes it answer the ends of a carriage. They do not wish to show themselves elegant-looking as jade, but (prefer) to be coarse-looking as an (ordinary) stone.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00148",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 31611,
      "end": 31614,
      "sha256": "6dc865fc510969ce2748eae27466c3c76aa7964c34974eee4afd0e4a85356ba3",
      "text": "40.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00149",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 31618,
      "end": 31620,
      "sha256": "c977dbe785221d34114d345fdf8ff4e18bb4af66750751dbea29407f9738735f",
      "text": "1.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00150",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 31627,
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      "sha256": "9c6d338a67d3a7d1c1fe5ecd3a8da01f799491e518ae3e2b93272e76261eb87e",
      "text": "The movement of the Tao By contraries proceeds; And weakness marks the course Of Tao's mighty deeds.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00151",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 31747,
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      "sha256": "8b6d291c3cf607509edaca9297f8894d7f96b5e16bd00f35d12e15d037a94778",
      "text": "2. All things under heaven sprang from It as existing (and named); that existence sprang from It as non-existent (and not named).",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00152",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 31883,
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      "sha256": "1a9f5f1b23a4339f8fba47f24b057e160160aa3d32746cfc4dbb55d40ab960b5",
      "text": "41. 1. Scholars of the highest class, when they hear about the Tao, earnestly carry it into practice. Scholars of the middle class, when they have heard about it, seem now to keep it and now to lose it. Scholars of the lowest class, when they have heard about it, laugh greatly at it. If it were not (thus) laughed at, it would not be fit to be the Tao.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00153",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 32247,
      "end": 32313,
      "sha256": "558929dece02df8e653f5b3fdd4f2a4be33d8dbc5ef1855d33b20b53a63d9087",
      "text": "2. Therefore the sentence-makers have thus expressed themselves:--",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00154",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 32319,
      "end": 32886,
      "sha256": "88e0f81a66a5e0e7008f3386a0a680aa3b9d0b112ea5ae102987b80877de9509",
      "text": "'The Tao, when brightest seen, seems light to lack; Who progress in it makes, seems drawing back; Its even way is like a rugged track. Its highest virtue from the vale doth rise; Its greatest beauty seems to offend the eyes; And he has most whose lot the least supplies. Its firmest virtue seems but poor and low; Its solid truth seems change to undergo; Its largest square doth yet no corner show A vessel great, it is the slowest made; Loud is its sound, but never word it said; A semblance great, the shadow of a shade.'",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00155",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 32890,
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      "sha256": "d3db1d60fa15d37b360b06c27b7e48841638007de0fdbb4a33f39dd7f2e6e9c6",
      "text": "3. The Tao is hidden, and has no name; but it is the Tao which is skilful at imparting (to all things what they need) and making them complete.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00156",
      "bookId": 216,
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      "text": "42. 1. The Tao produced One; One produced Two; Two produced Three; Three produced All things. All things leave behind them the Obscurity (out of which they have come), and go forward to embrace the Brightness (into which they have emerged), while they are harmonised by the Breath of Vacancy.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00157",
      "bookId": 216,
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      "text": "2. What men dislike is to be orphans, to have little virtue, to be as carriages without naves; and yet these are the designations which kings and princes use for themselves. So it is that some things are increased by being diminished, and others are diminished by being increased.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00158",
      "bookId": 216,
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      "text": "3. What other men (thus) teach, I also teach. The violent and strong do not die their natural death. I will make this the basis of my teaching.",
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      "text": "43. 1. The softest thing in the world dashes against and overcomes the hardest; that which has no (substantial) existence enters where there is no crevice. I know hereby what advantage belongs to doing nothing (with a purpose).",
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      "bookId": 216,
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      "text": "2. There are few in the world who attain to the teaching without words, and the advantage arising from non-action.",
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      "text": "44.",
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      "ref": "PG216.B00162",
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      "sha256": "c977dbe785221d34114d345fdf8ff4e18bb4af66750751dbea29407f9738735f",
      "text": "1.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00163",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 34156,
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      "sha256": "1428bc316598a5012ed0abc9bc7222dd120c1cc5794ffdd725b4f7cdb626393a",
      "text": "Or fame or life, Which do you hold more dear? Or life or wealth, To which would you adhere? Keep life and lose those other things; Keep them and lose your life:--which brings Sorrow and pain more near?",
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    },
    {
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      "text": "2.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00165",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 34400,
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      "sha256": "0e7930de6ccae31ee19f600cc585e61e59fd24d54ed101c5fd871146903169ea",
      "text": "Thus we may see, Who cleaves to fame Rejects what is more great; Who loves large stores Gives up the richer state.",
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    },
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      "text": "3.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00167",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 34549,
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      "sha256": "bdfe72028b979ac7aad0e1cc1d92e1b6aff410923233477b3474b314a4a97ebf",
      "text": "Who is content Needs fear no shame. Who knows to stop Incurs no blame. From danger free Long live shall he.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00168",
      "bookId": 216,
      "start": 34682,
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      "text": "45.",
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    },
    {
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      "text": "1.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00170",
      "bookId": 216,
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      "sha256": "abf24fadb4bf414744a7170428b042c258f925eac53a9122afbe05b096fa7503",
      "text": "Who thinks his great achievements poor Shall find his vigour long endure. Of greatest fulness, deemed a void, Exhaustion ne'er shall stem the tide. Do thou what's straight still crooked deem; Thy greatest art still stupid seem, And eloquence a stammering scream.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00171",
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      "text": "2. Constant action overcomes cold; being still overcomes heat. Purity and stillness give the correct law to all under heaven.",
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    {
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      "text": "46. 1. When the Tao prevails in the world, they send back their swift horses to (draw) the dung-carts. When the Tao is disregarded in the world, the war-horses breed in the border lands.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00173",
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      "text": "2. There is no guilt greater than to sanction ambition; no calamity greater than to be discontented with one's lot; no fault greater than the wish to be getting. Therefore the sufficiency of contentment is an enduring and unchanging sufficiency.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "47. 1. Without going outside his door, one understands (all that takes place) under the sky; without looking out from his window, one sees the Tao of Heaven. The farther that one goes out (from himself), the less he knows.",
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    },
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      "text": "2. Therefore the sages got their knowledge without travelling; gave their (right) names to things without seeing them; and accomplished their ends without any purpose of doing so.",
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      "text": "48. 1. He who devotes himself to learning (seeks) from day to day to increase (his knowledge); he who devotes himself to the Tao (seeks) from day to day to diminish (his doing).",
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    },
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      "text": "2. He diminishes it and again diminishes it, till he arrives at doing nothing (on purpose). Having arrived at this point of non-action, there is nothing which he does not do.",
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      "text": "3. He who gets as his own all under heaven does so by giving himself no trouble (with that end). If one take trouble (with that end), he is not equal to getting as his own all under heaven.",
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      "text": "49. 1. The sage has no invariable mind of his own; he makes the mind of the people his mind.",
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      "text": "2. To those who are good (to me), I am good; and to those who are not good (to me), I am also good;--and thus (all) get to be good. To those who are sincere (with me), I am sincere; and to those who are not sincere (with me), I am also sincere;--and thus (all) get to be sincere.",
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      "text": "3. The sage has in the world an appearance of indecision, and keeps his mind in a state of indifference to all. The people all keep their eyes and ears directed to him, and he deals with them all as his children.",
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      "sha256": "0eecf6e39baed58b79f9a286e9ad6e659ea39c7089c75749e6cb69b841af0f9e",
      "text": "50. 1. Men come forth and live; they enter (again) and die.",
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      "sha256": "10277fe43dd15d40c3dea5160da95ac7add2a20f791ae03bea1c562009b9346f",
      "text": "2. Of every ten three are ministers of life (to themselves); and three are ministers of death.",
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      "text": "3. There are also three in every ten whose aim is to live, but whose movements tend to the land (or place) of death. And for what reason? Because of their excessive endeavours to perpetuate life.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00185",
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      "text": "4. But I have heard that he who is skilful in managing the life entrusted to him for a time travels on the land without having to shun rhinoceros or tiger, and enters a host without having to avoid buff coat or sharp weapon. The rhinoceros finds no place in him into which to thrust its horn, nor the tiger a place in which to fix its claws, nor the weapon a place to admit its point. And for what reason? Because there is in him no place of death.",
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      "text": "51. 1. All things are produced by the Tao, and nourished by its outflowing operation. They receive their forms according to the nature of each, and are completed according to the circumstances of their condition. Therefore all things without exception honour the Tao, and exalt its outflowing operation.",
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      "text": "2. This honouring of the Tao and exalting of its operation is not the result of any ordination, but always a spontaneous tribute.",
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    {
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      "text": "3. Thus it is that the Tao produces (all things), nourishes them, brings them to their full growth, nurses them, completes them, matures them, maintains them, and overspreads them.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00189",
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      "text": "4. It produces them and makes no claim to the possession of them; it carries them through their processes and does not vaunt its ability in doing so; it brings them to maturity and exercises no control over them;--this is called its mysterious operation.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00190",
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      "text": "52. 1. (The Tao) which originated all under the sky is to be considered as the mother of them all.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00191",
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      "text": "2. When the mother is found, we know what her children should be. When one knows that he is his mother's child, and proceeds to guard (the qualities of) the mother that belong to him, to the end of his life he will be free from all peril.",
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      "ref": "PG216.B00192",
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      "text": "3. Let him keep his mouth closed, and shut up the portals (of his nostrils), and all his life he will be exempt from laborious exertion. Let him keep his mouth open, and (spend his breath) in the promotion of his affairs, and all his life there will be no safety for him.",
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    {
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      "text": "60. 1. Governing a great state is like cooking small fish.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00227",
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      "text": "2. Let the kingdom be governed according to the Tao, and the manes of the departed will not manifest their spiritual energy. It is not that those manes have not that spiritual energy, but it will not be employed to hurt men. It is not that it could not hurt men, but neither does the ruling sage hurt them.",
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    {
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      "text": "3. When these two do not injuriously affect each other, their good influences converge in the virtue (of the Tao).",
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    {
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      "text": "61. 1. What makes a great state is its being (like) a low-lying, down-flowing (stream);--it becomes the centre to which tend (all the small states) under heaven.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00230",
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      "text": "2. (To illustrate from) the case of all females:--the female always overcomes the male by her stillness. Stillness may be considered (a sort of) abasement.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG216.B00231",
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      "text": "3. Thus it is that a great state, by condescending to small states, gains them for itself; and that small states, by abasing themselves to a great state, win it over to them. In the one case the abasement leads to gaining adherents, in the other case to procuring favour.",
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      "text": "4. The great state only wishes to unite men together and nourish them; a small state only wishes to be received by, and to serve, the other. Each gets what it desires, but the great state must learn to abase itself.",
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      "text": "3. Therefore when the sovereign occupies his place as the Son of Heaven, and he has appointed his three ducal ministers, though (a prince) were to send in a round symbol-of-rank large enough to fill both the hands, and that as the precursor of the team of horses (in the court-yard), such an offering would not be equal to (a lesson of) this Tao, which one might present on his knees.",
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      "text": "4. Why was it that the ancients prized this Tao so much? Was it not because it could be got by seeking for it, and the guilty could escape (from the stain of their guilt) by it? This is the reason why all under heaven consider it the most valuable thing.",
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      "text": "63. 1. (It is the way of the Tao) to act without (thinking of) acting; to conduct affairs without (feeling the) trouble of them; to taste without discerning any flavour; to consider what is small as great, and a few as many; and to recompense injury with kindness.",
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      "text": "2. (The master of it) anticipates things that are difficult while they are easy, and does things that would become great while they are small. All difficult things in the world are sure to arise from a previous state in which they were easy, and all great things from one in which they were small. Therefore the sage, while he never does what is great, is able on that account to accomplish the greatest things.",
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      "text": "3. He who lightly promises is sure to keep but little faith; he who is continually thinking things easy is sure to find them difficult. Therefore the sage sees difficulty even in what seems easy, and so never has any difficulties.",
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      "text": "64. 1. That which is at rest is easily kept hold of; before a thing has given indications of its presence, it is easy to take measures against it; that which is brittle is easily broken; that which is very small is easily dispersed. Action should be taken before a thing has made its appearance; order should be secured before disorder has begun.",
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      "text": "2. The tree which fills the arms grew from the tiniest sprout; the tower of nine storeys rose from a (small) heap of earth; the journey of a thousand li commenced with a single step.",
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      "text": "2. In this way though he has his place above them, men do not feel his weight, nor though he has his place before them, do they feel it an injury to them.",
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      "text": "3. Therefore all in the world delight to exalt him and do not weary of him. Because he does not strive, no one finds it possible to strive with him.",
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      "text": "67. 1. All the world says that, while my Tao is great, it yet appears to be inferior (to other systems of teaching). Now it is just its greatness that makes it seem to be inferior. If it were like any other (system), for long would its smallness have been known!",
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      "text": "2. But I have three precious things which I prize and hold fast. The first is gentleness; the second is economy; and the third is shrinking from taking precedence of others.",
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      "text": "3. With that gentleness I can be bold; with that economy I can be liberal; shrinking from taking precedence of others, I can become a vessel of the highest honour. Now-a-days they give up gentleness and are all for being bold; economy, and are all for being liberal; the hindmost place, and seek only to be foremost;--(of all which the end is) death.",
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      "text": "4. Gentleness is sure to be victorious even in battle, and firmly to maintain its ground. Heaven will save its possessor, by his (very) gentleness protecting him.",
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      "text": "68.",
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      "text": "2. Though they had boats and carriages, they should have no occasion to ride in them; though they had buff coats and sharp weapons, they should have no occasion to don or use them.",
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      "text": "3. I would make the people return to the use of knotted cords (instead of the written characters).",
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      "text": "4. They should think their (coarse) food sweet; their (plain) clothes beautiful; their (poor) dwellings places of rest; and their common (simple) ways sources of enjoyment.",
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      "text": "5. There should be a neighbouring state within sight, and the voices of the fowls and dogs should be heard all the way from it to us, but I would make the people to old age, even to death, not have any intercourse with it.",
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      "text": "81. 1. Sincere words are not fine; fine words are not sincere. Those who are skilled (in the Tao) do not dispute (about it); the disputatious are not skilled in it. Those who know (the Tao) are not extensively learned; the extensively learned do not know it.",
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      "text": "2. The sage does not accumulate (for himself). The more that he expends for others, the more does he possess of his own; the more that he gives to others, the more does he have himself.",
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      "text": "3. With all the sharpness of the Way of Heaven, it injures not; with all the doing in the way of the sage he does not strive.",
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      "sha256": "9a7f7bf9085bd1624fa51ec5b4127ffa9ff3f5d97873f134adfdef322b8a8e4b",
      "text": "*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TAO TEH KING, OR THE TAO AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS ***",
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      "text": "CHAPTER I.",
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      "text": "BECCARIA’S LIFE AND CHARACTER.",
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      "text": "State of Lombardy under Count Firmian—The state of criminal law—Torture still in use—The abolition of torture before Beccaria—Beccaria not a lawyer by profession—Autobiographical letter of Beccaria to the Abbé Morellet—Influence on Beccaria of Montesquieu and Helvetius—His philosophy of life and truth—His friends, the Verri—Connection with Pietro Verri—The Caffé periodical—Reception of the ‘Dei Delitti’ in Paris—Translation of it by Morellet—Commentary by Voltaire—The Swiss medal—Beccaria’s fear of ecclesiastical persecution a motive for occasional obscurity—Feeling in Venice against the author—Facchinei’s criticism—Protection of Count Firmian—Adverse criticism by contemporary lawyers—Ramsay’s letter to Diderot, illustrative of the despair of reform—Beccaria’s journey to Paris—His speedy return—Enmity and jealousy of Pietro Verri—Beccaria’s invitation to St. Petersburg—His lectures on political economy, and later life 1",
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      "text": "CHAPTER II.",
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      "text": "THE GENERAL INFLUENCE OF BECCARIA ON LEGISLATION.",
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      "text": "Present inconceivability of torture due to Beccaria—How far he was the first to write against it—Torture first abolished in England—Beccaria’s influence in Russia—Quotations from his treatise in Catharine’s instruction for the new code—Beccaria’s influence in France; Tuscany; Austria; Pennsylvania—Beccaria the first advocate of the abolition of capital punishment—Relative severity of death and other penalties—Slight relation of crime to punishment—Reasons why capital punishment is always more uncertain than other penalties—Cases accounting for its uncertainty—The efficiency of a punishment its real test—Futility of discussing the general right of punishment—Instances of the abolition of capital punishment in ancient and modern times—The argument for its abolition the same as that for the abolition of torture 29",
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      "text": "CHAPTER III.",
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      "text": "THE INFLUENCE OF BECCARIA IN ENGLAND.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00042",
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      "text": "CHAPTER IV.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00043",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "sha256": "6ed7312e24881e0989d8fb69aec5217dfff7a3e59a5416377506b821176655f0",
      "text": "THE PROBLEMS OF PENOLOGY.",
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      "text": "The spirit of Beccaria’s work—The slow progress of penology as a science—Its difficulties—Confusion of guilty and innocent—Relation of intention to crime—Objects and animals once part of the criminal world—Penal laws the expression of moral sentiments, and also the cause of them—Tendency of actions to remain immoral when they have ceased to be penal—Illustration from suicide and infanticide—The Equality of punishment, its Analogy and Proportion to crime, as principles of penal law—The object of punishment—The difficulties of the deterrent-and-reformative theory—The object of law to regulate natural vindictiveness—Traceable historically to this purpose—The measure of punishment on this theory—Absence of any such measure at present—Possibility of a fixed scale of crime and punishment illustrated by the Chinese code—The question of aggravated penalties for re-convictions—The custom contrary to the spirit of the laws: its evil results—Limitations to the universality of the custom—Its error of principle proved by number of re-convictions—The preventiveness of punishment diminished by its great uncertainty—Frequent changes of English penal system—Failure of present system to reform or deter—Punishment itself a cause of crime—Its possible relaxation—Punishments most fitted for injuries to the person, or for offences like cruelty to animals—Indirect preventives of crime—A Prisoners’ Fund—Cumulative sentences—Conclusion 69",
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      "text": "BECCARIA’S ‘CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS,’ TRANSLATED.",
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      "text": "CHAP.",
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      "text": "II. THE ORIGIN OF PUNISHMENTS—RIGHT OF PUNISHMENT 121",
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      "text": "XXXIX. FAMILY SPIRIT 235",
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      "text": "XLI. THE PREVENTION OF CRIMES—KNOWLEDGE—MAGISTRATES—REWARDS 242",
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      "text": "* * * * *",
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      "text": "The ‘Dei Delitti e delle Pene’ was published for the first time in 1764. It quickly ran through several editions, and was first translated into French in 1766 by the Abbé Morellet, since which time it has been translated into most of the languages of Europe, not excluding Greek and Russian.",
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      "text": "The author of the book was a native of Milan, then part of the Austrian dominions, and under the governorship of Count Firmian, a worthy representative of the liberal despotism of Maria Theresa and her chief minister, Kaunitz. Under Firmian’s administration a period of beneficial reforms began for Lombardy. Agriculture was encouraged, museums and libraries extended, great works of public utility carried on. Even the Church was shorn of her privileges, and before Firmian had been ten years in Lombardy all traces of ecclesiastical immunity had been destroyed; the jurisdiction of the Church, and her power to hold lands in mortmain were restricted, the right of asylum was abolished, and, above all, the Holy Office of the Inquisition. Let these few facts suffice to indicate the spirit of the immediate political surroundings in the midst of which Beccaria’s work appeared.",
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      "text": "But, in spite of the liberalism of the Count, the penal laws and customs of Lombardy remained the same; and the cruel legal procedure by torture existed still, untouched by the salutary reforms effected in other departments of the Government. There was the preparatory torture, to extort confession from criminals not yet condemned; there was torture for the discovery of a criminal’s accomplices; and there was the extraordinary or greater torture, which preceded the execution of a sentence of death. It is true that torture could only be applied to crimes of a capital nature, but there was scarcely an act in the possible category of crimes that was not then punishable with death. Proofs of guilt were sought almost entirely from torture and secret accusations, whilst penalties depended less on the text of any known law than on the discretion—that is, on the caprice—of the magistrate.",
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      "text": "It was this system that Beccaria’s little work destroyed, and had that been its only result, it would still deserve to live in men’s memories for its historical interest alone. For upon the legislation of that time, and especially upon that of Italy, this pamphlet on criminal law broke like a ray of sunlight on a dungeon floor, making even blacker that which was black before by the very brilliancy which it shed upon it. To Beccaria primarily, though not of course solely, belongs the glory of having expelled the use of torture from every legal tribunal throughout Christendom.",
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      "text": "Frederick the Great had already abolished it in Prussia;[1] it had been discontinued in Sweden; it was not recognised in the military codes of Europe, and Beccaria said it was not in use in England. This was true generally, although the _peine forte et dure_, by which a prisoner who would not plead was subjected to be squeezed nearly to death by an iron weight, was not abolished till the year 1771.[2]",
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      "text": "The following letter by Beccaria to the Abbé Morellet in acknowledgment of the latter’s translation of his treatise is perhaps the best introduction to the life and character of the author. The letter in question has been quoted by Villemain in proof of the debt owed by the Italian literature of the last century to that of France, but from the allusions therein contained to Hume and the ‘Spectator’ it is evident that something also was due to our own. Beccaria had spent eight years of his youth in the college of the Jesuits at Parma, with what sense of gratitude this letter will show. The following is a translation of the greater part of it:—",
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      "text": "Your letter has raised in me sentiments of the deepest esteem, of the greatest gratitude, and the most tender friendship; nor can I confess to you how honoured I feel at seeing my work translated into the language of a nation which is the mistress and illuminator of Europe. I owe everything to French books. They first raised in my mind feelings of humanity which had been suffocated by eight years of a fanatical education. I cannot express to you the pleasure with which I have read your translation; you have embellished the original, and your arrangement seems more natural than, and preferable to, my own. You had no need to fear offending the author’s vanity: in the first place, because a book that treats of the cause of humanity belongs, when once published, to the world and all nations equally; and as to myself in particular, I should have made little progress in the philosophy of the heart, which I place above that of the intellect, had I not acquired the courage to see and love the truth. I hope that the fifth edition, which will appear shortly, will be soon exhausted, and I assure you that in the sixth I will follow entirely, or nearly so, the arrangement of your translation, which places the truth in a better light than I have sought to place it in.",
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      "text": "As to the obscurity you find in the work, I heard, as I wrote, the clash of chains that superstition still shakes, and the cries of fanaticism that drown the voice of truth; and the perception of this frightful spectacle induced me sometimes to veil the truth in clouds. I wished to defend truth, without making myself her martyr. This idea of the necessity of obscurity has made me obscure sometimes without necessity. Add to this my inexperience and my want of practice in writing, pardonable in an author of twenty-eight,[3] who only five years ago first set foot in the career of letters.",
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      "text": "D’Alembert, Diderot, Helvetius, Buffon, Hume, illustrious names, which no one can hear without emotion! Your immortal works are my continual study, the object of my occupation by day, of my meditation in the silence of night. Full of the truth which you teach, how could I ever have burned incense to worshipped error, or debased myself to lie to posterity? I find myself rewarded beyond my hopes in the signs of esteem I have received from these celebrated persons, my masters. Convey to each of these, I pray you, my most humble thanks, and assure them that I feel for them that profound and true respect which a feeling soul entertains for truth and virtue.",
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      "text": "My occupation is to cultivate philosophy in peace, and so to satisfy my three strongest passions, the love, that is, of literary fame, the love of liberty, and pity for the ills of mankind, slaves of so many errors. My conversion to philosophy only dates back five years, and I owe it to my perusal of the ‘Lettres Persanes.’ The second work that completed my mental revolution was that of Helvetius. The latter forced me irresistibly into the way of truth, and aroused my attention for the first time to the blindness and miseries of humanity.",
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      "text": "In these ‘Notes and Observations’ Beccaria and his work were assailed with that vigour and lucidity for which the Dominican school of writing has always been so conspicuous. The author was described as ‘a man of narrow mind,’ ‘a madman,’ ‘a stupid impostor,’ ‘full of poisonous bitterness and calumnious mordacity.’ He was accused of writing ‘with sacrilegious imposture against the Inquisition,’ of believing that ‘religion was incompatible with the good government of a state;’ nay, he was condemned ‘by all the reasonable world as the enemy of Christianity, a bad philosopher, and a bad man.’ His book was stigmatised as ‘sprung from the deepest abyss of darkness, horrible, monstrous, full of poison,’ containing ‘miserable arguments,’ ‘insolent blasphemies,’ and so forth.",
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      "text": "This fulmination reached Milan on January 15, 1765, and on the 21st the Risposta, or reply, was ready for publication.[7] This defence was the work of his friends, the Verris, and was published, like the original, anonymously; as it was written in the first person throughout, it was generally at the time and even till lately ascribed to the same author as the original, but the fact is now established beyond doubt that the real authors were Pietro and his brother. The writers wisely refrained from the use of retaliatory language, confining themselves in their defence solely to charges of irreligion and sedition, responding to six which accused Beccaria of the latter, and to twenty-three which declared him guilty of the former.",
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      "text": "But it is probable that Beccaria owed his escape from persecution less to his apology than to the liberal protection of Count Firmian, who in his report of the affair to the Court of Vienna spoke of the Risposta as ‘full of moderation and honourable to the character of its author.’ That the Count fully agreed with Beccaria’s opinions on torture is proved by a letter he wrote, in which he declares himself to have been much pleased with what Beccaria had said on the subject. His vanity, he said, had been flattered by it, for his own feelings about torture had always been the same. The book seemed to him written with much love of humanity and much imagination. Beccaria always acknowledged his gratitude to the Count for his action in this matter. To Morellet he wrote, that he owed the Count his tranquillity, in having protected his book; and when, a few years later, he published his book on Style, he dedicated it to Firmian as his benefactor, thanking him for having scattered the clouds that envy and ignorance had gathered thickly over his head, and for having protected one whose only object had been to declare with the greatest caution and respect the interests of humanity.",
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      "text": "Less dangerous personally than the theological criticism, but more pernicious to reform, was the hostile criticism that at once appeared from the thick phalanx of professional lawyers, the sound-thinking ‘practical men.’ From whom only two short extracts need be rescued from oblivion, as illustrations of the objections once raised against ideas which have since become the common groundwork of all subsequent legislation, in America as well as in Europe. The first extract is from a work on criminal justice by a lawyer of Provence, who in 1770 wrote as follows:—",
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      "text": "The treatise ‘Dei Delitti,’ instead of throwing any light on the subject of crimes, or on the manner in which they should be punished, tends to establish a system of the most dangerous and novel ideas, which, if adopted, would go so far as to overturn laws received hitherto by the greater part of all civilised nations.",
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      "text": "It is not easy in the days of a milder administration of penal laws than a century ago the most sanguine could have dreamed of to do full justice to those who laboured, as Beccaria and his friends did, at the peril of their lives and liberties, for those very immunities which we now enjoy. We cannot conceive that it should ever have been necessary to argue against torture, or that it should have been a bold thing to do so; still less can we conceive that it should ever have had its defenders, or that men should have been contented with the sophism, that it was indeed an evil, but an evil which was necessary and inevitable.",
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      "text": "The very success of Beccaria’s work has so accustomed us to its result that we are apt to regard it, as men regard a splendid cathedral in their native town, with very little recognition of its claims to admiration. The work is there, they see it, they live under its shadow; they are even ready to boast of it; but what to them is the toil and risk of its builders, or the care and thought of its architects? It may be said that this indifference is the very consummation Beccaria would most have desired, as it is the most signal proof of the success of his labour. So signal, indeed, has been that success, that already the atrocities which men in those days accepted as among the unalterable conditions of their existence, or resigned themselves to as the necessary safeguards of society, have become so repulsive to the world’s memory, that men have agreed to hide them from their historical consciousness by seldom reading, writing, or speaking of their existence. And this is surely a fact to be remembered with hopefulness, when we hear an evil like war with all its attendant atrocities, defended nowadays by precisely the same arguments which little more than a hundred years ago were urged on behalf of torture, but which have proved nevertheless insufficient to keep it in existence.",
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      "text": "It may be asked, How far was Beccaria the first to protest against the cruelty and absurdity of torture? To this it must be replied that although actually he was not the first, he was the first to do so with effect. The difference between previous writers on the subject and Beccaria is the difference between a man whose ideas are in advance of those of his age and a man who raises the ideas of his age to a level with his own. So early as the sixteenth century Montaigne, in his ‘Essay on Conscience,’ had said plainly enough that the putting a man to the rack was rather a trial of patience than of truth; that pain was as likely to extort a false confession as a true one; and that a judge, by having a man racked that he might not die innocent, caused him to die both innocent and racked. Also Grevius Clivensis wrote a work whilst in prison in Amsterdam, in which he sought to prove that torture was iniquitous, fallacious, and unchristian.[17] This was published in 1624; and nearly a century later a Jesuit, Spee, wrote against the use of torture, as also against the cruel practices in force against witches.[18] And in later days Montesquieu, twenty years before Beccaria, had gone so far as to say that, since a civilised nation like England had abandoned torture without evil consequences, it was therefore unnecessary; but he followed the subject to no definite conclusion.",
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      "text": "Beccaria himself was ready enough to refer all his thoughts to French inspiration, and to lay aside all claim to originality, with respect to which D’Alembert once wrote to him: ‘A man such as you has no need of a master, still less of a master like myself. You are like the Titus Curtius of Tacitus, _ex se natus_, nor have your offspring any grandparent. A father like yourself is enough for them.’",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00151",
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      "text": "But the honour of having been the first country to lay aside the use of torture undoubtedly belongs to England, just as the honour of having been the first in modern times to abolish capital punishment, except for political offences, belongs to Russia; and the practical example thus afforded by our laws probably did more for the general abolition of the custom than any written treatise on the subject ever would have done alone. English and foreign jurists long delighted to honour the Common Law for its non-recognition of torture. But though torture was contrary to the Common Law, and even to Magna Charta, it was not contrary to Prerogative; and until the Commonwealth it was used as matter of course in all grave accusations at the mere discretion of the monarch and Privy Council.[19] Therefore Beccaria pointed to England as a country which did not use torture with more justice than Grotius had done, who, when the rack was still in use amongst us, quoted England as a proof that people might safely live without torture.",
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      "text": "The country in which the first attempt was made to apply his principles to practice was Russia, where Catharine II. was anxious to establish a uniform penal code, based on the liberal ideas of the time, which then found more favour in St. Petersburg than they did at Paris. For this purpose in 1767 she summoned to Moscow from all the provinces of Russia those 652 deputies who formed the nearest approach in the history of that country to a Russian Parliament. In the instructions that were read to this assembly, as the basis for the proposed codification of the laws, the principles propounded were couched not only in the spirit but often in the very words of the author of the ‘Crimes and Punishments.’ The following are examples:—",
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      "sha256": "4d04be478c68b75429b13c072b184b83c0b9b60a6a0c238aa1cf170358692f6f",
      "text": "Laws should only be considered as a means of conducting mankind to the greatest happiness.",
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      "text": "It is incomparably better to prevent crimes than to punish them.",
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      "text": "The aim of punishment is not to torment sensitive beings.",
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      "text": "All punishment is unjust that is unnecessary to the maintenance of public safety.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00158",
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      "text": "In methods of trial the use of torture is contrary to sound reason. Humanity cries out against the practice and insists on its abolition.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00159",
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      "text": "Judgment must be nothing but the precise text of the law, and the office of the judge is only to pronounce whether the action is contrary or conformable to it.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00160",
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      "text": "In the ordinary state of society the death of a citizen is neither useful nor necessary.",
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      "text": "The following especially is from Beccaria:—",
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    {
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      "text": "Would you prevent crimes, contrive that the laws favour less different orders of citizens than each citizen in particular. Let men fear the laws and nothing but the laws. Would you prevent crimes, provide that reason and knowledge be more and more diffused. To conclude: the surest but most difficult method of making men better is by perfecting education.[20]",
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      "text": "Although these instructions were not so much laws as suggestions of laws, it is obvious what their effect must have been when published and diffused throughout Russia. That they were translated into Latin, German, French, and Italian proves the interest that was taken in Europe by this first attempt to apply the maxims of philosophy to practical government.",
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      "text": "In France Beccaria’s book became widely popular, and many writers helped to propagate his ideas, such as Servan, Brissot, Lacretelle, and Pastoret. Lacretelle attributes the whole impulse of criminal law reform to Beccaria, while regretting that Montesquieu had not said enough to attract general attention to the subject. His book is said to have so changed the spirit of the old French criminal tribunals, that, ten years before the Revolution, they bore no resemblance to their former selves. All the younger magistrates gave their judgments more according to the principles of Beccaria than according to the text of the law.[21] The result of the agitation appeared in the Royal Ordinances of 1780 and 1788, directed to the diminution of torture, the only reforms which preceded the Revolution. It is said that the last time anyone was tortured in France was in the year 1788, the last year of the _ancien régime_. At the very beginning of the Revolution more than a hundred different offences ceased to incur the penalty of death.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00167",
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      "text": "Nor was it only in Europe that Beccaria’s influence thus prevailed, for as soon as the American Colonies had shaken off their English connection they began to reform their penal laws. When the Revolution began there were in Pennsylvania nearly twenty crimes punishable by death, and within eighteen years of its close the penal code was thoroughly transformed, it being ordained in 1794 that no crime should any longer be capital but murder in the first degree. It is true that this was but a return to the principles adopted by Penn on the settlement of the colony, but Penn’s penal code was annulled by Queen Anne, and the English Government insisted on a strict adherence to the charter from Charles II., which enjoined the retention of the Statute and the Common Law of England. When, therefore, the new Constitution was formed in 1776, the arguments of Beccaria gave fresh life to the memories of Penn.[25]",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00168",
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      "text": "Thus before his death Beccaria saw torture almost entirely abolished in Europe, and a general tendency spreading to follow the spirit of the changes he advocated in other details of criminal law. Probably no other theorist ever lived to witness so complete an adoption of his principles in practice, or so thorough a transformation of the system he attacked. It is possible that he but gave body and voice to ideas of change already widely prevalent in his time; but the merit of a man belongs none the less to himself, who changes the instability of public opinion into an active and solid force, and who gives distinct expression to the longings vaguely felt by a multitude.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00169",
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      "text": "But if the interest of Beccaria’s chapter on Torture is now merely historical, an interest that is actual still attaches to his advocacy of the total abolition of capital punishment, this being the cause with which his name is most generally associated, and for which it is likely to be longest remembered. Previous writers, like Montaigne, if they deprecated the excess or severity of the death penalty, never thought of urging that it should be abolished altogether.",
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      "text": "There is an apparent discrepancy in Beccaria’s first condemning death as too severe a punishment and then recommending lifelong servitude as one of more deterrent power; but Beccaria would have said that the greater certainty of the latter more than compensated for the greater severity of the other. As regards the relative power of the two punishments, it probably varies in different individuals, some men having a greater dread of the one, and some of the other. The popular theory certainly goes too far, when it assumes that all men have a greater dread of the gallows than of anything else. When George III. once granted a pardon to the female convicts in Newgate on condition of their transportation to New South Wales, though seventeen of them accepted the offer, there were yet six who preferred death to a removal from their native country. It is also stated by Howard that in Denmark the punishment in cases of infanticide, namely, imprisonment for life, with labour and an annual whipping on the place of the crime, was ‘dreaded more than death,’ which it superseded as a punishment.",
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      "text": "It is, however, probable that the frequency of any crime bears little or no relation to the punishment affixed to it. Every criminal begins a new career, in which he thinks less of the nature of his punishment than of his chances of eluding it. Neither tradition nor example count with him for much in his balance of the chances in his own favour. The law can never be so certain in its execution as it is uncertain in its application, and it is the examples of impunity, not of punishment, to which men turn when they violate the law. So that whether the punishment for murder be an excruciating death, as in ancient Rome, or a mere fine, as in ancient England, the motives for escape are always the same, the means to effect it are always the same, and the belief in his power to effect it is correspondingly powerful in every criminal guilty of homicide.",
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      "text": "Even if we assume that death is absolutely the severest penalty devisable by the law, and that as a punishment for murder it is not too severe, it remains certain, that, relatively to the circumstances of a trial for murder, to the reluctance of judges or juries to pass an irretrievable sentence, to their fear of error, to their conscientious regard for human life, it is really a much less terrible danger for a malefactor to face than a penalty which would justify fewer hopes of impunity.",
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      "text": "Nor are such scruples to convict unreasonable, when we consider the number who on apparently conclusive evidence have been falsely and irrevocably condemned to death. Playgoers who have seen ‘The Lyons Mail’ will remember how barely Lesurques, the Parisian gentleman, escaped punishment for the guilt of Dubosc, the robber and murderer. But the moral of the story is lost in the play, for Lesurques actually was executed for the crime of Dubosc, by reason of the strong resemblance he bore to him, the latter only receiving the due reward for his crimes after the innocent man had died as a common murderer on the scaffold. Then there are cases in which, as in the famous case of Calas, some one having committed suicide, some one else is executed as the murderer. That dead men tell no tales is as true of men hung as of men murdered, and the innocence of an executed man may be proved long afterwards or not at all.",
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      "text": "Where there is no capital punishment, as in Michigan, a man’s innocence may be discovered subsequently to conviction, and justice done to him for the error of the law. Such a case actually happened not long ago in Michigan, where a prisoner’s innocence was clearly proved after ten years’ imprisonment. Where capital punishment exists, there is no such hope; nor is there any remedy if, as in the case of Lewis, who was hung in 1831, another man thirty-three years afterwards confesses himself the murderer. It is impossible to preclude all chances of such errors of justice. Illustrative of this is the story of the church organist near Kieff, who murdered a farmer with a pistol he stole from a priest. After his crime he placed the pistol in the sacristy, and then, when he had prevented the priest from giving evidence against him by the act of confession, went and denounced the priest as the culprit. The priest, in spite of his protestations of innocence, was sentenced to hard labour for life; and when, twenty years afterwards, the organist confessed his guilt on his deathbed, and the priest’s liberation was applied for, it was found that he had died only a few months before.[26]",
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      "text": "That the scruple to convict diminishes the certainty of punishment, and therefore raises hopes of impunity, is illustrated by the case of two American brothers who, desirous to perpetrate a murder, waited till their victim had left their State, in which capital punishment had been abolished, and had betaken himself to a State which still retained it, before they ventured to execute their criminal intention. That such reluctance to convict is often most injurious to the public is proved by the case of a woman at Chelmsford who some years ago was acquitted, in spite of strong evidence, on a charge of poisoning, and who, before her guilt was finally proved, lived to poison several other persons who would otherwise have escaped her arts.[27]",
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      "text": "Such considerations as these will, perhaps, lead some day to the abolition of capital punishment. The final test of all punishment is its efficiency, not its humanity. There is often more inhumanity in a long sentence of penal servitude than in a capital sentence, for the majority of murderers deserve as little mercy as they get. The many offences which have ceased to be capital in English law yielded less to a sense of the inhumanity of the punishment as related to the crime than to the experience that such a punishment led to almost total impunity. The bankers, for instance, who petitioned Parliament to abolish capital punishment for forgery, did so, as they said, because they found by experience that the infliction of death, or the possibility of its infliction, prevented the prosecution, the conviction, and the punishment of the criminal; therefore they begged for ‘that protection for their property which they would derive from a more lenient law.’",
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      "text": "For the same reason it is of little avail to call in question, as Beccaria does, the right of society to inflict death as a punishment. There may be a distinction between the right of society and its might, but it is one of little comfort to the man who incurs its resentment. A man in a dungeon does better to amuse himself with spiders and cobwebs than with reflections on the encroachment of the law upon his liberty, or with theories about the rights of government. Whenever society has ceased to exercise any of its powers against individuals, it has not been from the acceptance of any new doctrine as to its rights, but from more enlightened views as to its real interests, and a cultivated dislike of cruelty and oppression.",
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      "text": "When Beccaria wrote against capital punishment, one great argument against its abolition was its practical universality. It had been abolished in ancient Egypt by king Sabaco,[28] in the best period of the Roman Republics by the Porcian law, and in the time of the Roman Empire by Calo-Johannes.[29] But these cases were too remote from modern times to lend much weight to the general argument. At that time Russia alone of all the countries in the world had, from the accession of the Empress Elizabeth, afforded a practical example of the fact, that the general security of life is not diminished by the withdrawal of the protection of capital punishment. But since that time this truth has become less and less a theory or speculation, and it now rests on the positive experience of no inconsiderable portion of the world. In Tuscany, Holland, Portugal, Russia, Roumania, Saxony, Prussia, Belgium, and in ten of the United States of America, the death penalty has either been abolished or discontinued; and can it be thought that the people of those countries are so indifferent to the safety of their lives as to be content with a less efficient legal protection than is vouchsafed in countries where the protection is death?",
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      "text": "The opponents of capital punishment may fairly, therefore, draw an argument in their favour from the fact that so many parts of the world have found it not incompatible with the general security of life to erase the death penalty from their list of deterrent agencies. It is better to rely on so plain a fact than on statistics which, like two-edged weapons, often cut both ways. The frequency of executions in one country and their total absence in another may severally coexist with great numerical equality in the number of murders committed in each. It is always better, therefore, to look for some other cause for a given number of murders than the kind of punishment directed to their repression. They may depend on a thousand other things, which it is difficult to ascertain or eliminate. Thus both in Bavaria, where capital punishment has been retained, and in Switzerland, where it had been abolished in 1874, murders have increased greatly in recent years; and this fact has, with great probability, been attributed to the influence of bad habits contracted during the Franco-German war.",
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      "text": "Capital punishment being less general in the world now than torture was when Beccaria wrote, it seems to be a fair logical inference that it is already far advanced towards its total disappearance. For the same argument which Voltaire applied in the case of torture cannot fail sooner or later to be applied to capital punishment. ‘If,’ he says, ‘there were but one nation in the world which had abolished the use of torture; and if in that nation crimes were no more frequent than in others, … its example would be surely sufficient for the rest of the world. England alone might instruct all other nations in this particular; but England is not the only nation. Torture has been abolished in other countries, and with success; the question, therefore, is decided.’ If in this argument we read capital punishment instead of torture, murders instead of crimes, and Portugal instead of England, we shall best appreciate that which is after all the strongest argument against capital punishment, namely, that it has been proved unnecessary for its professed object in so many countries that it might safely be relinquished in all.",
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      "text": "Even the idea of public utility as the final test and standard of morality is derived from Beccaria, and the famous expression, ‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number,’ occurs, in capital letters, in the very first page of the ‘Delitti e delle Pene.’[30] Bentham himself fully acknowledged this. ‘Priestley was the first,’ he says, ‘unless it was Beccaria, who taught my lips to pronounce this sacred truth: that the greatest happiness of the greatest number is the foundation of morals and happiness.’ And with reference to his idea of the measurable value of different pains and pleasures, he says: ‘It was from Beccaria’s little treatise on Crimes and Punishments that I drew, as I well remember, the first hint of this principle, by which the precision and clearness and incontestableness of mathematical calculations are introduced for the first time into the field of morals.’",
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      "text": "English philosophy and legislation, therefore, owe enough to Beccaria for his treatise never to be forgotten among us. Standing, as it does, in reference to law as Bacon’s ‘Novum Organon’ to science, or Descartes’ ‘Principia’ to philosophy, and representing a return to first principles and rejection of mere precedent in the matter of penal laws, it will never fail to gratify those who, with little admiration for law in the concrete, can yet find pleasure in studying it in the abstract. Most men will turn readily from a system built up, as our own is, of unintelligible distinctions, and based on authority rather than on experience, to a system where no distinctions exist save those which are derived from the nature of things and are founded on the real differences that distinguish the moral actions of mankind.",
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      "text": "The first trace of Beccaria’s influence in England appeared in the first edition of Blackstone’s Commentaries, of which the book on the Criminal Laws was published the very next year after the appearance of the Italian treatise. That Blackstone was well acquainted with it is proved by his frequent reference to it in treating of crimes. From Beccaria he argues that the certainty of punishments is more effectual than their severity, and finds it absurd to apply the same punishment to crimes of different malignity. Blackstone was also the first professional lawyer to find fault with the frequency of capital punishment in England, and to point out as ‘a melancholy truth’ the presence of 160 actions in the statute book which were felonies without benefit of clergy.",
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      "text": "But there was one great fallacy, pervading our whole criminal law, which Blackstone left undetected and untouched. This was, that the severity of punishment must be augmented in proportion to the increase of temptation, and that the measure of the guilt of a crime lay in the facility with which it might be committed. ‘Among crimes of an equal malignity,’ says Blackstone, ‘those [deserve most punishment, as most injurious] which a man has the most frequent and easy opportunities of committing, which cannot so easily be guarded against as others, and which, therefore, the offender has the strongest inducement to commit.’ And on this principle he finds it reasonable, that, while the theft of a pocket-handkerchief should be a capital crime, the theft of a load of hay should only involve transportation.",
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      "text": "There was not an anomaly in our old criminal practice which was not based on this theory—a theory which had, indeed, its precedent in the old Hebrew law that punished more severely a theft from a field than a theft from a house; and the first writer who protested against it was Eden, afterwards Lord Auckland, who in 1771 published his ‘Principles of Penal Law,’ one of the best books ever written on the subject. The influence of Beccaria is apparent in Eden’s work, not only by his direct reference to it, but by his spirit of declared opposition to the actual practice of the law. Two instances of its tendency will suffice. ‘Imprisonment, inflicted by law as a punishment, is not according to the principles of wise legislation. It sinks useful subjects into burthens on the community, and has always a bad effect on their morals; nor can it communicate the benefit of example, being in its nature secluded from the eye of the people.’ And again: ‘Whatever exceeds simple death is mere cruelty. Every step beyond is a trace of ancient barbarity, tending only to distract the attention of the spectators and to lessen the solemnity of the example. There is no such thing as vindictive justice; the idea is shocking.’",
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      "text": "Romilly also injured his cause by a pamphlet on the criminal law, in which he criticised severely the doctrines of Paley. So strongly was this resented, that in 1810 his bill to abolish capital punishment for stealing forty shillings from a dwelling-house did not even pass the Commons, being generally opposed, as it was by Windham, because the maintenance of Paley’s reputation was regarded as a great object of national concern.[37] That is to say, men voted not so much against the bill as against the author of a heresy against Paley.",
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      "text": "In those days to steal five shillings’ worth of goods from a shop was a capital offence, and Paley had explained the philosophy of the punishment. It would be tedious to follow the course of Romilly’s bill against this law, called the Shoplifting Act, through the details of its history. Suffice it to say that it passed the Commons in 1810, 1811, 1813, 1816, but was regularly thrown out by the Lords, and only definitely became law many years later. But though the debates on the subject no longer possess the vivid interest that once belonged to them, and are best left to the oblivion that enshrouds them, it is instructive to take just one sample of the eloquence and arguments, that once led Lords and Bishops captive and expressed the highest legal wisdom obtainable in England.",
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      "text": "Lord Ellenborough, on the last day but one of May 1810, appealed to their lordships to pause, before they passed the Shoplifting Bill and gave their assent to the repeal of a law which had so long been held necessary for the security of the public. No one, he insisted, was more disposed than himself to the exercise of clemency, but there was not the slightest ground for the insinuations of cruelty that had been cast on the administration of the law. If shoplifting did not require the penalty of death, the same rule would have to apply to horse- and sheep-stealing; and, in spite of all that was said in favour of this speculative humanity, they must all agree, that prevention of crime should be the chief object of the law, and that terror alone could prevent the crime in question. Those who were thus speculating in modern legislation urged that punishment should be certain and proportionate; but he could satisfy the House that any attempt to apply a punishment in exact conformity to the offence would be perfectly ludicrous. He had consulted with the other judges, and they were _unanimously of opinion_ that it would not be expedient to remit this part of the severity of the criminal law.[38] He therefore entreated them to pause.",
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      "text": "Need it be said that the House of Lords paused, as they were entreated to do, and that they paused and paused again, in a manner more suggestive of the full stop than the comma, generally out of deference to the same authority? Romilly was indignant that so many prelates voted against his bills; but could they have done otherwise, when the best legal authorities in England urged that it would be fatal to vote for them?—when they were gravely told that if a certain bill passed, they would not know whether they stood on their heads or on their feet?",
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      "text": "Lord Ellenborough was so hard upon ‘speculative humanity,’ as opposed to real practical common sense, that the speculative school are never likely to forget him. But they owe too much to him not to forgive him; since he is the standing proof, that in matters of the general policy of the law professional opinion is a less trustworthy guide than popular sentiment, and that in questions of law reform it is best to neglect the fossil-wisdom of forgotten judges, and to seek the opinion of Jones round the corner as readily as that of Jones upon the Bench.",
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      "text": "It would appear at first sight that there could be little to say about crimes and punishments, so obvious and self-evident seem the relations that exist between them. Many people still believe in an innate sense of justice in mankind, sufficient always to prevent wide aberrations from equity. Is it, they might ask, conceivable that men should ever lose sight of the distinction between the punishment of guilt and the punishment of innocence?—that they should ever punish one equally with the other? Yet there is no country in the world which in its past or present history has not involved the relations of a criminal in the punishment inflicted on him; and in savage countries generally it is still common to satisfy justice with vengeance on some blood-relation of a malefactor who escapes from the punishment due to his crime.",
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      "text": "It would also seem to demand no great insight to perceive that a voluntary intention must be a universal attribute of a criminal action. No one would think of punishing a man who in his sleep killed another, although, if the injury to society be the measure of punishment, his crime is equivalent to intentional homicide. Yet at Athens an involuntary murderer was banished until he could, give satisfaction to the relatives of the deceased; and in China, though the penal code generally separates intentional from accidental crimes, anyone who kills a near relation by accident or commits certain kinds of arson by accident undergoes different degrees of banishment and a fixed number of bamboo strokes.[40]",
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      "text": "Even inanimate objects or animals it has been thought through many ages reasonable to punish. In Athens an axe or stone that killed anyone by accident was cast beyond the border; and the English law was only repealed in the present reign which made a cartwheel, a tree, or a beast, that killed a man, forfeit to the State for the benefit of the poor. The Jewish law condemned an ox that gored anyone to death to be stoned, just as it condemned the human murderer. And in the middle ages pigs, horses, or oxen were not only tried judicially like men, with counsel on either side and witnesses, but they were hung on gallows like men, for the better deterrence of their kind in future.[41]",
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      "text": "These customs had doubtless their defenders, and left the world not without a struggle. It must have cost some one, whosoever first questioned the wisdom of hanging animals or murdering a criminal’s relations, as much ridicule as it cost Beccaria to question the efficacy of torture or the right of capital punishment. But the boldness of thought in that unknown reformer was probably lost sight of in the arrogance of his profanity, and he doubtless paid with his own neck for his folly in defending the pig’s.",
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      "text": "It may be said that all such absurdities are past; that the Jews, the Athenians, the Chinese, the Europeans of the middle ages can scarcely be cited as reasonable beings; that they had no rational theory of punishment, and that their errors have been long since discarded. But at least their example suggests that even in our own system there may be inconsistencies and blemishes which custom and authority hide from our eyes.",
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      "text": "But at least, it will be thought, we have by this time arrived at some principles about punishment which correspond with the eternal truths of equity. Is not Equality, for instance, one of the primary essentials of punishment? Does it not stand as a penal axiom with almost the sanction of a moral law that all men should suffer equally for equal crimes? Yet, if by equality be meant the same punishment, the same kind of labour, the same term of servitude, the same pecuniary fine—and this is the only thing it can mean—what more obvious than that the same punishment for rich and poor, for young and old, for strong and weak, for men and women, for educated and uneducated, will bring to the constitution of a penal code the utmost inequality the imagination can conceive? Beccaria insists that the law can do no more than assign the same extrinsic punishment to the same crime; that is, the same punishment, regardless of all other external considerations; and he calls for the infliction of the same punishment on the nobleman as on the commoner. Let it be so; but the same punishment is no longer an equal one; and hence from this very demand for equality springs the demand for its very opposite, for what Bentham calls the _equability_ of punishment; that is, consideration for the different circumstances of individual criminals. So that the same nominal punishment not being the same real one, equality of punishment appears to be a chimera, and the law, which punishes, say, a distinguished officer less severely than it punishes a costermonger for the same crime, errs perhaps really less from actual equality than if it condemned both to precisely the same punishment.",
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      "text": "Again, Proportion between crime and punishment seems to be another natural demand of equity. Yet it is evident that it is only approximately possible, and will vary in every age and country according to the prevalent notions of morality. Is imprisonment for a year, or imprisonment for life, or for how long, a fair and proportionate punishment for perjury? Who shall decide? Shall we submit it to the opinion of the judges? But has not Romilly left on record the story of the two men tried by two different judges for stealing some chickens, who were sentenced respectively one to imprisonment for two months, and the other to transportation? Shall we then give up all attempt at proportion and apply the same deterrent as equally efficacious against slight or grave offences? Draco, when asked why he made death the punishment for most offences that were possible, is said to have replied, ‘Small ones deserve it, and I can find no greater for the gravest.’ The same reasoning was for a long time that of our own law; and in Japan, where every wrong act was one of disobedience to the Emperor, and accordingly of equal value, the same penalty of death for gambling, theft, or murder, obviated all difficulties with regard to a proportion which is easier to imagine than it is to define.",
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      "text": "Analogy between crime and punishment is another idea which, except in the case of death for death, has been relegated from the practice of most criminal laws. Yet the principle has in its favour the authority of Moses, the authority of the whole world and of all time, that punishment should, if possible, resemble the crime it punishes in kind; so that a man who blinds another should be blinded himself, he who disfigures another be disfigured himself. Thus in the old-world mythology, Theseus and Hercules inflict on the evil powers they conquer the same cruelties their victims were famous for; Termenus having his skull broken because with his own skull he broke the heads of others; and Busiris, who sacrificed others, being himself sacrificed in his turn. Both Montesquieu and Beccaria also advocate analogy in punishment, and so does Bentham to some degree; there being, indeed, few greater contrasts between the theories of the great English jurist and modern English practice than that the former should not have deprecated some suffering by burning as a penalty analogous to the crime of arson, and that he should have advised the transfixing of a forger’s hand or of a calumniator’s tongue by an iron instrument before the public gaze as good and efficient punishments for forgery and slander.",
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      "text": "These are some of the difficulties of the subject, which teach us the necessity of constant open-mindedness with regard to all ideas or practices connected with criminal law. But, would we further examine our established notions, we should consider a statement from Hobbes which goes to the very root of the theory of punishment.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00239",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 122561,
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      "text": "‘In revenges or punishments,’ says Hobbes, ‘men ought not to look at the greatness of the evil past, but the greatness of the good to follow, whereby we are forbidden to inflict punishment with any other design than for the correction of the offender and the admonition of others.’ And over and over again the same thing has been said, till it has come to be a commonplace in the philosophy of law, that the object of punishment is to reform and deter. As was once said by a great legal authority, ‘We do not hang you because you stole a horse, but that horses may not be stolen.’[42] Punishment by this theory is a means to an end, not an end in itself.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00375",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 182165,
      "end": 182176,
      "sha256": "adeb063bf61cbdfa95d193e3e2e3c1d192dd0e7463667cb2d7b30a3b60e72b1a",
      "text": "CHAPTER II.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00376",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 182180,
      "end": 182232,
      "sha256": "9fe7725a357ed56e59f1d52cef4ffaa6167a60a90d52404fe378cd41de6a3364",
      "text": "THE ORIGIN OF PUNISHMENTS—THE RIGHT OF PUNISHMENT.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00377",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 182238,
      "end": 182605,
      "sha256": "d839d9cc5e75f6f984083c7c7ff1b7690f8261c479286326c83fd68711fb9ed4",
      "text": "From political morality, unless founded on the immutable sentiments of mankind, no lasting advantage can be hoped. Whatever law deviates from these sentiments will encounter a resistance which will ultimately prevail over it, just in the same way as a force, however slight, if constantly applied, will prevail over a violent motion applied to any physical body.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00378",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 182609,
      "end": 182745,
      "sha256": "c42981898248c9b172eb92bd0b248a86f60fc521cce2a8cc79679160cd44f001",
      "text": "If we consult the human heart we shall therein discover the fundamental principles of the real right of the sovereign to punish crimes.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00379",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 182749,
      "end": 183099,
      "sha256": "8e3445a0265b41ec2be818051e1e83195c614afe85556333274c34156da87128",
      "text": "No man has gratuitously parted with a portion of his own liberty with a view to the public good; that is a chimera which only exists in romances. Each one of us would wish, if it were possible, that the covenants which bind others should not bind himself. There is no man but makes himself the central object of all the combinations of the globe.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00380",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 183103,
      "end": 183484,
      "sha256": "e4833a26cc23f1a7f354080666a64986fe6b1a0aebce43927f96397ed09fee6a",
      "text": "The multiplication of the human race, slight in the abstract, but far in excess of the means afforded by nature, barren and deserted as it originally was, for the satisfaction of men’s ever increasing wants, caused the first savages to associate together. The first unions necessarily led to others to oppose them, and so the state of war passed from individuals to nations.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00381",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 183488,
      "end": 185180,
      "sha256": "3124a6bb52a24f72547acc87b1a62b3a125896f8aa6c1f632581462a76b22bba",
      "text": "Laws are the conditions under which men, leading independent and isolated lives, joined together in society, when tired of living in a perpetual state of war, and of enjoying a liberty which the uncertainty of its tenure rendered useless. Of this liberty they voluntarily sacrificed a part, in order to enjoy the remainder in security and quiet. The sum-total of all these portions of liberty, sacrificed for the good of each individually, constitutes the sovereignty of a nation, and the sovereign is the lawful trustee and administrator of these portions. But, besides forming this trust-fund, or deposit, it was necessary to protect it from the encroachments of individuals, whose aim it ever is not only to recover from the fund their own deposit, but to avail themselves of that contributed by others. ‘Sensible motives,’ were therefore wanted to divert the despotic will of the individual from re-plunging into their primitive chaos the laws of society. Such motives were found in punishments, established against transgressors of the laws; and I call them _sensible_ motives, because experience has shown that the majority of men adopt no fixed rules of conduct, nor avoid that universal principle of dissolution, observable alike in the moral as in the physical world, save by reason of motives which directly strike the senses and constantly present themselves to the mind, counterbalancing the strong impressions of private passions, opposed as they are to the general welfare; not eloquence, nor declamations, nor the most sublime truths have ever sufficed to curb the passions for any length of time, when excited by the lively force of present objects.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00382",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 185184,
      "end": 185894,
      "sha256": "ef3223dae112aa26cde3a54db64760c8da48c3950a7b110235eabca0f63ce7b5",
      "text": "As it, then, was necessity which constrained men to yield a part of their individual liberty, it is certain that each would only place in the general deposit the least possible portion—only so much, that is, as would suffice to induce others to defend it. The aggregate of these least possible portions constitutes the right of punishment; all that is beyond this is an abuse and not justice, a fact but not a right.[64] Punishments which exceed what is necessary to preserve the deposit of the public safety are in their nature unjust; and the more just punishments are, the more sacred and inviolable is personal security, and the greater the liberty that the sovereign preserves for his subjects.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00383",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 185904,
      "end": 185916,
      "sha256": "d3df84af596edc11e1a38f5bc43e79309a2cf2046b4ea9a136982d1df2cc932f",
      "text": "CHAPTER III.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00384",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 185920,
      "end": 185933,
      "sha256": "ce488c64d89510a311671055794022c87a43cfb72a38ed7e0571e888707337ef",
      "text": "CONSEQUENCES.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00385",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 185939,
      "end": 186511,
      "sha256": "cd102e8e23b8ba27b714c85e53ea244e28426721fb9f7b1e8de7a4034eec987d",
      "text": "The first consequence of these principles is, that the laws alone can decree punishments for crimes, and this authority can only rest with the legislator, who represents collective society as united by a social contract. No magistrate (who is part of society) can justly inflict punishments upon another member of the same society. But since a punishment that exceeds the legally fixed limit is the lawful punishment _plus_ another one, a magistrate can, under no pretext of zeal or the public good, add to the penalty already decreed against a delinquent citizen.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00386",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 186515,
      "end": 187125,
      "sha256": "059f2e08e805613be8b0e98be86b01fc0eb9b27b388089598c1e27417a77588e",
      "text": "The second consequence is, that the sovereign, who represents society itself, can only form general laws, obligatory on all; he cannot judge whether any one in particular has broken the social compact, for in that case the nation would be divided into two parties, one represented by the sovereign, asserting the violation of such contract; the other by the accused, denying the same. Hence the necessity of a third person to judge of the fact; in other words, of a magistrate, whose decisions shall simply consist of affirmations or denials of particular facts, and shall also be subject to no appeal.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00387",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 187129,
      "end": 187662,
      "sha256": "e8102498e4e590cd27f3dcddc4765d9d228c48aa87638be93082862c4ea21db1",
      "text": "The third consequence is this: if it were proved that the severity of punishments were simply useless (to say nothing of being directly opposed to the public good and to the very object of preventing crimes), even in that case it would be contrary not only to those beneficent virtues that flow from an enlightened reason, which prefers to rule over happy human beings than over a flock of slaves, the constant victims of timid cruelty, but it would be also contrary to justice and to the nature of the social contract itself.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00388",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 187672,
      "end": 187683,
      "sha256": "c28f6383985bb603a3dd5cf26aec69b3ca42692038c66e7fbd27bd1aa351e8c6",
      "text": "CHAPTER IV.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00389",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 187687,
      "end": 187714,
      "sha256": "00d6ab50d46461e26ab4650b4f0caec1b54f4fbb3e2470f6e4fab455a6f783b9",
      "text": "INTERPRETATION OF THE LAWS.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00390",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 187720,
      "end": 188710,
      "sha256": "b4efbcd18627453f13c0bb406b5d60010af5db9b886c08bee3a3e64f6b91f6af",
      "text": "There is also a fourth consequence of the above principles: that the right to interpret penal laws cannot possibly rest with the criminal judges, for the very reason that they are not legislators. The judges have not received the laws from our ancestors as a family tradition, as a legacy that only left to posterity the duty of obeying them, but they receive them from living society, or from the sovereign that represents it and is the lawful trustee of the actual result of men’s collective wills; they receive them, not as obligations arising from an ancient oath[65] (null, because it bound wills not then in existence, and iniquitous, because it reduced men from a state of society to that of a flock), but as the result of the tacit or expressed oath made to the sovereign by the united wills of living subjects, as chains necessary for curbing and regulating the disorders caused by private interests. This is the natural and real source of the authority of the laws.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00391",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 188714,
      "end": 188955,
      "sha256": "b6492dea2acbfc4cdf7f3e080c4604ff257819b9c86ac89d630a334c14b31cb1",
      "text": "Who, then, will be the rightful interpreter of the laws? Will it be the sovereign, the trustee of the actual wills of all, or the judge, whose sole function it is to examine whether such and such a man has committed an illegal act or not?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00392",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 188959,
      "end": 189384,
      "sha256": "601d9f60e3fe6c8b5b4f7514113935ff067cdcdd3c75f7005d27914392db808e",
      "text": "In every criminal case a judge ought to form a complete syllogistic deduction, in which the statement of the general law constitutes the _major premiss_; the conformity or non-conformity of a particular action with the law, the _minor premiss_; and acquittal or punishment, the conclusion. When a judge is obliged, or of his own accord wishes, to make even no more than two syllogisms, the door is opened to uncertainty.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00393",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 189388,
      "end": 191032,
      "sha256": "776e33afeef3d6046a7880c010f4685b35c719dd1cfb2c202724d48de7679ef3",
      "text": "Nothing is more dangerous than that common axiom, ‘We must consult the spirit of the laws.’ It is like breaking down a dam before the torrent of opinions. This truth, which seems a paradox to ordinary minds, more struck as they are by a little present inconvenience than by the pernicious but remote consequences which flow from a false principle enrooted among a people, seems to me to be demonstrated. Our knowledge and all our ideas are reciprocally connected together; and the more complicated they are, the more numerous are the approaches to them, and the points of departure. Every man has his own point of view—a different one at different times; so that ‘the spirit of the laws’ would mean the result of good or bad logic on the part of a judge, of an easy or difficult digestion; it would depend now on the violence of his passions, now on the feebleness of the sufferer, on the relationship between the judge and the plaintiff, or on all those minute forces which change the appearances of everything in the fluctuating mind of man. Hence it is that we see a citizen’s fate change several times in his passage from one court to another; that we see the lives of wretches at the mercy of the false reasonings or of the temporary caprice of a judge, who takes as his rightful canon of interpretation the vague result of all that confused series of notions which affect his mind. Hence it is that we see the same crimes punished differently by the same court at different times, owing to its having consulted, not the constant and fixed voice of the laws, but their unstable and erring interpretations.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00394",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 191036,
      "end": 193180,
      "sha256": "dedfd972468fcf3800918e215cd4a75ae295085384e9267ef8903dfcc8047b7d",
      "text": "No inconvenience that may arise from a strict observance of the letter of penal laws is to be compared with the inconveniences of subjecting them to interpretation. The momentary inconvenience in the former case involves, indeed, correcting the words of the law which are the cause of the uncertainty, a task both easy and necessary; but the fatal licence of arguing, the source of so many arbitrary and venal disputes, is thereby prevented. When a fixed code of laws, which must be observed to the letter, leaves to the judge no further trouble than to inquire into the actions of citizens and to decide on their conformity to the written law; when the standard of just and unjust, which should equally direct the actions of the ignorant citizen as of the philosophical one, is not a matter of controversy but of fact; then are people no longer subject to the petty tyrannies of many men, which are all the more cruel by reason of the smaller distance that separates the sufferer from the inflictor of suffering, and which are more pernicious than the tyrannies of a single man, inasmuch as the despotism of many is only curable by that of one, and a despot’s cruelty is proportioned, not to the power he possesses, but to the obstacles he encounters. Under a fixed code of laws citizens acquire that consciousness of personal security, which is just, because it is the object of social existence, and which is useful, because it enables them to calculate exactly the evil consequences of a misdeed. It is true they will also acquire a spirit of independence, but not such a spirit as will seek to shake the laws and prove rebellious against the chief magistrates, except against such of them as have dared to apply the sacred name of virtue to a spiritless submission to their own self-interested and capricious opinions. These principles will displease those who have assumed the right to transfer to their subordinates the strokes of tyranny they themselves have suffered from their superiors. I personally should have everything to fear, if the spirit of tyranny and the spirit of reading ever went together.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00395",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 193190,
      "end": 193200,
      "sha256": "e3daf2d4156a0b23cfc3a5f2ca9503220e1314d703750b217a5dda58a3597ed8",
      "text": "CHAPTER V.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00398",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 193798,
      "end": 194231,
      "sha256": "0221bebcde37ea2e7d8333b56c3e993336c3cf622f8268b3e912b74685d1faa8",
      "text": "The greater the number of those who understand and have in their hands the sacred code of the laws, the fewer will be the crimes committed; for it is beyond all doubt that ignorance and uncertainty of punishments lend assistance to the eloquence of the passions. Yet what shall we think of mankind, when we reflect, that such a condition of the laws is the inveterate custom of a large part of cultivated and enlightened Europe?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00399",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 194235,
      "end": 194868,
      "sha256": "d7924c18528bcd95d325e52c6995962b3e641b3a0d67327b8ab99eadbd8acaf2",
      "text": "One consequence of these last reflections is, that without writing no society will ever assume a fixed form of government, wherein the power shall belong to the social whole, and not to its parts, and wherein the laws, only alterable by the general will, shall not suffer corruption in their passage through the crowd of private interests. Experience and reason have taught us, that the probability and certainty of human traditions diminish in proportion to their distance from their source. So that if there be no standing memorial of the social contract, how will laws ever resist the inevitable force of time and passion?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00400",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 194872,
      "end": 196173,
      "sha256": "abab5ecf246d6f423222561a28e78d907e206e5ad4d74546ef33ec7780faa962",
      "text": "From this we see how useful is the art of printing, which makes the public, and not a few individuals, the guardians of the sacred laws, and which has scattered that dark spirit of cabal and intrigue, destined to disappear before knowledge and the sciences, which, however apparently despised, are in reality feared by those that follow in their wake. This is the reason that we see in Europe the diminution of those atrocious crimes that afflicted our ancestors and rendered them by turns tyrants or slaves. Whoever knows the history of two or three centuries ago and of our own, can see that from the lap of luxury and effeminacy have sprung the most pleasing of all human virtues, humanity, charity, and the toleration of human errors; he will know what have been the results of that which is so wrongly called ‘old-fashioned simplicity and honesty.’ Humanity groaning under implacable superstition; the avarice and ambition of a few dyeing with human blood the golden chests and thrones of kings; secret assassinations and public massacres; every noble a tyrant to the people; the ministers of the Gospel truth polluting with blood hands that every day came in contact with the God of mercy—these are not the works of this enlightened age, which some, however, call corrupt.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00401",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 196183,
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      "sha256": "21b2684012bd9e7216d99aa81e3891b6fe162134bfe0e7fd50752e8c4e4dc93c",
      "text": "CHAPTER VI.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00402",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 196198,
      "end": 196211,
      "sha256": "f7d878afe72e74a35e75a6f3bfa8b9b29c9ea263723ba75b35e859bebdc9b483",
      "text": "IMPRISONMENT.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00403",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 196217,
      "end": 197887,
      "sha256": "53bef229a6def7cd80e8d6e6d53c919c34a060de500af43e9bc40f8a300e0884",
      "text": "An error, not less common than it is contrary to the object of society—that is, to the consciousness of personal security—is leaving a magistrate to be the arbitrary executor of the laws, free at his pleasure to imprison a citizen, to deprive a personal enemy of his liberty on frivolous pretexts, or to leave a friend unpunished in spite of the strongest proofs of his guilt. Imprisonment is a punishment which, unlike every other, must of necessity precede the declaration of guilt; but this distinctive character does not deprive it of the other essential of punishment, namely, that the law alone shall determine the cases under which it shall be merited. It is for the law, therefore, to point out the amount of evidence of a crime which shall justify the detention of the accused, and his subjection to examination and punishment. For such detention there may be sufficient proofs in common report, in a man’s flight, in a non-judicial confession, or in the confession of an accomplice; in a man’s threats against or constant enmity with the person injured; in all the facts of the crime, and similar indications. But these proofs should be determined by the laws, not by the judges, whose decisions, when they are not particular applications of a general maxim in a public code, are always adverse to political liberty. The more that punishments are mitigated, that misery and hunger are banished from prisons, that pity and mercy are admitted within their iron doors, and are set above the inexorable and hardened ministers of justice, the slighter will be the evidences of guilt requisite for the legal detention of the suspected.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00404",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 197891,
      "end": 199467,
      "sha256": "9d40fa184420209918757e47c38b96317f8011c1ebc162d4eec4cf6956752ed0",
      "text": "A man accused of a crime, imprisoned and acquitted, ought to bear no mark of disgrace. How many Romans, accused of the gravest crimes and then found innocent, were reverenced by the people and honoured with magisterial positions! For what reason, then, is the lot of a man innocently accused so different in our own times? Because, in the criminal system now in vogue, the idea of force and might is stronger in men’s minds than the idea of justice; because accused and convicted are thrown in confusion into the same dungeon; because imprisonment is rather a man’s punishment than his mere custody; and because the two forces which should be united are separated from one another, namely, the internal force, which protects the laws, and the external force, which defends the throne and the nation. Were they united, the former, through the common sanction of the laws, would possess in addition a judicial capacity, although independent of that possessed by the supreme judicial power; and the glory that accompanies the pomp and ceremony of a military body would remove the infamy, which, like all popular sentiments, is more attached to the manner than the thing, as is proved by the fact that military prisons are not regarded in public estimation as so disgraceful as civil ones. There still remain among our people, in their customs and in their laws (always a hundred years, in point of merit, in arrear of the actual enlightenment of a nation), there still remain, I say, the savage impressions and fierce ideas of our ancestors of the North.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00405",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 199477,
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      "sha256": "9630c85d4bbcdbc0f40a403fa5d32dcf428c5c8f279f637edae140a42f951d65",
      "text": "CHAPTER VII.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00406",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 199493,
      "end": 199522,
      "sha256": "492ac6c301d751f03210eaebe5014a0e4803cbdc51c949ba2f47d0d5000bbbba",
      "text": "PROOFS AND FORMS OF JUDGMENT.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00407",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 199528,
      "end": 199693,
      "sha256": "c4e351f00820d8c2f56834f00f5f007f988383b1614a286e6513ac67ee7199a7",
      "text": "There is a general theorem which is most useful for calculating the certainty of a fact, as, for instance, the force of the proofs in the case of a given crime:—",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00408",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "1. When the proofs of a fact are dependent one on another—that is to say, when each single proof rests on the weight of some other—then the more numerous the proofs are, the smaller is the probability of the fact in question, because the chances of error in the preliminary proofs would increase the probability of error in the succeeding ones.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00409",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 200053,
      "end": 200299,
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      "text": "2. When the proofs of a fact all depend equally on a single one, their number neither increases nor diminishes the probability of the fact in question, because their total value resolves itself into that of the single one on which they depend.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00410",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 200303,
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      "text": "3. When the proofs are independent of each other—that is to say, when they do not derive their value one from the other—then the more numerous the proofs adduced, the greater is the probability of the fact in question, because the falsity of one proof affects in no way the force of another.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00411",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 200606,
      "end": 204452,
      "sha256": "f886d73ce7672d4285af3b7627e6352b55407b9d8f07ee0589b39ca689cbc0eb",
      "text": "I speak of probability in connection with crimes, which, to deserve punishment, ought to be proved. But the paradox is only apparent, if one reflects that, strictly speaking, moral certainty is only a probability, but a probability which is called certainty, because every sensible person necessarily assents to it, by a force of habit which arises from the necessity of acting, and which is prior to all speculation. The certainty requisite for certifying that a man is a criminal is, therefore, the same that determines everyone in the most important actions of his life. The proofs of a crime may be divided into ‘perfect’ and ‘imperfect,’ the former being of such a nature as exclude the possibility of a man’s innocence, and the latter such as fall short of this certainty. Of the first kind one proof alone is sufficient for condemnation; of the second, or imperfect kind, as many are necessary as suffice to make a single perfect proof; that is to say, when, though each proof taken separately does not exclude the possibility of innocence, yet their convergence on the same point makes such innocence impossible. But let it be noted that imperfect proofs, from which an accused has it in his power to justify himself and declines to do so, become perfect. This moral certainty of proofs, however, is easier to feel than to define with exactitude: for which reason I think that the best law is one which attaches to the chief judge assessors, taken by lot, not by selection, there being in this case more safety in the ignorance which judges by sentiment than in the knowledge which judges by opinion. Where the laws are clear and precise, the function of a judge consists solely in the certification of fact. If for searching out the proofs of a crime ability and cleverness are required, and if in the presentation of the result clearness and precision are essential, all that is required to judge of the result is simple and common good sense, a faculty which is less fallacious than the learning of a judge, accustomed as he is to wish to find men guilty and to reduce everything to an artificial system borrowed from his studies. Happy the nation where the laws are not a science! It is a most useful law that everyone shall be judged by his equals, because where a citizen’s liberty and fortune are at stake those sentiments which inequality inspires should have no voice; that feeling of superiority with which the prosperous man regards the unfortunate one, and that feeling of dislike with which an inferior regards his superior, have no scope in a judgment by one’s equals. But when the crime in question is an offence against a person of a different rank from the accused, then one half of the judges should be the equals of the accused, the other half equals of the plaintiff, that so, every private interest being balanced, by which the appearances of things are involuntarily modified, only the voice of the laws and of truth may be heard. It is also in accordance with justice that an accused person should have power up to a certain point of refusing judges whom he may suspect; and if he is allowed the exercise of this power for some time without opposition, he will seem to condemn himself. Verdicts should be public, and the proofs of guilt public, in order that opinion—which is, perhaps, the only bond of society there is—may place a check on outbursts of force and passion, and that the people may say, ‘We are not slaves without defence’: a feeling which both inspires them with courage and is as good as a tribute to a sovereign who understands his real interest. I refrain from pointing out other details and precautions which require similar regulations. I should have said nothing at all, had it been necessary for me to say everything.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00412",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "CHAPTER VIII.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00413",
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      "text": "WITNESSES.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00414",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "It is a great point in every good system of laws to determine exactly the credibility of witnesses and the proofs of guilt Every reasonable man—that is, every man with a certain connection between his ideas and with feelings like those of other men—is capable of bearing witness. The true measure of his credibility is only the interest he has in speaking or in not speaking the truth; so that nothing can be more frivolous than to reject the evidence of women on the pretext of their feebleness, nothing more childish than to apply the results of real death to civil death as regards the testimony of the condemned, nothing more unmeaning than to insist on the mark of infamy in the infamous when they have no interest in lying.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00415",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "Among other abuses of grammar, which have no slight influence on human affairs, that one is notable which makes the evidence of a condemned criminal null and void. ‘He is _dead civilly_’ say gravely the peripatetic lawyers, ‘and a _dead man_ is incapable of any action.’ In support of this silly metaphor many victims have been sacrificed, and it has very often been disputed with all seriousness whether the truth should not yield to judicial formulas. Provided that the testimony of a condemned criminal does not go to the extent of stopping the course of justice, why should not a fitting period be allowed, even after condemnation, both to the extreme wretchedness of the criminal and to the interests of truth, so that, by his adducing fresh matter to alter the complexion of the fact, he may justify himself or others in a new trial? Forms and ceremonies are necessary in the administration of justice, because they leave nothing to the free will of the administrator; because they give the people an idea of a justice which is not tumultuary and self-interested, but steadfast and regular; and because men, the slaves of habit and imitation, are more influenced by their feelings than by arguments. But such forms can never without fatal danger be so firmly fixed by the laws as to be injurious to truth, which from being either too simple or two complex needs some external pomp to conciliate the ignorant populace.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00416",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "The credibility, therefore, of a witness must diminish in proportion to the hatred, friendship, or close connection between himself and the accused. More than one witness is necessary, because, so long as one affirms and another denies, nothing is proved, and the right which everyone has of being held innocent prevails. The credibility of a witness becomes appreciably less, the greater the atrocity of the crime imputed,[66] or the improbability of the circumstances, as in charges of magic and gratuitously cruel actions. It is more likely, as regards the former accusation, that many men should lie than that such an accusation should be true, because it is easier for many men to be united in an ignorant mistake or in persecuting hatred than for one man to exercise a power which God either has not conferred or has taken away from every created being. The same reasoning holds good also of the second accusation, for man is only cruel in proportion to his interest to be so, to his hatred or to his fear. Properly speaking, there is no superfluous feeling in human nature, every feeling being always in strict accordance with the impressions made upon the senses. In the same way the credibility of a witness may sometimes be lessened by the fact of his being a member of some secret society, whose purposes and principles are either not well understood or differ from those of general acceptance; for such a man has not only his own passions but those of others besides.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00417",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 208200,
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      "text": "Lastly, a witness’s evidence is almost null when spoken words are construed into a crime. For the tone, the gesture, all that precedes or follows the different ideas attached by men to the same words, so alter and modify a man’s utterances, that it is almost impossible to repeat them exactly as they were spoken. Moreover, actions of a violent and unusual character, such as real crimes are, leave their traces in the numberless circumstances and effects that flow from them; and of such actions the greater the number of the circumstances adduced in proof, the more numerous are the chances for the accused to clear himself. But words only remain in the memory of their hearers, and memory is for the most part unfaithful and often deceitful. It is on that account ever so much more easy to fix a calumny upon a man’s words than upon his actions.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00418",
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      "sha256": "dc69c38aa136a468d0c239d5294cb4471429df104d4deb839e8994b881397cc3",
      "text": "CHAPTER IX.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00419",
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      "text": "SECRET ACCUSATIONS.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00420",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 209115,
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      "sha256": "e6a450bc1f0f43e388ba8c5d49ccf615908ab23daa559dc0bd62d4ea9dd94d8b",
      "text": "Palpable but consecrated abuses, which in many nations are the necessary results of a weak political constitution, are Secret Accusations. For they render men false and reserved, and whoever may suspect that he sees in his neighbour an informer will see in him an enemy. Men then come to mask their real feelings, and by the habit of hiding them from others they at last get to hide them from themselves. Unhappy they who have come to that; who, without clear and fixed principles to guide them, wander lost and confused in the vast sea of opinions, ever busied in saving themselves from the horrors that oppress them, with the present moment ever embittered by the uncertainty of the future, and without the lasting pleasures of quiet and security, devouring in unseemly haste those few pleasures, which occur at rare intervals in their melancholy lives and scarcely console them for the fact of having lived! Is it of such men we can hope to make intrepid soldiers, defenders of their country and crown? Is it among such men we shall find incorrupt magistrates, able with their free and patriotic eloquence to sustain and develop the true interests of their sovereign, ready, with the tribute they bear, to carry to the throne the love and blessings of all classes of men, and thence to bring back to palaces and cottages alike peace and security, and that active hope of ameliorating their lot which is so useful a leaven, nay, which is the life of States?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00421",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "sha256": "b061ff09803b94330af1fe0807fe265d2909264d37573b73281327cf3432090d",
      "text": "Who can protect himself from calumny, when it is armed by the strongest shield of tyranny, secrecy? What sort of government can that ever be where in every subject a ruler suspects an enemy, and is obliged for the sake of the general tranquillity to rob each individual of its possession?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00422",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "sha256": "ef08509e13cdd1bfc658b62429712415834e6546c83c69c25ed816a526b918aa",
      "text": "What are the pretexts by which secret accusations and punishments are justified? Are they the public welfare, the security and maintenance of the form of government? But how strange a constitution is that, where he who has force on his side, and opinion, which is even stronger than force, is afraid of every citizen! Is then the indemnity of the accuser the excuse? In that case the laws do not sufficiently defend him; and shall there be subjects stronger than their sovereign? Or is it to save the informer from infamy? What! secret calumny be fair and lawful, and an open one deserving of punishment! Is it, then, the nature of the crime? If indifferent actions, or even useful actions, are called crimes, then of course accusations and trials can never be secret enough. But how can there be crimes, that is, public injuries, unless the publicity of this example, by a public trial, be at the same time the interest of all men? I respect every government, and speak of none in particular. Circumstances are sometimes such that to remove an evil may seem utter ruin when it is inherent in a national system. But had I to dictate new laws in any forgotten corner of the universe, my hand would tremble and all posterity would rise before my eyes before I would authorise such a custom as that of secret accusations.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00423",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 212233,
      "end": 212825,
      "sha256": "8241ddcb6e709426ee5d16cbf645d7ca85c3fa299a89e900931fdca6361a1519",
      "text": "It has already been remarked by Montesquieu that public accusations are more suited to republics, where the public good ought to be the citizens’ first passion, than to monarchies, where such a sentiment is very feeble, owing to the nature of the government itself, and where the appointment of officers to accuse transgressors of the law in the name of the public is a most excellent institution. But every government, be it republican or monarchical, ought to inflict upon a false accuser the same punishment which, had the accusation been true, would have fallen upon the accused.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00424",
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      "text": "CHAPTER X.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00425",
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      "sha256": "87fc862d0c66c70dc16bcec9be15bd97e378287ac3dc6123d51f9503ee421e5c",
      "text": "SUGGESTIVE INTERROGATIONS—DEPOSITIONS.",
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      "sha256": "c8174396a49d4307a4acbc7cc73159de2431fb40e427bd4f20077d8ee531aa2b",
      "text": "TORTURE.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00433",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "sha256": "3d97169c622af885a8f5fa9efd3bb052d7a2e02e253cb641a0cd26549231162d",
      "text": "A cruelty consecrated among most nations by custom is the torture of the accused during his trial, on the pretext of compelling him to confess his crime, of clearing up contradictions in his statements, of discovering his accomplices, of purging him in some metaphysical and incomprehensible way from infamy, or finally of finding out other crimes of which he may possibly be guilty, but of which he is not accused.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00434",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "A man cannot be called _guilty_ before sentence has been passed on him by a judge, nor can society deprive him of its protection till it has been decided that he has broken the condition on which it was granted. What, then, is that right but one of mere might by which a judge is empowered to inflict a punishment on a citizen whilst his guilt or innocence are still undetermined? The following dilemma is no new one: either the crime is certain or uncertain; if certain, no other punishment is suitable for it than that affixed to it by law; and torture is useless, for the same reason that the criminal’s confession is useless. If it is uncertain, it is wrong to torture an innocent person, such as the law adjudges him to be, whose crimes are not yet proved.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00435",
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      "text": "What is the political object of punishments? The intimidation of other men. But what shall we say of the secret and private tortures which the tyranny of custom exercises alike upon the guilty and the innocent? It is important, indeed, that no open crime shall pass unpunished; but the public exposure of a criminal whose crime was hidden in darkness is utterly useless. An evil that has been done and cannot be undone can only be punished by civil society in so far as it may affect others with the hope of impunity. If it be true that there are a greater number of men who either from fear or virtue respect the laws than of those who transgress them, the risk of torturing an innocent man should be estimated according to the probability that any man will have been more likely, other things being equal, to have respected than to have despised the laws.",
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    {
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      "text": "But I say in addition: it is to seek to confound all the relations of things to require a man to be at the same time accuser and accused, to make pain the crucible of truth, as if the test of it lay in the muscles and sinews of an unfortunate wretch. The law which ordains the use of torture is a law which says to men: ‘Resist pain; and if Nature has created in you an inextinguishable self-love, if she has given you an inalienable right of self-defence, I create in you a totally contrary affection, namely, an heroic self-hatred, and I command you to accuse yourselves, and to speak the truth between the laceration of your muscles and the dislocation of your bones.’",
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      "text": "This infamous crucible of truth is a still-existing monument of that primitive and savage legal system, which called trials by fire and boiling water, or the accidental decisions of combat, _judgments of God_, as if the rings of the eternal chain in the control of the First Cause must at every moment be disarranged and put out for the petty institutions of mankind. The only difference between torture and the trial by fire and water is, that the result of the former seems to depend on the will of the accused, and that of the other two on a fact which is purely physical and extrinsic to the sufferer; but the difference is only apparent, not real. The avowal of truth under tortures and agonies is as little free as was in those times the prevention without fraud of the usual effects of fire and boiling water. Every act of our will is ever proportioned to the force of the sensible impression which causes it, and the sensibility of every man is limited. Hence the impression produced by pain may be so intense as to occupy a man’s entire sensibility and leave him no other liberty than the choice of the shortest way of escape, for the present moment, from his penalty. Under such circumstances the answer of the accused is as inevitable as the impressions produced by fire and water; and the innocent man who is sensitive will declare himself guilty, when by so doing he hopes to bring his agonies to an end. All the difference between guilt and innocence is lost by virtue of the very means which they profess to employ for its discovery.",
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      "text": "Torture is a certain method for the acquittal of robust villains and for the condemnation of innocent but feeble men. See the fatal drawbacks of this pretended test of truth—a test, indeed, that is worthy of cannibals; a test which the Romans, barbarous as they too were in many respects, reserved for slaves alone, the victims of their fierce and too highly lauded virtue. Of two men, equally innocent or equally guilty, the robust and courageous will be acquitted, the weak and the timid will be condemned, by virtue of the following exact train of reasoning on the part of the judge: ‘I as judge had to find you guilty of such and such a crime; you, A B, have by your physical strength been able to resist pain, and therefore I acquit you; you, C D, in your weakness have yielded to it; therefore I condemn you. I feel that a confession extorted amid torments can have no force, but I will torture you afresh unless you corroborate what you have now confessed.’",
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      "text": "The result, then, of torture is a matter of temperament, of calculation, which varies with each man according to his strength and sensibility; so that by this method a mathematician might solve better than a judge this problem: ‘Given the muscular force and the nervous sensibility of an innocent man, to find the degree of pain which will cause him to plead guilty to a given crime.’",
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      "text": "The object of examining an accused man is the ascertainment of truth. But if this truth is difficult to discover from a man’s air, demeanour, or countenance, even when he is quiet, much more difficult will it be to discover from a man upon whose face all the signs, whereby most men, sometimes in spite of themselves, express the truth, are distorted by pain. Every violent action confuses and causes to disappear those trifling differences between objects, by which one may sometimes distinguish the true from the false.",
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      "text": "A strange consequence that flows naturally from the use of torture is, that an innocent man is thereby placed in a worse condition than a guilty one, because if both are tortured the former has every alternative against him. For either he confesses the crime and is condemned, or he is declared innocent, having suffered an undeserved punishment. But the guilty man has one chance in his favour, since, if he resist the torture firmly, and is acquitted in consequence, he has exchanged a greater penalty for a smaller one. Therefore the innocent man can only lose, the guilty may gain, by torture.",
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      "text": "This truth is, in fact, felt, though in a confused way, by the very persons who place themselves farthest from it. For a confession made under torture is of no avail unless it be confirmed by an oath made after it; and yet, should the criminal not confirm his confession, he is tortured afresh. Some doctors of law and some nations only allow this infamous begging of the question to be employed three times; whilst other nations and other doctors leave it to the discretion of the judge.",
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      "text": "It were superfluous to enlighten the matter more thoroughly by mentioning the numberless instances of innocent persons who have confessed themselves guilty from the agonies of torture; no nation, no age, but can mention its own; but men neither change their natures nor draw conclusions. There is no man who has ever raised his ideas beyond the common needs of life but runs occasionally towards Nature, who with secret and confused voice calls him to herself; but custom, that tyrant of human minds, draws him back and frightens him.",
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      "text": "It is not difficult to go back to the origin of this ridiculous law, because the absurdities themselves that a whole nation adopts have always some connection with other common ideas which the same nation respects. The custom seems to have been derived from religious and spiritual ideas, which have so great an influence on the thoughts of men, on nations, and on generations. An infallible dogma assures us, that the stains contracted by human weakness and undeserving of the eternal anger of the Supreme Being must be purged by an incomprehensible fire. Now, infamy is a civil stain; and as pain and fire take away spiritual and incorporeal stains, why should not the agonies of torture take away the civil stain of infamy? I believe that the confession of a criminal, which some courts insist on as an essential requisite for condemnation, has a similar origin;—because in the mysterious tribunal of repentance the confession of sins is an essential part of the sacrament. This is the way men abuse the surest lights of revelation; and as these are the only ones which exist in times of ignorance, it is to them on all occasions that docile humanity turns, making of them the most absurd and far-fetched applications.",
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      "text": "These truths were recognised by the Roman legislators, for they inflicted torture only upon slaves, who in law had no personality. They have been adopted by England, a nation, the glory of whose literature, the superiority of whose commerce and wealth, and consequently of whose power, and the examples of whose virtue and courage leave us no doubt as to the goodness of her laws. Torture has also been abolished in Sweden; it has been abolished by one of the wisest monarchs of Europe, who, taking philosophy with him to the throne, has made himself the friend and legislator of his subjects, rendering them equal and free in their dependence on the laws, the sole kind of equality and liberty that reasonable men can ask for in the present condition of things. Nor has torture been deemed necessary in the laws which regulate armies, composed though they are for the most part of the dregs of different countries, and for that reason more than any other class of men the more likely to require it. A strange thing, for whoever forgets the power of the tyranny exercised by custom, that pacific laws should be obliged to learn from minds hardened to massacre and bloodshed the most humane method of conducting trials.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XIII.",
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      "text": "PROSECUTIONS AND PRESCRIPTIONS.",
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      "text": "As soon as the proofs of a crime and its reality are fully certified, the criminal must be allowed time and opportunity for his defence; but the time allowed must be so short as not to interfere with the speediness of his punishment, which, as we have seen, is one of the principal restraints from crime. A false philanthropy seems opposed to this shortness of time; but all doubt will vanish, on reflection that the more defective any system of law is, the greater are the dangers to which innocence is exposed.",
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      "text": "But the laws should fix a certain space of time both for the defence of the accused and for the discovery of proofs against him. It would place the judge in the position of a legislator were it his duty to fix the time necessary for the latter. In the same way those atrocious crimes, whose memory tarries long in men’s minds, deserve, when once proved, no prescription in favour of a criminal who has fled from his country; but lesser and obscure crimes should be allowed a certain prescription, which may remove a man’s uncertainty concerning his fate, because the obscurity in which for a long time his crimes have been involved deducts from the bad example of his impunity, and the possibility of reform meantime remains to him. It is enough to indicate these principles, because I cannot fix a precise limit of time, except for a given system of laws and in given social circumstances. I will only add that, the advantage of moderate penalties in a nation being proved, the laws which shorten or lengthen, according to the gravity of crimes, the term of prescription or of proofs, thus making of prison itself or of voluntary exile a part of the punishment, will supply an easy classification of a few mild punishments for a very large number of crimes.",
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      "text": "But these periods of time will not be lengthened in exact proportion to the atrocity of crimes, since the probability of a crime is in inverse ratio to its atrocity. It will, then, be necessary to shorten the period for inquiry and to increase that of prescription; which may appear to contradict what I said before, namely, that it is possible to inflict equal penalties on unequal crimes, by counting as a penalty that period of imprisonment or of prescription which precedes the verdict. To explain to the reader my idea: I distinguish two kinds of crimes—the first, atrocious crimes, beginning with homicide and including all the excessive forms of wickedness; the second comprising less considerable crimes. This distinction is founded in human nature. Personal security is a natural right, the security of property a social one. The number of motives which impel men to violate their natural affections is far smaller than those which impel them, by their natural longing for happiness, to violate a right which they do not find written in their hearts but only in the conventions of society. The very great difference between the probability of these two kinds of crime respectively makes it necessary that they should be ruled by different principles. In cases of the more atrocious crimes, because they are more uncommon, the time for inquiry ought to be so much the less as the probability of the innocence of the accused is greater; and the time of prescription ought to be longer, as on an ultimate definite sentence of guilt or innocence depends the destruction of the hope of impunity, the harm of which is proportioned to the atrocity of the crime. But in cases of lesser criminality, where the presumption in favour of a man’s innocence is less, the time for inquiry should be longer; and as the harm of impunity is less, the time of prescription should be shorter. But such a division of crimes ought, indeed, not to be admitted, if the danger of impunity decreased exactly in proportion to the greater probability of the crime. One should remember that an accused man, whose guilt or innocence is uncertain, may, though acquitted for lack of proofs, be subjected for the same crime to a fresh imprisonment and inquiry, in the event of fresh legal proofs rising up against him, so long as the time of prescription accorded by the laws has not been past. Such at least is the compromise that I think best fitted to preserve both the liberty and the security of the subject, it being only too easy so to favour the one at the expense of the other, that these two blessings, the inalienable and equal patrimony of every citizen, are left unprotected and undefended, the one from declared or veiled despotism, the other from the turbulence of civil anarchy.",
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      "text": "There are some crimes which are at the same time of common occurrence and of difficult proof. In them the difficulty of proof is equivalent to a probability of innocence; and the harm of their impunity being so much the less to be considered as their frequency depends on principles other than the risk of punishment, the time for inquiry and the period of prescription ought both to be proportionately less. Yet cases of adultery and pederasty, both of difficult proof, are precisely those in which, according to received principles, tyrannical presumptions of _quasi-proofs_ and _half-proofs_ are allowed to prevail (as if a man could be _half-innocent_ or _half-guilty_, in other words, _half-punishable_ or _half-acquittable_); in which torture exercises its cruel sway over the person of the accused, over the witnesses, and even over the whole family of an unfortunate wretch, according to the coldly wicked teaching of some doctors of law, who set themselves up as the rule and standard for judges to follow.",
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      "text": "In view of these principles it will appear strange (to anyone who does not reflect, that reason has, so to speak, never yet legislated for a nation), that it is just the most atrocious crimes or the most secret and chimerical ones—that is, those of the least probability—which are proved by conjectures or by the weakest and most equivocal proofs: as if it were the interest of the laws and of the judge, not to search for the truth, but to find out the crime; as if the danger of condemning an innocent man were not so much the greater, the greater the probability of his innocence over that of his guilt.",
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      "text": "The majority of mankind lack that vigour which is equally necessary for the greatest crimes as for the greatest virtues; whence it would appear, that both extremes are contemporaneous phenomena in nations which depend rather on the energy of their government and of the passions that tend to the public good, than on their size and the constant goodness of their laws. In the latter the weakened passions seem more adapted to maintain than to improve the form of government. From which flows an important consequence, namely, that great crimes in a nation do not always prove its decline.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XVI.",
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      "text": "CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.",
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      "text": "This useless prodigality of punishments, by which men have never been made any better, has driven me to examine whether the punishment of death be really useful and just in a well organised government. What kind of right can that be which men claim for the slaughter of their fellow-beings? Certainly not that right which is the source of sovereignty and of laws. For these are nothing but the sum-total of the smallest portions of individual liberty, and represent the general will, that is, the aggregate of individual wills. But who ever wished to leave to other men the option of killing him? How in the least possible sacrifice of each man’s liberty can there be a sacrifice of the greatest of all goods, namely, of life? And if there could be that sacrifice, how would such a principle accord with the other, that a man is not the master of his own life? Yet he must have been so, could he have given to himself or to society as a body this right of killing him.",
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      "text": "The death penalty therefore is not a right; I have proved that it cannot be so; but it is a war of a nation against one of its members, because his annihilation is deemed necessary and expedient. But if I can show that his death is neither necessary nor expedient, I shall have won the cause of humanity.",
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      "text": "The death of a citizen can only be deemed necessary for two reasons. The first is when, though deprived of his personal freedom, he has still such connections and power as threaten the national security; when his existence is capable of producing a dangerous revolution in the established form of government. The death of a citizen becomes then necessary when the nation is recovering or losing its liberty, or in a time of anarchy, when confusion takes the place of laws; but in times when the laws hold undisturbed sway, when the form of government corresponds with the wishes of a united nation, and is defended internally and externally by force, and by opinion which is perhaps even stronger than force, where the supreme power rests only with the real sovereign, and riches serve to purchase pleasures but not places, I see no necessity for destroying a citizen, except when his death might be the real and only restraint for diverting others from committing crimes; this latter case constituting the second reason for which one may believe capital punishment to be both just and necessary.",
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      "text": "Since mankind generally, suspicious always of the language of reason, but ready to bow to that of authority, remain unpersuaded by the experience of all ages, in which the supreme punishment has never diverted resolute men from committing offences against society; since also they are equally unmoved by the example of the Romans and by twenty years of the reign of the Empress Elizabeth of Russia, during which she presented this illustrious example to the fathers of their people, an example which is at least equivalent to many conquests bought by the blood of her country’s sons, it is sufficient merely to consult human nature itself, to perceive the truth of the assertion I have made.",
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      "text": "The greatest effect that any punishment has upon the human mind is not to be measured by its intensity but by its duration, for our sensibility is more easily and permanently affected by very slight but repeated impressions than by a strong but brief shock. Habit holds universal sway over every sentient being, and as we speak and walk and satisfy our needs by its aid, so moral ideas only stamp themselves on our mind by long and repeated impressions. It is not the terrible yet brief sight of a criminal’s death, but the long and painful example of a man deprived of his liberty, who, having become as it were a beast of burthen, repays with his toil the society he has offended, which is the strongest restraint from crimes. Far more potent than the fear of death, which men ever have before their eyes in the remote distance, is the thought, so efficacious from its constant recurrence: ‘I myself shall be reduced to as long and miserable a condition if I commit similar misdeeds.’",
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      "text": "Capital punishment makes an impression in prospect which, with all its force, does not fully meet that ready spirit of forgetfulness, so natural to man even in his most important concerns, and so liable to be accelerated by his passions. As a general rule, men are startled by the sight of violent sufferings, but not for long, and therefore such impressions are wont so to transform them as to make of ordinary men either Persians or Spartans; but in a free and settled government impressions should rather be frequent than strong.",
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      "text": "Capital punishment becomes a spectacle for the majority of mankind, and a subject for compassion and abhorrence for others; the minds of the spectators are more filled with these feelings than with the wholesome terror the law pretends to inspire. But in moderate and continuing penalties the latter is the predominant feeling, because it is the only one. The limit, which the legislator should affix to the severity of penalties, appears to lie in the first signs of a feeling of compassion becoming uppermost in the minds of the spectators, when they look upon the punishment rather as their own than as that of the criminal.",
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      "text": "In order that a punishment may be just, it must contain only such degrees of intensity as suffice to deter men from crimes. But as there is no one who on reflection would choose the total and perpetual loss of his liberty, however great the advantages offered him by a crime, the intensity of the punishment of servitude for life, substituted for capital punishment, has that in it which is sufficient to daunt the most determined courage. I will add that it is even more deterrent than death. Very many men face death calmly and firmly, some from fanaticism, some from vanity, which almost always attends a man to the tomb; others from a last desperate attempt either no longer to live or to escape from their misery; but neither fanaticism nor vanity have any place among fetters and chains, under the stick, under the yoke, in a cage of iron; the wretch thus punished is so far from terminating his miseries that with his punishment he only begins them.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00501",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "This, then, is the way to avoid confounding the relations and invariable nature of things, which, being unlimited by time and in ceaseless operation, confounds and overturns all narrow regulations that depart from it. It is not only the arts of taste and pleasure which have for their universal principle the faithful imitation of nature; but the art of politics itself, at least that which is true and permanent, is subject to this general maxim, since it consists in nothing else than the art of directing in the best way and to the same purposes the immutable sentiments of mankind.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00502",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XIX.",
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      "text": "THE PROMPTNESS OF PUNISHMENTS.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00504",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 268555,
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      "text": "The more speedily and the more nearly in connection with the crime committed punishment shall follow, the more just and useful it will be. I say more just, because a criminal is thereby spared those useless and fierce torments of suspense which are all the greater in a person of vigorous imagination and fully conscious of his own weakness; more just also, because the privation of liberty, in itself a punishment, can only precede the sentence by the shortest possible interval compatible with the requirements of necessity. Imprisonment, therefore, is simply the safe custody of a citizen pending the verdict of his guilt; and this custody, being essentially disagreeable, ought to be as brief and easy as possible. The shortness of the time should be measured both by the necessary length of the preparations for the trial and by the seniority of claim to a judgment. The strictness of confinement should be no more than is necessary either for the prevention of escape or for guarding against the concealment of the proof of crimes. The trial itself should be finished in the shortest time possible. What contrast more cruel than that between a judge’s ease and a defendant’s anguish? between the comforts and pleasures of an unfeeling magistrate on the one hand, and the tears and wretchedness of a prisoner on the other? In general, the weight of a punishment and the consequence of a crime should be as efficacious as possible for the restraint of other men and as little hard as possible for the individual who is punished; for one cannot call that a proper form of society, where it is not an infallible principle, that its members intended, in constituting it, to subject themselves to as few evils as possible.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00505",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "I said that the promptness of punishment is more useful, because the shorter the interval of time between the punishment and the misdeed, the stronger and the more lasting in the human mind is the association of these ideas, crime and punishment, so that insensibly they come to be considered, the one as the cause and the other as its necessary and inevitable consequence. It is a proved fact that the association of ideas is the cement of the whole fabric of the human intellect, and that without it pleasure and pain would be isolated and ineffective feelings. The further removed men are from general ideas and universal principles, that is, the more commonplace they are, the more they act by their immediate and nearest associations, to the neglect of remoter and more complex ones, the latter being of service only to men strongly impassioned for a given object of pursuit, inasmuch as the light of attention illuminates a single object, whilst it leaves the others obscure. They are also of service to minds of a higher quality, because, having acquired the habit of running rapidly over many subjects at a time, they possess facility in placing in contrast with one another many partial feelings, so that the result of their thoughts, in other words, their action, is less perilous and uncertain.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00506",
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      "sha256": "bd2f269f31c3f354b50734500cd70135dde29edafad6ea958918deb40c04fee9",
      "text": "The close connection, therefore, of crime and punishment is of the utmost importance, if it be desirable that in rough and common minds there should, together with the seductive idea of an advantageous crime, immediately start up the associated idea of its punishment. Long delay has no other effect than the perpetual separation of these two ideas; and whatever the impression produced by the punishment of a crime, it produces it less as a punishment than as a sight, and only produces it when the horror of the particular crime, which would serve to strengthen the feeling of the punishment, has been weakened in the minds of the spectators.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00507",
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      "text": "Another principle would serve admirably to draw still closer the important connection between a misdeed and its punishment, and that is, that the latter should as far as possible conform to the nature of the crime. This analogy facilitates marvellously the contrast that ought to exist between the impulse to the crime and the counter-influence of the punishment, the one, that is, diverting the mind and guiding it to an end quite different from that to which the seductive idea of transgressing the law endeavours to lead it.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00508",
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      "text": "Persons guilty of lesser crimes are usually either punished in the obscurity of a prison, or transported, as an example to nations who have given no offence, to a distant and therefore almost useless servitude. Since the gravest crimes are not those which men are tempted to commit on the spur of the moment, the public punishment of a great misdeed will be regarded by most men as strange and of impossible occurrence; but the public punishment of lighter crimes, to which men’s thoughts more readily incline, will make an impression, which, at the same time that it diverts the mind from them, will restrain it still more from crimes of greater gravity. Punishments should not only be proportioned to one another and to crimes in point of force, but also in the mode of their infliction.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00509",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XX.",
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      "text": "CERTAINTY OF PUNISHMENTS—PARDONS.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00511",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "One of the greatest preventives of crimes is, not the cruelty of the punishments attached to them, but their infallibility, and consequently that watchfulness on the part of the magistrates and that inexorable severity on the part of the judge which, to be a useful virtue, must coincide with a mild system of laws. The certainty of a punishment, moderate though it be, will ever make a stronger impression than the fear of another, more terrible, perhaps, but associated with the hope of impunity; for even the least evils when certain always terrify men’s minds, and hope, that gift of heaven, which often makes up to us for everything, always throws into the distance the idea of greater evils, especially when its force is increased by impunity, which avarice and weakness so often grant.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00512",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "It is sometimes the custom to release a man from the punishment of a slight crime when the injured person pardons him: an act, indeed, which is in accordance with mercy and humanity but contrary to public policy; as if a private citizen could by his remission do away with the necessity of the example in the same way that he can excuse the reparation due for the offence. The right of punishing does not rest with an individual, but with the community as a whole, or the sovereign. An individual can only renounce his particular portion of that right, not annul that of all the rest.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00513",
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      "sha256": "d87574863157ce8e7f676275e817b317646c7c67a62c2ff63f7b8a283cd859ec",
      "text": "In proportion as punishments become milder, clemency and pardon become less necessary. Happy the nation in which their exercise should be baneful! Clemency, therefore, that virtue, which has sometimes made up in a sovereign for failings in all the other duties of the throne, ought to be excluded in a perfect system of legislation, where punishments are mild and the method of trial regular and expeditious. This truth will appear a hard one to anybody living in the present chaotic state of the criminal law, where the necessity of pardon and favours accords with the absurdity of the laws and with the severity of sentences of punishment. This right of pardon is indeed the fairest prerogative of the throne, the most desirable attribute of sovereignty; it is, however, the tacit mark of disapproval that the beneficent dispensers of the public happiness exhibit towards a code, which with all its imperfections claims in its favour the prejudice of ages, the voluminous and imposing array of innumerable commentators, the weighty apparatus of unending formalities, and the adhesion of those persons of half-learning who, though less feared than real philosophers, are really more dangerous. But let it be remembered that clemency is the virtue of the maker, not of the executor, of the laws; that it should be conspicuous in the code of laws rather than in particular judgments; that the showing to men, that crimes may be pardoned and that punishment is not their necessary consequence, encourages the hope of impunity, and creates the belief that sentences of condemnation, which might be remitted and are not, are rather violent exhibitions of force than emanations of justice. What shall be said then when the sovereign grants a pardon, that is, public immunity to an individual, and when a private act of unenlightened kindness constitutes a public decree of impunity? Let the laws therefore be inexorable and their administrators in particular cases inexorable, but let the law-maker be mild, merciful, and humane. Let him found his edifice, as a wise architect, on the basis of self-love; let the general interest be the sum of the interests of each, and he will no longer be constrained, by partial laws and violent remedies to separate at every moment the public welfare from that of individuals, and to raise the appearance of public security on fear and mistrust. As a profound and feeling philosopher let him allow men, that is, his brethren, to enjoy in peace that small share of happiness which is given them to enjoy in this corner of the universe, in that immense system established by the First Cause, by Him Who Is.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XXI.",
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      "text": "ASYLUMS OF REFUGE.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00516",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "There remain two questions for me to examine: the first, whether asylums of refuge are just, and whether international agreements of extradition are expedient or not. There should be no spot within the boundaries of any country independent of the laws. Every citizen should be followed by their power, as every substance is followed by its shadow. There is only a difference of degree between impunity and the right of asylum; and as the effective influence of punishment consists more in its inevitability than in its violence, asylums do more to invite to crimes than punishments do to deter from them. The multiplication of asylums is the formation of so many petty sovereignties; for where there are no laws to command, there it is easy for new laws, opposed to the general laws of a country, to be formed, and consequently for a spirit opposed to that of the whole collective social body to arise. All history shows that from asylums have issued great revolutions in States and in the opinions of mankind.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00517",
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      "text": "Some persons have maintained that a crime, that is, an action contrary to the laws, is punishable wherever committed, as if the character of subject were indelible, or, in other words, synonymous with, nay, worse than, the character of slave; as if a man could be the subject of one kingdom and the resident of another, or as if his actions could without contradiction be subordinate to two sovereign powers and to two legal systems often contradictory. So some think that a cruel action done, say, at Constantinople is punishable at Paris, for the abstract reason that he who offends humanity deserves to have collective humanity for his enemy, and merits universal execration; as if judges were the avengers of human sensibility in general, and not rather of the covenants that bind men together. The place of punishment is the place of the crime, because there, and there only, is it a compulsory duty to injure an individual, to prevent an injury to the public. A villain, but one who has not broken the covenants of the society of which he was not a member, may be an object of fear, and for that reason be expelled and exiled by the superior power of that society; but he cannot be legally and formally punished, since it is for the laws to avenge, not the intrinsic malice of particular actions, but the violation of compacts.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00518",
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      "text": "But whether the international extradition of criminals be useful I would not venture to decide, until laws more in conformity with the needs of humanity, until milder penalties, and until the emancipation of law from the caprice of mere opinion, shall have given security to oppressed innocence and hated virtue; until tyranny shall have been confined, by the force of universal reason which ever more and more unites the interests of kings and subjects, to the vast plains of Asia; however much the conviction of finding nowhere a span of earth where real crimes were pardoned might be the most efficacious way of preventing their occurrence.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XXIII.",
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      "text": "PROPORTION BETWEEN CRIMES AND PUNISHMENTS.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00524",
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      "text": "Not only is it the general interest that crimes should not be committed, but that they should be rare in proportion to the evils they cause to society. The more opposed therefore that crimes are to the public welfare, and the more numerous the incentives to them, the stronger should be the repellent obstacles. This principle accordingly establishes the necessity of a certain proportion between crimes and punishments.",
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      "text": "If pleasure and pain are the motors of sensitive beings, if the invisible lawgiver of humanity has decreed rewards and punishments as one of the motives to impel men to even their noblest endeavours, the inexact distribution of these motives will give rise to that contradiction, as little noticed as it is of common occurrence, namely, that the laws punish crimes which are entirely of their own creation. If an equal penalty is attached to two crimes of unequal injury to society, the greater crime of the two, if it promise a greater advantage than the other, will have no stronger motive in restraint of its perpetration. Whoever, for example, sees the same punishment of death decreed for the man who kills a pheasant and the man who slays his fellow or falsifies an important document, will draw no distinction between such crimes; and thus moral sentiments, the product only of many ages and of much bloodshed, the slowest and most difficult attainment of the human mind, dependent, it has been thought, on the aid of the most sublime motives and on a parade of the gravest formalities, will be destroyed and lost.",
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      "text": "It is impossible to prevent all the disorders that may arise in the universal conflict of human passions. Their increase depends on that of population and on the crossings of private interests, which cannot be directed with geometrical exactness to the public welfare. In political arithmetic the calculation of probabilities must be substituted for mathematical exactness. Glance at the history of the world, and you will see disorders increase with the increase of the bounds of empire; thus national feeling being to the same extent diminished, the general inducement to crime increases with the greater interest of each individual in such disorders, and on this account the necessity for aggravating penalties ever continues to increase.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00527",
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      "text": "That force, similar to the force of gravitation, which constrains us to seek our own well-being, only admits of counteraction in proportion to the obstacles opposed to it. The effects of this force make up the confused series of human actions; if these clash together and impede one another, punishments, which I would call _political obstacles_, prevent bad effects from resulting, without destroying the impelling cause, which lies in the sensibility inseparable from humanity; and the legislator, in enacting them, acts the part of a clever architect, whose function it is to counteract the tendency of gravitation to cause a building to fall, and to bring to bear all the lines which contribute to its strength.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00528",
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      "text": "Given the necessity of the aggregation of mankind, and given the covenants which necessarily result from the very opposition of private interests, a scale of offences may be traced, beginning with those which tend directly to the destruction of society, and ending with acts of the smallest possible injustice committed against individual members of it. Between these extremes are comprised all the actions opposed to the public welfare which are called crimes, and which by imperceptible degrees decrease in enormity from the highest to the lowest. If the infinite and obscure combinations of human actions admitted of mathematical treatment, there ought to be a corresponding scale of punishments, varying from the severest to the slightest penalty. If there were an exact and universal scale of crimes and punishments, we should have an approximate and general test by which to gauge the degrees of tyranny and liberty in different governments, the relative state of the humanity or wickedness of different nations. But the wise legislator will rest satisfied with marking out the principal divisions in such a scale, so as not to invert their order, nor to affix to crimes of the first degree punishments due to those of the last.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XXIV.",
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      "text": "THE MEASURE OF PUNISHMENTS.",
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      "text": "We have seen that the true measure of crimes is the injury done to society. This is one of those palpable truths which, however little dependent on quadrants or telescopes for their discovery, and fully within the reach of any ordinary intelligence, are yet, by a marvellous combination of circumstances, only recognised clearly and firmly by some few thinkers, belonging to every nationality and to every age. But Asiatic ideas, and passions clothed with authority and power, have, generally by imperceptible movements, sometimes by violent assaults on the timid credulity of mankind, dissipated those simple notions, which perhaps formed the first philosophy of primitive communities, and to which the enlightenment of this age seems likely to reconduct us, but to do so with that greater sureness, which can be gained from an exact investigation into things, from a thousand unhappy experiences, and from the very obstacles that militate against it.",
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      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "They who have thought that the criminal’s intention was the true measure of crimes were in the wrong. For the intention depends on the actual impression of things upon a man, and on his precedent mental disposition, things which vary in all men and in each man, according to the very rapid succession of his ideas, his passions, and his circumstances. It would, therefore, be necessary to form not only a particular code for each citizen, but a fresh law for every crime. Sometimes with the best intentions men do the greatest evil to society; and sometimes with the very worst they do it the greatest good.",
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      "text": "Others again measure crimes rather by the rank of the person injured than by their importance in regard to the public weal. Were this the true measure of crimes, any act of irreverence towards the Supreme Being should be punished more severely than the assassination of a monarch, whereas the superiority of His nature affords an infinite compensation for the difference of the offence.",
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      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "Lastly, some have thought that the gravity of an act’s sinfulness should be an element in the measure of crimes. But an impartial observer of the true relations between man and man, and between man and God, will easily perceive the fallacy of this opinion. For the former relationship is one of equality; necessity alone, from the clash of passions and opposing interests, having given rise to the idea of the _public utility_, the basis of human justice. But the other relationship is one of dependence on a perfect Being and Creator, who has reserved to Himself alone the right of being at the same time legislator and judge, and can alone unite the two functions without bad effects. If He has decreed eternal punishments to those who disobey His omnipotence, what insect shall dare to take the place of Divine justice, or shall wish to avenge that Being, who is all-sufficient to Himself, who can receive from things no impression of pleasure nor of pain, and who alone of all beings acts without reaction? The degree of sinfulness in an action depends on the unsearchable wickedness of the heart, which cannot be known by finite beings without a revelation. How, then, found thereon a standard for the punishment of crimes? In such a case men might punish when God pardons, and pardon when God punishes. If men can act contrary to the Almighty by offending Him, they may also do so in the punishments they inflict.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XXXIX.",
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      "text": "OF FAMILY SPIRIT.",
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      "text": "Such fatal and legalised iniquities as have been referred to have been approved of by even the wisest men and practised by even the freest republics, owing to their having regarded society rather as an aggregate of families than as one of individuals. Suppose there to be 100,000 individuals, or 20,000 families, of five persons each, including its representative head: if the association is constituted by families, it will consist of 20,000 men and 80,000 slaves; if it be an association of individuals, it will consist of 100,000 citizens, and not a single slave. In the first case there will be a republic, formed of 20,000 little sovereignties; in the second the republican spirit will breathe, not only in the market-places and meetings of the people, but also within the domestic walls, wherein lies so great a part of human happiness or misery. In the first case, also, as laws and customs are the result of the habitual sentiments of the members of the republic—that is, of the heads of families—the monarchical spirit will gradually introduce itself, and its effects will only be checked by the conflicting interests of individuals, not by a feeling that breathes liberty and equality. Family spirit is a spirit of detail and confined to facts of trifling importance. But the spirit which regulates communities is master of general principles, overlooks the totality of facts, and combines them into kinds and classes, of importance to the welfare of the greater number. In the community of families sons remain in the power of the head of the family so long as he lives, and are obliged to look forward to his death for an existence dependent on the laws alone. Accustomed to submission and fear in the freshest and most vigorous time of life, when their feelings are less modified by that timidity, arising from experience, which men call moderation, how shall they withstand those obstacles in the way of virtue which vice ever opposes, in that feeble and failing period of life when despair of living to see the fruit of their labours hinders them from making vigorous changes?",
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      "text": "When the community is one of individuals, the subordination that prevails in the family prevails by agreement, not by compulsion; and the sons, as soon as their age withdraws them from their state of natural dependence, arising from their feebleness and their need of education and protection, become free members of the domestic commonwealth, subjecting themselves to its head, in order to share in its advantages, as free men do by society at large. In the other condition the sons—that is, the largest and most useful part of a nation—are placed altogether at the mercy of their fathers; but in this one there is no enjoined connection between them, beyond that sacred and inviolable one of the natural ministration of necessary aid, and that of gratitude for benefits received, which is less often destroyed by the native wickedness of the human heart than by a law-ordained and ill-conceived state of subjection.",
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      "text": "Such contradictions between the laws of a family and the fundamental laws of a State are a fertile source of other contradictions between public and private morality, giving rise consequently to a perpetual conflict in every individual mind. For whilst private morality inspires fear and subjection, public morality teaches courage and freedom; whilst the former inculcates the restriction of well-doing to a small number of persons indiscriminately, the latter inculcates its extension to all classes of men; and whilst the one enjoins the constant sacrifice of self to a vain idol, called ‘the good of the family’ (which is frequently not the good of any single member that composes it), the other teaches men to benefit themselves, provided they break not the laws, and incites them, by the reward of enthusiasm, which is the precursor of their action, to sacrifice themselves to the good of their country. Such contradictions make men scorn to follow virtue, which they find so complicated and confused, and at that distance from them, which objects, both moral and physical, derive from their obscurity. How often it happens that a man, in reflecting on his past actions, is astonished at finding himself dishonest. The larger society grows, the smaller fraction of the whole does each member of it become, and the more is the feeling of the commonwealth diminished, unless care be taken by the laws to reinforce it. Societies, like human bodies, have their circumscribed limits, extension beyond which involves inevitably a disturbance of their economy. The size of a State ought apparently to vary inversely with the sensibility of its component parts; otherwise, if both increase together, good laws will find, in the very benefit they have effected, an obstacle to the prevention of crimes. Too large a republic can only save itself from despotism by a process of subdivision, and a union of the parts into so many federative republics. But how effect this, save by a despotic dictator with the courage of Sylla and as much genius for construction as he had for destruction? If such a man be ambitious, the glory of all the ages awaits him; and if he be a philosopher, the blessings of his fellow-citizens will console him for the loss of his authority, even should he not become indifferent to their ingratitude. In proportion as the feelings which unite us to our own nation are weakened, do those for the objects immediately around us gain in strength; and it is for this reason that under the severest despotism the strongest friendships are to be found, and that the family virtues, ever of an exalted character, are either the most common or the only ones. It is evident, therefore, how limited have been the views of the great majority of legislators.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XLI.",
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      "text": "THE PREVENTION OF CRIMES—OF KNOWLEDGE—MAGISTRATES—REWARDS—EDUCATION.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00617",
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      "start": 344979,
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      "text": "It is better to prevent crimes than to punish them. This is the chief aim of every good system of legislation, which is the art of leading men to the greatest possible happiness or to the least possible misery, according to calculation of all the goods and evils of life. But the means hitherto employed for this end are for the most part false and contrary to the end proposed. It is impossible to reduce the turbulent activity of men to a geometrical harmony without any irregularity or confusion. As the constant and most simple laws of nature do not prevent aberrations in the movements of the planets, so, in the infinite and contradictory attractions of pleasure and pain, disturbances and disorder cannot be prevented by human laws. Yet this is the chimera that narrow-minded men pursue, when they have power in their hands. To prohibit a number of indifferent acts is not to prevent the crimes that may arise from them, but it is to create new ones from them; it is to give capricious definitions of virtue and vice which are proclaimed as eternal and immutable in their nature. To what should we be reduced if everything had to be forbidden us which might tempt us to a crime? It would be necessary to deprive a man of the use of his senses. For one motive that drives men to commit a real crime there are a thousand that drive them to the commission of those indifferent acts which are called crimes by bad laws; and if the likelihood of crimes is proportioned to the number of motives to commit them, an increase of the field of crimes is an increase of the likelihood of their commission. The majority of laws are nothing but privileges, or a tribute paid by all to the convenience of some few.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00618",
      "bookId": 58700,
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      "text": "Would you prevent crimes, then cause the laws to be clear and simple, bring the whole force of a nation to bear on their defence, and suffer no part of it to be busied in overthrowing them. Make the laws to favour not so much classes of men as men themselves. Cause men to fear the laws and the laws alone. Salutary is the fear of the law, but fatal and fertile in crime is the fear of one man of another. Men as slaves are more sensual, more immoral, more cruel than free men; and, whilst the latter give their minds to the sciences or to the interests of their country, setting great objects before them as their model, the former, contented with the passing day, seek in the excitement of libertinage a distraction from the nothingness of their existence, and, accustomed to an uncertainty of result in everything, they look upon the result of their crimes as uncertain too, and so decide in favour of the passion that tempts them. If uncertainty of the laws affects a nation, rendered indolent by its climate, its indolence and stupidity is thereby maintained and increased; if it affects a nation, which though fond of pleasure is also full of energy, it wastes that energy in a number of petty cabals and intrigues, which spread distrust in every heart, and make treachery and dissimulation the foundation of prudence; if, again, it affects a courageous and brave nation, the uncertainty is ultimately destroyed, after many oscillations from liberty to servitude, and from servitude back again to liberty.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00619",
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      "text": "Would you prevent crimes, then see that enlightenment accompanies liberty. The evils that flow from knowledge are in inverse ratio to its diffusion; the benefits directly proportioned to it. A bold impostor, who is never a commonplace man, is adored by an ignorant people, despised by an enlightened one. Knowledge, by facilitating comparisons between objects and multiplying men’s points of view, brings many different notions into contrast, causing them to modify one another, all the more easily as the same views and the same difficulties are observed in others. In the face of a widely diffused national enlightenment the calumnies of ignorance are silent, and authority, disarmed of pretexts for its manifestation, trembles; whilst the rigorous force of the laws remains unshaken, no one of education having any dislike to the clear and useful public compacts which secure the common safety, when he compares the trifling and useless liberty sacrificed by himself with the sum-total of all the liberties sacrificed by others, who without the laws might have been hostile to himself. Whoever has a sensitive soul, when he contemplates a code of well-made laws, and finds that he has only lost the pernicious liberty of injuring others, will feel himself constrained to bless the throne and the monarch that sits upon it.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00620",
      "bookId": 58700,
      "start": 349598,
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      "text": "It is not true that the sciences have always been injurious to mankind; when they were so, it was an inevitable evil. The multiplication of the human race over the face of the earth introduced war, the ruder arts, and the first laws, mere temporary agreements which perished with the necessity that gave rise to them. This was mankind’s primitive philosophy, the few elements of which were just, because the indolence and slight wisdom of their framers preserved them from error. But with the multiplication of men there went ever a multiplication of their wants. Stronger and more lasting impressions were, therefore, needed, in order to turn them back from repeated lapses to that primitive state of disunion which each return to it rendered worse. Those primitive delusions, therefore, which peopled the earth with false divinities and created an invisible universe that governed our own, conferred a great benefit—I mean a great political benefit—upon humanity. Those men were benefactors of their kind, who dared to deceive them and drag them, docile and ignorant, to worship at the altars. By presenting to them objects that lay beyond the scope of sense and fled from their grasp the nearer they seemed to approach them—never despised, because never well understood—they concentrated their divided passions upon a single object of supreme interest to them. These were the first steps of all the nations that formed themselves out of savage tribes; this was the epoch when larger communities were formed, and such was their necessary and perhaps their only bond. I say nothing of that chosen people of God, for whom the most extraordinary miracles and the most signal favours were a substitute for human policy. But as it is the quality of error to fall into infinite subdivisions, so the sciences that grew out of it made of mankind a blind fanatical multitude, which, shut up within a close labyrinth, collides together in such confusion, that some sensitive and philosophical minds have regretted to this day the ancient savage state. That is the first epoch in which the sciences or rather opinions are injurious.",
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      "text": "The second epoch of history consists in the hard and terrible transition from errors to truth, from the darkness of ignorance to the light. The great clash between the errors which are serviceable to a few men of power and the truths which are serviceable to the weak and the many, and the contact and fermentation of the passions at such a period aroused, are a source of infinite evils to unhappy humanity. Whoever ponders on the different histories of the world, which after certain intervals of time are so much alike in their principal episodes, will therein frequently observe the sacrifice of a whole generation to the welfare of succeeding ones, in the painful but necessary transition from the darkness of ignorance to the light of philosophy, and from despotism to freedom, which result from the sacrifice. But when truth, whose progress at first is slow and afterwards rapid (after men’s minds have calmed down and the fire is quenched that purged a nation of the evils it suffered), sits as the companion of kings upon the throne, and is reverenced and worshipped in the parliaments of free governments, who will ever dare assert that the light which enlightens the people is more injurious than darkness, and that acknowledging the true and simple relations of things is pernicious to mankind?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00622",
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      "text": "If blind ignorance is less pernicious than confused half-knowledge, since the latter adds to the evils of ignorance those of error, which is unavoidable in a narrow view of the limits of truth, the most precious gift that a sovereign can make to himself or to his people is an enlightened man as the trustee and guardian of the sacred laws. Accustomed to see the truth and not to fear it; independent for the most part of the demands of reputation, which are never completely satisfied and put most men’s virtue to a trial; used to consider humanity from higher points of view; such a man regards his own nation as a family of men and of brothers, and the distance between the nobles and the people seems to him so much the less as he has before his mind the larger total of the whole human species. Philosophers acquire wants and interests unknown to the generality of men, but that one above all others, of not belying in public the principles they have taught in obscurity, and they gain the habit of loving the truth for its own sake. A selection of such men makes the happiness of a people, but a happiness which is only transitory, unless good laws so increase their number as to lessen the probability, always considerable, of an unfortunate choice.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG58700.B00623",
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      "text": "Another way of preventing crimes is to interest the magistrates who carry out the laws in seeking rather to preserve than to corrupt them. The greater the number of men who compose the magistracy, the less danger will there be of their exercising any undue power over the laws; for venality is more difficult among men who are under the close observation of one another, and their inducement to increase their individual authority diminishes in proportion to the smallness of the share of it that can fall to each of them, especially when they compare it with the risk of the attempt. If the sovereign accustoms his subjects, by formalities and pomp, by severe edicts, and by refusal to hear the grievances, whether just or unjust, of the man who thinks himself oppressed, to fear rather the magistrates than the laws, it will be more to the profit of the magistrates than to the gain of private and public security.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00624",
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      "text": "Another way to prevent crimes is to reward virtue. On this head I notice a general silence in the laws of all nations to this day. If prizes offered by academies to the discoverers of useful truths have caused the multiplication of knowledge and of good books, why should not virtuous actions also be multiplied, by prizes distributed from the munificence of the sovereign? The money of honour ever remains unexhausted and fruitful in the hands of the legislator who wisely distributes it.",
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      "ref": "PG58700.B00625",
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      "text": "Lastly, the surest but most difficult means of preventing crimes is to improve education—a subject too vast for present discussion, and lying beyond the limits of my treatise; a subject, I will also say, too intimately connected with the nature of government for it ever to be aught but a barren field, only cultivated here and there by a few philosophers, down to the remotest ages of public prosperity. A great man, who enlightens the humanity that persecutes him, has shown in detail the chief educational maxims of real utility to mankind; namely, that it consists less in a barren multiplicity of subjects than in their choice selection; in substituting originals for copies in the moral as in the physical phenomena presented by chance or intention to the fresh minds of youth; in inclining them to virtue by the easy path of feeling; and in deterring them from evil by the sure path of necessity and disadvantage, not by the uncertain method of command, which never obtains more than a simulated and transitory obedience.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XLII.",
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      "text": "CONCLUSION.",
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      "text": "From all that has gone before a general theorem may be deduced, of great utility, though little comformable to custom, that common lawgiver of nations. The theorem is this: ‘In order that every punishment may not be an act of violence, committed by one man or by many against a single individual, it ought to be above all things public, speedy, necessary, the least possible in the given circumstances, proportioned to its crime, dictated by the laws.’",
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      "text": "FOOTNOTES",
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      "text": "[64] Note that the word Right is not opposed to the word Force; but the former is rather a modification of the latter; that is, the modification most advantageous to the greater number. And by justice I mean nothing else than the chain which is necessary for holding together private interests and preventing their breaking away into the original state of insociability.",
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      "text": "One must be careful not to attach to this word Justice the idea of anything real, as of a physical force or an independent entity; it is only a human mode of thinking, a mode that has unbounded influence over each one’s happiness. Still less do I mean that other kind of justice that has emanated from God, and has its immediate connection with the penalties and rewards of a future life.",
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      "text": "The Project Gutenberg eBook of Poems by Emily Dickinson, Series One",
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      "text": "This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.",
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      "text": "Title: Poems by Emily Dickinson, Series One",
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      "text": "Author: Emily Dickinson",
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      "text": "Editor: Thomas Wentworth Higginson Mabel Loomis Todd",
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      "text": "TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE",
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      "text": "As is well documented, Emily Dickinson's poems were edited in these early editions by her friends, better to fit the conventions of the times. In particular, her dashes, often small enough to appear as dots, became commas and semi-colons.",
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      "text": "In the second series of poems published, a facsimile of her handwritten poem which her editors titled \"Renunciation\" is given, and I here transcribe that manuscript as faithfully as I can, showing _underlined_ words thus.",
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      "text": "There came a day - at Summer's full - Entirely for me - I thought that such were for the Saints - Where Resurrections - be -",
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      "text": "The sun - as common - went abroad - The flowers - accustomed - blew, As if no soul - that solstice passed - Which maketh all things - new -",
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      "text": "The time was scarce profaned - by speech - The falling of a word Was needless - as at Sacrament - The _Wardrobe_ - of our Lord!",
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      "text": "Each was to each - the sealed church - Permitted to commune - _this_ time - Lest we too awkward show At Supper of \"the Lamb.\"",
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      "text": "The hours slid fast - as hours will - Clutched tight - by greedy hands - So - faces on two Decks look back - Bound to _opposing_ lands.",
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      "text": "And so, when all the time had leaked, Without external sound, Each bound the other's Crucifix - We gave no other bond -",
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      "text": "Sufficient troth - that we shall _rise_, Deposed - at length the Grave - To that new marriage - _Justified_ - through Calvaries - of Love!",
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      "text": "From the handwriting, it is not always clear which are dashes, which are commas and which are periods, nor it is entirely clear which initial letters are capitalized.",
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      "text": "However, this transcription may be compared with the edited version in the main text to get a flavor of the changes made in these early editions.",
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      "text": "LIFE.",
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      "text": "I.",
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      "text": "SUCCESS.",
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      "text": "[Published in \"A Masque of Poets\" at the request of \"H.H.,\" the author's fellow-townswoman and friend.]",
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      "text": "Success is counted sweetest By those who ne'er succeed. To comprehend a nectar Requires sorest need.",
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      "sha256": "91e111078e4e02a376e80c32f4903cd5273b15033c3b9895bc24b1777d900a47",
      "text": "Not one of all the purple host Who took the flag to-day Can tell the definition, So clear, of victory,",
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      "text": "As he, defeated, dying, On whose forbidden ear The distant strains of triumph Break, agonized and clear!",
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      "text": "II.",
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      "sha256": "200a17984c420946c26874b1ff08f105e2c922d2ef933a8189b9da08b1662f60",
      "text": "Our share of night to bear, Our share of morning, Our blank in bliss to fill, Our blank in scorning.",
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      "text": "Here a star, and there a star, Some lose their way. Here a mist, and there a mist, Afterwards -- day!",
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      "text": "III.",
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      "text": "ROUGE ET NOIR.",
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      "text": "Soul, wilt thou toss again? By just such a hazard Hundreds have lost, indeed, But tens have won an all.",
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      "text": "Angels' breathless ballot Lingers to record thee; Imps in eager caucus Raffle for my soul.",
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      "text": "IV.",
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      "text": "ROUGE GAGNE.",
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      "text": "'T is so much joy! 'T is so much joy! If I should fail, what poverty! And yet, as poor as I Have ventured all upon a throw; Have gained! Yes! Hesitated so This side the victory!",
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      "text": "Life is but life, and death but death! Bliss is but bliss, and breath but breath! And if, indeed, I fail, At least to know the worst is sweet. Defeat means nothing but defeat, No drearier can prevail!",
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      "text": "And if I gain, -- oh, gun at sea, Oh, bells that in the steeples be, At first repeat it slow! For heaven is a different thing Conjectured, and waked sudden in, And might o'erwhelm me so!",
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      "sha256": "d816c31e610c123f63c806863c99c199a73e629443d055e25e8272dc367e5f53",
      "text": "V.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00060",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 9348,
      "end": 9480,
      "sha256": "510d5cfcc8937d5d651a97e5b6629aa6f781cd7861f8b2609eeaefe2f8b62028",
      "text": "How they will tell the shipwreck When winter shakes the door, Till the children ask, \"But the forty? Did they come back no more?\"",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00061",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 9484,
      "end": 9618,
      "sha256": "c7d4bb335b0ac22cedbe136c77acb3aeeb02b2435a1f9c8f79eeffc9f4762a7b",
      "text": "Then a silence suffuses the story, And a softness the teller's eye; And the children no further question, And only the waves reply.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00062",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 9636,
      "end": 9639,
      "sha256": "36dcfd7ef46ff35907e3858c9d25342fa480f250291306cd053e626745258f1a",
      "text": "VI.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00063",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 9643,
      "end": 9840,
      "sha256": "f629f36d861e94fa93f03425e7b55c665e85d27fa8a6268cf9660912484c014e",
      "text": "If I can stop one heart from breaking, I shall not live in vain; If I can ease one life the aching, Or cool one pain, Or help one fainting robin Unto his nest again, I shall not live in vain.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00064",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 9858,
      "end": 9862,
      "sha256": "88748f6113547074307afd17e2fbd898887ca599eb1854556241c1a417ea59d1",
      "text": "VII.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00065",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 9872,
      "end": 9879,
      "sha256": "9ec127827ad34f32b01efc245329617ed192d91edad38fe46660f41a003c0737",
      "text": "ALMOST!",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00066",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 9883,
      "end": 10126,
      "sha256": "3b9b386e419cd977982a7898b7be7568a8b3dc9eee039cec281ed7acf9eccf8d",
      "text": "Within my reach! I could have touched! I might have chanced that way! Soft sauntered through the village, Sauntered as soft away! So unsuspected violets Within the fields lie low, Too late for striving fingers That passed, an hour ago.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00067",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 10144,
      "end": 10149,
      "sha256": "c088e4857fd8912879ed0d96c2ce4d2e555555c4b3b559fa71a34553304877be",
      "text": "VIII.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00068",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 10153,
      "end": 10274,
      "sha256": "5c015b48473860e156ee7839b1e6ff753c47ac03ebe1850cf5325bb4f7011b4a",
      "text": "A wounded deer leaps highest, I've heard the hunter tell; 'T is but the ecstasy of death, And then the brake is still.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00069",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 10278,
      "end": 10398,
      "sha256": "ccc9702c3d376d21cbe1388d0199a5175f13c9e904271b834e6e8130ca59502b",
      "text": "The smitten rock that gushes, The trampled steel that springs; A cheek is always redder Just where the hectic stings!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00070",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 10402,
      "end": 10514,
      "sha256": "16f54a6132ffde5fc7860d79739f7444b9b1ad46642a25711e90e0066d3486f8",
      "text": "Mirth is the mail of anguish, In which it cautions arm, Lest anybody spy the blood And \"You're hurt\" exclaim!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00071",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 10532,
      "end": 10535,
      "sha256": "27b2789fe20153e83a905785d364ae4e1292f0c1a0dab52033560751efeb4fe9",
      "text": "IX.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00072",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 10539,
      "end": 10655,
      "sha256": "8384f79249d8f15c1d1c3fc1d0252ad08ca5684e747e2ff4091902ca24f8ec64",
      "text": "The heart asks pleasure first, And then, excuse from pain; And then, those little anodynes That deaden suffering;",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00073",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 10659,
      "end": 10761,
      "sha256": "d9fa838aec2f85817269b6082011c3104c6e15e241ccf79ce1d6158db8c1862e",
      "text": "And then, to go to sleep; And then, if it should be The will of its Inquisitor, The liberty to die.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00074",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 10779,
      "end": 10781,
      "sha256": "e133b5dffc18ee9c2d97c6c4bb1cdaae377a22dbbfa33967419c6747e1b787c8",
      "text": "X.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00075",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 10788,
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      "sha256": "b7d2a5faf2e9af2b22c4d9f40114dc117e742cc7f8254a4f7cd7becd27e7c54b",
      "text": "IN A LIBRARY.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00076",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 10805,
      "end": 10928,
      "sha256": "3e139330c175b156698952b3bbf62ed325e8058cf2eb96d70490425b90f725cf",
      "text": "A precious, mouldering pleasure 't is To meet an antique book, In just the dress his century wore; A privilege, I think,",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00077",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 10932,
      "end": 11046,
      "sha256": "1a6bb78d4492eb87a15cba0b02bedd4fb55e1e185f333ff3dcf84b8f9801ba99",
      "text": "His venerable hand to take, And warming in our own, A passage back, or two, to make To times when he was young.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00078",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 11050,
      "end": 11165,
      "sha256": "e2406c559bade89809293fd4bce2e788ee305fdd030f73d5b6df56ac7edd5e69",
      "text": "His quaint opinions to inspect, His knowledge to unfold On what concerns our mutual mind, The literature of old;",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00079",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 11169,
      "end": 11273,
      "sha256": "f7918aff3188a82b27d245d4cc49d40e42e69b5c187b50a9ef1f6e1a514369bc",
      "text": "What interested scholars most, What competitions ran When Plato was a certainty. And Sophocles a man;",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00080",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 11277,
      "end": 11382,
      "sha256": "7abd4cd8d0b112ae785ac2d651d1aaa6859e5049d3bb9c05987a0fbd2e271778",
      "text": "When Sappho was a living girl, And Beatrice wore The gown that Dante deified. Facts, centuries before,",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00081",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 11386,
      "end": 11511,
      "sha256": "6f5437d263d8ef1cf16cbd9d742c85234e0309ee46df69153b714f580ef28d2c",
      "text": "He traverses familiar, As one should come to town And tell you all your dreams were true; He lived where dreams were sown.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00082",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 11515,
      "end": 11630,
      "sha256": "4a84a83c6cab6695e51a387dcf20d1ecba7106079581d203e869de161e22d03a",
      "text": "His presence is enchantment, You beg him not to go; Old volumes shake their vellum heads And tantalize, just so.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00083",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 11648,
      "end": 11651,
      "sha256": "844fd7414049202ed35a6bfe11a7cd6987fd22d616cada1ab664265de463bc8a",
      "text": "XI.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00084",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 11655,
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      "sha256": "97b7f4098dd26000755daa947c4860c77bb0bf3e0f99b0e6f0f4b98c37c1fd63",
      "text": "Much madness is divinest sense To a discerning eye; Much sense the starkest madness. 'T is the majority In this, as all, prevails. Assent, and you are sane; Demur, -- you're straightway dangerous, And handled with a chain.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00085",
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      "start": 11902,
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      "text": "XII.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00086",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 11910,
      "end": 12009,
      "sha256": "0273899e2fbc7d3ed36f11f2bbb15bfc7d92dd77a7062238a803c9385500e336",
      "text": "I asked no other thing, No other was denied. I offered Being for it; The mighty merchant smiled.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00087",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 12013,
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      "sha256": "0231f89c964053b7b8b0e27ecfc315743ee8a3614d71791e29210ec19c4161d7",
      "text": "Brazil? He twirled a button, Without a glance my way: \"But, madam, is there nothing else That we can show to-day?\"",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00088",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 12148,
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      "text": "XIII.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00089",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 12162,
      "end": 12172,
      "sha256": "6151f4fbaa885f3c300f9997ee1255c4993538dd3b8f079c9131dc08f2906309",
      "text": "EXCLUSION.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00090",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 12176,
      "end": 12273,
      "sha256": "9dd5f22bcac64a22e8d677252408c711ff08c5785f24fbee6fa1789865c0d3ae",
      "text": "The soul selects her own society, Then shuts the door; On her divine majority Obtrude no more.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00091",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 12277,
      "end": 12383,
      "sha256": "45a39af69b0098551ae73b13edda3c25ac83152b111b2b55c02ede47459ff885",
      "text": "Unmoved, she notes the chariot's pausing At her low gate; Unmoved, an emperor is kneeling Upon her mat.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00092",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 12387,
      "end": 12488,
      "sha256": "829a01fedf105af3274283c553c7cf2c016a795476c5da223c2d5cc567fe6e02",
      "text": "I've known her from an ample nation Choose one; Then close the valves of her attention Like stone.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00093",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 12506,
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      "text": "XIV.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00094",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 12519,
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      "sha256": "5b7eb2e563838f0188233ec160f22eacb3aae80123851faf39a7c4fe574c6bec",
      "text": "THE SECRET.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00095",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 12534,
      "end": 12618,
      "sha256": "88cdb8bc26e4b2a27a807033b2646a134db8eb47f0dafb8266589e54884ca598",
      "text": "Some things that fly there be, -- Birds, hours, the bumble-bee: Of these no elegy.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00096",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 12622,
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      "sha256": "153e652026f25b63520f9551207e83104ca9c61793f550cbb55993a748434246",
      "text": "Some things that stay there be, -- Grief, hills, eternity: Nor this behooveth me.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00097",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 12709,
      "end": 12793,
      "sha256": "bda2356856e7017f689146baf25ed85ce4d5800affdbb1f705e0ed50346bda38",
      "text": "There are, that resting, rise. Can I expound the skies? How still the riddle lies!",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
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      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 12811,
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      "sha256": "2c3fa47c92bb3831f65e5d44715f0319950aa83bdeacb1eb92964edc1ffe7537",
      "text": "XV.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
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      "start": 12820,
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      "sha256": "a98b3f2ed8384c0e9e6eb756101439f6da3176df052dabdd01c9a8fc4ee1ce63",
      "text": "THE LONELY HOUSE.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
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      "start": 12841,
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      "sha256": "6503986261a21518afca113b5e4d5d555471dc35522bcd2fe689353d1cdfe91f",
      "text": "I know some lonely houses off the road A robber 'd like the look of, -- Wooden barred, And windows hanging low, Inviting to A portico, Where two could creep: One hand the tools, The other peep To make sure all's asleep. Old-fashioned eyes, Not easy to surprise!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
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      "text": "How orderly the kitchen 'd look by night, With just a clock, -- But they could gag the tick, And mice won't bark; And so the walls don't tell, None will.",
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    {
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      "text": "A pair of spectacles ajar just stir -- An almanac's aware. Was it the mat winked, Or a nervous star? The moon slides down the stair To see who's there.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00103",
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      "start": 13439,
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      "sha256": "4026f955f93e427f7be1389afd2b2b7754d71c805fabc258fc1cc0b1d48ebddb",
      "text": "There's plunder, -- where? Tankard, or spoon, Earring, or stone, A watch, some ancient brooch To match the grandmamma, Staid sleeping there.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00104",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 13588,
      "end": 13827,
      "sha256": "33d29741edf6eb3cffd6edcf08993a202730273a0dd1873f6d5c9c74aa8f9ea8",
      "text": "Day rattles, too, Stealth's slow; The sun has got as far As the third sycamore. Screams chanticleer, \"Who's there?\" And echoes, trains away, Sneer -- \"Where?\" While the old couple, just astir, Fancy the sunrise left the door ajar!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00105",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 13845,
      "end": 13849,
      "sha256": "95dcd02b81f5c4dd8271050079cd8deee226e411737d98c5e25e32c0a09e9815",
      "text": "XVI.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00106",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 13853,
      "end": 13957,
      "sha256": "6bcc815ef68cd78cc79942d3040a1ea0b4b19a439e3d2c0c680a66b5a6675363",
      "text": "To fight aloud is very brave, But gallanter, I know, Who charge within the bosom, The cavalry of woe.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00107",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 13961,
      "end": 14079,
      "sha256": "c0c51e7f6b74d7888151706daf0a90debae5fcb84152e6f4004f80ac9f87e334",
      "text": "Who win, and nations do not see, Who fall, and none observe, Whose dying eyes no country Regards with patriot love.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00108",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 14083,
      "end": 14195,
      "sha256": "ed8135cd82fd12e0de84f26b50f928b4857569ae5a67d7fb4ede058cc53df837",
      "text": "We trust, in plumed procession, For such the angels go, Rank after rank, with even feet And uniforms of snow.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00109",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 14213,
      "end": 14218,
      "sha256": "ded7b69b6faa523d29d1a5be5540ca8ee4cd42bd081d795b9f1a58049d916e05",
      "text": "XVII.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00110",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 14230,
      "end": 14235,
      "sha256": "40399f14525681293f04fb879a32b31d5d00b82758d251b5c179ff193a43bd6d",
      "text": "DAWN.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00111",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 14239,
      "end": 14354,
      "sha256": "f421de7bb0562176098ccd2ae5313673d371bcf46efff91dc0e9393681c42474",
      "text": "When night is almost done, And sunrise grows so near That we can touch the spaces, It 's time to smooth the hair",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00112",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 14358,
      "end": 14469,
      "sha256": "155a797294f5db0cacd86a3708e85f52887f4c2fcd3d6744e9db3703725e34d1",
      "text": "And get the dimples ready, And wonder we could care For that old faded midnight That frightened but an hour.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00113",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 14487,
      "end": 14493,
      "sha256": "60499e9205fa41b541fdb113ab1241126c8f8567a7cd569741c179d0d62c1fac",
      "text": "XVIII.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00114",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 14498,
      "end": 14518,
      "sha256": "020eed725806e4d7199d2dd3bd3bdd678a5fbc241e39667f3acd4062ded7bf4e",
      "text": "THE BOOK OF MARTYRS.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00115",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 14522,
      "end": 14717,
      "sha256": "30f9f9a10d2cba05d50deae1ca0e9e3860788deed24ebce83113795b31d5bb67",
      "text": "Read, sweet, how others strove, Till we are stouter; What they renounced, Till we are less afraid; How many times they bore The faithful witness, Till we are helped, As if a kingdom cared!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00116",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 14721,
      "end": 14897,
      "sha256": "7e96b4482b5db3a6acd13b919bdb3824c20bd4ebdd721a6e42142de27d2294f5",
      "text": "Read then of faith That shone above the fagot; Clear strains of hymn The river could not drown; Brave names of men And celestial women, Passed out of record Into renown!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00117",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 14915,
      "end": 14919,
      "sha256": "d5a66e266b6de8cbe86a0d859dc0b92a158e4a7760baa131f056290d3b191dc7",
      "text": "XIX.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00118",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 14924,
      "end": 14944,
      "sha256": "46ab47b9bb6423241aabf82bad2372b98e60e6f3878e26aff3df713f984a2404",
      "text": "THE MYSTERY OF PAIN.",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00119",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 14948,
      "end": 15055,
      "sha256": "356346e87348cb354c5941ad900c62f091b393e01676fc6bb32824e23a056170",
      "text": "Pain has an element of blank; It cannot recollect When it began, or if there were A day when it was not.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00120",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 15059,
      "end": 15173,
      "sha256": "0e4a899aafa00a85bc11a83d197fd99bf24427bef3ec415678098e19a201a237",
      "text": "It has no future but itself, Its infinite realms contain Its past, enlightened to perceive New periods of pain.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00121",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 15191,
      "end": 15194,
      "sha256": "083d409b54ec33b92b20e42ef7fe0027fe737f1f99218409371e78f945ce374a",
      "text": "XX.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00122",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 15198,
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      "sha256": "0dd7ff49fe88afc066603e3c5f3898432f0c5c0c04854f0c7f2ee6f3b413cc0f",
      "text": "I taste a liquor never brewed, From tankards scooped in pearl; Not all the vats upon the Rhine Yield such an alcohol!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00159",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 18265,
      "end": 18375,
      "sha256": "b16fc208184e09e2719348699f5e49c04947b71ddf901ec95a833764fd9478fa",
      "text": "What fortitude the soul contains, That it can so endure The accent of a coming foot, The opening of a door!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00160",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 18393,
      "end": 18395,
      "sha256": "d816c31e610c123f63c806863c99c199a73e629443d055e25e8272dc367e5f53",
      "text": "V.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00161",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 18403,
      "end": 18413,
      "sha256": "5dc65919feac4e0a10082d1dfeade4ebc7dc76d28491752bee810801608dbb2a",
      "text": "SURRENDER.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00162",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 18417,
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      "sha256": "20af3cb104ca0bd8845657574dd2edfa8a5ac906f3acb4c0a80912e521564c59",
      "text": "Doubt me, my dim companion! Why, God would be content With but a fraction of the love Poured thee without a stint. The whole of me, forever, What more the woman can, -- Say quick, that I may dower thee With last delight I own!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00163",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 18654,
      "end": 18881,
      "sha256": "4399f4346e3fc78aac78d890dc8a5a386a5ab2fce0e99ccff3bd1841232e08e1",
      "text": "It cannot be my spirit, For that was thine before; I ceded all of dust I knew, -- What opulence the more Had I, a humble maiden, Whose farthest of degree Was that she might, Some distant heaven, Dwell timidly with thee!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00164",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 18899,
      "end": 18902,
      "sha256": "36dcfd7ef46ff35907e3858c9d25342fa480f250291306cd053e626745258f1a",
      "text": "VI.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00165",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 18906,
      "end": 19024,
      "sha256": "bd6e3788141d2875d905c26c8a3d49110d0d3c1833fe390a845b706078931823",
      "text": "If you were coming in the fall, I'd brush the summer by With half a smile and half a spurn, As housewives do a fly.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00166",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 19028,
      "end": 19155,
      "sha256": "a8c7747eecf89220c6e99a7117fb84f9a836349ff70aac60f845a5de292d6a75",
      "text": "If I could see you in a year, I'd wind the months in balls, And put them each in separate drawers, Until their time befalls.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00167",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 19159,
      "end": 19275,
      "sha256": "e709c9da01a765ac438b11a5aa8a3831dc2d6f2e19500d525d66ec91d1b0f5f4",
      "text": "If only centuries delayed, I'd count them on my hand, Subtracting till my fingers dropped Into Van Diemen's land.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00168",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 19279,
      "end": 19400,
      "sha256": "b616b90acf6c53d061a80bcc21ed307c48c87721367a64c2520288b9d447a68f",
      "text": "If certain, when this life was out, That yours and mine should be, I'd toss it yonder like a rind, And taste eternity.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00169",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 19404,
      "end": 19533,
      "sha256": "a1d490522dc77e9e1aade2e71be58f5859f115baa34862a86a4a489a64ffbdcf",
      "text": "But now, all ignorant of the length Of time's uncertain wing, It goads me, like the goblin bee, That will not state its sting.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00170",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 19551,
      "end": 19555,
      "sha256": "88748f6113547074307afd17e2fbd898887ca599eb1854556241c1a417ea59d1",
      "text": "VII.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00171",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 19562,
      "end": 19576,
      "sha256": "559f037d07e0bcb1668788ff373a052d2221aa2a0991e7b56bb1901162584f8f",
      "text": "WITH A FLOWER.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00172",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 19580,
      "end": 19703,
      "sha256": "8e494448b1eab4c73616b9cc8c6544b456d95b0cdcacc9b78634c2366d309355",
      "text": "I hide myself within my flower, That wearing on your breast, You, unsuspecting, wear me too -- And angels know the rest.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00173",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 19707,
      "end": 19822,
      "sha256": "fb0b17eedb64e38747ee6ef95ab76fa27d1f9b1ea1f647169c15a93044f5f2f5",
      "text": "I hide myself within my flower, That, fading from your vase, You, unsuspecting, feel for me Almost a loneliness.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00174",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 19840,
      "end": 19845,
      "sha256": "c088e4857fd8912879ed0d96c2ce4d2e555555c4b3b559fa71a34553304877be",
      "text": "VIII.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00175",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 19857,
      "end": 19863,
      "sha256": "2237d9d523d9e5751e7f078baea26c866269729e11f70f0ed3e1d53da00bc5bc",
      "text": "PROOF.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00176",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 19867,
      "end": 19954,
      "sha256": "94c6d39349394d005045638388bd7a5bf6f62cb2426df95777c6fbf7eca0f4df",
      "text": "That I did always love, I bring thee proof: That till I loved I did not love enough.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00177",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 19958,
      "end": 20044,
      "sha256": "e83f77cb866fbaf791d3338819a9deb1addc196ff44748e394d23b5dc098b9c2",
      "text": "That I shall love alway, I offer thee That love is life, And life hath immortality.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00178",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 20048,
      "end": 20121,
      "sha256": "f66606926dfeff63aea2f5dd025d4f746ba4c3505d136a63e4732a84a80bdc4f",
      "text": "This, dost thou doubt, sweet? Then have I Nothing to show But Calvary.",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00179",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 20139,
      "end": 20142,
      "sha256": "27b2789fe20153e83a905785d364ae4e1292f0c1a0dab52033560751efeb4fe9",
      "text": "IX.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00180",
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      "start": 20146,
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      "sha256": "4cf5da72d6b2447bc85a09eab12680288b4d04dde1a6486bee7bf596c0b3e951",
      "text": "Have you got a brook in your little heart, Where bashful flowers blow, And blushing birds go down to drink, And shadows tremble so?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
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      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 20284,
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      "sha256": "4a0166a8a57b2b425912484f2568c5b70f2fbdab1a54d9ad58fa3c038f07c4bc",
      "text": "And nobody knows, so still it flows, That any brook is there; And yet your little draught of life Is daily drunken there.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
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      "start": 20412,
      "end": 20555,
      "sha256": "182c36944e080797042628030acf14eb4ca9e060f2761fdaa4b0e310bec1f180",
      "text": "Then look out for the little brook in March, When the rivers overflow, And the snows come hurrying from the hills, And the bridges often go.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00183",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 20559,
      "end": 20689,
      "sha256": "4f41ccad416d2478f06b4a2f6055af4b93bf09a4b9e065f59ae1f10f78d73c61",
      "text": "And later, in August it may be, When the meadows parching lie, Beware, lest this little brook of life Some burning noon go dry!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00184",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 20707,
      "end": 20709,
      "sha256": "e133b5dffc18ee9c2d97c6c4bb1cdaae377a22dbbfa33967419c6747e1b787c8",
      "text": "X.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00185",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 20716,
      "end": 20729,
      "sha256": "59ffda1467de31e9c1219c4c27931759894fe2421bffc372868d3e32916d38e8",
      "text": "TRANSPLANTED.",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00186",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 20733,
      "end": 21079,
      "sha256": "cf38e8dfc6898039bd3402e136434704dce775c8aadb5ee5f457beb075696085",
      "text": "As if some little Arctic flower, Upon the polar hem, Went wandering down the latitudes, Until it puzzled came To continents of summer, To firmaments of sun, To strange, bright crowds of flowers, And birds of foreign tongue! I say, as if this little flower To Eden wandered in -- What then? Why, nothing, only, Your inference therefrom!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00187",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 21097,
      "end": 21100,
      "sha256": "844fd7414049202ed35a6bfe11a7cd6987fd22d616cada1ab664265de463bc8a",
      "text": "XI.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00188",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 21108,
      "end": 21119,
      "sha256": "5c2d5cd6f7b56b4da3b6b5df5d1007fdb2acd33765f7ea8fcf6e2a53f8173a4c",
      "text": "THE OUTLET.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00189",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 21123,
      "end": 21173,
      "sha256": "1a12cadebc1c5b9c7df26e342421e9aca9194910e32c1074d8abad1f3130195a",
      "text": "My river runs to thee: Blue sea, wilt welcome me?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00293",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 29960,
      "end": 29977,
      "sha256": "0e9a86f947502feff198d48bc88a2888d13811e663f5cfb44a71b007f0538415",
      "text": "PSALM OF THE DAY.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00294",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 29981,
      "end": 30067,
      "sha256": "c0cb8e4c5f0df152780e166f6319ead41e933cfc18a127291fac2ba386a4d844",
      "text": "A something in a summer's day, As slow her flambeaux burn away, Which solemnizes me.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00295",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 30071,
      "end": 30162,
      "sha256": "80b69e3cf5951f6e26cda3e09f801756f22a1c4dfc853f703c85119e6ae366a7",
      "text": "A something in a summer's noon, -- An azure depth, a wordless tune, Transcending ecstasy.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00296",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 30166,
      "end": 30261,
      "sha256": "3dd175aa738b39a3b1839eeb643f2f1c3d09f4f23d7f645df99f49e4bd2d8f4a",
      "text": "And still within a summer's night A something so transporting bright, I clap my hands to see;",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00297",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 30265,
      "end": 30361,
      "sha256": "dd85f89753ac336278c7bda380eae29cbb68972c32c5856b6b4df9f8cbf8d27c",
      "text": "Then veil my too inspecting face, Lest such a subtle, shimmering grace Flutter too far for me.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00386",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 37819,
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      "sha256": "77684091a7caf95eac8b76d4ece230d7b57c37eb81a7c67b976c6235a75fbe2b",
      "text": "THE HEMLOCK.",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00387",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 37835,
      "end": 37943,
      "sha256": "c911fb504f2ca0b4535b5bf8b6873b16360c54af29c6ec49dcda4650bd731c6a",
      "text": "I think the hemlock likes to stand Upon a marge of snow; It suits his own austerity, And satisfies an awe",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00388",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 37947,
      "end": 38067,
      "sha256": "6419ef194450901f6b74349e59a5bbe1e53c6f48ee7e4973db2214636c222918",
      "text": "That men must slake in wilderness, Or in the desert cloy, -- An instinct for the hoar, the bald, Lapland's necessity.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00389",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 38071,
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      "sha256": "8c30b36b4adb2b0b7e951459a32c60f5bd7f23954422e66f8948e4ce8bc6ba70",
      "text": "The hemlock's nature thrives on cold; The gnash of northern winds Is sweetest nutriment to him, His best Norwegian wines.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00390",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 38199,
      "end": 38311,
      "sha256": "043a4c6f39d98b680d3c761cb0fbd8b8d4359b399d1140e950c834710d6be488",
      "text": "To satin races he is nought; But children on the Don Beneath his tabernacles play, And Dnieper wrestlers run.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00391",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 38329,
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      "sha256": "bee96e8472f7f1db6ee0e2cb114aaf6155ee9922c7962c4fc0cf4ad1aece4160",
      "text": "XXXI.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00392",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 38338,
      "end": 38448,
      "sha256": "345ba9bb5b4708e696b068d0da207fd1b5c659dcb51b2de5f5a415d31a2f2d66",
      "text": "There's a certain slant of light, On winter afternoons, That oppresses, like the weight Of cathedral tunes.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00393",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 38452,
      "end": 38550,
      "sha256": "4580e6c1babfd5d738a7eb56d236b557eb036a59074358876e9d68cd1bfbdbf0",
      "text": "Heavenly hurt it gives us; We can find no scar, But internal difference Where the meanings are.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00394",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 38554,
      "end": 38656,
      "sha256": "1e3a400152e8973f2684028f3678e27aab438cdb9e89ea47f33366ecca1e4a5b",
      "text": "None may teach it anything, ' T is the seal, despair, -- An imperial affliction Sent us of the air.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00395",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 38660,
      "end": 38787,
      "sha256": "5c8b899c9fa4eb879c8e26b0ad195e53031af63e5a2dc9c5d94d157323513d2a",
      "text": "When it comes, the landscape listens, Shadows hold their breath; When it goes, 't is like the distance On the look of death.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00396",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 38829,
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      "sha256": "042bf14ef0ebc2b8f29436c42ed32592d55e6c559e473dad955da5ef0c302db3",
      "text": "IV.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00397",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 38849,
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      "sha256": "1240a17d26d1a0d37a4e44dca734fac4f14c2994eb95b67b11ea1fcb248919ce",
      "text": "TIME AND ETERNITY.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00398",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 38897,
      "end": 38899,
      "sha256": "6177fd2664d785bf3c9f9b89a952d6510465c507c1b37b3b4d93295eb409896b",
      "text": "I.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00399",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 38903,
      "end": 39006,
      "sha256": "7a4a4deff5b9bebda6a4d5273be05f1e7f2c3c9debb1225baf87308a5a5fe051",
      "text": "One dignity delays for all, One mitred afternoon. None can avoid this purple, None evade this crown.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00400",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 39010,
      "end": 39126,
      "sha256": "426317d815fb6d66700e02aae546a4711e28c82a692e847f42bc5c2e09746167",
      "text": "Coach it insures, and footmen, Chamber and state and throng; Bells, also, in the village, As we ride grand along.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00401",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 39130,
      "end": 39241,
      "sha256": "5dba0512742bb9e4835bc8f894447d68a2265ab1ad9e165c6bebfc2d73f20a50",
      "text": "What dignified attendants, What service when we pause! How loyally at parting Their hundred hats they raise!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00427",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 41615,
      "end": 41727,
      "sha256": "c5c7e3864fc69c7cbc71d327f60a86a8d30dcae3918052fee2d0ab298bbba7c6",
      "text": "Exultation is the going Of an inland soul to sea, -- Past the houses, past the headlands, Into deep eternity!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00428",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 41731,
      "end": 41851,
      "sha256": "bc94096e4c130fca6525863795935eb1003d2d373d8b471706728540dc39edda",
      "text": "Bred as we, among the mountains, Can the sailor understand The divine intoxication Of the first league out from land?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00429",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 41869,
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      "sha256": "c088e4857fd8912879ed0d96c2ce4d2e555555c4b3b559fa71a34553304877be",
      "text": "VIII.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00430",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 41878,
      "end": 42002,
      "sha256": "2ed8146df6bd580e6978b28371722aa95b78818118b8800388311cf364b67a5d",
      "text": "Look back on time with kindly eyes, He doubtless did his best; How softly sinks his trembling sun In human nature's west!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00431",
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      "start": 42020,
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      "sha256": "27b2789fe20153e83a905785d364ae4e1292f0c1a0dab52033560751efeb4fe9",
      "text": "IX.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00432",
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      "start": 42027,
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      "sha256": "d8b4707f2f086421f171d22e9015e9215715658d4dee510cad3a4340d73dd70e",
      "text": "A train went through a burial gate, A bird broke forth and sang, And trilled, and quivered, and shook his throat Till all the churchyard rang;",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00433",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 42176,
      "end": 42300,
      "sha256": "7fd41bee0f12aad7e0b428ac33caaa43b21c2ca9b07b31d1630d4f9dd697a453",
      "text": "And then adjusted his little notes, And bowed and sang again. Doubtless, he thought it meet of him To say good-by to men.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00434",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 42318,
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      "sha256": "e133b5dffc18ee9c2d97c6c4bb1cdaae377a22dbbfa33967419c6747e1b787c8",
      "text": "X.",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00435",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 42324,
      "end": 42441,
      "sha256": "0c55e5ac37c9f0d67be38a10025b3452cd71587315acb6ff1878c915a2969173",
      "text": "I died for beauty, but was scarce Adjusted in the tomb, When one who died for truth was lain In an adjoining room.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00436",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 42445,
      "end": 42572,
      "sha256": "24051b89f56ecef616ad77021560ff002e03ccf9dbed325df4e58ec90565a155",
      "text": "He questioned softly why I failed? \"For beauty,\" I replied. \"And I for truth, -- the two are one; We brethren are,\" he said.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00437",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 42576,
      "end": 42702,
      "sha256": "03e1cb7f0cea0fb5bf1165d6a2a2f5cbc4f9acc2d0f73a4abef9df12c9e414be",
      "text": "And so, as kinsmen met a night, We talked between the rooms, Until the moss had reached our lips, And covered up our names.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00438",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 42720,
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      "text": "XI.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00439",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 42728,
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      "sha256": "6f40e684b1f721bfaade80193039ee2244452829bff8c4de09e77e317ad30c04",
      "text": "\"TROUBLED ABOUT MANY THINGS.\"",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00440",
      "bookId": 2678,
      "start": 42761,
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      "sha256": "a06064c93ab6867d88edb896206135ad1f766aeae3eb6b32973d0606782b6646",
      "text": "How many times these low feet staggered, Only the soldered mouth can tell; Try! can you stir the awful rivet? Try! can you lift the hasps of steel?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2678.B00441",
      "bookId": 2678,
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      "sha256": "74296c56f2fdf1e8f27352f5c1df187f503e4bdbe5cad5abd7b61478fb918042",
      "text": "Stroke the cool forehead, hot so often, Lift, if you can, the listless hair; Handle the adamantine fingers Never a thimble more shall wear.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "Buzz the dull flies on the chamber window; Brave shines the sun through the freckled pane; Fearless the cobweb swings from the ceiling -- Indolent housewife, in daisies lain!",
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      "text": "The eyes glaze once, and that is death. Impossible to feign The beads upon the forehead By homely anguish strung.",
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      "text": "XIII.",
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      "text": "THE FUNERAL.",
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      "text": "That short, potential stir That each can make but once, That bustle so illustrious 'T is almost consequence,",
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      "text": "Is the eclat of death. Oh, thou unknown renown That not a beggar would accept, Had he the power to spurn!",
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      "text": "I went to thank her, But she slept; Her bed a funnelled stone, With nosegays at the head and foot, That travellers had thrown,",
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      "text": "Who went to thank her; But she slept. 'T was short to cross the sea To look upon her like, alive, But turning back 't was slow.",
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      "text": "I've seen a dying eye Run round and round a room In search of something, as it seemed, Then cloudier become; And then, obscure with fog, And then be soldered down, Without disclosing what it be, 'T were blessed to have seen.",
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      "text": "The clouds their backs together laid, The north begun to push, The forests galloped till they fell, The lightning skipped like mice; The thunder crumbled like a stuff -- How good to be safe in tombs, Where nature's temper cannot reach, Nor vengeance ever comes!",
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      "text": "I never saw a moor, I never saw the sea; Yet know I how the heather looks, And what a wave must be.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: VIEW OF THE TEMPLE OF SERAPIS AT PUZZUOLI IN 1836.]",
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      "text": "M.DCCC.LIV.",
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      "text": "\"Vere scire est per causas scire.\"--BACON.",
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      "text": "\"The stony rocks are not primeval, but the daughters of Time.\"--LINNAEUS, _Syst. Nat._ ed. 5, _Stockholm_, 1748, p. 219.",
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      "text": "\"Amid all the revolutions of the globe, the economy of nature has been uniform, and her laws are the only things that have resisted the general movement. The rivers and the rocks, the seas and the continents have been changed in all their parts; but the laws which direct those changes, and the rules to which they are subject, have remained invariably the same.\"--PLAYFAIR, _Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory_, Section 374.",
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      "text": "\"The inhabitants of the globe, like all the other parts of it, are subject to change. It is not only the individual that perishes, but whole species.",
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      "text": "\"A change in the animal kingdom seems to be a part of the order of Nature, and is visible in instances to which human power cannot have extended.\"--PLAYFAIR, _Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory_, Section 413.",
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      "text": "PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION.",
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      "text": "The Principles of Geology in the first five editions embraced not only a view of the _modern changes_ of the earth and its inhabitants, as set forth in the present work, but also some account of those monuments of analogous changes of _ancient_ date, both in the organic and inorganic world, which it is the business of the geologist to interpret. The subject last mentioned, or \"geology proper,\" constituted originally a fourth book, now omitted, the same having been enlarged into a separate treatise, first published in 1838, in one volume 12mo., and called \"The Elements of Geology,\" afterwards recast in two volumes 12mo. in 1842, and again re-edited under the title of \"Manual of Elementary Geology,\" in one volume 8vo. in 1851. The \"Principles\" and \"Manual\" thus divided, occupy, with one exception, to which I shall presently allude, very different ground. The \"Principles\" treat of such portions of the economy of existing nature, animate and inanimate, as are illustrative of Geology, so as to comprise an investigation of the permanent effects of causes now in action, which may serve as records to after ages of the present condition of the globe and its inhabitants. Such effects are the enduring monuments of the ever-varying state of the physical geography of the globe, the lasting signs of its destruction and renovation, and the memorials of the equally fluctuating condition of the organic world. They may be regarded, in short, as a symbolical language, in which the earth's autobiography is written.",
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      "text": "In the \"Manual of Elementary Geology,\" on the other hand, I have treated briefly of the component materials of the earth's crust, their arrangement and relative position, and their organic contents, which, when deciphered by aid of the key supplied by the study of the modern changes above alluded to, reveal to us the annals of a grand succession of past events--a series of revolutions which the solid exterior of the globe, and its living inhabitants, have experienced in times antecedent to the creation of man.",
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      "text": "In thus separating the two works, however, I have retained in the \"Principles\" (book i.) the discussion of some matters which might fairly be regarded as common to both treatises; as for example, an historical sketch of the early progress of geology, followed by a series of preliminary essays to explain the facts and arguments which lead me to believe that the forces now operating upon and beneath the earth's surface may be the same, both in kind and degree, as those which at remote epochs have worked out geological changes. (See Analysis of Contents of this work, p. ix.)",
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      "text": "If I am asked whether the \"Principles\" or the \"Manual\" should be studied first, I feel much the same difficulty in answering the question as if a student should inquire whether he ought to take up first a treatise on Chemistry, or one on Natural Philosophy, subjects sufficiently distinct, yet inseparably connected. On the whole, while I have endeavored to make each of the two treatises, in their present form, quite independent of the other, I would recommend the reader to study first the modern changes of the earth and its inhabitants as they are discussed in the present volume, proceeding afterwards to the classification and interpretation of the monuments of more remote ages.",
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      "text": "CHARLES LYELL.",
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      "text": "_11 Harley Street, London_, May 24, 1853.",
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      "text": "CHAPTERS VII. VIII. Causes of vicissitudes in climate, and their connection with changes in physical geography 92, 114",
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      "text": "CHAPTER IX. Theory of the progressive development of organic life at successive periods considered--Modern origin of Man 130",
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      "text": "CHAPTER X. Supposed intensity of aqueous forces at remote periods--Erratic blocks--Deluges 153",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XI. Supposed former intensity of the igneous forces--Upheaval of land--Volcanic action 160",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XII. Causes of the difference in texture of older and newer rocks--Plutonic and Metamorphic action 175",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XIII. Supposed alternate periods of repose and disorder--Opposite doctrine, which refers geological phenomena to an uninterrupted series of changes in the organic and inorganic world, unattended with general catastrophes, or the development of paroxysmal forces 180",
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      "text": "BOOK II. (CHAPTERS XIV. to XXXII.)",
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      "text": "OBSERVED CHANGES IN THE INORGANIC WORLD NOW IN PROGRESS: FIRST, THE EFFECTS OF AQUEOUS CAUSES, SUCH AS RIVERS, SPRINGS, GLACIERS, WAVES, TIDES, AND CURRENTS; SECONDLY, OF IGNEOUS CAUSES, OR SUBTERRANEAN HEAT, AS EXHIBITED IN THE VOLCANO AND THE EARTHQUAKE.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XIV. Aqueous causes--Excavating and transporting power of rivers 198",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XV. Carrying power of river-ice--Glaciers and Icebergs 219",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XVI. Phenomena of springs 232",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XVII. Reproductive effects of rivers--Deltas of lakes and inland seas 251",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XVIII. Deltas of the Mississippi, Ganges, and other rivers exposed to tidal action 263",
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      "text": "CHAPTERS XIX. XX. XXI. Denuding, transporting, and depositing agency of the waves, tides, and currents--Waste of sea-cliffs on the coast of England--Delta of the Rhine--Deposition of sediment under the influence of marine currents 290, 321, 337",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XXII. Observed effects of igneous causes--Regions of active volcanoes 344",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XXV. Etna--Its eruptions--Structure and antiquity of the cone 396",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XXVI. Volcanoes of Iceland, Mexico, the Canaries, and Grecian Archipelago--Mud volcanoes 424",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XXVII. Earthquakes and the permanent changes attending them 451",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XXVIII. Earthquake of 1783 in Calabria 471",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XXIX. Elevation and subsidence of dry land, and of the bed of the sea during earthquakes--Evidence of the same afforded by the Temple of Serapis near Naples 493",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XXX. Elevation and subsidence of land in regions free from volcanoes and earthquakes--Rising of land in Sweden 519",
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      "text": "CHAPTERS XXXI. XXXII. Causes of earthquakes and volcanoes--Theory of central fluidity of the earth--Chemical theory of volcanoes--Causes of permanent upheaval and depression of land 533, 545",
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      "text": "BOOK III. (CHAPTERS XXXIII to L.)",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XLIII. Creation of species--Whether the loss of certain animals and plants is compensated by the introduction of new species 701",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XLIV. Modifications in physical geography caused by organic beings 708",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XLV. Imbedding of organic remains in peat, blown sand, and volcanic ejections 718",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XLVI. Imbedding of the same in alluvial deposits and in caves 730",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XLVII. Imbedding of organic remains in aqueous deposits--Terrestrial plants--Insects, reptiles, birds, quadrupeds 742",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XLVIII. Imbedding of the remains of man and his works 753",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XLIX. Imbedding of aquatic animals and plants, both freshwater and marine, in aqueous deposits 765",
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      "text": "By these researches into the state of the earth and its inhabitants at former periods, we acquire a more perfect knowledge of its present condition, and more comprehensive views concerning the laws now governing its animate and inanimate productions. When we study history, we obtain a more profound insight into human nature, by instituting a comparison between the present and former states of society. We trace the long series of events which have gradually led to the actual posture of affairs; and by connecting effects with their causes, we are enabled to classify and retain in the memory a multitude of complicated relations--the various peculiarities of national character--the different degrees of moral and intellectual refinement, and numerous other circumstances, which, without historical associations, would be uninteresting or imperfectly understood. As the present condition of nations is the result of many antecedent changes, some extremely remote, and others recent, some gradual, others sudden and violent; so the state, of the natural world is the result of a long succession of events; and if we would enlarge our experience of the present economy of nature, we must investigate the effects of her operations in former epochs.",
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      "text": "We often discover with surprise, on looking back into the chronicles of nations, how the fortune of some battle has influenced the fate of millions of our contemporaries, when it has long been forgotten by the mass of the population. With this remote event we may find inseparably connected the geographical boundaries of a great state, the language now spoken by the inhabitants, their peculiar manners, laws, and religious opinions. But far more astonishing and unexpected are the connections brought to light, when we carry back our researches into the history of nature. The form of a coast, the configuration of the interior of a country, the existence and extent of lakes, valleys, and mountains, can often be traced to the former prevalence of earthquakes and volcanoes in regions which have long been undisturbed. To these remote convulsions the present fertility of some districts, the sterile character of others, the elevation of land above the sea, the climate, and various peculiarities, may be distinctly referred. On the other hand, many distinguishing features of the surface may often be ascribed to the operation, at a remote era, of slow and tranquil causes--to the gradual deposition of sediment in a lake or in the ocean, or to the prolific increase of testacea and corals.",
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      "text": "To select another example, we find in certain localities subterranean deposits of coal, consisting of vegetable matter, formerly drifted into seas and lakes. These seas and lakes have since been filled up, the lands whereon the forests grew have disappeared or changed their form, the rivers and currents which floated the vegetable masses can no longer be traced, and the plants belonged to species which for ages have passed away from the surface of our planet. Yet the commercial prosperity, and numerical strength of a nation, may now be mainly dependent on the local distribution of fuel determined by that ancient state of things.",
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      "text": "Geology is intimately related to almost all the physical sciences, as history is to the moral. An historian should, if possible, be at once profoundly acquainted with ethics, politics, jurisprudence, the military art, theology; in a word, with all branches of knowledge by which any insight into human affairs, or into the moral and intellectual nature of man, can be obtained. It would be no less desirable that a geologist should be well versed in chemistry, natural philosophy, mineralogy, zoology, comparative anatomy, botany; in short, in every science relating to organic and inorganic nature. With these accomplishments, the historian and geologist would rarely fail to draw correct and philosophical conclusions from the various monuments transmitted to them of former occurrences. They would know to what combination of causes analogous effects were referable, and they would often be enabled to supply, by inference, information concerning many events unrecorded in the defective archives of former ages. But as such extensive acquisitions are scarcely within the reach of any individual, it is necessary that men who have devoted their lives to different departments should unite their efforts; and as the historian receives assistance from the antiquary, and from those who have cultivated different branches of moral and political science, so the geologist should avail himself of the aid of many naturalists, and particularly of those who have studied the fossil remains of lost species of animals and plants.",
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      "text": "The analogy, however, of the monuments consulted in geology, and those available in history, extends no farther than to one class of historical monuments--those which may be said to be _undesignedly_ commemorative of former events. The canoes, for example, and stone hatchets found in our peat bogs, afford an insight into the rude arts and manners of the earliest inhabitants of our island; the buried coin fixes the date of the reign of some Roman emperor; the ancient encampment indicates the districts once occupied by invading armies, and the former method of constructing military defences; the Egyptian mummies throw light on the art of embalming, the rites of sepulture, or the average stature of the human race in ancient Egypt. This class of memorials yields to no other in authenticity, but it constitutes a small part only of the resources on which the historian relies, whereas in geology it forms the only kind of evidence which is at our command. For this reason we must not expect to obtain a full and connected account of any series of events beyond the reach of history. But the testimony of geological monuments, if frequently imperfect, possesses at least the advantage of being free from all intentional misrepresentation. We may be deceived in the inferences which we draw, in the same manner as we often mistake the nature and import of phenomena observed in the daily course of nature; but our liability to err is confined to the interpretation, and, if this be correct, our information is certain.",
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      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 27348,
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      "sha256": "4b8ed5052e0221fb2e8f67f5690e81fa23d9a75619a1d6a2b7c5e7a58196331f",
      "text": "\"The Being, whose powers are incomprehensible, having created me (Menu) and this universe, again became absorbed in the supreme spirit, changing the time of energy for the hour of repose.",
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      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "\"When that Power awakes, then has this world its full expansion; but when he slumbers with a tranquil spirit, then the whole system fades away..... For while he reposes, as it were, embodied spirits endowed with principles of action depart from their several acts, and the mind itself becomes inert.\"",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B00117",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "The absorption of all beings into the Supreme essence is then described, and the Divine soul itself is said to slumber, and to remain for a time immersed in \"the first idea, or in darkness.\" After which the text thus proceeds (verse fifty-seven), \"Thus that immutable power by waking and reposing alternately, revivifies and destroys, in eternal succession, this whole assemblage of locomotive and immovable creatures.\"",
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      "text": "It is then declared that there has been a long succession of _manwantaras_, or periods, each of the duration of many thousand ages, and--",
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      "text": "\"There are creations also, and destructions of worlds innumerable: the Being, supremely exalted, performs all this with as much ease as if in sport, again and again, for the sake of conferring happiness.\"[2]",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B00126",
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      "text": "The great flood of the Chinese, which their traditions carry back to the period of Yaou, something more than 2000 years before our era, has been identified by some persons with the universal deluge described in the Old Testament; but according to Mr. Davis, who accompanied two of our embassies to China, and who has carefully examined their written accounts, the Chinese cataclysm is therein described as interrupting the business of agriculture, rather than as involving a general destruction of the human race. The great Yu was celebrated for having \"opened nine channels to draw off the waters,\" which \"covered the low hills and bathed the foot of the highest mountains.\" Mr. Davis suggests that a great derangement of waters of the Yellow River, one of the largest in the world, might even now cause the flood of Yaou to be repeated, and lay the most fertile and populous plains of China under water. In modern times the bursting of the banks of an artificial canal, into which a portion of the Yellow River has been turned, has repeatedly given rise to the most dreadful accidents, and is a source of perpetual anxiety to the government. It is easy, therefore, to imagine how much greater may have been the inundation, if this valley was ever convulsed by a violent earthquake.[6]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00127",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "end": 36542,
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      "text": "Humboldt relates the interesting fact that, after the annihilation of a large part of the inhabitants of Cumana, by an earthquake in 1766, a season of extraordinary fertility ensued, in consequence of the great rains which accompanied the subterranean convulsions. \"The Indians,\" he says, \"celebrated, after the ideas of an antique superstition, by festivals and dancing, the destruction of the world and the approaching epoch of its regeneration.\"[7]",
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      "text": "The existence of such rites among the rude nations of South America is most important, as showing what effects may be produced by local catastrophes, recurring at distant intervals of time, on the minds of a barbarous and uncultivated race. I shall point out in the sequel how the tradition of a deluge among the Araucanian Indians may be explained, by reference to great earthquake-waves which have repeatedly rolled over part of Chili since the first recorded flood of 1590. (See chap. 29, Book II.) The legend also of the ancient Peruvians of an inundation many years before the reign of the Incas, in which only six persons were saved on a float, relates to a region which has more than once been overwhelmed by inroads of the ocean since the days of Pizarro. (Chap. 29, Book II.) I might refer the reader to my account of the submergence of a wide area in Cutch so lately as the year 1819, when a single tower only of the fort of Sindree appeared above the waste of waters (see Chap. 28, Book II.), if it were necessary, to prove how easily the catastrophes of modern times might give rise to traditionary narratives, among a rude people, of floods of boundless extent. Nations without written records, and who are indebted for all their knowledge of past events exclusively to oral tradition, are in the habit of confounding in one legend a series of incidents which have happened at various epochs; nor must we forget that the superstitions of a savage tribe are transmitted through all the progressive stages of society, till they exert a powerful influence on the mind of the philosopher. He may find, in the monuments of former changes on the earth's surface, an apparent confirmation of tenets handed down through successive generations, from the rude hunter, whose terrified imagination drew a false picture of those awful visitations of floods and earthquakes, whereby the whole earth as known to him was simultaneously devastated.",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B00129",
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      "text": "_Egyptian Cosmogony._--Respecting the cosmogony of the Egyptian priests, we gather much information from writers of the Grecian sects, who borrowed almost all their tenets from Egypt, and amongst others that of the former successive destruction and renovation of the world.[8] We learn from Plutarch, that this was the theme of one of the hymns of Orpheus, so celebrated in the fabulous ages of Greece. It was brought by him from the banks of the Nile; and we even find in his verses, as in the Indian systems, a definite period assigned for the duration of each successive world.[9] The returns of great catastrophes were determined by the period of the Annus Magnus, or great year,--a cycle composed of the revolutions of the sun, moon, and planets, and terminating when these return together to the same sign whence they were supposed at some remote epoch to have set out. The duration of this great cycle was variously estimated. According to Orpheus, it was 120,000 years; according to others, 300,000; and by Cassander it was taken to be 360,000 years.[10]",
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      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "We learn particularly from the Timaeus of Plato, that the Egyptians believed the world to be subject to occasional conflagrations and deluges, whereby the gods arrested the career of human wickedness, and purified the earth from guilt. After each regeneration, mankind were in a state of virtue and happiness, from which they gradually degenerated again into vice and immorality. From this Egyptian doctrine, the poets derived the fable of the decline from the golden to the iron age. The sect of Stoics adopted most fully the system of catastrophes destined at certain intervals to destroy the world. Those they taught were of two kinds;--the Cataclysm, or destruction by water, which sweeps away the whole human race, and annihilates all the animal and vegetable productions of nature; and the Ecpyrosis, or destruction by fire, which dissolves the globe itself. From the Egyptians also they derived the doctrine of the gradual debasement of man from a state of innocence. Towards the termination of each era, the gods could no longer bear with the wickedness of men, and a shock of the elements or a deluge overwhelmed them; after which calamity, Astrea again descended on the earth to renew the golden age.[11]",
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      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "We may suppose Omar to have represented the desertion of the land by the sea to have been gradual, and that his hypothesis required a greater lapse of ages than was consistent with Moslem orthodoxy; for it is to be inferred from the Koran, that man and this planet were created at the same time; and although Mahomet did not limit expressly the antiquity of the human race, yet he gave an implied sanction to the Mosaic chronology, by the veneration expressed by him for the Hebrew Patriarchs.[38]",
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      "text": "A manuscript work, entitled the \"Wonders of Nature,\" is preserved in the Royal Library at Paris, by an Arabian writer, Mohammed Kazwini, who flourished in the seventh century of the Hegira, or at the close of the thirteenth century of our era.[39] Besides several curious remarks on aerolites, earthquakes, and the successive changes of position which the land and sea have undergone, we meet with the following beautiful passage which is given as the narrative of Kidhz, an allegorical personage:--\"I passed one day by a very ancient and wonderfully populous city, and asked one of its inhabitants how long it had been founded. 'It is indeed a mighty city,' replied he; 'we know not how long it has existed, and our ancestors were on this subject as ignorant as ourselves.' Five centuries afterwards, as I passed by the same place, I could not perceive the slightest vestige of the city. I demanded of a peasant, who was gathering herbs upon its former site, how long it had been destroyed. 'In sooth a strange question!' replied he. 'The ground here has never been different from what you now behold it.'--'Was there not of old,' said I, 'a splendid city here?'--'Never,' answered he, 'so far as we have seen, and never did our fathers speak to us of any such.' On my return there 500 years afterwards, _I found the sea in the same place_, and on its shores were a party of fishermen, of whom I inquired how long the land had been covered by the waters? 'Is this a question,' said they, 'for a man like you? this spot has always been what it is now.' I again returned, 500 years afterwards, and the sea had disappeared; I inquired of a man who stood alone upon the spot, how long ago this change had taken place, and he gave me the same answer as I had received before. Lastly, on coming back again after an equal lapse of time, I found there a flourishing city, more populous and more rich in beautiful buildings, than the city I had seen the first time, and when I would fain have informed myself concerning its origin, the inhabitants answered me, 'Its rise is lost in remote antiquity: we are ignorant how long it has existed, and our fathers were on this subject as ignorant as ourselves.'\"",
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      "text": "_Early Italian writers._--It was not till the earlier part of the sixteenth century that geological phenomena began to attract the attention of the Christian nations. At that period a very animated controversy sprang up in Italy, concerning the true nature and origin of marine shells, and other organized fossils, found abundantly in the strata of the peninsula. The celebrated painter Leonardo da Vinci, who in his youth had planned and executed some navigable canals in the north of Italy, was one of the first who applied sound reasoning to these subjects. The mud of rivers, he said, had covered and penetrated into the interior of fossil shells at a time when these were still at the bottom of the sea near the coast. \"They tell us that these shells were formed in the hills by the influence of the stars; but I ask where in the hills are the stars now forming shells of distinct ages and species? and how can the stars explain the origin of gravel, occurring at different heights and composed of pebbles rounded as if by the motion of running water; or in what manner can such a cause account for the petrifaction in the same places of various leaves, sea-weeds, and marine-crabs?\"[40]",
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      "text": "The excavations made in 1517, for repairing the city of Verona, brought to light a multitude of curious petrifactions, and furnished matter for speculation to different authors, and among the rest to Fracastoro,[41] who declared his opinion, that fossil shells had all belonged to living animals, which had formerly lived and multiplied where there exuviae are now found. He exposed the absurdity of having recourse to a certain \"plastic force,\" which it was said had power to fashion stones into organic forms; and with no less cogent arguments, demonstrated the futility of attributing the situation of the shells in question to the Mosaic deluge, a theory obstinately defended by some. That inundation, he observed, was too transient; it consisted principally of fluviatile waters; and if it had transported shells to great distances, must have strewed them over the surface, not buried them at vast depths in the interior of mountains. His clear exposition of the evidence would have terminated the discussion forever, if the passions of mankind had not been enlisted in the dispute; and even though doubts should for a time have remained in some minds, they would speedily have been removed by the fresh information obtained almost immediately afterwards, respecting the structure of fossil remains, and of their living analogues.",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B00179",
      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 69955,
      "end": 71287,
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      "text": "But the clear and philosophical views of Fracastoro were disregarded, and the talent and argumentative powers of the learned were doomed for three centuries to be wasted in the discussion of these two simple and preliminary questions: first, whether fossil remains had ever belonged to living creatures; and, secondly, whether, if this be admitted, all the phenomena could not be explained by the deluge of Noah. It had been the general belief of the Christian world down to the period now under consideration, that the origin of this planet was not more remote than a few thousand years; and that since the creation the deluge was the only great catastrophe by which considerable change had been wrought on the earth's surface. On the other hand, the opinion was scarcely less general, that the final dissolution of our system was an event to be looked for at no distant period. The era, it is true, of the expected millennium had passed away; and for five hundred years after the fatal hour when the annihilation of the planet had been looked for, the monks remained in undisturbed enjoyment of rich grants of land bequeathed to them by pious donors, who, in the preamble of deeds beginning \"appropinquante mundi termino\"----\"appropinquante magno judicii die,\" left lasting monuments of the popular delusion.[42]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00190",
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      "text": "He declared that he had obtained proof that Tuscany must successively have acquired six distinct configurations, having been twice covered by water, twice laid dry with a level, and twice with an irregular and uneven surface.[50] He displayed great anxiety to reconcile his new views with Scripture, for which purpose he pointed to certain rocks as having been formed before the existence of animals and plants: selecting unfortunately as examples certain formations of limestone and sandstone in his own country, now known to contain, though sparingly, the remains of animals and plants,--strata which do not even rank as the oldest part of our secondary series. Steno suggested that Moses, when speaking of the loftiest mountains as having been covered by the deluge, meant merely the loftiest of the hills then existing, which may not have been very high. The diluvian waters, he supposed, may have issued from the interior of the earth into which they had retired, when in the beginning the land was separated from the sea. These, and other hypotheses on the same subject, are not calculated to enhance the value of the treatise, and could scarcely fail to detract from the authority of those opinions which were sound and legitimate deductions from fact and observation. They have served, nevertheless, as the germs of many popular theories of later times, and in an expanded form have been put forth as original inventions by some of our contemporaries.",
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      "text": "_Scilla_, 1670.--Scilla, a Sicilian painter, published, in 1670, a treatise, in Latin, on the fossils of Calabria, illustrated by good engravings. This work proves the continued ascendancy of dogmas often refuted; for we find the wit and eloquence of the author chiefly directed against the obstinate incredulity of naturalists as to the organic nature of fossil shells.[51] Like many eminent naturalists of his day, Scilla gave way to the popular persuasion, that all fossil shells were the effects and proofs of the Mosaic deluge. It may be doubted whether he was perfectly sincere, and some of his contemporaries who took the same course were certainly not so. But so eager were they to root out what they justly considered an absurd prejudice respecting the nature of organized fossils, that they seem to have been ready to make any concessions, in order to establish this preliminary point. Such a compromising policy was short-sighted, since it was to little purpose that the nature of the documents should at length be correctly understood, if men were to be prevented from deducing fair conclusions from them.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00192",
      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 83032,
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      "text": "_Diluvial Theory._--The theologians who now entered the field in Italy, Germany, France, and England, were innumerable; and henceforward, they who refused to subscribe to the position, that all marine organic remains were proofs of the Mosaic deluge, were exposed to the imputation of disbelieving the whole of the sacred writings. Scarcely any step had been made in approximating to sound theories since the time of Fracastoro, more than a hundred years having been lost, in writing down the dogma that organized fossils were mere sports of nature. An additional period of a century and a half was now destined to be consumed in exploding the hypothesis, that organized fossils had all been buried in the solid strata by Noah's flood. Never did a theoretical fallacy, in any branch of science, interfere more seriously with accurate observation and the systematic classification of facts. In recent times, we may attribute our rapid progress chiefly to the careful determination of the order of succession in mineral masses, by means of their different organic contents, and their regular superposition. But the old diluvialists were induced by their system to confound all the groups of strata together instead of discriminating,--to refer all appearances to one cause and to one brief period, not to a variety of causes acting throughout a long succession of epochs. They saw the phenomena only as they desired to see them, sometimes misrepresenting facts, and at other times deducing false conclusions from correct data. Under the influence of such prejudices, three centuries were of as little avail as a few years in our own times, when we are no longer required to propel the vessel against the force of an adverse current.",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B00193",
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      "text": "It may be well, therefore, to forewarn the reader, that in tracing the history of geology from the close of the seventeenth to the end of the eighteenth century, he must expect to be occupied with accounts of the retardation, as well as of the advance, of the science. It will be necessary to point out the frequent revival of exploded errors, and the relapse from sound to the most absurd opinions; and to dwell on futile reasoning and visionary hypothesis, because some of the most extravagant systems were invented or controverted by men of acknowledged talent. In short, a sketch of the progress of geology is the history of a constant and violent struggle of new opinions against doctrines sanctioned by the implicit faith of many generations, and supposed to rest on scriptural authority. The inquiry, therefore, although highly interesting to one who studies the philosophy of the human mind, is too often barren of instruction to him who searches for truths in physical science.",
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      "text": "_Quirini_, 1676.--Quirini, in 1676,[52] contended, in opposition to Scilla, that the diluvian waters could not have conveyed heavy bodies to the summit of mountains, since the agitation of the sea never (as Boyle had demonstrated) extended to great depths;[53] and still less could the testacea, as some pretended, have lived in these diluvian waters; for \"the duration of the flood was brief, and _the heavy rains must have destroyed the saltness of the sea!_\" He was the first writer who ventured to maintain that the universality of the Mosaic cataclysm ought not to be insisted upon. As to the nature of petrified shells, he conceived that as earthy particles united in the sea to form the shells of mollusca, the same crystallizing process might be effected on the land; and that, in the latter case, the germs of the animals might have been disseminated through the substance of the rocks, and afterwards developed by virtue of humidity. Visionary as was this doctrine, it gained many proselytes even amongst the more sober reasoners of Italy and Germany; for it conceded that the position of fossil bodies could not be accounted for by the diluvial theory.",
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      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "\"However trivial a thing,\" he says, \"a rotten shell may appear to some, yet these monuments of nature are more certain tokens of antiquity than coins or medals, since the best of those may be counterfeited or made by art and design, as may also books, manuscripts, and inscriptions, as all the learned are now sufficiently satisfied has often been actually practised,\" &c.; \"and though it must be granted that it is very difficult to read them (the records of nature) and _to raise a chronology out of them_, and to state the intervals of the time wherein such or such catastrophes and mutations have happened, yet it is not impossible.\"[58]",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B00199",
      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 90843,
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      "text": "Respecting the extinction of species, Hooke was aware that the fossil ammonites, nautili, and many other shells and fossil skeletons found in England, were of different species from any then known; but he doubted whether the species had become extinct, observing that the knowledge of naturalists of all the marine species, especially those inhabiting the deep sea, was very deficient. In some parts of his writings, however, he leans to the opinion that species had been lost; and in speculating on this subject, he even suggests that there might be some connection between the disappearance of certain kinds of animals and plants, and the changes wrought by earthquakes in former ages. Some species, he observes, with great sagacity, are \"_peculiar to certain places_, and not to be found elsewhere. If, then, such a place had been swallowed up, it is not improbable but that those animate beings may have been destroyed with it; and this may be true both of aerial and aquatic animals; for those animated bodies, whether vegetables or animals, which were naturally nourished or refreshed by the air, would be destroyed by the water,\" &c.[59] Turtles, he adds, and such large ammonites as are found in Portland, seem to have been the productions of hotter countries; and it is necessary to suppose that England once lay under the sea within the torrid zone! To explain this and similar phenomena, he indulges in a variety of speculations concerning changes in the position of the axis of the earth's rotation, \"a shifting of the earth's centre of gravity, analogous to the revolutions of the magnetic pole,\" &c. None of these conjectures, however, are proposed dogmatically, but rather in the hope of promoting fresh inquiries and experiments.",
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      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "In opposition to the prejudices of his age, we find him arguing against the idea that nature had formed fossil bodies \"for no other end than to play the mimic in the mineral kingdom;\"--maintaining that figured stones were \"really the several bodies they represent, or the mouldings of them petrified,\" and not, as some have imagined, 'a lusus naturae,' sporting herself in the needless formation of useless beings.\"[60]",
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      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "It was objected to Hooke, that his doctrine of the extinction of species derogated from the wisdom and power of the omnipotent Creator; but he answered, that, as individuals die, there may be some termination to the duration of a species; and his opinions, he declared, were not repugnant to Holy Writ: for the Scriptures taught that our system was degenerating, and tending to its final dissolution; \"and as, when that shall happen, all the species will be lost, why not some at one time and some at another?\"[61]",
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      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "But his principal object was to account for the manner in which shells had been conveyed into the higher parts of \"the Alps, Apennines, and Pyrenean hills, and the interior of continents in general.\" These and other appearances, he said, might have been brought about by earthquakes, \"which have turned plains into mountains, and mountains into plains, seas into land, and land into seas, made rivers where there were none before, and swallowed up others that formerly were, &c., &c.; and which, since the creation of the world, have wrought many great changes on the superficial parts of the earth, and have been the instruments of placing shells, bones, plants, fishes, and the like, in those places where, with much astonishment, we find them.\"[62] This doctrine, it is true, had been laid down in terms almost equally explicit by Strabo, to explain the occurrence of fossil shells in the interior of continents, and to that geographer, and other writers of antiquity, Hooke frequently refers; but the revival and development of the system was an important step in the progress of modern science.",
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      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "Hooke enumerated all the examples known to him of subterranean disturbance, from \"the sad catastrophe of Sodom and Gomorrah,\" down to the Chilian earthquake of 1646. The elevating of the bottom of the sea, the sinking and submersion of the land, and most of the inequalities of the earth's surface, might, he said, be accounted for by the agency of these subterranean causes. He mentions that the coast near Naples _was raised during the eruption of Monte Nuovo_; and that, in 1591, land rose in the island of St. Michael, during an eruption: and although it would be more difficult, he says, to prove, he does not doubt but that there had been as many earthquakes in the parts of the earth under the ocean, as in the parts of the dry land; in confirmation of which, he mentions the immeasurable depth of the sea near some volcanoes. To attest the extent of simultaneous subterranean movements, he refers to an earthquake in the West Indies, in the year 1690, where the space of earth raised, or \"struck upwards,\" by the shock, exceeded, he affirms, the length of the Alps and Pyrenees.",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B00204",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "_Hooke's diluvial Theory._--As Hooke declared the favorite hypothesis of the day, \"that marine fossil bodies were to be referred to Noah's flood,\" to be wholly untenable, he appears to have felt himself called upon to substitute a diluvial theory of his own, and thus he became involved in countless difficulties and contradictions. \"During the great catastrophe,\" he said, \"there might have been a changing of that part which was before dry land into sea by sinking, and of that which was sea into dry land by raising, and marine bodies might have been buried in sediment beneath the ocean, in the interval between the creation and the deluge.\"[63] Then follows a disquisition on the separation of the land from the waters, mentioned in Genesis; during which operation some places of the shell of the earth were forced outwards, and others pressed downwards or inwards, &c. His diluvial hypothesis very much resembled that of Steno, and was entirely opposed to the fundamental principles professed by him, that he would explain the former changes of the earth _in a more natural manner_ than others had done. When, in despite of this declaration, he required a former \"crisis of nature,\" and taught that earthquakes had become debilitated, and that the Alps, Andes, and other chains, had been lifted up in a few months, he was compelled to assume so rapid a rate of change, that his machinery appeared scarcely less extravagant than that of his most fanciful predecessors. For this reason, perhaps, his whole theory of earthquakes met with undeserved neglect.",
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      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "_Ray_, 1692.--One of his contemporaries, the celebrated naturalist, Ray, participated in the same desire to explain geological phenomena by reference to causes less hypothetical than those usually resorted to.[64] In his essay on \"Chaos and Creation,\" he proposed a system, agreeing in its outline, and in many of its details, with that of Hooke; but his knowledge of natural history enabled him to elucidate the subject with various original observations. Earthquakes, he suggested, might have been the second causes employed at the creation, in separating the land from the waters, and in gathering the waters together into one place. He mentions, like Hooke, the earthquake of 1646, which had violently shaken the Andes for some hundreds of leagues, and made many alterations therein. In assigning a cause for the general deluge, he preferred a change in the earth's centre of gravity to the introduction of earthquakes. Some unknown cause, he said, might have forced the subterranean waters outwards, as was, perhaps, indicated by \"the breaking up of the fountains of the great deep.\"",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00206",
      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 98485,
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      "text": "Ray was one of the first of our writers who enlarged upon the effects of running water upon the land, and of the encroachment of the sea upon the shores. So important did he consider the agency of these causes, that he saw in them an indication of the tendency of our system to its final dissolution; and he wondered why the earth did not proceed more rapidly towards a general submersion beneath the sea, when so much matter was carried down by rivers, or undermined in the sea-cliffs. We perceive clearly from his writings, that the gradual decline of our system, and its future consummation by fire, was held to be as necessary an article of faith by the orthodox, as was the recent origin of our planet. His discourses, like those of Hooke, are highly interesting, as attesting the familiar association in the minds of philosophers, in the age of Newton, of questions in physics and divinity. Ray gave an unequivocal proof of the sincerity of his mind, by sacrificing his preferment in the church, rather than take an oath against the Covenanters, which he could not reconcile with his conscience. His reputation, moreover, in the scientific world placed him high above the temptation of courting popularity, by pandering to the physico-theological taste of his age. It is, therefore, curious to meet with so many citations from the Christian fathers and prophets in his essays on physical science--to find him in one page proceeding, by the strict rules of induction, to explain the former changes of the globe, and in the next gravely entertaining the question, whether the sun and stars, and the whole heavens, shall be annihilated, together with the earth, at the era of the grand conflagration.",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B00207",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "_Woodward, 1695._--Among the contemporaries of Hooke and Ray, Woodward, a professor of medicine, had acquired the most extensive information respecting the geological structure of the crust of the earth. He had examined many parts of the British strata with minute attention; and his systematic collection of specimens, bequeathed to the University of Cambridge, and still preserved there as arranged by him, shows how far he had advanced in ascertaining the order of superposition. From the great number of facts collected by him, we might have expected his theoretical views to be more sound and enlarged than those of his contemporaries; but in his anxiety to accommodate all observed phenomena to the scriptural account of the Creation and Deluge, he arrived at most erroneous results. He conceived \"the whole terrestrial globe to have been taken to pieces and dissolved at the flood, and the strata to have settled down from this promiscuous mass as any earthy sediment from a fluid.\"[65] In corroboration of these views he insisted upon the fact, that \"marine bodies are lodged in the strata according to the order of their gravity, the heavier shells in stone, the lighter in chalk, and so of the rest.\"[66] Ray immediately exposed the unfounded nature of this assertion, remarking truly that fossil bodies \"are often mingled, heavy with light, in the same stratum;\" and he even went so far as to say, that Woodward \"must have invented the phenomena for the sake of confirming his bold and strange hypothesis\"[67]--a strong expression from the pen of a contemporary.",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B00208",
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      "text": "_Burnet, 1690._--At the same time Burnet published his \"Theory of the Earth.\"[68] The title is most characteristic of the age,--\"The Sacred Theory of the Earth; containing an Account of the Original of the Earth, and of all the general Changes which it hath already undergone, or is to undergo, till the Consummation of all Things.\" Even Milton had scarcely ventured in his poem to indulge his imagination so freely in painting scenes of the Creation and Deluge, Paradise and Chaos. He explained why the primeval earth enjoyed a perpetual spring before the flood! showed how the crust of the globe was fissured by \"the sun's rays,\" so that it burst, and thus the diluvial waters were let loose from a supposed central abyss. Not satisfied with these themes, he derived from the books of the inspired writers, and even from heathen authorities, prophetic views of the future revolutions of the globe, gave a most terrific description of the general conflagration, and proved that a new heaven and a new earth will rise out of a _second chaos_--after which will follow the blessed millennium.",
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      "text": "The weakest point in Moro's system consisted in deriving _all_ the stratified rocks from volcanic ejections; an absurdity which his opponents took care to expose, especially Vito Amici.[80] Moro seems to have been misled by his anxious desire to represent the formation of secondary rocks as having occupied an extremely short period, while at the same time he wished to employ known agents in nature. To imagine torrents, rivers, currents, partial floods, and all the operations of moving water, to have gone on exerting an energy many thousand times greater than at present, would have appeared preposterous and incredible, and would have required a hundred violent hypotheses; but we are so unacquainted with the true sources of subterranean disturbances, that their former violence may in theory be multiplied indefinitely, without its being possible to prove the same manifest contradiction or absurdity in the conjecture. For this reason, perhaps, Moro preferred to derive the materials of the strata from volcanic ejections, rather than from transportation by running water.",
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      "text": "_Marsilli._--Marsilli, whose work is alluded to by Generelli, had been prompted to institute inquiries into the bed of the Adriatic, by discovering, in the territory of Parma (what Spada had observed near Verona, and Schiavo in Sicily), that fossil shells were not scattered through the rocks at random, but disposed in regular order, according to certain genera and species.",
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      "text": "_Vitaliano Donati_, 1750.--But with a view of throwing further light upon these questions, Donati, in 1750, undertook a more extensive investigation of the Adriatic, and discovered, by numerous soundings, that deposits of sand, marl, and tufaceous incrustations, most strictly analogous to those of the Subapennine hills, were in the act of accumulating there. He ascertained that there were no shells in some of the submarine tracts, while in other places they lived together in families, particularly the genera Arca, Pecten, Venus, Murex, and some others. He also states that in divers localities he found a mass composed of corals, shells, and crustaceous bodies of different species, confusedly blended with earth, sand, and gravel. At the depth of a foot or more, the organic substances were entirely petrified and reduced to marble; at less than a foot from the surface, they approached nearer to their natural state; while at the surface they were alive, or, if dead, in a good state of preservation.",
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      "text": "_Baldassari_.--A contemporary naturalist, Baldassari, had shown that the organic remains in the tertiary marls of the Siennese territory were grouped in families, in a manner precisely similar to that above alluded to by Donati.",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B00231",
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      "text": "_Buffon_, 1749.--Buffon first made known his theoretical views concerning the former changes of the earth, in his Natural History, published in 1749. He adopted the theory of an original volcanic nucleus, together with the universal ocean of Leibnitz. By this aqueous envelope the highest mountains were once covered. Marine currents then acted violently, and formed horizontal strata, by washing away solid matter in some parts, and depositing it in others; they also excavated deep submarine valleys. The level of the ocean was then depressed by the entrance of a part of its waters into subterranean caverns, and thus some land was left dry. Buffon seems not to have profited, like Leibnitz and Moro, by the observations of Steno, or he could not have imagined that the strata were generally horizontal, and that those which contain organic remains had never been disturbed since the era of their formation. He was conscious of the great power annually exerted by rivers and marine currents in transporting earthy materials to lower levels, and he even contemplated the period when they would destroy all the present continents. Although in geology he was not an original observer, his genius enabled him to render his hypothesis attractive; and by the eloquence of his style, and the boldness of his speculations, he awakened curiosity, and provoked a spirit of inquiry amongst his countrymen.",
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      "text": "_Lehman_, 1756.--In the year 1756 the treatise of Lehman, a German mineralogist, and director of the Prussian mines, appeared, who also divided mountains into three classes: the first, those formed with the world, and prior to the creation of animals, and which contained no fragments of other rocks; the second class, those which resulted from the partial destruction of the primary rocks by a general revolution; and a third class, resulting from local revolutions, and in part from the deluge of Noah.",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B00236",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "A French translation of this work appeared in 1759, in the preface of which, the translator displays very enlightened views respecting the operations of earthquakes, as well as of the aqueous causes.[82]",
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    {
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      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "_Gesner_, 1758.--In this year Gesner, the botanist, of Zurich, published an excellent treatise on petrifactions, and the changes of the earth which they testify.[83] After a detailed enumeration of the various classes of fossils of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and remarks on the different states in which they are found petrified, he considers the geological phenomena connected with them; observing, that some, like those of OEningen, resembled the testacea, fish, and plants indigenous in the neighboring region;[84] while some, such as ammonites, gryphites, belemnites, and other shells, are either of unknown species, or found only in the Indian and other distant seas. In order to elucidate the structure of the earth, he gives sections, from Verenius, Buffon, and others, obtained in digging wells; distinguishes between horizontal and inclined strata; and, in speculating on the causes of these appearances, mentions Donati's examination of the bed of the Adriatic; the filling up of lakes and seas by sediment; the imbedding of shells now in progress; and many known effects of earthquakes, such as the sinking down of districts, or the heaving up of the bed of the sea, so as to form new islands, and lay dry strata containing petrifactions. The ocean, he says, deserts its shores in many countries, as on the borders of the Baltic; but the rate of recession has been so slow in the last 2000 years, that to allow the Apennines, whose summits are filled with marine shells, to emerge to their present height, would have required about 80,000 years,--a lapse of time ten times greater, or more, than the age of the universe. We must therefore refer the phenomenon to the command of the Deity, related by Moses, that \"the waters should be gathered together in one place, and the dry land appear.\" Gesner adopted the views of Leibnitz, to account for the retreat of the primeval ocean: his essay displays much erudition; and the opinions of preceding writers of Italy, Germany, and England, are commented upon with fairness and discrimination.",
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      "text": "_Arduino_, 1759.--In the year following, Arduino,[85] in his memoirs on the mountains of Padua, Vicenza, and Verona, deduced, from original observations, the distinction of rocks into primary, secondary, and tertiary, and showed that in those districts there had been a succession of submarine volcanic eruptions.",
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      "text": "_Michell_, 1760.--In the following year (1760) the Rev. John Michell, Woodwardian Professor of Mineralogy at Cambridge, published in the Philosophical Transactions, an Essay on the Cause and Phenomena of Earthquakes.[86] His attention had been drawn to this subject by the great earthquake of Lisbon in 1755. He advanced many original and philosophical views respecting the propagation of subterranean movements, and the caverns and fissures wherein steam might be generated. In order to point out the application of his theory to the structure of the globe, he was led to describe the arrangement and disturbance of the strata, their usual horizontality in low countries, and their contortions and fractured state in the neighborhood of mountain chains. He also explained, with surprising accuracy, the relations of the central ridges of older rocks to the \"long narrow slips of similar earth, stones, and minerals,\" which are parallel to these ridges. In his generalizations, derived in great part from his own observations on the geological structure of Yorkshire, he anticipated many of the views more fully developed by later naturalists.",
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      "text": "_Werner._--The art of mining has long been taught in France, Germany, and Hungary, in scientific institutions established for that purpose, where mineralogy has always been a principal branch of instruction.",
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      "text": "Werner was named, in 1775, professor of that science in the \"School of Mines,\" at Freyberg, in Saxony. He directed his attention not merely to the composition and external characters of minerals, but also to what he termed \"geognosy,\" or the natural position of minerals in particular rocks, together with the grouping of those rocks, their geographical distribution, and various relations. The phenomena observed in the structure of the globe had hitherto served for little else than to furnish interesting topics for philosophical discussion; but when Werner pointed out their application to the practical purposes of mining, they were instantly regarded by a large class of men as an essential part of their professional education, and from that time the science was cultivated in Europe more ardently and systematically. Werner's mind was at once imaginative and richly stored with miscellaneous knowledge. He associated every thing with his favorite science, and in his excursive lectures, he pointed out all the economical uses of minerals, and their application to medicine; the influence of the mineral composition of rocks upon the soil, and of the soil upon the resources, wealth, and civilization of man. The vast sandy plains of Tartary and Africa, he would say, retained their inhabitants in the shape of wandering shepherds; the granitic mountains and the low calcareous and alluvial plains gave rise to different manners, degrees of wealth, and intelligence. The history even of languages, and the migration of tribes, had been determined by the direction of particular strata. The qualities of certain stones used in building would lead him to descant on the architecture of different ages and nations; and the physical geography of a country frequently invited him to treat of military tactics. The charm of his manners and his eloquence kindled enthusiasm in the minds of his pupils; and many, who had intended at first only to acquire a slight knowledge of mineralogy, when they had once heard him, devoted themselves to it as the business of their lives. In a few years, a small school of mines, before unheard of in Europe, was raised to the rank of a great university; and men already distinguished in science studied the German language, and came from the most distant countries to hear the great oracle of geology.[97]",
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      "text": "Werner had a great antipathy to the mechanical labor of writing, and, with the exception of a valuable treatise on metalliferous veins, he could never be persuaded to pen more than a few brief memoirs, and those containing no development of his general views. Although the natural modesty of his disposition was excessive, approaching even to timidity, he indulged in the most bold and sweeping generalizations, and he inspired all his scholars with a most implicit faith in his doctrines. Their admiration of his genius, and the feelings of gratitude and friendship which they all felt for him, were not undeserved; but the supreme authority usurped by him over the opinions of his contemporaries, was eventually prejudicial to the progress of the science; so much so, as greatly to counterbalance the advantages which it derived from his exertions. If it be true that delivery be the first, second, and third requisite in a popular orator, it is no less certain, that to travel is of first, second, and third importance to those who desire to originate just and comprehensive views concerning the structure of our globe. Now Werner had not travelled to distant countries; he had merely explored a small portion of Germany, and conceived, and persuaded others to believe, that the whole surface of our planet, and all the mountain chains in the world, were made after the model of his own province. It became a ruling object of ambition in the minds of his pupils to confirm the generalizations of their great master, and to discover in the most distant parts of the globe his \"universal formations,\" which he supposed had been each in succession simultaneously precipitated over the whole earth from a common menstruum, or \"chaotic fluid.\" It now appears that the Saxon professor had misinterpreted many of the most important appearances even in the immediate neighborhood of Freyberg. Thus, for example, within a day's journey of his school, the porphyry, called by him primitive, has been found not only to send forth veins or dikes through strata of the coal formation, but to overlie them in mass. The granite of the Hartz mountains, on the other hand, which he supposed to be the nucleus of the chain, is now well known to traverse the other beds, as near Goslar; and still nearer Freyberg, in the Erzgebirge, the mica slate does not mantle round the granite as was supposed, but abuts abruptly against it. Fragments, also, of the greywacka slate, containing organic remains, have recently been found entangled in the granite of the Hartz, by M. de Seckendorf.[98]",
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      "text": "The principal merit of Werner's system of instruction consisted in steadily directing the attention of his scholars to the constant relations of superposition of certain mineral groups; but he had been anticipated, as has been shown in the last chapter, in the discovery of this general law, by several geologists in Italy and elsewhere; and his leading divisions of the secondary strata were at the same time, and independently, made the basis of an arrangement of the British strata by our countryman, William Smith, to whose work I shall refer in the sequel.",
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      "text": "_Controversy between the Vulcanists and Neptunists._--In regard to basalt and other igneous rocks, Werner's theory was original, but it was also extremely erroneous. The basalts of Saxony and Hesse, to which his observations were chiefly confined, consisted of tabular masses capping the hills, and not connected with the levels of existing valleys, like many in Auvergne and the Vivarais. These basalts, and all other rocks of the same family in other countries, were, according to him, chemical precipitates from water. He denied that they were the products of submarine volcanoes; and even taught that, in the primeval ages of the world, there were no volcanoes. His theory was opposed, in a twofold sense, to the doctrine of the permanent agency of the same causes in nature; for not only did he introduce, without scruple, many imaginary causes supposed to have once effected great revolutions in the earth, and then to have become extinct, but new ones also were feigned to have come into play in modern times; and, above all, that most violent instrument of change, the agency of subterranean heat.",
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      "text": "By this important discovery of granite veins, to which he had been led by fair induction from an independent class of facts, Hutton prepared the way for the greatest innovation of the systems of his predecessors. Vallisneri had pointed out the general fact that there were certain fundamental rocks which contained no organic remains, and which he supposed to have been formed before the creation of living beings. Moro, Generelli, and other Italian writers, embraced the same doctrine; and Lehman regarded the mountains called by him primitive, as parts of the original nucleus of the globe. The same tenet was an article of faith in the school of Freyberg; and if any one ventured to doubt the possibility of our being enabled to carry back our researches to the creation of the present order of things, the granitic rocks were triumphantly appealed to. On them seemed written, in legible characters, the memorable inscription--",
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      "text": "\"Dinanzi a me non fur cose create Se non eterne;\"[106]",
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      "text": "and no small sensation was excited when Hutton seemed, with unhallowed hand, desirous to erase characters already regarded by many as sacred. \"In the economy of the world,\" said the Scotch geologist, \"I can find no traces of a beginning, no prospect of an end;\" a declaration the more startling when coupled with the doctrine, that all past ages on the globe had been brought about by the slow agency of existing causes. The imagination was first fatigued and overpowered by endeavoring to conceive the immensity of time required for the annihilation of whole continents by so insensible a process; and when the thoughts had wandered through these interminable periods, no resting-place was assigned in the remotest distance. The oldest rocks were represented to be of a derivative nature, the last of an antecedent series, and that, perhaps, one of many pre-existing worlds. Such views of the immensity of past time, like those unfolded by the Newtonian philosophy in regard to space, were too vast to awaken ideas of sublimity unmixed with a painful sense of our incapacity to conceive a plan of such infinite extent. Worlds are seen beyond worlds immeasurably distant from each other, and, beyond them all, innumerable other systems are faintly traced on the confines of the visible universe.",
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      "text": "The characteristic feature of the Huttonian theory was, as before hinted, the exclusion of all causes not supposed to belong to the present order of nature. But Hutton had made no step beyond Hooke, Moro, and Raspe, in pointing out in what manner the laws now governing subterranean movements might bring about geological changes, if sufficient time be allowed. On the contrary, he seems to have fallen far short of some of their views, especially when he refused to attribute any part of the external configuration of the earth's crust to subsidence. He imagined that the continents were first gradually destroyed by aqueous degradation; and when their ruins had furnished materials for new continents, they were upheaved by violent convulsions. He therefore required alternate periods of general disturbance and repose; and such he believed had been, and would forever be, the course of nature.",
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      "text": "Generelli, in his exposition of Moro's system, had made a far nearer approximation towards reconciling geological appearances with the state of nature as known to us; for while he agreed with Hutton, that the decay and reproduction of rocks were always in progress, proceeding with the utmost uniformity, the learned Carmelite represented the repairs of mountains by elevation from below to be effected by an equally constant and synchronous operation. Neither of these theories, considered singly, satisfies all the conditions of the great problem, which a geologist, who rejects cosmological causes, is called upon to solve; but they probably contain together the germs of a perfect system. There can be no doubt, that periods of disturbance and repose have followed each other in succession in every region of the globe; but it may be equally true, that the energy of the subterranean movements has been always uniform as regards the _whole earth_. The force of earthquakes may for a cycle of years have been invariably confined, as it is now, to large but determinate spaces, and may then have gradually shifted its position, so that another region, which had for ages been at rest, became in its turn the grand theatre of action.",
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      "text": "_Playfair's illustrations of Hutton._--The explanation proposed by Hutton, and by Playfair, the illustrator of his theory, respecting the origin of valleys and of alluvial accumulations, was also very imperfect. They ascribed none of the inequalities of the earth's surface to movements which accompanied the upheaving of the land, imagining that valleys in general were formed in the course of ages by the rivers now flowing in them; while they seem not to have reflected on the excavating and transporting power which the waves of the ocean might exert on land during its emergence.",
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      "text": "Although Hutton's knowledge of mineralogy and chemistry was considerable, he possessed but little information concerning organic remains; they merely served him, as they did Werner, to characterize certain strata, and to prove their marine origin. The theory of former revolutions in organic life was not yet fully recognized; and without this class of proofs in support of the antiquity of the globe, the indefinite periods demanded by the Huttonian hypothesis appeared visionary to many; and some, who deemed the doctrine inconsistent with revealed truths, indulged very uncharitable suspicions of the motives of its author. They accused him of a deliberate design of reviving the heathen dogma of an \"eternal succession,\" and of denying that this world ever had a beginning. Playfair, in the biography of his friend, has the following comment on this part of their theory:--\"In the planetary motions, where geometry has carried the eye so far, both into the future and the past, we discover no mark either of the commencement or termination of the present order. It is unreasonable, indeed, to suppose that such marks should anywhere exist. The Author of Nature has not given laws to the universe, which, like the institutions of men, carry in themselves the elements of their own destruction. He has not permitted in His works any symptom of infancy or of old age, or any sign by which we may estimate either their future or their past duration. _He may put an end, as he no doubt gave a beginning_, to the present system, at some determinate period of time; but we may rest assured that this great catastrophe will not be brought about by the laws now existing, and that it is not indicated, by any thing which we perceive.\"[107]",
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      "text": "Prepossessions in regard to the duration of past time--Prejudices arising from our peculiar position as inhabitants of the land--Of those occasioned by our not seeing subterranean changes now in progress--All these causes combine to make the former course of Nature appear different from the present--Objections to the doctrine, that causes similar in kind and energy to those now acting, have produced the former changes of the earth's surface, considered.",
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      "text": "If we reflect on the history of the progress of geology, as explained in the preceding chapters, we perceive that there have been great fluctuations of opinion respecting the nature of the causes to which all former changes of the earth's surface are referable. The first observers conceived the monuments which the geologist endeavors to decipher to relate to an original state of the earth, or to a period when there were causes in activity, distinct, in kind and degree, from those now constituting the economy of nature. These views were gradually modified, and some of them entirely abandoned, in proportion as observations were multiplied, and the signs of former mutations more skilfully interpreted. Many appearances, which had for a long time been regarded as indicating mysterious and extraordinary agency, were finally recognized as the necessary result of the laws now governing the material world; and the discovery of this unlooked-for conformity has at length induced some philosophers to infer, that, during the ages contemplated in geology, there has never been any interruption to the agency of the same uniform laws of change. The same assemblage of general causes, they conceive, may have been sufficient to produce, by their various combinations, the endless diversity of effects, of which the shell of the earth has preserved the memorials; and, consistently with these principles, the recurrence of analogous changes is expected by them in time to come.",
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      "text": "Whether we coincide or not in this doctrine, we must admit that the gradual progress of opinion concerning the succession of phenomena in very remote eras, resembles, in a singular manner, that which has accompanied the growing intelligence of every people, in regard to the economy of nature in their own times. In an early state of advancement, when a great number of natural appearances are unintelligible, an eclipse, an earthquake, a flood, or the approach of a comet, with many other occurrences afterwards found to belong to the regular course of events, are regarded as prodigies. The same delusion prevails as to moral phenomena, and many of these are ascribed to the intervention of demons, ghosts, witches, and other immaterial and supernatural agents. By degrees, many of the enigmas of the moral and physical world are explained, and, instead of being due to extrinsic and irregular causes, they are found to depend on fixed and invariable laws. The philosopher at last becomes convinced of the undeviating uniformity of secondary causes; and, guided by his faith in this principle, he determines the probability of accounts transmitted to him of former occurrences, and often rejects the fabulous tales of former times, on the ground of their being irreconcilable with the experience of more enlightened ages.",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B00301",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "_Prepossessions in regard to the duration of past time._--As a belief in the want of conformity in the causes by which the earth's crust has been modified in ancient and modern periods was, for a long time, universally prevalent, and that, too, amongst men who were convinced that the order of nature had been uniform for the last several thousand years, every circumstance which could have influenced their minds and given an undue bias to their opinions deserves particular attention. Now the reader may easily satisfy himself, that, however undeviating the course of nature may have been from the earliest epochs, it was impossible for the first cultivators of geology to come to such a conclusion, so long as they were under a delusion as to the age of the world, and the date of the first creation of animate beings. However fantastical some theories of the sixteenth century may now appear to us,--however unworthy of men of great talent and sound judgment,--we may rest assured that, if the same misconception now prevailed in regard to the memorials of human transactions, it would give rise to a similar train of absurdities. Let us imagine, for example, that Champollion, and the French and Tuscan literati lately engaged in exploring the antiquities of Egypt, had visited that country with a firm belief that the banks of the Nile were never peopled by the human race before the beginning of the nineteenth century, and that their faith in this dogma was as difficult to shake as the opinion of our ancestors that the earth was never the abode of living beings until the creation of the present continents, and of the species now existing,--it is easy to perceive what extravagant systems they would frame, while under the influence of this delusion, to account for the monuments discovered in Egypt. The sight of the pyramids, obelisks, colossal statues, and ruined temples, would fill them with such astonishment, that for a time they would be as men spell-bound--wholly incapable of reasoning with sobriety. They might incline at first to refer the construction of such stupendous works to some superhuman powers of a primeval world. A system might be invented resembling that so gravely advanced by Manetho, who relates that a dynasty of gods originally ruled in Egypt, of whom Vulcan, the first monarch, reigned nine thousand years; after whom came Hercules and other demigods, who were at last succeeded by human kings.",
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      "text": "When some fanciful speculations of this kind had amused their imaginations for a time, some vast repository of mummies would be discovered, and would immediately undeceive those antiquaries who enjoyed an opportunity of personally examining them; but the prejudices of others at a distance, who were not eye-witnesses of the whole phenomena, would not be so easily overcome. The concurrent report of many travellers would, indeed, render it necessary for them to accommodate ancient theories to some of the new facts, and much wit and ingenuity would be required to modify and defend their old positions. Each new invention would violate a greater number of known analogies; for if a theory be required to embrace some false principle, it becomes more visionary in proportion as facts are multiplied, as would be the case if geometers were now required to form an astronomical system on the assumption of the immobility of the earth.",
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      "text": "For more than two centuries the shelly strata of the Subapennine hills afforded matter of speculation to the early geologists of Italy, and few of them had any suspicion that similar deposits were then forming in the neighboring sea. They were as unconscious of the continued action of causes still producing similar effects, as the astronomers, in the case above supposed, of the existence of certain heavenly bodies still giving and reflecting light, and performing their movements as of old. Some imagined that the strata, so rich in organic remains, instead of being due to secondary agents, had been so created in the beginning of things by the fiat of the Almighty. Others, as we have seen, ascribed the imbedded fossil bodies to some plastic power which resided in the earth in the early ages of the world. In what manner were these dogmas at length exploded? The fossil relics were carefully compared with their living analogues, and all doubts as to their organic origin were eventually dispelled. So, also, in regard to the nature of the containing beds of mud, sand, and limestone: those parts of the bottom of the sea were examined where shells are now becoming annually entombed in new deposits. Donati explored the bed of the Adriatic, and found the closest resemblance between the strata there forming, and those which constituted hills above a thousand feet high in various parts of the Italian peninsula. He ascertained by dredging that living testacea were there grouped together in precisely the same manner as were their fossil analogues in the inland strata; and while some of the recent shells of the Adriatic were becoming incrusted with calcareous rock, he observed that others had been newly buried in sand and clay, precisely as fossil shells occur in the Subapennine hills. This discovery of the identity of modern and ancient submarine operations was not made without the aid of artificial instruments, which, like the telescope, brought phenomena into view not otherwise within the sphere of human observation.",
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      "text": "In like manner, the volcanic rocks of the Vicentin had been studied in the beginning of the last century; but no geologist suspected, before the time of Arduino, that these were composed of ancient submarine lavas. During many years of controversy, the popular opinion inclined to a belief that basalt and rocks of the same class had been precipitated from a chaotic fluid, or an ocean which rose at successive periods over the continents, charged with the component elements of the rocks in question. Few will now dispute that it would have been difficult to invent a theory more distant from the truth; yet we must cease to wonder that it gained so many proselytes, when we remember that its claims to probability arose partly from the very circumstance of its confirming the assumed want of analogy between geological causes and those now in action. By what train of investigations were geologists induced at length to reject these views, and to assent to the igneous origin of the trappean formations? By an examination of volcanoes now active, and by comparing their structure and the composition of their lavas with the ancient trap-rocks.",
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      "text": "The establishment, from time to time, of numerous points of identification, drew at length from geologists a reluctant admission, that there was more correspondence between the condition of the globe at remote eras and now, and more uniformity in the laws which have regulated the changes of its surface, than they at first imagined. If, in this state of the science, they still despaired of reconciling every class of geological phenomena to the operations of ordinary causes, even by straining analogy to the utmost limits of credibility, we might have expected, at least, that the balance of probability would now have been presumed to incline towards the close analogy of the ancient and modern causes. But, after repeated experience of the failure of attempts to speculate on geological monuments, as belonging to a distinct order of things, new sects continued to persevere in the principles adopted by their predecessors. They still began, as each new problem presented itself, whether relating to the animate or inanimate world, to assume an original and dissimilar order of nature; and when at length they approximated, or entirely came round to an opposite opinion, it was always with the feeling, that they were conceding what they had been justified _a priori_ in deeming improbable. In a word, the same men who, as natural philosophers, would have been most incredulous respecting any extraordinary deviations from the known course of nature, if reported to have happened _in their own time_, were equally disposed, as geologists, to expect the proofs of such deviations at every period of the past.",
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      "text": "I shall proceed in the following chapters to enumerate some of the principal difficulties still opposed to the theory of the uniform nature and energy of the causes which have worked successive changes in the crust of the earth, and in the condition of its living inhabitants. The discussion of so important a question on the present occasion may appear premature, but it is one which naturally arises out of a review of the former history of the science. It is, of course, impossible to enter into such speculative topics, without occasionally carrying the novice beyond his depth, and appealing to facts and conclusions with which he will be unacquainted, until he has studied some elementary work on geology, but it may be useful to excite his curiosity, and lead him to study such works by calling his attention at once to some of the principal points of controversy.[125]",
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      "text": "CHAPTER VI.",
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      "text": "Fig. 1.",
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      "text": "_Map showing the course of the Siberian rivers from south to north, from temperate to arctic regions, in the country where the fossil bones of the Mammoth abound._]",
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      "text": "As to the position of the bones, Pallas found them in some places imbedded together with marine remains; in others, simply with fossil wood, or lignite, such as, he says, might have been derived from carbonized peat. On the banks of the Yenesei, below the city of Krasnojarsk, in lat. 56 degrees, he observed grinders, and bones of elephants, in strata of yellow and red loam, alternating with coarse sand and gravel, in which was also much petrified wood of the willow and other trees. Neither here nor in the neighboring country were there any marine shells, but merely layers of black coal.[139] But grinders of the mammoth were collected much farther down the same river, near the sea, in lat. 70 degrees, mixed with _marine_ petrifactions.[140] Many other places in Siberia are cited by Pallas, where sea shells and fishes' teeth accompany the bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, and Siberian buffalo, or bison (_Bos priscus_). But it is not on the Obi nor the Yenesei, but on the Lena, farther to the east, where, in the same parallels of latitude, the cold is far more intense, that fossil remains have been found in the most wonderful state of preservation. In 1772, Pallas obtained from Wiljuiskoi, in lat. 64 degrees, from the banks of the Wiljui, a tributary of the Lena, the carcass of a rhinoceros (_R. tichorhinus_), taken from the sand in which it must have remained congealed for ages, the soil of that region being always frozen to within a slight depth of the surface. This carcass was compared to a natural mummy, and emitted an odor like putrid flesh, part of the skin being still covered with black and gray hairs. So great, indeed, was the quantity of hair on the foot and head conveyed to St. Petersburg, that Pallas asked whether the rhinoceros of the Lena might not have been an inhabitant of the temperate regions of middle Asia, its clothing being so much warmer than that of the African rhinoceros.[141]",
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      "text": "Professor Brandt, of St. Petersburg, in a letter to Baron Alex. Von Humboldt, dated 1846, adds the following particulars respecting this wonderful fossil relic:--\"I have been so fortunate as to extract from cavities in the molar teeth of the Wiljui rhinoceros a small quantity of its half-chewed food, among which fragments of pine leaves, one-half of the seed of a polygonaceous plant, and very minute portions of wood with porous cells (or small fragments of coniferous wood), were still recognizable. It was also remarkable, on a close investigation of the head, that the blood-vessels discovered in the interior of the mass appeared filled, even to the capillary vessels, with a brown mass (coagulated blood), which in many places still showed the red color of blood.\"[142]",
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      "text": "After more than thirty years, the entire carcass of a mammoth (or extinct species of elephant) was obtained in 1803, by Mr. Adams, much farther to the north. It fell from a mass of ice, in which it had been encased, on the banks of the Lena, in lat. 70 degrees; and so perfectly had the soft parts of the carcass been preserved, that the flesh, as it lay, was devoured by wolves and bears. This skeleton is still in the museum of St. Petersburg, the head retaining its integument and many of the ligaments entire. The skin of the animal was covered, first, with black bristles, thicker than horse hair, from twelve to sixteen inches in length; secondly, with hair of a reddish brown color, about four inches long; and thirdly, with wool of the same color as the hair, about an inch in length. Of the fur, upwards of thirty pounds' weight were gathered from the wet sand-bank. The individual was nine feet high and sixteen feet long, without reckoning the large curved tusks: a size rarely surpassed by the largest living male elephants.[143]",
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      "text": "It has been well said, that the earth is covered by an ocean, in the midst of which are two great islands, and many smaller ones; for the whole of the continents and islands occupy an area scarcely exceeding one-fourth of the whole superficies of the spheroid. Now, according to this analogy, we may fairly speculate on the probability that there would not be usually, at any given epoch of the past, more than about one-fourth dry land in a particular region; as, for example, near the poles, or between them and the 75th parallels of N. and S. latitude. If, therefore, at present there should happen to be, in both these quarters of the globe, much _more_ than this average proportion of land, some of it in the arctic region, being above, five thousand feet in height, and if in antarctic latitudes a mountainous country has been found varying from 4000 to 14,000 feet in height, this alone affords ground for concluding that, in the present state of things, the mean heat of the climate is below that which the earth's surface, in its more ordinary state, would enjoy. This presumption is heightened when we reflect on the results of the recent soundings made by Sir James Ross, in the Southern Ocean, and continued for four successive years, ending 1844, which seem to prove that the mean depth of the Atlantic and Pacific is as great as Laplace and other eminent astronomers had imagined;[185] for then we might look not only for more than two-thirds sea in the frigid zones, but for water of great depth, which could not readily be reduced to the freezing point. The same opinion is confirmed, when we compare the quantity of land lying between the poles and the 30th parallels of north and south latitude, with the quantity placed between those parallels and the equator; for, it is clear, that we have at present not only more than the usual degree of cold in the polar regions, but also less than the average quantity of heat within the tropics.",
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      "text": "_Position of land and sea which might produce the extreme of cold of which the earth's surface is susceptible._--To simplify our view of the various changes in climate, which different combinations of geographical circumstances may produce, we shall first consider the conditions necessary for bringing about the extreme of cold, or what would have been termed in the language of the old writers the winter of the \"great year,\" or geological cycle, and afterwards, the conditions requisite to produce the maximum of heat, or the summer of the same year.",
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      "text": "To begin with the northern hemisphere. Let us suppose those hills of the Italian peninsula and of Sicily, which are of comparatively modern origin, and contain many fossil shells identical with living species, to subside again into the sea, from which they have been raised, and that an extent of land of equal area and height (varying from one to three thousand feet) should rise up in the Arctic Ocean between Siberia and the north pole. In speaking of such changes, I shall not allude to the manner in which I conceive it possible that they may be brought about, nor of the time required for their accomplishment--reserving for a future occasion, not only the proofs that revolutions of equal magnitude have taken place, but that analogous operations are still in gradual progress. The alteration now supposed in the physical geography of the northern regions, would cause additional snow and ice to accumulate where now there is usually an open sea; and the temperature of the greater part of Europe would be somewhat lowered, so as to resemble more nearly that of corresponding latitudes of North America: or, in other words, it might be necessary to travel about 10 degrees farther south in order to meet with the same climate which we now enjoy. No compensation would be derived from the disappearance of land in the Mediterranean countries; but the contrary, since the mean heat of the soil in those latitudes probably exceeds that which would belong to the sea, by which we imagine it to be replaced.",
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      "text": "But let the configuration of the surface be still farther varied, and let some large district within or near the tropics, such as Brazil, with its plains and hills of moderate height, be converted into sea, while lands of equal elevation and extent rise up in the arctic circle. From this change there would, in the first place, result a sensible diminution of temperature near the tropic, for the Brazilian soil would no longer be heated by the sun; so that the atmosphere would be less warm, as also the neighboring Atlantic. On the other hand, the whole of Europe, Northern Asia, and North America, would be chilled by the enormous quantity of ice and snow, thus generated on the new arctic continent. If, as we have already seen, there are now some points in the southern hemisphere where snow is perpetual down to the level of the sea, in latitudes as low as central England, such might assuredly be the case throughout a great part of Europe, under the change of circumstances above supposed: and if at present the extreme range of drifted icebergs is the Azores, they might easily reach the equator after the assumed alteration. But to pursue the subject still farther, let the Himalaya mountains, with the whole of Hindostan, sink down, and their place be occupied by the Indian Ocean, while an equal extent of territory and mountains, of the same vast height, rise up between North Greenland and the Orkney Islands. It seems difficult to exaggerate the amount to which the climate of the northern hemisphere would then be cooled.[186]",
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      "text": "But the refrigeration brought about at the same time in the southern hemisphere, would be nearly equal, and the difference of temperature between the arctic and equatorial latitudes would not be much greater than at present; for no important disturbance can occur in the climate of a particular region without its immediately affecting all other latitudes, however remote. The heat and cold which surround the globe are in a state of constant and universal flux and reflux. The heated and rarefied air is always rising and flowing from the equator towards the poles in the higher regions of the atmosphere; while in the lower, the colder air is flowing back to restore the equilibrium. That this circulation is constantly going on in the aerial currents is not disputed; it is often proved by the opposite course of the clouds at different heights, and the fact has been farther illustrated in a striking manner by two recent events. The trade wind continually blows with great force from the island of Barbadoes to that of St. Vincent; notwithstanding which, during the eruption of the volcano in the island of St. Vincent, in 1812, ashes fell in profusion from a great height in the atmosphere upon Barbadoes.[187] In like manner, during the great eruption of Sumbawa, in 1815, ashes were carried to the islands of Amboyna and Banda, which last is about 800 miles east from the site of the volcano. Yet the southeast monsoon was then at its height.[188] This apparent transposition of matter against the wind, confirmed the opinion of the existence of a counter-current in the higher regions, which had previously rested on theoretical conclusions only.",
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      "text": "That a corresponding interchange takes place in the seas, is demonstrated, according to Humboldt, by the cold which is found to exist at great depths within the tropics; and, among other proofs, may be mentioned the mass of warmer water which the Gulf stream is constantly bearing northwards, while a cooler current flows _from_ the north along the coast of Greenland and Labrador, and helps to restore the equilibrium.[189]",
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      "text": "Currents of colder and therefore specifically heavier water pass from the poles towards the equator, which cool the inferior parts of the ocean; so that the heat of the torrid zone and the cold of the polar circle balance each other. The refrigeration, therefore, of the polar regions, resulting from the supposed alteration in the distribution of land and sea, would be immediately communicated to the tropics, and from them its influence would extend to the antarctic circle, where the atmosphere and the ocean would be cooled, so that ice and snow would augment. Although the mean temperature of higher latitudes in the southern hemisphere is, as before stated, for the most part, lower than that of the same parallels in the northern, yet, for a considerable space on each side of the line, the mean annual heat of the waters is found to be the same in corresponding parallels. If, therefore, by the new position of the land, the formation of icebergs had become of common occurrence in the northern temperate zone, and if these were frequently drifted as far as the equator, the same degree of cold which they generated would immediately be communicated as far as the tropic of Capricorn, and from thence to the lands or ocean to the south.",
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      "text": "But not to indulge too far in these speculations, I may observe, in conclusion, that however great, during the lapse of ages, may be the vicissitudes of temperature in every zone, it accords with this theory that the general climate should not experience any sensible change in the course of a few thousand years; because that period is insufficient to affect the leading features of the physical geography of the globe.",
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      "text": "Notwithstanding the apparent uncertainty of the seasons, it is found that the mean temperature of particular localities is very constant, when observations made for a sufficient series of years are compared.",
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      "text": "Yet there must be exceptions to this rule; and even the labors of man have, by the drainage of lakes and marshes, and the felling of extensive forests, caused such changes in the atmosphere as greatly to raise our conception of the more important influence of those forces to which, in certain latitudes, even the existence of land or water, hill or valley, lake or sea, must be ascribed. If we possessed accurate information of the amount of _local_ fluctuation in climate in the course of twenty centuries, it would often, undoubtedly, be considerable. Certain tracts, for example, on the coast of Holland and of England consisted of cultivated land in the time of the Romans, which the sea, by gradual encroachments, has at length occupied. Here, at least, a slight alteration has been effected; for neither the distribution of heat in the different seasons, nor the mean annual temperature of the atmosphere investing the sea, is precisely the same as that which rests upon the land.",
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      "text": "In those countries, also, where earthquakes and volcanoes are in full activity, a much shorter period may produce a sensible variation. The climate of the great table-land of Malpais in Mexico, must differ materially from that which prevailed before the middle of the last century; for, since that time, six mountains, the highest of them rising sixteen hundred feet above the plateau, have been thrown up by volcanic eruptions. It is by the repetition of an indefinite number of such local revolutions, and by slow movements extending simultaneously over wider areas, as will be afterwards shown, that a general change of climate may finally be brought about.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER VIII.",
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      "text": "The doctrine so much insisted upon formerly, that crystalline rocks, such as granite, gneiss, mica-schist, quartzite, and others were produced in the greatest abundance in the earlier ages of the planet, and that their formation has ceased altogether in our own times, will be controverted in the next chapter.",
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      "text": "_Gradual development of subterranean movements._--The extreme violence of the subterranean forces in remote ages has been often inferred from the facts that the older rocks are more fractured and dislocated than the newer. But what other result could we have anticipated if the quantity of movement had been always equal in equal periods of time? Time must, in that case, multiply the derangement of strata in the ratio of their antiquity. Indeed the numerous exceptions to the above rule which we find in nature, present at first sight the only objection to the hypothesis of uniformity. For the more ancient formations remain in many places horizontal, while in others much newer strata are curved and vertical. This apparent anomaly, however, will be seen in the next chapter to depend on the irregular manner in which the volcanic and subterranean agency affect different parts of the earth in succession, being often renewed again and again in certain areas, while others remain during the whole time at rest.",
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      "text": "That the more impressive effects of subterranean power, such as the upheaval of mountain-chains, may have been due to multiplied convulsions of moderate intensity rather than to a few paroxysmal explosions, will appear the less improbable when the gradual and intermittent development of volcanic eruptions in times past is once established. It is now very generally conceded that these eruptions have their source in the same causes as those which give rise to the permanent elevation and sinking of land; the admission, therefore, that one of the two volcanic or subterranean processes has gone on gradually, draws with it the conclusion that the effects of the other have been elaborated by successive and gradual efforts.",
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      "text": "_Faults._--The same reasoning is applicable to great _faults_, or those striking instances of the upthrow or downthrow of large masses of rock, which have been thought by some to imply tremendous catastrophes wholly foreign to the ordinary course of nature. Thus we have in England faults, in which the vertical displacement is between 600 and 3000 feet, and the horizontal extent thirty miles or more, the width of the fissures since filled up with rubbish varying from ten to fifty feet. But when we inquire into the proofs of the mass having risen or fallen suddenly on the one side of these great rents, several hundreds or thousands of feet above or below the rock with which it was once continuous on the other side, we find the evidence defective. There are grooves, it is said, and scratches on the rubbed and polished walls, which have often one common direction, favoring the theory that the movement was accomplished by a single stroke, and not by a series of interrupted movements. But, in fact, the striae are not always parallel in such cases, but often irregular, and sometimes the stones and earth which are in the middle of the fault, or fissure, have been polished and striated by friction in different directions, showing that there have been slidings subsequent to the first introduction of the fragmentary matter. Nor should we forget that the last movement must always tend to obliterate the signs of previous trituration, so that neither its instantaneousness nor the uniformity of its direction can be inferred from the parallelism of the striae that have been last produced.",
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      "text": "When rocks have been once fractured, and freedom of motion communicated to detached portions of them, these will naturally continue to yield in the same direction, if the process of upheaval or of undermining be repeated again and again. The incumbent mass will always give way along the lines of least resistance, or where it was formerly rent asunder. Probably, the effects of reiterated movement, whether upward or downward, in a fault, may be undistinguishable from those of a single and instantaneous rise or subsidence; and the same may be said of the rising or falling of continental masses, such as Sweden or Greenland, which we know to take place slowly and insensibly.",
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      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "Among the various propositions above laid down (p. 164), it will be seen that the sudden rise of the Andes is spoken of as a modern event, but Mr. Darwin has brought together ample data in proof of the local persistency of volcanic action throughout a long succession of geological periods, beginning with times antecedent to the deposition of the oolitic and cretaceous formations of Chili, and continuing to the historical epoch. It appears that some of the parallel ridges which compose the Cordilleras, instead of being contemporaneous, were successively and slowly upheaved at widely different epochs. The whole range, after twice subsiding some thousands of feet, was brought up again by a slow movement in mass, during the era of the Eocene tertiary formations, after which the whole sank down once more several hundred feet, to be again uplifted to its present level by a slow and often interrupted movement.[252] In a portion of this latter period the \"Pampean mud\" was formed, in which the Megatherium mylodon and other extinct quadrupeds are buried. This mud contains in it recent species of shells, some of them proper to brackish water, and is believed by Mr. Darwin to be an estuary or delta deposit. M. A. d'Orbigny, however, has advanced an hypothesis referred to by M. E. de Beaumont, that the agitation and displacement of the waters of the ocean, caused by the elevation of the Andes, gave rise to a deluge, of which this Pampean mud, which rises sometimes to the height of 12,000 feet, is the result and monument.[253]",
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      "text": "In studying many chains of mountains, we find that the strike or line of outcrop of continuous sets of strata, and the general direction of the chain, may be far from rectilinear. Curves forming angles of 20 degrees or 30 degrees may be found in the same range as in the Alleghanies; just as trains of active volcanoes and the zones throughout which modern earthquakes occur are often linear, without running in straight lines. Nor are all of these, though contemporaneous or belonging to our own epoch, by any means parallel, but some at right angles, the one to the other.",
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      "text": "_Slow upheaval and subsidence._--Recent observations have disclosed to us the wonderful fact, that not only the west coast of South America, but also other large areas, some of them several thousand miles in circumference, such as Scandinavia, and certain archipelagoes in the Pacific, are slowly and insensibly rising; while other regions, such as Greenland, and parts of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, in which atolls or circular coral islands abound, are as gradually sinking. That all the existing continents and submarine abysses may have originated in movements of this kind, continued throughout incalculable periods of time, is undeniable, and the denudation which the dry land appears everywhere to have suffered, favors the idea that it was raised from the deep by a succession of upward movements, prolonged throughout indefinite periods. For the action of waves and currents on land slowly emerging from the deep, affords the only power by which we can conceive so many deep valleys and wide spaces to have been denuded as those which are unquestionably the effects of running water.",
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      "text": "But perhaps it may be said that there is no analogy between the slow upheaval of broad plains or table-lands, and the manner in which we must presume all mountain-chains, with their inclined strata, to have originated. It seems, however, that the Andes have been rising century after century, at the rate of several feet, while the Pampas on the east have been raised only a few inches in the same time. Crossing from the Atlantic to the Pacific, in a line passing through Mendoza, Mr. Darwin traversed a plain 800 miles broad, the eastern part of which has emerged from beneath the sea at a very modern period. The slope from the Atlantic is at first very gentle, then greater, until the traveller finds, on reaching Mendoza, that he has gained, almost insensibly, a height of 4000 feet. The mountainous district then begins suddenly, and its breadth from Mendoza to the shores of the Pacific is 120 miles, the average height of the principal chain being from 15,000 to 16,000 feet, without including some prominent peaks, which ascend much higher. Now all we require, to explain the origin of the principal inequalities of level here described, is to imagine, first, a zone of more violent movement to the west of Mendoza, and, secondly, to the east of that place, an upheaving force, which died away gradually as it approached the Atlantic. In short, we are only called upon to conceive, that the region of the Andes was pushed up four feet in the same period in which the Pampas near Mendoza rose one foot, and the plains near the shores of the Atlantic one inch. In Europe we have learnt that the land at the North Cape ascends about five feet in a century, while farther to the south the movements diminish in quantity first to a foot, and then, at Stockholm, to three inches in a century, while at certain points still farther south there is no movement.",
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      "text": "But in what manner, it is asked, can we account for the great lateral pressure which has been exerted not only in the Andes, Alps, and other chains, but also on the strata of many low and nearly level countries? Do not the folding and fracture of the beds, the anticlinal and synclinal ridges and troughs, as they are called, and the vertical, and even sometimes the inverted position of the beds, imply an abruptness and intensity in the disturbing force wholly different in kind and energy to that which now rends the rocks during ordinary earthquakes? I shall treat more fully in the sequel (end of chap. 32) of the probable subterranean sources, whether of upward or downward movement, and of great lateral pressure; but it may be well briefly to state in this place that in our own times, as, for example, in Chili, in 1822, the volcanic force has overcome the resistance, and permanently uplifted a country of such vast extent that the weight and volume of the Andes must be insignificant in comparison, even if we indulge the most moderate conjectures as to the thickness of the earth's crust above the volcanic foci.",
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      "text": "_No proofs that these crystalline rocks were produced more abundantly at remote periods_.--Several modern writers, without denying the truth of the Plutonic or metamorphic theory, still contend that the crystalline and non-fossiliferous formations, whether stratified or unstratified, such as gneiss and granite, are essentially ancient as a class of rocks. They were generated, say they, most abundantly in the primeval state of the globe, since which time the quantity produced has been always on the decrease, until it became very inconsiderable in the Oolitic and Cretaceous periods, and quite evanescent before the commencement of the tertiary epoch.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00667",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "Now the justness of these views depends almost entirely on the question whether granite, gneiss, and other rocks of the same order ever originated at the surface, or whether, according to the opinions above adopted, they are essentially subterranean in their origin, and therefore entitled to the appellation of _hypogene_. If they were formed superficially in their present state, and as copiously in the modern as in the more ancient periods, we ought to see a greater abundance of tertiary and secondary than of primary granite and gneiss; but if we adopt the hypogene theory before explained, their rapid diminution in volume among the visible rocks in the earth's crust in proportion as we investigate the formations of newer date, is quite intelligible. If a melted mass of matter be now cooling very slowly at the depth of several miles beneath the crater of an active volcano, it must remain invisible until great revolutions in the earth's crust have been brought about. So also if stratified rocks have been subjected to Plutonic action, and after having been baked or reduced to semi-fusion, are now cooling and crystallizing far under ground, it will probably require the lapse of many periods before they will be forced up to the surface and exposed to view, even at a single point. To effect this purpose there may be need of as great a development of subterranean movement as that which in the Alps, Andes, and Himalaya has raised marine strata containing ammonites to the height of 8000, 14,000, and 16,000 feet. By parity of reasoning we can hardly expect that any hypogene rocks of the tertiary periods will have been brought within the reach of human observation, seeing that the emergence of such rocks must always be so long posterior to the date of their origin, and still less can formations of this class become generally visible until so much time has elapsed as to confer on them a high relative antiquity. Extensive denudation must also combine with upheaval before they can be displayed at the surface throughout wide areas.",
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      "text": "All geologists who reflect on subterranean movements now going on, and the eruptions of active volcanoes, are convinced that great changes are now continually in progress in the interior of the earth's crust far out of sight. They must be conscious, therefore, that the inaccessibility of the regions in which these alterations are taking place, compels them to remain in ignorance of a great part of the working of existing causes, so that they can only form vague conjectures in regard to the nature of the products which volcanic heat may elaborate under great pressure.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00669",
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      "text": "But when they find in mountain-chains of high antiquity, that what was once the interior of the earth's crust has since been forced outwards and exposed to view, they will naturally expect in the examination of those mountainous regions, to have an opportunity of gratifying their curiosity by obtaining a sight not only of the superficial strata of remote eras, but also of the contemporaneous nether-formed rocks. Having recognized, therefore, in such mountain-chains some ancient rocks of aqueous and volcanic origin, corresponding in character to superficial formations of modern date, they will regard any other class of ancient rocks, such as granite and gneiss, as the _residual phenomena_ of which they are in search. These latter rocks will not answer the expectations previously formed of their probable nature and texture, unless they wear a foreign and mysterious aspect, and have in some places been fused or altered by subterranean heat; in a word, unless they differ wholly from the fossiliferous strata deposited at the surface, or from the lava and scoriae thrown out by volcanoes in the open air. It is the total distinctness, therefore, of crystalline formations, such as granite, hornblende-schist, and the rest, from every substance of which the origin is familiar to us, that constitutes their claim to be regarded as the effects of causes now in action in the subterranean regions. They belong not to an order of things which has passed away; they are not the monuments of a primeval period, bearing inscribed upon them in obsolete characters the words and phrases of a dead language; but they teach us that part of the living language of nature, which we cannot learn by our daily intercourse with what passes on the habitable surface.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XIII.",
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      "text": "UNIFORMITY IN THE SERIES OF PAST CHANGES IN THE ANIMATE AND INANIMATE WORLD.",
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    {
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      "text": "UNIFORMITY OF CHANGE CONSIDERED, SECONDLY, IN REFERENCE TO SUBTERRANEAN MOVEMENTS.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00689",
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      "text": "To pass on to another of the three topics before proposed for discussion, the reader will find, in the account given in the second book of the earthquakes recorded in history, that certain countries have, from time immemorial, been rudely shaken again and again, while others, comprising by far the largest part of the globe, have remained to all appearance motionless. In the regions of convulsion rocks have been rent asunder, the surface has been forced up into ridges, chasms have opened, or the ground throughout large spaces has been permanently lifted up above or let down below its former level. In the regions of tranquillity some areas have remained at rest, but others have been ascertained by a comparison of measurements, made at different periods, to have risen by an insensible motion, as in Sweden, or to have subsided very slowly, as in Greenland. That these same movements, whether ascending or descending, have continued for ages in the same direction has been established by geological evidence. Thus, we find both on the east and west coast of Sweden, that ground which formerly constituted the bottom of the Baltic and of the ocean has been lifted up to an elevation of several hundred feet above high-water mark. The rise within the historical period has not amounted to many yards, but the greater extent of antecedent upheaval is proved by the occurrence in inland spots, several hundred feet high, of deposits filled with fossil shells of species now living either in the ocean or the Baltic.",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B00690",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "To detect proofs of slow and gradual subsidence must in general be more difficult; but the theory which accounts for the form of circular coral reefs and lagoon islands, and which will be explained in the last chapter of the third book, will satisfy the reader that there are spaces on the globe, several thousand miles in circumference, throughout which the downward movement has predominated for ages, and yet the land has never, in a single instance, gone down suddenly for several hundred feet at once. Yet geology demonstrates that the persistency of subterranean movements in one direction has not been perpetual throughout all past time. There have been great oscillations of level by which a surface of dry land has been submerged to a depth of several thousand feet, and then at a period long subsequent raised again and made to emerge. Nor have the regions now motionless been always at rest; and some of those which are at present the theatres of reiterated earthquakes have formerly enjoyed a long continuance of tranquillity. But although disturbances have ceased after having long prevailed, or have recommenced after a suspension for ages, there has been no universal disruption of the earth's crust or desolation of the surface since times the most remote. The non-occurrence of such a general convulsion is proved by the perfect horizontally now retained by some of the most ancient fossiliferous strata throughout wide areas.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00691",
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      "text": "_Inferences derived from unconformable strata._--That the subterranean forces have visited different parts of the globe at successive periods, is inferred chiefly from the unconformability of strata belonging to groups of different ages. Thus, for example, on the borders of Wales and Shropshire we find the slaty beds of the ancient Silurian system curved and vertical, while the beds of the overlying carboniferous shale and sandstone are horizontal. All are agreed, that in such a case the older set of strata had suffered great dislocation before the deposition of the newer or carboniferous beds, and that these last have never since been convulsed by any movements of excessive violence. But the strata of the inferior group suffered only a local derangement, and rocks of the same age are by no means found everywhere in a curved or vertical position. In various parts of Europe, and particularly near Lake Wener in the south of Sweden, and in many parts of Russia, beds of the same Silurian system maintain the most perfect horizontality; and a similar observation may be made respecting limestones and shales of the like antiquity in the great lake district of Canada and the United States. They are still as flat and horizontal as when first formed; yet since their origin not only have most of the actual mountain-chains been uplifted, but the very rocks of which those mountains are composed have been formed.",
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    {
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      "text": "It would be easy to multiply instances of similar unconformability in formations of other ages; but a few more will suffice. The coal measures before alluded to as horizontal on the borders of Wales are vertical in the Mendip Hills in Somersetshire, where the overlying beds of the New Red Sandstone are horizontal. Again, in the Wolds of Yorkshire the last mentioned sandstone supports on its curved and inclined beds the horizontal Chalk. The Chalk again is vertical on the flanks of the Pyrenees, and the tertiary strata repose unconformably upon it.",
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      "text": "It is well known that the stream of the Mississippi is charged with sediment of a different color from that of the Arkansas and Red Rivers, which are tinged with red mud, derived from rocks of porphyry in \"the far west.\" The waters of the Uruguay, says Darwin, draining a granitic country, are clear and black, those of the Parana, red.[258] The mud with which the Indus is loaded, says Burnes, is of a clayey hue, that of the Chenab, on the other hand, is reddish, that of the Sutlej is more pale.[259] The same causes which make these several rivers, sometimes situated at no great distance the one from the other, to differ greatly in the character of their sediment, will make the waters draining the same country at different epochs, especially before and after great revolutions in physical geography, to be entirely dissimilar. It is scarcely necessary to add, that marine currents will be affected in an analogous manner in consequence of the formation of new shoals, the emergence of new islands, the subsidence of others, the gradual waste of neighboring coasts, the growth of new deltas, the increase of coral reefs, and other changes.",
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      "text": "_Why successive sedimentary groups contain distinct fossils._--If, in the next place, we assume, for reasons before stated, a continual extinction of species and introduction of others into the globe, it will then follow that the fossils of strata formed at two distant periods on the same spot, will differ even more certainly than the mineral composition of the same. For rocks of the same kind have sometimes been reproduced in the same district after a long interval of time, whereas there are no facts leading to the opinion that species which have once died out have ever been reproduced. The submergence then of land must be often attended by the commencement of a new class of sedimentary deposits, characterized by a new set of fossil animals and plants, while the reconversion of the bed of the sea into land may arrest at once and for an indefinite time the formation of geological monuments. Should the land again sink, strata will again be formed; but one or many entire revolutions in animal or vegetable life may have been completed in the interval.",
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      "text": "_Conditions requisite for the original completeness of a fossiliferous series._--If we infer, for reasons before explained, that fluctuations in the animate world are brought about by the slow and successive removal and creation of species, we shall be convinced that a rare combination of circumstances alone can give rise to such a series of strata as will bear testimony to a gradual passage from one state of organic life to another. To produce such strata nothing less will be requisite than the fortunate coincidence of the following conditions: first, a never-failing supply of sediment in the same region throughout a period of vast duration; secondly, the fitness of the deposit in every part for the permanent preservation of imbedded fossils; and, thirdly, a gradual subsidence to prevent the sea or lake from being filled up and converted into land.",
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      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "It will appear in the chapter on coral reefs,[260] that, in certain parts of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, most of these conditions, if not all, are complied with, and the constant growth of coral, keeping pace with the sinking of the bottom of the sea, seems to have gone on so slowly, for such indefinite periods, that the signs of a gradual change in organic life might probably be detected in that quarter of the globe, if we could explore its submarine geology. Instead of the growth of coralline limestone, let us suppose, in some other place, the continuous deposition of fluviatile mud and sand, such as the Ganges and Brahmapootra have poured for thousands of years into the Bay of Bengal. Part of this bay, although of considerable depth, might at length be filled up before an appreciable amount of change was effected in the fish, mollusca, and other inhabitants of the sea and neighboring land. But, if the bottom be lowered by sinking at the same rate that it is raised by fluviatile mud, the bay can never be turned into dry land. In that case one new layer of matter may be superimposed upon another for a thickness of many thousand feet, and the fossils of the inferior beds may differ greatly from those entombed in the uppermost, yet every intermediate gradation may be indicated in the passage from an older to a newer assemblage of species. Granting, however, that such an unbroken sequence of monuments may thus be elaborated in certain parts of the sea, and that the strata happen to be all of them well adapted to preserve the included fossils from decomposition, how many accidents must still concur before these submarine formations will be laid open to our investigation! The whole deposit must first be raised several thousand feet, in order to bring into view the very foundation; and during the process of exposure the superior beds must not be entirely swept away by denudation.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00707",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "In the first place, the chances are as three to one against the mere emergence of the mass above the waters, because three-fourths of the globe are covered by the ocean. But if it be upheaved and made to constitute part of the dry land, it must also, before it can be available for our instruction, become part of that area already surveyed by geologists; and this area comprehends perhaps less than a tenth of the whole earth. In this small fraction of land already explored, and still very imperfectly known, we are required to find a set of strata, originally of limited extent, and probably much lessened by subsequent denudation.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 738180,
      "end": 738193,
      "sha256": "1e12225a0a5a3223847dc745abeb5e3f9893423914ebf0dbe31f3498522ac869",
      "text": "CHAPTER XVII.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00905",
      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 738197,
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      "sha256": "340d455fa09a406c105361a02ecd4fc18cb8b3244230870eefd8d4325613a106",
      "text": "REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS OF RIVERS.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00906",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "Lake deltas--Growth of the delta of the Upper Rhine in the Lake of Geneva--Computation of the age of deltas--Recent deposits in Lake Superior--Deltas of inland seas--Course of the Po--Artificial embankments of the Po and Adige--Delta of the Po, and other rivers entering the Adriatic--Rapid conversion of that gulf into land--Mineral characters of the new deposits--Marine delta of the Rhone--Various proofs of its increase--Stony nature of its deposits--Coast of Asia Minor--Delta of the Nile.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00907",
      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 738771,
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      "sha256": "c97763b83402b6dbc464dd4404edb33da3eddde4d972ac2397fa99975a1085f0",
      "text": "DELTAS IN LAKES.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00908",
      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 738791,
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      "text": "I have already spoken in the 14th chapter of the action of running water, and of the denuding power of rivers, but we can only form a just conception of the excavating and removing force exerted by such bodies of water, when we have the advantage of examining the reproductive effects of the same agents: in other words, of beholding in a palpable form the aggregate amount of matter, which they have thrown down at certain points in their alluvial plains, or in the basins of lakes and seas. Yet it will appear, when we consider the action of currents, that the growth of deltas affords a very inadequate standard by which to measure the entire carrying power of running water, since a considerable portion of fluviatile sediment is swept far out to sea.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00909",
      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 739560,
      "end": 740353,
      "sha256": "39c3e448a878ab441eb59a1f46f5dad1904d350a25900a8f8624363cb2e8c759",
      "text": "Deltas may be divided into, first, those which are formed in lakes; secondly, those in island seas, where the tides are almost imperceptible; and, thirdly, those on the borders of the ocean. The most characteristic distinction between the lacustrine and marine deltas consists in the nature of the organic remains which become imbedded in their deposits; for, in the case of a lake, it is obvious that these must consist exclusively of such genera of animals as inhabit the land or the waters of a river or a lake; whereas, in the other case, there will be an admixture, and most frequently a predominance, of animals which inhabit salt water. In regard, however, to the distribution of inorganic matter, the deposits of lakes and seas are formed under very analogous circumstances.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00910",
      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 740357,
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      "text": "_Lake of Geneva._--Lakes exemplify the first reproductive operations in which rivers are engaged when they convey the detritus of rocks and the ingredients of mineral springs from mountainous regions. The accession of new land at the mouth of the Rhone, at the upper end of the Lake of Geneva, or the Leman Lake, presents us with an example of a considerable thickness of strata which have accumulated since the historical era. This sheet of water is about thirty-seven miles long, and its breadth is from two to eight miles. The shape of the bottom is very irregular, the depth having been found by late measurements to vary from 20 to 160 fathoms.[335] The Rhone, where it enters at the upper end, is turbid and discolored; but its waters, where it issues at the town of Geneva, are beautifully clear and transparent. An ancient town, called Port Vallais (Portus Valesiae of the Romans), once situated at the water's edge, at the upper end, is now more than a mile and a half inland--this intervening alluvial tract having been acquired in about eight centuries. The remainder of the delta consists of a flat alluvial plain, about five or six miles in length, composed of sand and mud, a little raised above the level of the river, and full of marshes.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00911",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "Sir Henry De la Beche found, after numerous soundings in all parts of the lake, that there was a pretty uniform depth of from 120 to 160 fathoms throughout the central region, and on approaching the delta, the shallowing of the bottom began to be very sensible at a distance of about a mile and three quarters from the mouth of the Rhone; for a line drawn from St. Gingoulph to Vevey gives a mean depth of somewhat less than 600 feet, and from that part of the Rhone, the fluviatile mud is always found along the bottom.[336] We may state, therefore, that the new strata annually produced are thrown down upon a slope about two miles in length; so that, notwithstanding the great depth of the lake, the new deposits are inclined at so slight an angle, that the dip of the beds would be termed, in ordinary geological language, horizontal.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00912",
      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 742485,
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      "text": "The strata probably consist of alternations of finer and coarser particles; for, during the hotter months from April to August, when the snows melt, the volume and velocity of the river are greatest, and large quantities of sand, mud, vegetable matter, and drift-wood are introduced; but during the rest of the year, the influx is comparatively feeble, so much so, that the whole lake, according to Saussure, stands six feet lower. If, then, we could obtain a section of the accumulation formed in the last eight centuries, we should see a great series of strata, probably from 600 to 900 feet thick (the supposed original depth of the head of the lake), and nearly two miles in length, inclined at a very slight angle. In the mean time, a great number of smaller deltas are growing around the borders of the lake, at the mouths of rapid torrents, which pour in large masses of sand and pebbles. The body of water in these torrents is too small to enable them to spread out the transported matter over so extensive an area as the Rhone does. Thus, for example, there is a depth of eighty fathoms within half a mile of the shore, immediately opposite the great torrent which enters east of Ripaille, so that the dip of the strata in that minor delta must be about four times as great as those deposited by the main river at the upper extremity of the lake.[337]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00913",
      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 743868,
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      "text": "_Chronological computations of the age of deltas._--The capacity of this basin being now ascertained, it would be an interesting subject of inquiry, to determine in what number of years the Leman Lake will be converted into dry land. It would not be very difficult to obtain the elements for such a calculation, so as to approximate at least to the quantity of time required for the accomplishment of the result. The number of cubic feet of water annually discharged by the river into the lake being estimated, experiments might be made in the winter and summer months, to determine the proportion of matter held in suspension or in chemical solution by the Rhone. It would be also necessary to allow for the heavier matter drifted along at the bottom, which might be estimated on hydrostatical principles, when the average size of the gravel and the volume and velocity of the stream at different seasons were known. Supposing all these observations to have been made, it would be more easy to calculate the future than the former progress of the delta, because it would be a laborious task to ascertain, with any degree of precision, the original depth and extent of that part of the lake which is already filled up. Even if this information were actually obtained by borings, it would only enable us to approximate within a certain number of centuries to the time when the Rhone began to form its present delta; but this would not give us the date of the origin of the Leman Lake in its present form, because the river may have flowed into it for thousands of years, without importing any sediment whatever. Such would have been the case, if the waters had first passed through a chain of upper lakes; and that this was actually the fact, seems indicated by the course of the Rhone between Martigny and the Lake of Geneva, and, still more decidedly, by the channels of many of its principal feeders.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00914",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "If we ascend, for example, the valley through which the Dranse flows, we find that it consists of a succession of basins, one above the other, in each of which there is a wide expanse of flat alluvial lands, separated from the next basin by a rocky gorge, once perhaps the barrier of a lake. The river seems to have filled these lakes, one after the other, and to have partially cut through the barriers, some of which it is still gradually eroding to a greater depth. Before, therefore, we can pretend even to hazard a conjecture as to the era at which the principal delta of Lake Leman or any other delta commenced, we must be thoroughly acquainted with the geographical features and geological history of the whole system of higher valleys which communicate with the main stream, and all the changes which they have undergone since the last series of convulsions which agitated and altered the face of the country.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00915",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "sha256": "14d1bc10c653fa64ff2cefe7be3e3f2f83a21991536626e58eb5222e368893d2",
      "text": "_Lake Superior._--Lake Superior is the largest body of freshwater in the world, being above 1700 geographical miles in circumference when we follow the sinuosities of its coasts, and its length, on a curved line drawn through its centre, being more than 400, and its extreme breadth above 150 geographical miles. Its surface is nearly as large as the whole of England. Its average depth varies from 80 to 150 fathoms; but, according to Captain Bayfield, there is reason to think that its greatest depth would not be overrated at 200 fathoms, so that its bottom is, in some parts, nearly 600 feet below the level of the Atlantic, its surface being about as much above it. There are appearances in different parts of this, as of the other Canadian lakes, leading us to infer that its waters formerly occupied a higher level than they reach at present; for at a considerable distance from the present shores, parallel lines of rolled stones and shells are seen rising one above the other, like the seats of an amphitheatre. These ancient lines of shingle are exactly similar to the present beaches in most bays, and they often attain an elevation of 40 or 50 feet above the present level. As the heaviest gales of wind do not raise the waters more than three or four feet, the elevated beaches have by some been referred to the subsidence of the lake at former periods, in consequence of the wearing down of its barrier; by others to the upraising of the shores by earthquakes, like those which have produced similar phenomena on the coast of Chili.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00916",
      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 748304,
      "end": 750155,
      "sha256": "35b101c95ae1bda398bfc4d33a31d018aae015ba73723540604caa45cc56f30c",
      "text": "The streams which discharge their waters into Lake Superior are several hundred in number, without reckoning those of smaller size; and the quantity of water supplied by them is many times greater than that discharged at the Falls of St. Mary, the only outlet. The evaporation, therefore, is very great, and such as might be expected from so vast an extent of surface. On the northern side, which is encircled by primary mountains, the rivers sweep in many large boulders with smaller gravel and sand, chiefly composed of granitic and trap rocks. There are also currents in the lake in various directions, caused by the continued prevalence of strong winds, and to their influence we may attribute the diffusion of finer mud far and wide over great areas; for by numerous soundings made during Captain Bayfield's survey, it was ascertained that the bottom consists generally of a very adhesive clay, containing shells of the species at present existing in the lake. When exposed to the air, this clay immediately becomes indurated in so great a degree, as to require a smart blow to break it. It effervesces slightly with diluted nitric acid, and is of different colors in different parts of the lake; in one district blue, in another red, and in a third white, hardening into a substance resembling pipeclay.[338] From these statements, the geologist will not fail to remark how closely these recent lacustrine formations in America resemble the tertiary argillaceous and calcareous marls of lacustrine origin in Central France. In both cases many of the genera of shells most abundant, as Limnea and Planorbis, are the same; and in regard to other classes of organic remains there must be the closest analogy, as I shall endeavor more fully to explain when speaking of the imbedding of plants and animals in recent deposits.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00917",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "DELTAS OF INLAND SEAS.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00918",
      "bookId": 33224,
      "start": 750187,
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      "text": "Having thus briefly considered some of the lacustrine deltas now in progress, we may next turn our attention to those of inland seas.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00919",
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      "text": "_Course of the Po._--The Po affords an instructive example of the manner in which a great river bears down to the sea the matter poured into it by a multitude of tributaries descending from lofty chains of mountains. The changes gradually effected in the great plain of Northern Italy, since the time of the Roman republic, are considerable. Extensive lakes and marshes have been gradually filled up, as those near Placentia, Parma, and Cremona, and many have been drained naturally by the deepening of the beds of rivers. Deserted river-courses are not unfrequent, as that of the Serio Morto, which formerly fell into the Adda, in Lombardy. The Po also itself has often deviated from its course, having after the year 1390 deserted part of the territory of Cremona, and invaded that of Parma; its old channel being still recognizable, and bearing the name of Po Morto. There is also an old channel of the Po in the territory of Parma, called Po Vecchio, which was abandoned in the twelfth century, when a great number of towns were destroyed.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00920",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "_Artificial embankments of Italian rivers._--To check these and similar aberrations, a general system of embankment has been adopted; and the Po, Adige, and almost all their tributaries, are now confined between high artificial banks. The increased velocity acquired by streams thus closed in, enables them to convey a much larger portion of foreign matter to the sea; and, consequently, the deltas of the Po and Adige have gained far more rapidly on the Adriatic since the practice of embankment became almost universal. But, although more sediment is borne to the sea, part of the sand and mud, which in the natural state of things would be spread out by annual inundations over the plain, now subsides in the bottom of the river-channels; and their capacity being thereby diminished, it is necessary, in order to prevent inundations in the following spring, to extract matter from the bed, and to add it to the banks of the river. Hence it happens that these streams now traverse the plain on the top of high mounds, like the waters of aqueducts, and at Ferrara the surface of the Po has become more elevated than the roofs of the houses.[339] The magnitude of these barriers is a subject of increasing expense and anxiety, it having been sometimes found necessary to give an additional height of nearly one foot to the banks of the Adige and Po in a single season.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00921",
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      "text": "The practice of embankment was adopted on some of the Italian rivers as early as the thirteenth century; and Dante, writing in the beginning of the fourteenth, describes, in the seventh circle of hell, a rivulet of tears separated from a burning sandy desert by embankments \"like those which, between Ghent and Bruges, were raised against the ocean, or those which the Paduans had erected along the Brenta to defend their villas on the melting of the Alpine snows.\"",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00922",
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      "text": "Quale i Fiamminghi tra Guzzante e Bruggia, Temendo il fiotto che in ver lor s'avventa, Fanno lo schermo, perche il mar si fuggia, E quale i Padovan lungo la Brenta, Per difender lor ville e lor castelli, Anzi che Chiarentana il caldo senta.--",
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    {
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      "sha256": "6c266656243b46bd01eb41770738eb9cf70698fd1d12a48a8bf58806d24af7a8",
      "text": "_Inferno_, Canto xv.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33224.B00924",
      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "In the Adriatic, from the northern part of the Gulf of Trieste, where the Isonzo enters, down to the south of Ravenna, there is an uninterrupted series of recent accessions of land, more than 100 miles in length, which, within the last 2000 years, have increased from _two to twenty miles in breadth_. A line of sand-bars of great length has been formed nearly all along the western coast of this gulf, inside of which are lagunes, such as those of Venice, and the large lagune of Comacchio, 20 miles in diameter. Newly deposited mud brought down by the streams is continually lessening the depth of the lagunes, and converting part of them into meadows.[340] The Isonzo, Tagliamento, Piave, Brenta, Adige, and Po, besides many other inferior rivers, contribute to this advance of the coast-line and to the shallowing of the lagunes and the gulf.",
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    {
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      "text": "_Delta of the Po._--The Po and the Adige may now be considered as entering by one common delta, for two branches of the Adige are connected with arms of the Po, and thus the principal delta has been pushed out beyond those bars which separate the lagunes from the sea. The rate of the advance of this new land has been accelerated, as before stated, since the system of embanking the rivers became general, especially at that point where the Po and Adige enter. The waters are no longer permitted to spread themselves far and wide over the plains, and to leave behind them the larger portion of their sediment. Mountain torrents also have become more turbid since the clearing away of forests, which once clothed the southern flanks of the Alps. It is calculated that the mean rate of advance of the delta of the Po on the Adriatic between the years 1200 and 1600 was 25 yards or metres a year, whereas the mean annual gain from 1600 to 1804 was 70 metres.[341]",
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      "text": "Now, it is well known, that so great is the quantity of water carried off by evaporation in some lakes, that it is nearly equal to the water flowing in; and in some inland seas, as the Caspian, it is quite equal. We may, therefore, well suppose that, in cases where a strong current does not interfere, the greater portion not only of the matter held mechanically in suspension, but of that also which is in chemical solution, may be precipitated at no great distance from the shore. When these finer ingredients are extremely small in quantity, they may only suffice to supply crustaceous animals, corals, and marine plants, with the earthy particles necessary for their secretions; but whenever it is in excess (as generally happens if the basin of a river lie partly in a district of active or extinct volcanoes), then will solid deposits be formed, and the shells will at once be included in a rocky mass.",
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      "text": "_Coast of Asia Minor._--Examples of the advance of the land upon the sea are afforded by the southern coast of Asia Minor. Admiral Sir F. Beaufort has pointed out in his survey the great alterations effected since the time of Strabo, where havens are filled up, islands joined to the mainland, and where the whole continent has increased many miles in extent. Strabo himself, on comparing the outline of the coast in his time with its ancient state, was convinced, like our countryman, that it had gained very considerably upon the sea. The new-formed strata of Asia Minor consist _of stone_, not of loose incoherent materials. Almost all the streamlets and rivers, like many of those in Tuscany and the south of Italy, hold abundance of carbonate of lime in solution, and precipitate travertin, or sometimes bind together the sand and gravel into solid sandstones and conglomerates; every delta and sand-bar thus acquires solidity, which often prevents streams from forcing their way through them, so that their mouths are constantly changing their position.[350]",
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      "text": "_Delta of the Nile._--That Egypt was \"the gift of the Nile,\" was the opinion of her priests before the time of Herodotus; and Rennell observes, that the \"configuration and composition of the low lands leave no room for doubt that the sea once washed the base of the rocks on which the pyramids of Memphis stand, the _present_ base of which is washed by the inundation of the Nile, at an elevation of 70 or 80 feet above the Mediterranean. But when we attempt to carry back our ideas to the remote period when the foundation of the delta was first laid, we are lost in the contemplation of so vast an interval of time.\"[351] Herodotus observes, \"that the country round Memphis seemed formerly to have been an arm of the sea gradually filled by the Nile, in the same manner as the Meander, Achelous, and other streams, had formed deltas. Egypt, therefore, he says, like the Red Sea, was once a long narrow bay, and both gulfs were separated by a small neck of land. If the Nile, he adds, should by any means have an issue into the Arabian Gulf, it might choke it up with earth in 20,000 or even, perhaps, in 10,000 years; and why may not the Nile have filled a still greater gulf with mud in the space of time which has passed before our age?\"[352]",
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      "text": "The distance between Memphis and the most prominent part of the delta in a straight line north and south, is about 100 geographical miles; the length of the base of the delta is more than 200 miles if we follow the coast between the ancient extreme eastern and western arms; but as these are now blocked up, that part only of Lower Egypt which intervenes between the Rosetta and Damietta branches, is usually called the delta, the coast line of which is about 90 miles in length. The bed of the river itself, says Sir J. G. Wilkinson, undergoes a gradual increase of elevation varying in different places, and always lessening in proportion as the river approaches the sea. \"This increase of elevation in perpendicular height is much smaller in Lower than in Upper Egypt, and in the delta it diminishes still more; so that, according to an approximate calculation, the land about Elephantine, or the first cataract, lat. 24 degrees 5 minutes, has been raised nine feet in 1700 years; at Thebes, lat. 25 degrees 43 minutes, about seven feet; and at Heliopolis and Cairo, lat. 30 degrees, about five feet ten inches. At Rosetta and the mouths of the Nile, lat. 31 degrees 30 minutes, the diminution in the perpendicular thickness of the deposit is lessened in a much greater decreasing ratio than in the straitened valley of Central and Upper Egypt, owing to the great extent, east and west, over which the inundation spreads.\"[353]",
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      "text": "For this reason the alluvial deposit does not cause the delta to protrude rapidly into the sea, although some ancient cities are now a mile or more inland, and the mouths of the Nile, mentioned by the earlier geographers, have been many of them silted up, and the outline of the coast entirely changed.",
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      "text": "So great is the quantity of matter held in suspension by the tidal current on our shores, that the waters are in some places artificially introduced into certain lands below the level of the sea; and by repeating this operation, which is called \"warping,\" for two or three years, considerable tracts have been raised, in the estuary of the Humber, to the height of about six feet. If a current, charged with such materials, meets with deep depressions in the bed of the ocean, it must often fill them up; just as a river, when it meets with a lake in its course, fills it gradually with sediment.",
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      "text": "I have said (p. 337) that the action of the waves and currents on sea-cliffs, or their power to remove matter from above to below the sea-level, is insignificant in comparison with the power of rivers to perform the same task. As an illustration we may take the coast of Holderness described in the last chapter (p. 304). It is composed, as we have seen, of very destructible materials, is thirty-six miles long, and its average height may be taken at forty feet. As it has wasted away at the rate of two and a quarter yards annually, for a long period, it will be found on calculation that the quantity of matter thrown down into the sea every year, and removed by the current, amounts to 51,321,600 cubic feet. It has been shown that the united Ganges and Brahmapootra carry down to the Bay of Bengal 40,000,000,000 of cubic feet of solid matter every year, so that their transporting power is no less than 780 times greater than that of the sea on the coast above-mentioned; and in order to produce a result equal to that of the two Indian rivers, we must have a line of wasting coast, like that of Holderness, nearly 28,000 miles in length, or longer than the entire circumference of the globe by above 3000 miles. The reason of so great a difference in the results may be understood when we reflect that the operations of the ocean are limited to a single line of cliff surrounding a large area, whereas great rivers with their tributaries, and the mountain torrents which flow into them, act simultaneously on a length of bank almost indefinite.",
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      "bookId": 33224,
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      "text": "Nevertheless we are by no means entitled to infer, that the denuding force of the great ocean is a geological cause of small efficacy, or inferior to that of rivers. Its chief influence is exerted at moderate depths below the surface, on all those areas which are slowly rising, or are attempting, as it were, to rise above the sea. From data hitherto obtained respecting subterranean movements, we can scarcely speculate on an average rate of upheaval of more than two or three feet in a century. An elevation to this amount is taking place in Scandinavia, and probably in many submarine areas as vast as those which we know to be sinking from the proofs derived from circular lagoon islands or coral atolls. (See chap. 50.) Suppose strata as destructible as those of the Wealden, or the lower and upper cretaceous formation, or the tertiary deposits of the British Isles to be thus slowly upheaved, how readily might they all be swept away by waves and currents in an open sea! How entirely might each stratum disappear as it was brought up successively and exposed to the breakers! Shoals of wide extent might be produced, but it is difficult to conceive how any continent could ever be formed under such circumstances. Were it not indeed for the hardness and toughness of the crystalline and volcanic rocks, which are often capable of resisting the action of the waves, few lands might ever emerge from the midst of an open sea.",
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      "text": "_Supposed filling up of the German Ocean._--The German Ocean is deepest on the Norwegian side, where the soundings give 190 fathoms; but the mean depth of the whole basin may be stated at no more than thirty-one fathoms.[462] The bed of this sea is traversed by several enormous banks, the greatest of which is the Dogger Bank, extending for upwards of 354 miles from north to south. The whole superficies of these shoals is equal to about one-third of the whole extent of England and Scotland. The average height of the banks measures, according to Mr. Stevenson, about seventy-eight feet; the upper portion of them consisting of fine and coarse siliceous sand, mixed with comminuted corals and shells.[463] It had been supposed that these vast submarine hills were made up bodily of loose materials supplied from the waste of the English, Dutch, and other coasts; but the survey of the North Sea, conducted by Captain Hewett, affords ground for suspecting this opinion to be erroneous. If such immense mounds of sand and mud had been accumulated under the influence of currents, the same causes ought nearly to have reduced to one level the entire bottom of the German Ocean; instead of which some long narrow ravines are found to intersect the banks. One of these varies from seventeen to forty-four fathoms in depth, and has very precipitous sides; in one part, called the \"Inner Silver Pits,\" it is fifty-five fathoms deep. The shallowest parts of the Dogger Bank were found to be forty-two feet under water, except in one place, where the wreck of a ship had caused a shoal. Such uniformity in the minimum depth of water seems to imply that the currents, which vary in their velocity from a mile to two miles and a half per hour, have power to prevent the accumulation of drift matter in places of less depth.",
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      "text": "_Strata deposited by currents._--It appears extraordinary, that in some tracts of the sea, adjoining the coast of England, where we know that currents are not only sweeping along rocky masses, thrown down, from time to time, from the high cliffs, but also occasionally scooping out channels in the regular strata, there should exist fragile shells and tender zoophytes in abundance, which live uninjured by these violent movements. The ocean, however, is in this respect a counterpart of the land; and as, on the continents, rivers may undermine their banks, uproot trees, and roll along sand and gravel, while their waters are inhabited by testacea and fish, and their alluvial plains are adorned with rich vegetation and forests, so the sea may be traversed by rapid currents, and its bed may here and there suffer great local derangement, without any interruption of the general order and tranquillity. It has been ascertained by soundings in all parts of the world, that where new deposits are taking place in the sea, coarse sand and small pebbles commonly occur near the shore, while farther from land, and in deeper water, finer sand and broken shells are spread out over the bottom. Still farther out, the finest mud and ooze are alone met with. Mr. Austen observes that this rule holds good in every part of the English Channel examined by him. He also informs us, that where the tidal current runs rapidly in what are called \"races,\" where surface undulations are perceived in the calmest weather, over deep banks, the discoloration of the water does not arise from the power of such a current to disturb the bottom at a depth of 40 or 80 fathoms, as some have supposed. In these cases, a column of water sometimes 500 feet in height, is moving onwards with the tide clear and transparent above, while the lower portion holds fine sediment in suspension (a fact ascertained by soundings), when suddenly it impinges upon a bank, and its height is reduced to 300 feet. It is thus made to boil up and flow off at the surface, a process which forces up the lower strata of water charged with fine particles of mud, which in their passage from the coast had gradually sunk to a depth of 300 feet or more.[464]",
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      "text": "_Their linear direction._--As to the height of the new cones, Von Buch was assured that the formerly great and flourishing St. Catalina lay buried under hills 400 feet in height; and he observes that the most elevated cone of the series rose 600 feet above its base, and 1378 feet above the sea, and that several others were nearly as high. The new vents were all arranged _in one line_, about two geographical miles long, and in a direction nearly east and west. If we admit the probability of Von Buch's conjecture, that these vents opened along the line of a cleft, it seems necessary to suppose that this subterranean fissure was only prolonged upwards to the surface by degrees, and that the rent was narrow at first, as is usually the case with fissures caused by earthquakes. Lava and elastic fluids might escape from some point on the rent where there was least resistance, till, the first aperture becoming obstructed by ejections and the consolidation of lava, other orifices burst open in succession along the line of the original fissure. Von Buch found that each crater was lowest on that side on which lava had issued; but some craters were not breached, and were without any lava streams. In one of these were open fissures, out of which hot vapors rose, which in 1815 raised the thermometer to 145 degrees Fahrenheit, and was probably at the boiling point lower down. The exhalations seemed to consist of aqueous vapor; yet they could not be pure steam, for the crevices were incrusted on either side by siliceous sinter (an opal-like hydrate of silica of a white color), which extended almost to the middle. This important fact attests the length of time during which chemical processes continue after eruptions, and how open fissures may be filled up laterally by mineral matter, sublimed from volcanic exhalations. The lavas of this eruption covered nearly a third of the whole island, often forming on slightly inclined planes great horizontal sheets several square leagues in area, resembling very much the basaltic platforms of Auvergne.",
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      "text": "_Pretended distinction between ancient and modern lavas._--One of the new lavas was observed to contain masses of olivine of an olive-green color, resembling those which occur in one of the lavas of the Vivarais. Von Buch supposes the great crystals of olivine to have been derived from a previously existing basalt melted up by the new volcanoes; but we have scarcely sufficient data to bear out such a conjecture. The older rocks of the island consist, in a great measure, of that kind of basaltic lava called dolerite, sometimes columnar, and partly of common basalt and amygdaloid. Some recent lavas assumed, on entering the sea, a prismatic form, and so much resembled the older lavas of the Canaries, that the only geological distinction which Von Buch appears to have been able to draw between them was, that they did not alternate with conglomerates, like the ancient basalts. Some modern writers have endeavored to discover, in the abundance of these conglomerates, a proof of the dissimilarity of the volcanic action in ancient and modern times; but this character is more probably attributable to the difference between submarine operations and those on the land. All the blocks and imperfectly rounded fragments of lava, transported during the intervals of eruption, by rivers and torrents, into the adjoining sea, or torn by the continued action of the waves from cliffs which are undermined, must accumulate in stratified breccias and conglomerates, and be covered again and again by other lavas. This is now taking place on the shores of Sicily, between Catania and Trezza, where the sea breaks down and covers the shore with blocks and pebbles of the modern lavas of Etna; and on parts of the coast of Ischia, where numerous currents of trachyte are in like manner undermined in lofty precipices. So often, then, as an island is raised in a volcanic archipelago by earthquakes from the deep, the fundamental and (relatively to all above) the oldest lava will often be distinguishable from those formed by subsequent eruptions on dry land, by their alternation with beds of sandstone and fragmentary rocks.",
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      "text": "The supposed want of identity, then, between the volcanic phenomena of different epochs resolves itself partly at least into the marked difference between the operations simultaneously in progress, above and below the waters. Such, indeed, is the source, as was before stated in the First Book (Chap. V.), of many of our strongest theoretical prejudices in geology. No sooner do we study and endeavor to explain submarine appearances, than we feel, to use a common expression, out of our element; and unwilling to concede that our extreme ignorance of processes now continually going on can be the cause of our perplexity, we take refuge in a \"pre-existent order of nature.\"",
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      "text": "_Recent formation of oolitic travertin in Lancerote._--Throughout a considerable part of Lancerote, the old lavas are covered by a thin stratum of limestone, from an inch to two feet in thickness. It is of a hard stalactitic nature, sometimes oolitic, like the Jura limestone, and contains fragments of lava and terrestrial shells, chiefly helices and spiral bulimi. It sometimes rises to the height of 800 feet above the level of the sea. Von Buch imagines that this remarkable superstratum has been produced by the furious northwest storms, which in winter drive the spray of the sea in clouds over the whole island; from whence calcareous particles may be deposited stalactitically. Mr. Darwin informs me that he found a limestone in St. Helena, the harder parts of which correspond precisely to the stone of Lancerote. He attributes the origin of this rock in St. Helena not to the spray of the sea, but to drifting by violent winds of the finer particles of shells from the sea-beach. Some parts of this drift are subsequently dissolved by atmospheric moisture, and redeposited, so as to convert calcareous sand into oolite.",
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      "text": "_Recent eruption in Lancerote._--From the year 1736 to 1815, when Von Buch visited Lancerote, there had been no eruption; but, in August, 1824, a crater opened near the port of Rescif, and formed by its ejections, in the space of twenty-four hours, a considerable hill. Violent earthquakes preceded and accompanied this eruption.[605]",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XXIX.",
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      "text": "EARTHQUAKES--_continued_.",
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      "text": "Earthquake of Java, 1772--Truncation of a lofty cone--St. Domingo, 1770--Lisbon, 1755--Great area over which the shocks extended--Retreat of the sea--Proposed explanations--Conception Bay, 1750--Permanent elevation--Peru, 1746--Java, 1699--Rivers obstructed by landslips--Subsidence in Sicily, 1693--Moluccas, 1693--Jamaica, 1692--Large tracts engulfed--Portion of Port Royal sunk--Amount of change in the last 150 years--Elevation and subsidence of land in Bay of Baiae--Evidence of the same afforded by the Temple of Serapis.",
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      "text": "In the preceding chapters we have considered a small part only of those earthquakes which have occurred during the last seventy years, of which accurate and authentic descriptions happen to have been recorded. In examining those of earlier date, we find their number so great that allusion can be made to a few only respecting which information of peculiar geological interest has been obtained.",
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      "text": "_Java_, 1772.--_Truncation of a lofty cone._--In the year 1772, Papandayang, formerly one of the loftiest volcanoes in the island of Java, was in eruption. Before all the inhabitants on the declivities of the mountain could save themselves by flight, the ground began to give way, and a great part of the volcano fell in and disappeared. It is estimated that an extent of ground of the mountain itself and its immediate environs, fifteen miles long and full six broad, was by this commotion swallowed up in the bowels of the earth. Forty villages were destroyed, some being engulfed and some covered by the substances thrown out on this occasion, and 2957 of the inhabitants perished. A proportionate number of cattle were also killed, and most of the plantations of cotton, indigo, and coffee in the adjacent districts were buried under the volcanic matter. This catastrophe appears to have resembled, although on a grander scale, that of the ancient Vesuvius in the year 79. The cone was reduced in height from 9000 to about 5000 feet; and, as vapors still escape from the crater on its summit, a new cone may one day rise out of the ruins of the ancient mountain, as the modern Vesuvius has risen from the remains of Somma.[675]",
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      "text": "_Temple of Jupiter Serapis._--This celebrated monument of antiquity, a representation of which is given in the frontispiece,[711] affords in itself alone, unequivocal evidence that the relative level of land and sea has changed twice at Puzzuoli since the Christian era; and each movement, both of elevation and subsidence, has exceeded twenty feet. Before examining these proofs, I may observe, that a geological examination of the coast of Baiae, both on the north and south of Puzzuoli, establishes, in the most satisfactory manner, an elevation, at no remote period, of more than twenty feet, and, at one point, of more than thirty feet; and the evidence of this change would have been complete, if even the temple had, to this day, remained undiscovered.",
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      "text": "_Coast south of Puzzuoli._--If we coast along the shore from Naples to Puzzuoli, we find, on approaching the latter place, that the lofty and precipitous cliffs of indurated tuff, resembling that of which Naples is built, retire slightly from the sea; and that a low level tract of fertile land, of a very different aspect, intervenes between the present sea-beach and what was evidently the ancient line of coast.",
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      "text": "The inland cliff may be seen opposite the small island of Nisida, about two miles and a half southeast of Puzzuoli (see Map, fig. 40, p. 361), where, at the height of thirty-two feet above the level of the sea, Mr. Babbage observed an ancient mark, such as might have been worn by the waves; and, upon farther examination, discovered that, along that line, the face of the perpendicular rock, consisting of very hard tuff, was covered with barnacles (_Balanus sulcatus_, Lamk.), and drilled by boring testacea. Some of the hollows of the lithodomi contained the shells; while others were filled with the valves of a species of Area.[712] Nearer to Puzzuoli, the inland cliff is eighty feet high, and as perpendicular as if it was still undermined by the waves. At its base, a new deposit, constituting the fertile tract above alluded to, attains a height of about twenty feet above the sea; and, since it is composed of regular sedimentary deposits, containing marine shells, its position proves that, subsequently to its formation, there has been a change of more than twenty feet in the relative level of land and sea.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 87.",
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      "text": "_a_, Antiquities on hill S. E. of Puzzuoli (see ground plan, fig. 86).",
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      "text": "1. Puzzuoli. 2. Temple of Serapis. 3. Caligula's Bridge 4. Monte Barbaro. 5. Monte Nuovo. 6. Baths of Nero. 7. Baiae. 8. Castle of Baiae. 9. Bauli. 10. Cape Misenum. 11. Mount Epomeo in Ischia. 12. South Part of Ischia.",
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      "text": "]",
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      "text": "From the town the ruins of a mole, called Caligula's Bridge, run out into the sea (see fig. 88, p. 509).[713] This mole, which is believed to be eighteen centuries old, consists of a number of piers and arches, thirteen of which are now standing, and two others appear to have been overthrown. Mr. Babbage found, on the sixth pier, perforations of lithodomi four feet above the level of the sea; and, near the termination of the mole on the last pier but one, marks of the same, ten feet above the level of the sea, together with great numbers of balani and flustra. The depth of the sea, at a very small distance from most of the piers, is from thirty to fifty feet.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 89.",
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      "text": "_a_, Remains of Cicero's villa, N. side of Puzzuoli.[714] _b_, Ancient cliff now inland. _c_, Terrace (called La Starza) composed of recent submarine deposits. _d_, Temple of Serapis.",
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      "text": "Thus we arrive, without the aid of the celebrated temple, at the conclusion, that the recent marine deposit at Puzzuoli was upraised in modern times above the level of the sea, and that not only this change of position, but the accumulation of the modern strata, was posterior to the destruction of many edifices, of which they contain the imbedded remains. If we next examine the evidence afforded by the temple itself, it appears, from the most authentic accounts, that the three pillars now standing erect continued, down to the middle of the last century, almost buried in the new marine strata (_c_, fig. 89). The upper part of each protruding several feet above the surface was concealed by bushes, and had not attracted, until the year 1749, the notice of antiquaries; but, when the soil was removed in 1750, they were seen to form part of the remains of a splendid edifice, the pavement of which was still preserved, and upon it lay a number of columns of African breccia and of granite. The original plan of the building could be traced distinctly: it was of a quadrangular form, seventy feet in diameter, and the roof had been supported by forty-six noble columns, twenty-four of granite and the rest of marble. The large court was surrounded by apartments, supposed to have been used as bathing-rooms; for a thermal spring, still used for medicinal purposes, issues just behind the building, and the water of this spring appears to have been originally conveyed by a marble duct, still extant, into the chambers, and then across the pavement by a groove an inch or two deep, to a conduit made of Roman brickwork, by which it gained the sea.",
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    {
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      "text": "Many antiquaries have entered into elaborate discussions as to the deity to which this edifice was consecrated. It is admitted that, among other images found in excavating the ruins, there was one of the god Serapis; and at Puzzuoli a marble column was dug up, on which was carved an ancient inscription, of the date of the building of Rome 648 (or B. C. 105), entitled \"Lex parieti faciundo.\" This inscription, written in very obscure Latin, sets forth a contract, between the municipality of the town, and a company of builders who undertook to keep in repair certain public edifices, the Temple of Serapis being mentioned amongst the rest, and described as being near or towards the sea, \"mare vorsum.\" Sir Edmund Head, after studying, in 1828, the topography and antiquities of this district, and the Greek, Roman, and Italian writers on the subject, informed me, that at Alexandria, on the Nile, the chief seat of the worship of Serapis, there was a Serapeum of the same form as this temple at Puzzuoli, and surrounded in like manner by chambers, in which the devotees were accustomed to pass the night, in the hope of receiving during sleep a revelation from the god, as to the nature and cure of their diseases. Hence it was very natural that the priests of Serapis, a pantheistic divinity, who, among other usurpations, had appropriated to himself the attributes of Esculapius, should regard the hot spring as a suitable appendage to the temple, although the original Serapeum of Alexandria could boast no such medicinal waters. Signor Carelli[716] and others, in objecting to these views, have insisted on the fact, that the worship of Serapis, which we know prevailed at Rome in the days of Catullus (in the first century before Christ), was prohibited by the Roman Senate, during the reign of the Emperor Tiberius. But there is little doubt that, during the reigns of that emperor's successors, the shrines of the Egyptian god were again thronged by zealous votaries; and in no place more so than at Puteoli (now Puzzuoli), one of the principal marts for the produce of Alexandria.",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B01898",
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      "text": "Without entering farther into an inquiry which is not strictly geological, I shall designate this valuable relic of antiquity by its generally received name, and proceed to consider the memorials of physical changes inscribed on the three standing columns in most legible characters by the hand of Nature. (See Frontispiece.) These pillars, which have been carved each out of a single block of marble, are forty feet three inches and a half in height. A horizontal fissure nearly intersects one of the columns; the other two are entire. They are all slightly out of the perpendicular, inclining somewhat to the southwest, that is, towards the sea.[717] Their surface is smooth and uninjured to the height of about twelve feet above their pedestals. Above this is a zone, about nine feet in height, where the marble has been pierced by a species of marine perforating bivalve--_Lithodomus_, Cuv.[718] The holes of these animals are pear-shaped, the external opening being minute, and gradually increasing downwards. At the bottom of the cavities, many shells are still found, notwithstanding the great numbers that have been taken out by visitors; in many the valves of a species of arca, an animal which conceals itself in small hollows, occur. The perforations are so considerable in depth and size, that they manifest a long-continued abode of the lithodomi in the columns, for, as the inhabitant grows older and increases in size, it bores a larger cavity, to correspond with the increased magnitude of its shell. We must, consequently, infer a long-continued immersion of the pillars in sea-water, at a time when the lower part was covered up and protected by marine, fresh-water, and volcanic strata, afterwards to be described, and by the rubbish of buildings; the highest part, at the same time, projecting above the waters, and being consequently weathered, but not materially injured. (See fig. 90, p. 514.)",
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      "text": "On the pavement of the temple lie some columns of marble, which are also perforated in certain parts; one, for example, to the length of eight feet, while, for the length of four feet, it is uninjured. Several of these broken columns are eaten into, not only on the exterior, but on the cross fracture, and, on some of them, other marine animals (serpulae, &c.) have fixed themselves.[719] All the granite pillars are untouched by lithodomi. The platform of the temple, which is not perfectly even, was, when I visited it in 1828, about one foot below high-water mark (for there are small tides in the bay of Naples); and the sea, which was only one hundred feet distant, soaked through the intervening soil. The upper part of the perforations, therefore, were at least twenty-three feet above high-water mark; and it is clear that the columns must have continued for a long time in an erect position, immersed in salt water, and then the submerged portion must have been upraised to the height of about twenty-three feet above the level of the sea.",
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      "text": "By excavations carried on in 1828, below the marble pavement on which the columns stand, another costly pavement of mosaic was found, at the depth of about five feet below the upper one (_a_, _b_, fig. 90). The existence of these two pavements, at different levels, clearly implies some subsidence previously to the building of the more modern temple which had rendered it necessary to construct the new floor at a higher level.",
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      "text": "We find that many genera amongst animals and plants are of such an extent, in consequence of the number of species referred to them, that the study and determination of these last has become almost impracticable. When the species are arranged in a series, and placed near to each other, with due regard to their natural affinities, they each differ in so minute a degree from those next adjoining, that they almost melt into each other, and are in a manner confounded together. If we see isolated species, we may presume the absence of some more closely connected, and which have not yet been discovered. Already are there genera, and even entire orders--nay, whole classes, which present an approximation to the state of things here indicated.",
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      "text": "If, when species have been thus placed in a regular series, we select one, and then, making a leap over several intermediate ones, we take a second, at some distance from the first, these two will, on comparison, be seen to be very dissimilar; and it is in this manner that every naturalist begins to study the objects which are at his own door. He then finds it an easy task to establish generic and specific distinctions; and it is only when his experience is enlarged, and when he has made himself master of the intermediate links, that his difficulties and ambiguities begin. But while we are thus compelled to resort to trifling and minute characters in our attempt to separate the species, we find a striking disparity between individuals which we know to have descended from a common stock; and these newly acquired peculiarities are regularly transmitted from one generation to another, constituting what are called _races_.",
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      "ref": "PG33224.B02086",
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      "text": "From a great number of facts, continues the author, we learn that in proportion as the individuals of one of our species change their situation, climate, and manner of living, they change also, by little and little, the consistence and proportions of their parts, their form, their faculties, and even their organization, in such a manner that every thing in them comes at last to participate in the mutations to which they have been exposed. Even in the same climate, a great difference of situation and exposure causes individuals to vary; but if these individuals continue to live and to be reproduced under the same difference of circumstances, distinctions are brought about in them which become in some degree essential to their existence. In a word, at the end of many successive generations, these individuals, which originally belonged to another species, are transformed into a new and distinct species.[791]",
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      "text": "Thus, for example, if the seeds of a grass, or any other plant which grows naturally in a moist meadow, be accidentally transported, first to the slope of some neighboring hill, where the soil, although at a greater elevation, is damp enough to allow the plant to live; and if, after having lived there, and having been several times regenerated, it reaches by degrees the drier and almost arid soil of a mountain declivity, it will then, if it succeeds in growing, and perpetuates itself for a series of generations, be so changed that botanists who meet with it will regard it as a particular species.[792] The unfavorable climate in this case, deficiency of nourishment, exposure to the winds, and other causes, give rise to a stunted and dwarfish race, with some organ more developed than others, and having proportions often quite peculiar.",
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      "text": "What nature brings about in a great lapse of time, we occasion suddenly by changing the circumstances in which a species has been accustomed to live. All are aware that vegetables taken from their birthplace, and cultivated in gardens, undergo changes which render them no longer recognizable as the same plants. Many which were naturally hairy become smooth, or nearly so; a great number of such as were creepers and trailed along the ground, rear their stalks and grow erect. Others lose their thorns or asperities; others, again, from the ligneous state which their stem possessed in hot climates, where they were indigenous, pass to the herbaceous; and, among them, some which were perennials become mere annuals. So well do botanists know the effects of such changes of circumstances, that they are averse to describe species from garden specimens, unless they are sure that they have been cultivated for a very short period.",
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      "text": "INTRODUCTION.",
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      "text": "I.",
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      "text": "John Stuart Mill was born on 20th May 1806. He was a delicate child, and the extraordinary education designed by his father was not calculated to develop and improve his physical powers. \"I never was a boy,\" he says; \"never played cricket.\" His exercise was taken in the form of walks with his father, during which the elder Mill lectured his son and examined him on his work. It is idle to speculate on the possible results of a different treatment. Mill remained delicate throughout his life, but was endowed with that intense mental energy which is so often combined with physical weakness. His youth was sacrificed to an idea; he was designed by his father to carry on his work; the individuality of the boy was unimportant. A visit to the south of France at the age of fourteen, in company with the family of General Sir Samuel Bentham, was not without its influence. It was a glimpse of another atmosphere, though the studious habits of his home life were maintained. Moreover, he derived from it his interest in foreign politics, which remained one of his characteristics to the end of his life. In 1823 he was appointed junior clerk in the Examiners' Office at the India House.",
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      "text": "Mill's first essays were written in the _Traveller_ about a year before he entered the India House. From that time forward his literary work was uninterrupted save by attacks of illness. His industry was stupendous. He wrote articles on an infinite variety of subjects, political, metaphysical, philosophic, religious, poetical. He discovered Tennyson for his generation, he influenced the writing of Carlyle's _French Revolution_ as well as its success. And all the while he was engaged in studying and preparing for his more ambitious works, while he rose step by step at the India Office. His _Essays on Unsettled Questions in Political Economy_ were written in 1831, although they did not appear until thirteen years later. His _System of Logic_, the design of which was even then fashioning itself in his brain, took thirteen years to complete, and was actually published before the _Political Economy_. In 1844 appeared the article on Michelet, which its author anticipated would cause some discussion, but which did not create the sensation he expected. Next year there were the \"Claims of Labour\" and \"Guizot,\" and in 1847 his articles on Irish affairs in the _Morning Chronicle_. These years were very much influenced by his friendship and correspondence with Comte, a curious comradeship between men of such different temperament. In 1848 Mill published his _Political Economy_, to which he had given his serious study since the completion of his _Logic_. His articles and reviews, though they involved a good deal of work--as, for instance, the re-perusal of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ in the original before reviewing Grote's _Greece_--were recreation to the student. The year 1856 saw him head of the Examiners' Office in the India House, and another two years brought the end of his official work, owing to the transfer of India to the Crown. In the same year his wife died. _Liberty_ was published shortly after, as well as the _Thoughts on Parliamentary Reform_, and no year passed without Mill making important contributions on the political, philosophical, and ethical questions of the day.",
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      "text": "Seven years after the death of his wife, Mill was invited to contest Westminster. His feeling on the conduct of elections made him refuse to take any personal action in the matter, and he gave the frankest expression to his political views, but nevertheless he was elected by a large majority. He was not a conventional success in the House; as a speaker he lacked magnetism. But his influence was widely felt. \"For the sake of the House of Commons at large,\" said Mr. Gladstone, \"I rejoiced in his advent and deplored his disappearance. He did us all good.\" After only three years in Parliament, he was defeated at the next General Election by Mr. W. H. Smith. He retired to Avignon, to the pleasant little house where the happiest years of his life had been spent in the companionship of his wife, and continued his disinterested labours. He completed his edition of his father's _Analysis of the Mind_, and also produced, in addition to less important work, _The Subjection of Women_, in which he had the active co-operation of his step-daughter. A book on Socialism was under consideration, but, like an earlier study of Sociology, it never was written. He died in 1873, his last years being spent peacefully in the pleasant society of his step-daughter, from whose tender care and earnest intellectual sympathy he caught maybe a far-off reflection of the light which had irradiated his spiritual life.",
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      "text": "The facts of this remarkable intimacy can easily be stated. The deductions are more difficult. There is no question that Mill's infatuation was the cause of considerable trouble to his acquaintances and friends. His father openly taxed him with being in love with another man's wife. Roebuck, Mrs. Grote, Mrs. Austin, Miss Harriet Martineau were amongst those who suffered because they made some allusion to a forbidden subject. Mrs. Taylor lived with her daughter in a lodging in the country; but in 1851 her husband died, and then Mill made her his wife. Opinions were widely divergent as to her merits; but every one agreed that up to the time of her death, in 1858, Mill was wholly lost to his friends. George Mill, one of Mill's younger brothers, gave it as his opinion that she was a clever and remarkable woman, but \"nothing like what John took her to be.\" Carlyle, in his reminiscences, described her with ambiguous epithets. She was \"vivid,\" \"iridescent,\" \"pale and passionate and sad-looking, a living-romance heroine of the royalist volition and questionable destiny.\" It is not possible to make much of a judgment like this, but we get on more certain ground when we discover that Mrs. Carlyle said on one occasion that \"she is thought to be dangerous,\" and that Carlyle added that she was worse than dangerous, she was patronising. The occasion when Mill and his wife were brought into close contact with the Carlyles is well known. The manuscript of the first volume of the _French Revolution_ had been lent to Mill, and was accidentally burnt by Mrs. Mill's servant. Mill and his wife drove up to Carlyle's door, the wife speechless, the husband so full of conversation that he detained Carlyle with desperate attempts at loquacity for two hours. But Dr. Garnett tells us, in his _Life of Carlyle_, that Mill made a substantial reparation for the calamity for which he was responsible by inducing the aggrieved author to accept half of the L200 which he offered. Mrs. Mill, as I have said, died in 1858, after seven years of happy companionship with her husband, and was buried at Avignon. The inscription which Mill wrote for her grave is too characteristic to be omitted:--\"Her great and loving heart, her noble soul, her clear, powerful, original, and comprehensive intellect, made her the guide and support, the instructor in wisdom and the example in goodness, as she was the sole earthly delight of those who had the happiness to belong to her. As earnest for all public good as she was generous and devoted to all who surrounded her, her influence has been felt in many of the greatest improvements of the age, and will be in those still to come. Were there even a few hearts and intellects like hers, this earth would already become the hoped-for Heaven.\" These lines prove the intensity of Mill's feeling, which is not afraid of abundant verbiage; but they also prove that he could not imagine what the effect would be on others, and, as Grote said, only Mill's reputation could survive these and similar displays.",
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      "text": "Every one will judge for himself of this romantic episode in Mill's career, according to such experience as he may possess of the philosophic mind and of the value of these curious but not infrequent relationships. It may have been a piece of infatuation, or, if we prefer to say so, it may have been the most gracious and the most human page in Mill's career. Mrs. Mill may have flattered her husband's vanity by echoing his opinions, or she may have indeed been an Egeria, full of inspiration and intellectual helpfulness. What usually happens in these cases,--although the philosopher himself, through his belief in the equality of the sexes, was debarred from thinking so,--is the extremely valuable action and reaction of two different classes and orders of mind. To any one whose thoughts have been occupied with the sphere of abstract speculation, the lively and vivid presentment of concrete fact comes as a delightful and agreeable shock. The instinct of the woman often enables her not only to apprehend but to illustrate a truth for which she would be totally unable to give the adequate philosophic reasoning. On the other hand, the man, with the more careful logical methods and the slow processes of formal reasoning, is apt to suppose that the happy intuition which leaps to the conclusion is really based on the intellectual processes of which he is conscious in his own case. Thus both parties to the happy contract are equally pleased. The abstract truth gets the concrete illustration; the concrete illustration finds its proper foundation in a series of abstract inquiries. Perhaps Carlyle's epithets of \"iridescent\" and \"vivid\" refer incidentally to Mrs. Mill's quick perceptiveness, and thus throw a useful light on the mutual advantages of the common work of husband and wife. But it savours almost of impertinence even to attempt to lift the veil on a mystery like this. It is enough to say, perhaps, that however much we may deplore the exaggeration of Mill's references to his wife, we recognise that, for whatever reason, the pair lived an ideally happy life.",
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      "text": "It still, however, remains to estimate the extent to which Mrs. Taylor, both before and after her marriage with Mill, made actual contributions to his thoughts and his public work. Here I may be perhaps permitted to avail myself of what I have already written in a previous work.[1] Mill gives us abundant help in this matter in the _Autobiography_. When first he knew her, his thoughts were turning to the subject of Logic. But his published work on the subject owed nothing to her, he tells us, in its doctrines. It was Mill's custom to write the whole of a book so as to get his general scheme complete, and then laboriously to re-write it in order to perfect the phrases and the composition. Doubtless Mrs. Taylor was of considerable help to him as a critic of style. But to be a critic of doctrine she was hardly qualified. Mill has made some clear admissions on this point. \"The only actual revolution which has ever taken place in my modes of thinking was already complete,\"[2] he says, before her influence became paramount. There is a curiously humble estimate of his own powers (to which Dr. Bain has called attention), which reads at first sight as if it contradicted this. \"During the greater part of my literary life I have performed the office in relation to her, which, from a rather early period, I had considered as the most useful part that I was qualified to take in the domain of thought, that of an interpreter of original thinkers, and mediator between them and the public.\" So far it would seem that Mill had sat at the feet of his oracle; but observe the highly remarkable exception which is made in the following sentence:--\"For I had always a humble opinion of my own powers as an original thinker, _except in abstract science (logic, metaphysics, and the theoretic principles of political economy and politics.)_\"[3] If Mill then was an original thinker in logic, metaphysics, and the science of economy and politics, it is clear that he had not learnt these from her lips. And to most men logic and metaphysics may be safely taken as forming a domain in which originality of thought, if it can be honestly professed, is a sufficient title of distinction.",
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      "text": "Mrs. Taylor's assistance in the _Political Economy_ is confined to certain definite points. The purely scientific part was, we are assured, not learnt from her. \"But it was chiefly her influence which gave to the book that general tone by which it is distinguished from all previous expositions of political economy that had any pretensions to be scientific, and which has made it so useful in conciliating minds which those previous expositions had repelled. This tone consisted chiefly in making the proper distinction between the laws of the production of wealth, which are real laws of Nature, dependent on the properties of objects, and the modes of its distribution, which, subject to certain conditions, depend on human will.... _I had indeed partially learnt this view of things from the thoughts awakened in me by the speculations of St. Simonians_; but it was made a living principle, pervading and animating the book, by my wife's promptings.\"[4] The part which is italicised is noticeable. Here, as elsewhere, Mill thinks out the matter by himself; the concrete form of the thoughts is suggested or prompted by the wife. Apart from this \"general tone,\" Mill tells us that there was a specific contribution. \"The chapter which has had a greater influence on opinion than all the rest, that on the Probable Future of the Labouring Classes, is entirely due to her. In the first draft of the book that chapter did not exist. She pointed out the need of such a chapter, and the extreme imperfection of the book without it; she was the cause of my writing it.\" From this it would appear that she gave Mill that tendency to Socialism which, while it lends a progressive spirit to his speculations on politics, at the same time does not manifestly accord with his earlier advocacy of peasant proprietorships. Nor, again, is it, on the face of it, consistent with those doctrines of individual liberty which, aided by the intellectual companionship of his wife, he propounded in a later work. The ideal of individual freedom is not the ideal of Socialism, just as that invocation of governmental aid to which the Socialist resorts is not consistent with the theory of _laisser-faire_. Yet _Liberty_ was planned by Mill and his wife in concert. Perhaps a slight visionariness of speculation was no less the attribute of Mrs. Mill than an absence of rigid logical principles. Be this as it may, she undoubtedly checked the half-recognised leanings of her husband in the direction of Coleridge and Carlyle. Whether this was an instance of her steadying influence,[5] or whether it added one more unassimilated element to Mill's diverse intellectual sustenance, may be wisely left an open question. We cannot, however, be wrong in attributing to her the parentage of one book of Mill, _The Subjection of Women_. It is true that Mill had before learnt that men and women ought to be equal in legal, political, social, and domestic relations. This was a point on which he had already fallen foul of his father's essay on _Government_. But Mrs. Taylor had actually written on this very point, and the warmth and fervour of Mill's denunciations of women's servitude were unmistakably caught from his wife's view of the practical disabilities entailed by the feminine position.",
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      "text": "III.",
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      "text": "OF THE LIBERTY OF THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION 28",
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      "text": "CHAPTER III.",
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      "text": "OF INDIVIDUALITY, AS ONE OF THE ELEMENTS OF WELL-BEING 103",
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      "text": "CHAPTER IV.",
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      "text": "OF THE LIMITS TO THE AUTHORITY OF SOCIETY OVER THE INDIVIDUAL 140",
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      "text": "INTRODUCTORY.",
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      "text": "The subject of this Essay is not the so-called Liberty of the Will, so unfortunately opposed to the misnamed doctrine of Philosophical Necessity; but Civil, or Social Liberty: the nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual. A question seldom stated, and hardly ever discussed, in general terms, but which profoundly influences the practical controversies of the age by its latent presence, and is likely soon to make itself recognised as the vital question of the future. It is so far from being new, that in a certain sense, it has divided mankind, almost from the remotest ages; but in the stage of progress into which the more civilised portions of the species have now entered, it presents itself under new conditions, and requires a different and more fundamental treatment.",
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      "text": "The struggle between Liberty and Authority is the most conspicuous feature in the portions of history with which we are earliest familiar, particularly in that of Greece, Rome, and England. But in old times this contest was between subjects, or some classes of subjects, and the government. By liberty, was meant protection against the tyranny of the political rulers. The rulers were conceived (except in some of the popular governments of Greece) as in a necessarily antagonistic position to the people whom they ruled. They consisted of a governing One, or a governing tribe or caste, who derived their authority from inheritance or conquest, who, at all events, did not hold it at the pleasure of the governed, and whose supremacy men did not venture, perhaps did not desire, to contest, whatever precautions might be taken against its oppressive exercise. Their power was regarded as necessary, but also as highly dangerous; as a weapon which they would attempt to use against their subjects, no less than against external enemies. To prevent the weaker members of the community from being preyed upon by innumerable vultures, it was needful that there should be an animal of prey stronger than the rest, commissioned to keep them down. But as the king of the vultures would be no less bent upon preying on the flock than any of the minor harpies, it was indispensable to be in a perpetual attitude of defence against his beak and claws. The aim, therefore, of patriots, was to set limits to the power which the ruler should be suffered to exercise over the community; and this limitation was what they meant by liberty. It was attempted in two ways. First, by obtaining a recognition of certain immunities, called political liberties or rights, which it was to be regarded as a breach of duty in the ruler to infringe, and which if he did infringe, specific resistance, or general rebellion, was held to be justifiable. A second, and generally a later expedient, was the establishment of constitutional checks; by which the consent of the community, or of a body of some sort, supposed to represent its interests, was made a necessary condition to some of the more important acts of the governing power. To the first of these modes of limitation, the ruling power, in most European countries, was compelled, more or less, to submit. It was not so with the second; and to attain this, or when already in some degree possessed, to attain it more completely, became everywhere the principal object of the lovers of liberty. And so long as mankind were content to combat one enemy by another, and to be ruled by a master, on condition of being guaranteed more or less efficaciously against his tyranny, they did not carry their aspirations beyond this point.",
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      "text": "A time, however, came, in the progress of human affairs, when men ceased to think it a necessity of nature that their governors should be an independent power, opposed in interest to themselves. It appeared to them much better that the various magistrates of the State should be their tenants or delegates, revocable at their pleasure. In that way alone, it seemed, could they have complete security that the powers of government would never be abused to their disadvantage. By degrees, this new demand for elective and temporary rulers became the prominent object of the exertions of the popular party, wherever any such party existed; and superseded, to a considerable extent, the previous efforts to limit the power of rulers. As the struggle proceeded for making the ruling power emanate from the periodical choice of the ruled, some persons began to think that too much importance had been attached to the limitation of the power itself. _That_ (it might seem) was a resource against rulers whose interests were habitually opposed to those of the people. What was now wanted was, that the rulers should be identified with the people; that their interest and will should be the interest and will of the nation. The nation did not need to be protected against its own will. There was no fear of its tyrannising over itself. Let the rulers be effectually responsible to it, promptly removable by it, and it could afford to trust them with power of which it could itself dictate the use to be made. Their power was but the nation's own power, concentrated, and in a form convenient for exercise. This mode of thought, or rather perhaps of feeling, was common among the last generation of European liberalism, in the Continental section of which it still apparently predominates. Those who admit any limit to what a government may do, except in the case of such governments as they think ought not to exist, stand out as brilliant exceptions among the political thinkers of the Continent. A similar tone of sentiment might by this time have been prevalent in our own country, if the circumstances which for a time encouraged it, had continued unaltered.",
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      "text": "But, in political and philosophical theories, as well as in persons, success discloses faults and infirmities which failure might have concealed from observation. The notion, that the people have no need to limit their power over themselves, might seem axiomatic, when popular government was a thing only dreamed about, or read of as having existed at some distant period of the past. Neither was that notion necessarily disturbed by such temporary aberrations as those of the French Revolution, the worst of which were the work of a usurping few, and which, in any case, belonged, not to the permanent working of popular institutions, but to a sudden and convulsive outbreak against monarchical and aristocratic despotism. In time, however, a democratic republic came to occupy a large portion of the earth's surface, and made itself felt as one of the most powerful members of the community of nations; and elective and responsible government became subject to the observations and criticisms which wait upon a great existing fact. It was now perceived that such phrases as \"self-government,\" and \"the power of the people over themselves,\" do not express the true state of the case. The \"people\" who exercise the power are not always the same people with those over whom it is exercised; and the \"self-government\" spoken of is not the government of each by himself, but of each by all the rest. The will of the people, moreover, practically means, the will of the most numerous or the most active _part_ of the people; the majority, or those who succeed in making themselves accepted as the majority: the people, consequently, _may_ desire to oppress a part of their number; and precautions are as much needed against this, as against any other abuse of power. The limitation, therefore, of the power of government over individuals, loses none of its importance when the holders of power are regularly accountable to the community, that is, to the strongest party therein. This view of things, recommending itself equally to the intelligence of thinkers and to the inclination of those important classes in European society to whose real or supposed interests democracy is adverse, has had no difficulty in establishing itself; and in political speculations \"the tyranny of the majority\" is now generally included among the evils against which society requires to be on its guard.",
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      "text": "Like other tyrannies, the tyranny of the majority was at first, and is still vulgarly, held in dread, chiefly as operating through the acts of the public authorities. But reflecting persons perceived that when society is itself the tyrant--society collectively, over the separate individuals who compose it--its means of tyrannising are not restricted to the acts which it may do by the hands of its political functionaries. Society can and does execute its own mandates: and if it issues wrong mandates instead of right, or any mandates at all in things with which it ought not to meddle, it practises a social tyranny more formidable than many kinds of political oppression, since, though not usually upheld by such extreme penalties, it leaves fewer means of escape, penetrating much more deeply into the details of life, and enslaving the soul itself. Protection, therefore, against the tyranny of the magistrate is not enough: there needs protection also against the tyranny of the prevailing opinion and feeling; against the tendency of society to impose, by other means than civil penalties, its own ideas and practices as rules of conduct on those who dissent from them; to fetter the development, and, if possible, prevent the formation, of any individuality not in harmony with its ways, and compel all characters to fashion themselves upon the model of its own. There is a limit to the legitimate interference of collective opinion with individual independence: and to find that limit, and maintain it against encroachment, is as indispensable to a good condition of human affairs, as protection against political despotism.",
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      "text": "But though this proposition is not likely to be contested in general terms, the practical question, where to place the limit--how to make the fitting adjustment between individual independence and social control--is a subject on which nearly everything remains to be done. All that makes existence valuable to any one, depends on the enforcement of restraints upon the actions of other people. Some rules of conduct, therefore, must be imposed, by law in the first place, and by opinion on many things which are not fit subjects for the operation of law. What these rules should be, is the principal question in human affairs; but if we except a few of the most obvious cases, it is one of those which least progress has been made in resolving. No two ages, and scarcely any two countries, have decided it alike; and the decision of one age or country is a wonder to another. Yet the people of any given age and country no more suspect any difficulty in it, than if it were a subject on which mankind had always been agreed. The rules which obtain among themselves appear to them self-evident and self-justifying. This all but universal illusion is one of the examples of the magical influence of custom, which is not only, as the proverb says, a second nature, but is continually mistaken for the first. The effect of custom, in preventing any misgiving respecting the rules of conduct which mankind impose on one another, is all the more complete because the subject is one on which it is not generally considered necessary that reasons should be given, either by one person to others, or by each to himself. People are accustomed to believe, and have been encouraged in the belief by some who aspire to the character of philosophers, that their feelings, on subjects of this nature, are better than reasons, and render reasons unnecessary. The practical principle which guides them to their opinions on the regulation of human conduct, is the feeling in each person's mind that everybody should be required to act as he, and those with whom he sympathises, would like them to act. No one, indeed, acknowledges to himself that his standard of judgment is his own liking; but an opinion on a point of conduct, not supported by reasons, can only count as one person's preference; and if the reasons, when given, are a mere appeal to a similar preference felt by other people, it is still only many people's liking instead of one. To an ordinary man, however, his own preference, thus supported, is not only a perfectly satisfactory reason, but the only one he generally has for any of his notions of morality, taste, or propriety, which are not expressly written in his religious creed; and his chief guide in the interpretation even of that. Men's opinions, accordingly, on what is laudable or blamable, are affected by all the multifarious causes which influence their wishes in regard to the conduct of others, and which are as numerous as those which determine their wishes on any other subject. Sometimes their reason--at other times their prejudices or superstitions: often their social affections, not seldom their anti-social ones, their envy or jealousy, their arrogance or contemptuousness: but most commonly, their desires or fears for themselves--their legitimate or illegitimate self-interest. Wherever there is an ascendant class, a large portion of the morality of the country emanates from its class interests, and its feelings of class superiority. The morality between Spartans and Helots, between planters and negroes, between princes and subjects, between nobles and roturiers, between men and women, has been for the most part the creation of these class interests and feelings: and the sentiments thus generated, react in turn upon the moral feelings of the members of the ascendant class, in their relations among themselves. Where, on the other hand, a class, formerly ascendant, has lost its ascendancy, or where its ascendancy is unpopular, the prevailing moral sentiments frequently bear the impress of an impatient dislike of superiority. Another grand determining principle of the rules of conduct, both in act and forbearance, which have been enforced by law or opinion, has been the servility of mankind towards the supposed preferences or aversions of their temporal masters, or of their gods. This servility, though essentially selfish, is not hypocrisy; it gives rise to perfectly genuine sentiments of abhorrence; it made men burn magicians and heretics. Among so many baser influences, the general and obvious interests of society have of course had a share, and a large one, in the direction of the moral sentiments: less, however, as a matter of reason, and on their own account, than as a consequence of the sympathies and antipathies which grew out of them: and sympathies and antipathies which had little or nothing to do with the interests of society, have made themselves felt in the establishment of moralities with quite as great force.",
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      "text": "The likings and dislikings of society, or of some powerful portion of it, are thus the main thing which has practically determined the rules laid down for general observance, under the penalties of law or opinion. And in general, those who have been in advance of society in thought and feeling have left this condition of things unassailed in principle, however they may have come into conflict with it in some of its details. They have occupied themselves rather in inquiring what things society ought to like or dislike, than in questioning whether its likings or dislikings should be a law to individuals. They preferred endeavouring to alter the feelings of mankind on the particular points on which they were themselves heretical, rather than make common cause in defence of freedom, with heretics generally. The only case in which the higher ground has been taken on principle and maintained with consistency, by any but an individual here and there, is that of religious belief: a case instructive in many ways, and not least so as forming a most striking instance of the fallibility of what is called the moral sense: for the _odium theologicum_, in a sincere bigot, is one of the most unequivocal cases of moral feeling. Those who first broke the yoke of what called itself the Universal Church, were in general as little willing to permit difference of religious opinion as that church itself. But when the heat of the conflict was over, without giving a complete victory to any party, and each church or sect was reduced to limit its hopes to retaining possession of the ground it already occupied; minorities, seeing that they had no chance of becoming majorities, were under the necessity of pleading to those whom they could not convert, for permission to differ. It is accordingly on this battle-field, almost solely, that the rights of the individual against society have been asserted on broad grounds of principle, and the claim of society to exercise authority over dissentients, openly controverted. The great writers to whom the world owes what religious liberty it possesses, have mostly asserted freedom of conscience as an indefeasible right, and denied absolutely that a human being is accountable to others for his religious belief. Yet so natural to mankind is intolerance in whatever they really care about, that religious freedom has hardly anywhere been practically realised, except where religious indifference, which dislikes to have its peace disturbed by theological quarrels, has added its weight to the scale. In the minds of almost all religious persons, even in the most tolerant countries, the duty of toleration is admitted with tacit reserves. One person will bear with dissent in matters of church government, but not of dogma; another can tolerate everybody, short of a Papist or a Unitarian; another, every one who believes in revealed religion; a few extend their charity a little further, but stop at the belief in a God and in a future state. Wherever the sentiment of the majority is still genuine and intense, it is found to have abated little of its claim to be obeyed.",
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      "text": "In England, from the peculiar circumstances of our political history, though the yoke of opinion is perhaps heavier, that of law is lighter, than in most other countries of Europe; and there is considerable jealousy of direct interference, by the legislative or the executive power, with private conduct; not so much from any just regard for the independence of the individual, as from the still subsisting habit of looking on the government as representing an opposite interest to the public. The majority have not yet learnt to feel the power of the government their power, or its opinions their opinions. When they do so, individual liberty will probably be as much exposed to invasion from the government, as it already is from public opinion. But, as yet, there is a considerable amount of feeling ready to be called forth against any attempt of the law to control individuals in things in which they have not hitherto been accustomed to be controlled by it; and this with very little discrimination as to whether the matter is, or is not, within the legitimate sphere of legal control; insomuch that the feeling, highly salutary on the whole, is perhaps quite as often misplaced as well grounded in the particular instances of its application. There is, in fact, no recognised principle by which the propriety or impropriety of government interference is customarily tested. People decide according to their personal preferences. Some, whenever they see any good to be done, or evil to be remedied, would willingly instigate the government to undertake the business; while others prefer to bear almost any amount of social evil, rather than add one to the departments of human interests amenable to governmental control. And men range themselves on one or the other side in any particular case, according to this general direction of their sentiments; or according to the degree of interest which they feel in the particular thing which it is proposed that the government should do, or according to the belief they entertain that the government would, or would not, do it in the manner they prefer; but very rarely on account of any opinion to which they consistently adhere, as to what things are fit to be done by a government. And it seems to me that in consequence of this absence of rule or principle, one side is at present as often wrong as the other; the interference of government is, with about equal frequency, improperly invoked and improperly condemned.",
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      "text": "The object of this Essay is to assert one very simple principle, as entitled to govern absolutely the dealings of society with the individual in the way of compulsion and control, whether the means used be physical force in the form of legal penalties, or the moral coercion of public opinion. That principle is, that the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinions of others, to do so would be wise, or even right. These are good reasons for remonstrating with him, or reasoning with him, or persuading him, or entreating him, but not for compelling him, or visiting him with any evil in case he do otherwise. To justify that, the conduct from which it is desired to deter him must be calculated to produce evil to some one else. The only part of the conduct of any one, for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the part which merely concerns himself, his independence is, of right, absolute. Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign.",
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      "text": "It is, perhaps, hardly necessary to say that this doctrine is meant to apply only to human beings in the maturity of their faculties. We are not speaking of children, or of young persons below the age which the law may fix as that of manhood or womanhood. Those who are still in a state to require being taken care of by others, must be protected against their own actions as well as against external injury. For the same reason, we may leave out of consideration those backward states of society in which the race itself may be considered as in its nonage. The early difficulties in the way of spontaneous progress are so great, that there is seldom any choice of means for overcoming them; and a ruler full of the spirit of improvement is warranted in the use of any expedients that will attain an end, perhaps otherwise unattainable. Despotism is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians, provided the end be their improvement, and the means justified by actually effecting that end. Liberty, as a principle, has no application to any state of things anterior to the time when mankind have become capable of being improved by free and equal discussion. Until then, there is nothing for them but implicit obedience to an Akbar or a Charlemagne, if they are so fortunate as to find one. But as soon as mankind have attained the capacity of being guided to their own improvement by conviction or persuasion (a period long since reached in all nations with whom we need here concern ourselves), compulsion, either in the direct form or in that of pains and penalties for non-compliance, is no longer admissible as a means to their own good, and justifiable only for the security of others.",
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      "text": "It is proper to state that I forego any advantage which could be derived to my argument from the idea of abstract right, as a thing independent of utility. I regard utility as the ultimate appeal on all ethical questions; but it must be utility in the largest sense, grounded on the permanent interests of man as a progressive being. Those interests, I contend, authorise the subjection of individual spontaneity to external control, only in respect to those actions of each, which concern the interest of other people. If any one does an act hurtful to others, there is a _prima facie_ case for punishing him, by law, or, where legal penalties are not safely applicable, by general disapprobation. There are also many positive acts for the benefit of others, which he may rightfully be compelled to perform; such as, to give evidence in a court of justice; to bear his fair share in the common defence, or in any other joint work necessary to the interest of the society of which he enjoys the protection; and to perform certain acts of individual beneficence, such as saving a fellow-creature's life, or interposing to protect the defenceless against ill-usage, things which whenever it is obviously a man's duty to do, he may rightfully be made responsible to society for not doing. A person may cause evil to others not only by his actions but by his inaction, and in either case he is justly accountable to them for the injury. The latter case, it is true, requires a much more cautious exercise of compulsion than the former. To make any one answerable for doing evil to others, is the rule; to make him answerable for not preventing evil, is, comparatively speaking, the exception. Yet there are many cases clear enough and grave enough to justify that exception. In all things which regard the external relations of the individual, he is _de jure_ amenable to those whose interests are concerned, and if need be, to society as their protector. There are often good reasons for not holding him to the responsibility; but these reasons must arise from the special expediencies of the case: either because it is a kind of case in which he is on the whole likely to act better, when left to his own discretion, than when controlled in any way in which society have it in their power to control him; or because the attempt to exercise control would produce other evils, greater than those which it would prevent. When such reasons as these preclude the enforcement of responsibility, the conscience of the agent himself should step into the vacant judgment seat, and protect those interests of others which have no external protection; judging himself all the more rigidly, because the case does not admit of his being made accountable to the judgment of his fellow-creatures.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00065",
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      "text": "But there is a sphere of action in which society, as distinguished from the individual, has, if any, only an indirect interest; comprehending all that portion of a person's life and conduct which affects only himself, or if it also affects others, only with their free, voluntary, and undeceived consent and participation. When I say only himself, I mean directly, and in the first instance: for whatever affects himself, may affect others _through_ himself; and the objection which may be grounded on this contingency, will receive consideration in the sequel. This, then, is the appropriate region of human liberty. It comprises, first, the inward domain of consciousness; demanding liberty of conscience, in the most comprehensive sense; liberty of thought and feeling; absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects, practical or speculative, scientific, moral, or theological. The liberty of expressing and publishing opinions may seem to fall under a different principle, since it belongs to that part of the conduct of an individual which concerns other people; but, being almost of as much importance as the liberty of thought itself, and resting in great part on the same reasons, is practically inseparable from it. Secondly, the principle requires liberty of tastes and pursuits; of framing the plan of our life to suit our own character; of doing as we like, subject to such consequences as may follow: without impediment from our fellow-creatures, so long as what we do does not harm them, even though they should think our conduct foolish, perverse, or wrong. Thirdly, from this liberty of each individual, follows the liberty, within the same limits, of combination among individuals; freedom to unite, for any purpose not involving harm to others: the persons combining being supposed to be of full age, and not forced or deceived.",
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      "text": "No society in which these liberties are not, on the whole, respected, is free, whatever may be its form of government; and none is completely free in which they do not exist absolute and unqualified. The only freedom which deserves the name, is that of pursuing our own good in our own way, so long as we do not attempt to deprive others of theirs, or impede their efforts to obtain it. Each is the proper guardian of his own health, whether bodily, or mental and spiritual. Mankind are greater gainers by suffering each other to live as seems good to themselves, than by compelling each to live as seems good to the rest.",
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      "text": "Though this doctrine is anything but new, and, to some persons, may have the air of a truism, there is no doctrine which stands more directly opposed to the general tendency of existing opinion and practice. Society has expended fully as much effort in the attempt (according to its lights) to compel people to conform to its notions of personal, as of social excellence. The ancient commonwealths thought themselves entitled to practise, and the ancient philosophers countenanced, the regulation of every part of private conduct by public authority, on the ground that the State had a deep interest in the whole bodily and mental discipline of every one of its citizens; a mode of thinking which may have been admissible in small republics surrounded by powerful enemies, in constant peril of being subverted by foreign attack or internal commotion, and to which even a short interval of relaxed energy and self-command might so easily be fatal, that they could not afford to wait for the salutary permanent effects of freedom. In the modern world, the greater size of political communities, and above all, the separation between spiritual and temporal authority (which placed the direction of men's consciences in other hands than those which controlled their worldly affairs), prevented so great an interference by law in the details of private life; but the engines of moral repression have been wielded more strenuously against divergence from the reigning opinion in self-regarding, than even in social matters; religion, the most powerful of the elements which have entered into the formation of moral feeling, having almost always been governed either by the ambition of a hierarchy, seeking control over every department of human conduct, or by the spirit of Puritanism. And some of those modern reformers who have placed themselves in strongest opposition to the religions of the past, have been noway behind either churches or sects in their assertion of the right of spiritual domination: M. Comte, in particular, whose social system, as unfolded in his _Traite de Politique Positive_, aims at establishing (though by moral more than by legal appliances) a despotism of society over the individual, surpassing anything contemplated in the political ideal of the most rigid disciplinarian among the ancient philosophers.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER II.",
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      "text": "OF THE LIBERTY OF THOUGHT AND DISCUSSION.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00072",
      "bookId": 34901,
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      "text": "The time, it is to be hoped, is gone by, when any defence would be necessary of the \"liberty of the press\" as one of the securities against corrupt or tyrannical government. No argument, we may suppose, can now be needed, against permitting a legislature or an executive, not identified in interest with the people, to prescribe opinions to them, and determine what doctrines or what arguments they shall be allowed to hear. This aspect of the question, besides, has been so often and so triumphantly enforced by preceding writers, that it need not be specially insisted on in this place. Though the law of England, on the subject of the press, is as servile to this day as it was in the time of the Tudors, there is little danger of its being actually put in force against political discussion, except during some temporary panic, when fear of insurrection drives ministers and judges from their propriety;[6] and, speaking generally, it is not, in constitutional countries, to be apprehended that the government, whether completely responsible to the people or not, will often attempt to control the expression of opinion, except when in doing so it makes itself the organ of the general intolerance of the public. Let us suppose, therefore, that the government is entirely at one with the people, and never thinks of exerting any power of coercion unless in agreement with what it conceives to be their voice. But I deny the right of the people to exercise such coercion, either by themselves or by their government. The power itself is illegitimate. The best government has no more title to it than the worst. It is as noxious, or more noxious, when exerted in accordance with public opinion, than when in or opposition to it. If all mankind minus one, were of one opinion, and only one person were of the contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person, than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind. Were an opinion a personal possession of no value except to the owner; if to be obstructed in the enjoyment of it were simply a private injury, it would make some difference whether the injury was inflicted only on a few persons or on many. But the peculiar evil of silencing the expression of an opinion is, that it is robbing the human race; posterity as well as the existing generation; those who dissent from the opinion, still more than those who hold it. If the opinion is right, they are deprived of the opportunity of exchanging error for truth: if wrong, they lose, what is almost as great a benefit, the clearer perception and livelier impression of truth, produced by its collision with error.",
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      "text": "It is necessary to consider separately these two hypotheses, each of which has a distinct branch of the argument corresponding to it. We can never be sure that the opinion we are endeavouring to stifle is a false opinion; and if we were sure, stifling it would be an evil still.",
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      "text": "First: the opinion which it is attempted to suppress by authority may possibly be true. Those who desire to suppress it, of course deny its truth; but they are not infallible. They have no authority to decide the question for all mankind, and exclude every other person from the means of judging. To refuse a hearing to an opinion, because they are sure that it is false, is to assume that _their_ certainty is the same thing as _absolute_ certainty. All silencing of discussion is an assumption of infallibility. Its condemnation may be allowed to rest on this common argument, not the worse for being common.",
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      "text": "Unfortunately for the good sense of mankind, the fact of their fallibility is far from carrying the weight in their practical judgment, which is always allowed to it in theory; for while every one well knows himself to be fallible, few think it necessary to take any precautions against their own fallibility, or admit the supposition that any opinion, of which they feel very certain, may be one of the examples of the error to which they acknowledge themselves to be liable. Absolute princes, or others who are accustomed to unlimited deference, usually feel this complete confidence in their own opinions on nearly all subjects. People more happily situated, who sometimes hear their opinions disputed, and are not wholly unused to be set right when they are wrong, place the same unbounded reliance only on such of their opinions as are shared by all who surround them, or to whom they habitually defer: for in proportion to a man's want of confidence in his own solitary judgment, does he usually repose, with implicit trust, on the infallibility of \"the world\" in general. And the world, to each individual, means the part of it with which he comes in contact; his party, his sect, his church, his class of society: the man may be called, by comparison, almost liberal and large-minded to whom it means anything so comprehensive as his own country or his own age. Nor is his faith in this collective authority at all shaken by his being aware that other ages, countries, sects, churches, classes, and parties have thought, and even now think, the exact reverse. He devolves upon his own world the responsibility of being in the right against the dissentient worlds of other people; and it never troubles him that mere accident has decided which of these numerous worlds is the object of his reliance, and that the same causes which make him a Churchman in London, would have made him a Buddhist or a Confucian in Pekin. Yet it is as evident in itself as any amount of argument can make it, that ages are no more infallible than individuals; every age having held many opinions which subsequent ages have deemed not only false but absurd; and it is as certain that many opinions, now general, will be rejected by future ages, as it is that many, once general, are rejected by the present.",
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      "text": "The objection likely to be made to this argument, would probably take some such form as the following. There is no greater assumption of infallibility in forbidding the propagation of error, than in any other thing which is done by public authority on its own judgment and responsibility. Judgment is given to men that they may use it. Because it may be used erroneously, are men to be told that they ought not to use it at all? To prohibit what they think pernicious, is not claiming exemption from error, but fulfilling the duty incumbent on them, although fallible, of acting on their conscientious conviction. If we were never to act on our opinions, because those opinions may be wrong, we should leave all our interests uncared for, and all our duties unperformed. An objection which applies to all conduct, can be no valid objection to any conduct in particular. It is the duty of governments, and of individuals, to form the truest opinions they can; to form them carefully, and never impose them upon others unless they are quite sure of being right. But when they are sure (such reasoners may say), it is not conscientiousness but cowardice to shrink from acting on their opinions, and allow doctrines which they honestly think dangerous to the welfare of mankind, either in this life or in another, to be scattered abroad without restraint, because other people, in less enlightened times, have persecuted opinions now believed to be true. Let us take care, it may be said, not to make the same mistake: but governments and nations have made mistakes in other things, which are not denied to be fit subjects for the exercise of authority: they have laid on bad taxes, made unjust wars. Ought we therefore to lay on no taxes, and, under whatever provocation, make no wars? Men, and governments, must act to the best of their ability. There is no such thing as absolute certainty, but there is assurance sufficient for the purposes of human life. We may, and must, assume our opinion to be true for the guidance of our own conduct: and it is assuming no more when we forbid bad men to pervert society by the propagation of opinions which we regard as false and pernicious.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00077",
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      "text": "I answer that it is assuming very much more. There is the greatest difference between presuming an opinion to be true, because, with every opportunity for contesting it, it has not been refuted, and assuming its truth for the purpose of not permitting its refutation. Complete liberty of contradicting and disproving our opinion, is the very condition which justifies us in assuming its truth for purposes of action; and on no other terms can a being with human faculties have any rational assurance of being right.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG34901.B00078",
      "bookId": 34901,
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      "text": "When we consider either the history of opinion, or the ordinary conduct of human life, to what is it to be ascribed that the one and the other are no worse than they are? Not certainly to the inherent force of the human understanding; for, on any matter not self-evident, there are ninety-nine persons totally incapable of judging of it, for one who is capable; and the capacity of the hundredth person is only comparative; for the majority of the eminent men of every past generation held many opinions now known to be erroneous, and did or approved numerous things which no one will now justify. Why is it, then, that there is on the whole a preponderance among mankind of rational opinions and rational conduct? If there really is this preponderance--which there must be, unless human affairs are, and have always been, in an almost desperate state--it is owing to a quality of the human mind, the source of everything respectable in man either as an intellectual or as a moral being, namely, that his errors are corrigible. He is capable of rectifying his mistakes, by discussion and experience. Not by experience alone. There must be discussion, to show how experience is to be interpreted. Wrong opinions and practices gradually yield to fact and argument: but facts and arguments, to produce any effect on the mind, must be brought before it. Very few facts are able to tell their own story, without comments to bring out their meaning. The whole strength and value, then, of human judgment, depending on the one property, that it can be set right when it is wrong, reliance can be placed on it only when the means of setting it right are kept constantly at hand. In the case of any person whose judgment is really deserving of confidence, how has it become so? Because he has kept his mind open to criticism of his opinions and conduct. Because it has been his practice to listen to all that could be said against him; to profit by as much of it as was just, and expound to himself, and upon occasion to others, the fallacy of what was fallacious. Because he has felt, that the only way in which a human being can make some approach to knowing the whole of a subject, is by hearing what can be said about it by persons of every variety of opinion, and studying all modes in which it can be looked at by every character of mind. No wise man ever acquired his wisdom in any mode but this; nor is it in the nature of human intellect to become wise in any other manner. The steady habit of correcting and completing his own opinion by collating it with those of others, so far from causing doubt and hesitation in carrying it into practice, is the only stable foundation for a just reliance on it: for, being cognisant of all that can, at least obviously, be said against him, and having taken up his position against all gainsayers--knowing that he has sought for objections and difficulties, instead of avoiding them, and has shut out no light which can be thrown upon the subject from any quarter--he has a right to think his judgment better than that of any person, or any multitude, who have not gone through a similar process.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG34901.B00079",
      "bookId": 34901,
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      "text": "It is not too much to require that what the wisest of mankind, those who are best entitled to trust their own judgment, find necessary to warrant their relying on it, should be submitted to by that miscellaneous collection of a few wise and many foolish individuals, called the public. The most intolerant of churches, the Roman Catholic Church, even at the canonisation of a saint, admits, and listens patiently to, a \"devil's advocate.\" The holiest of men, it appears, cannot be admitted to posthumous honours, until all that the devil could say against him is known and weighed. If even the Newtonian philosophy were not permitted to be questioned, mankind could not feel as complete assurance of its truth as they now do. The beliefs which we have most warrant for, have no safeguard to rest on, but a standing invitation to the whole world to prove them unfounded. If the challenge is not accepted, or is accepted and the attempt fails, we are far enough from certainty still; but we have done the best that the existing state of human reason admits of; we have neglected nothing that could give the truth a chance of reaching us: if the lists are kept open, we may hope that if there be a better truth, it will be found when the human mind is capable of receiving it; and in the meantime we may rely on having attained such approach to truth, as is possible in our own day. This is the amount of certainty attainable by a fallible being, and this the sole way of attaining it.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00080",
      "bookId": 34901,
      "start": 74387,
      "end": 75249,
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      "text": "Strange it is, that men should admit the validity of the arguments for free discussion, but object to their being \"pushed to an extreme;\" not seeing that unless the reasons are good for an extreme case, they are not good for any case. Strange that they should imagine that they are not assuming infallibility, when they acknowledge that there should be free discussion on all subjects which can possibly be _doubtful_, but think that some particular principle or doctrine should be forbidden to be questioned because it is _so certain_, that is, because _they are certain_ that it is certain. To call any proposition certain, while there is any one who would deny its certainty if permitted, but who is not permitted, is to assume that we ourselves, and those who agree with us, are the judges of certainty, and judges without hearing the other side.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG34901.B00090",
      "bookId": 34901,
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      "text": "These, indeed, are but rags and remnants of persecution, and may be thought to be not so much an indication of the wish to persecute, as an example of that very frequent infirmity of English minds, which makes them take a preposterous pleasure in the assertion of a bad principle, when they are no longer bad enough to desire to carry it really into practice. But unhappily there is no security in the state of the public mind, that the suspension of worse forms of legal persecution, which has lasted for about the space of a generation, will continue. In this age the quiet surface of routine is as often ruffled by attempts to resuscitate past evils, as to introduce new benefits. What is boasted of at the present time as the revival of religion, is always, in narrow and uncultivated minds, at least as much the revival of bigotry; and where there is the strong permanent leaven of intolerance in the feelings of a people, which at all times abides in the middle classes of this country, it needs but little to provoke them into actively persecuting those whom they have never ceased to think proper objects of persecution.[10] For it is this--it is the opinions men entertain, and the feelings they cherish, respecting those who disown the beliefs they deem important, which makes this country not a place of mental freedom. For a long time past, the chief mischief of the legal penalties is that they strengthen the social stigma. It is that stigma which is really effective, and so effective is it that the profession of opinions which are under the ban of society is much less common in England, than is, in many other countries, the avowal of those which incur risk of judicial punishment. In respect to all persons but those whose pecuniary circumstances make them independent of the good will of other people, opinion, on this subject, is as efficacious as law; men might as well be imprisoned, as excluded from the means of earning their bread. Those whose bread is already secured, and who desire no favours from men in power, or from bodies of men, or from the public, have nothing to fear from the open avowal of any opinions, but to be ill-thought of and ill-spoken of, and this it ought not to require a very heroic mould to enable them to bear. There is no room for any appeal _ad misericordiam_ in behalf of such persons. But though we do not now inflict so much evil on those who think differently from us, as it was formerly our custom to do, it may be that we do ourselves as much evil as ever by our treatment of them. Socrates was put to death, but the Socratic philosophy rose like the sun in heaven, and spread its illumination over the whole intellectual firmament. Christians were cast to the lions, but the Christian church grew up a stately and spreading tree, overtopping the older and less vigorous growths, and stifling them by its shade. Our merely social intolerance kills no one, roots out no opinions, but induces men to disguise them, or to abstain from any active effort for their diffusion. With us, heretical opinions do not perceptibly gain, or even lose, ground in each decade or generation; they never blaze out far and wide, but continue to smoulder in the narrow circles of thinking and studious persons among whom they originate, without ever lighting up the general affairs of mankind with either a true or a deceptive light. And thus is kept up a state of things very satisfactory to some minds, because, without the unpleasant process of fining or imprisoning anybody, it maintains all prevailing opinions outwardly undisturbed, while it does not absolutely interdict the exercise of reason by dissentients afflicted with the malady of thought. A convenient plan for having peace in the intellectual world, and keeping all things going on therein very much as they do already. But the price paid for this sort of intellectual pacification, is the sacrifice of the entire moral courage of the human mind. A state of things in which a large portion of the most active and inquiring intellects find it advisable to keep the genuine principles and grounds of their convictions within their own breasts, and attempt, in what they address to the public, to fit as much as they can of their own conclusions to premises which they have internally renounced, cannot send forth the open, fearless characters, and logical, consistent intellects who once adorned the thinking world. The sort of men who can be looked for under it, are either mere conformers to commonplace, or time-servers for truth, whose arguments on all great subjects are meant for their hearers, and are not those which have convinced themselves. Those who avoid this alternative, do so by narrowing their thoughts and interest to things which can be spoken of without venturing within the region of principles, that is, to small practical matters, which would come right of themselves, if but the minds of mankind were strengthened and enlarged, and which will never be made effectually right until then: while that which would strengthen and enlarge men's minds, free and daring speculation on the highest subjects, is abandoned.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00091",
      "bookId": 34901,
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      "text": "Those in whose eyes this reticence on the part of heretics is no evil, should consider in the first place, that in consequence of it there is never any fair and thorough discussion of heretical opinions; and that such of them as could not stand such a discussion, though they may be prevented from spreading, do not disappear. But it is not the minds of heretics that are deteriorated most, by the ban placed on all inquiry which does not end in the orthodox conclusions. The greatest harm done is to those who are not heretics, and whose whole mental development is cramped, and their reason cowed, by the fear of heresy. Who can compute what the world loses in the multitude of promising intellects combined with timid characters, who dare not follow out any bold, vigorous, independent train of thought, lest it should land them in something which would admit of being considered irreligious or immoral? Among them we may occasionally see some man of deep conscientiousness, and subtle and refined understanding, who spends a life in sophisticating with an intellect which he cannot silence, and exhausts the resources of ingenuity in attempting to reconcile the promptings of his conscience and reason with orthodoxy, which yet he does not, perhaps, to the end succeed in doing. No one can be a great thinker who does not recognise, that as a thinker it is his first duty to follow his intellect to whatever conclusions it may lead. Truth gains more even by the errors of one who, with due study and preparation, thinks for himself, than by the true opinions of those who only hold them because they do not suffer themselves to think. Not that it is solely, or chiefly, to form great thinkers, that freedom of thinking is required. On the contrary, it is as much, and even more indispensable, to enable average human beings to attain the mental stature which they are capable of. There have been, and may again be, great individual thinkers, in a general atmosphere of mental slavery. But there never has been, nor ever will be, in that atmosphere, an intellectually active people. Where any people has made a temporary approach to such a character, it has been because the dread of heterodox speculation was for a time suspended. Where there is a tacit convention that principles are not to be disputed; where the discussion of the greatest questions which can occupy humanity is considered to be closed, we cannot hope to find that generally high scale of mental activity which has made some periods of history so remarkable. Never when controversy avoided the subjects which are large and important enough to kindle enthusiasm, was the mind of a people stirred up from its foundations, and the impulse given which raised even persons of the most ordinary intellect to something of the dignity of thinking beings. Of such we have had an example in the condition of Europe during the times immediately following the Reformation; another, though limited to the Continent and to a more cultivated class, in the speculative movement of the latter half of the eighteenth century; and a third, of still briefer duration, in the intellectual fermentation of Germany during the Goethian and Fichtean period. These periods differed widely in the particular opinions which they developed; but were alike in this, that during all three the yoke of authority was broken. In each, an old mental despotism had been thrown off, and no new one had yet taken its place. The impulse given at these three periods has made Europe what it now is. Every single improvement which has taken place either in the human mind or in institutions, may be traced distinctly to one or other of them. Appearances have for some time indicated that all three impulses are well-nigh spent; and we can expect no fresh start, until we again assert our mental freedom.",
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      "text": "Let us now pass to the second division of the argument, and dismissing the supposition that any of the received opinions may be false, let us assume them to be true, and examine into the worth of the manner in which they are likely to be held, when their truth is not freely and openly canvassed. However unwillingly a person who has a strong opinion may admit the possibility that his opinion may be false, he ought to be moved by the consideration that however true it may be, if it is not fully, frequently, and fearlessly discussed, it will be held as a dead dogma, not a living truth.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00093",
      "bookId": 34901,
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      "text": "There is a class of persons (happily not quite so numerous as formerly) who think it enough if a person assents undoubtingly to what they think true, though he has no knowledge whatever of the grounds of the opinion, and could not make a tenable defence of it against the most superficial objections. Such persons, if they can once get their creed taught from authority, naturally think that no good, and some harm, comes of its being allowed to be questioned. Where their influence prevails, they make it nearly impossible for the received opinion to be rejected wisely and considerately, though it may still be rejected rashly and ignorantly; for to shut out discussion entirely is seldom possible, and when it once gets in, beliefs not grounded on conviction are apt to give way before the slightest semblance of an argument. Waiving, however, this possibility--assuming that the true opinion abides in the mind, but abides as a prejudice, a belief independent of, and proof against, argument--this is not the way in which truth ought to be held by a rational being. This is not knowing the truth. Truth, thus held, is but one superstition the more, accidentally clinging to the words which enunciate a truth.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG34901.B00094",
      "bookId": 34901,
      "start": 107095,
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      "text": "If the intellect and judgment of mankind ought to be cultivated, a thing which Protestants at least do not deny, on what can these faculties be more appropriately exercised by any one, than on the things which concern him so much that it is considered necessary for him to hold opinions on them? If the cultivation of the understanding consists in one thing more than in another, it is surely in learning the grounds of one's own opinions. Whatever people believe, on subjects on which it is of the first importance to believe rightly, they ought to be able to defend against at least the common objections. But, some one may say, \"Let them be _taught_ the grounds of their opinions. It does not follow that opinions must be merely parroted because they are never heard controverted. Persons who learn geometry do not simply commit the theorems to memory, but understand and learn likewise the demonstrations; and it would be absurd to say that they remain ignorant of the grounds of geometrical truths, because they never hear any one deny, and attempt to disprove them.\" Undoubtedly: and such teaching suffices on a subject like mathematics, where there is nothing at all to be said on the wrong side of the question. The peculiarity of the evidence of mathematical truths is, that all the argument is on one side. There are no objections, and no answers to objections. But on every subject on which difference of opinion is possible, the truth depends on a balance to be struck between two sets of conflicting reasons. Even in natural philosophy, there is always some other explanation possible of the same facts; some geocentric theory instead of heliocentric, some phlogiston instead of oxygen; and it has to be shown why that other theory cannot be the true one: and until this is shown, and until we know how it is shown, we do not understand the grounds of our opinion. But when we turn to subjects infinitely more complicated, to morals, religion, politics, social relations, and the business of life, three-fourths of the arguments for every disputed opinion consist in dispelling the appearances which favour some opinion different from it. The greatest orator, save one, of antiquity, has left it on record that he always studied his adversary's case with as great, if not with still greater, intensity than even his own. What Cicero practised as the means of forensic success, requires to be imitated by all who study any subject in order to arrive at the truth. He who knows only his own side of the case, knows little of that. His reasons may be good, and no one may have been able to refute them. But if he is equally unable to refute the reasons on the opposite side; if he does not so much as know what they are, he has no ground for preferring either opinion. The rational position for him would be suspension of judgment, and unless he contents himself with that, he is either led by authority, or adopts, like the generality of the world, the side to which he feels most inclination. Nor is it enough that he should hear the arguments of adversaries from his own teachers, presented as they state them, and accompanied by what they offer as refutations. That is not the way to do justice to the arguments, or bring them into real contact with his own mind. He must be able to hear them from persons who actually believe them; who defend them in earnest, and do their very utmost for them. He must know them in their most plausible and persuasive form; he must feel the whole force of the difficulty which the true view of the subject has to encounter and dispose of; else he will never really possess himself of the portion of truth which meets and removes that difficulty. Ninety-nine in a hundred of what are called educated men are in this condition; even of those who can argue fluently for their opinions. Their conclusion may be true, but it might be false for anything they know: they have never thrown themselves into the mental position of those who think differently from them, and considered what such persons may have to say; and consequently they do not, in any proper sense of the word, know the doctrine which they themselves profess. They do not know those parts of it which explain and justify the remainder; the considerations which show that a fact which seemingly conflicts with another is reconcilable with it, or that, of two apparently strong reasons, one and not the other ought to be preferred. All that part of the truth which turns the scale, and decides the judgment of a completely informed mind, they are strangers to; nor is it ever really known, but to those who have attended equally and impartially to both sides, and endeavoured to see the reasons of both in the strongest light. So essential is this discipline to a real understanding of moral and human subjects, that if opponents of all important truths do not exist, it is indispensable to imagine them, and supply them with the strongest arguments which the most skilful devil's advocate can conjure up.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00095",
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      "text": "To abate the force of these considerations, an enemy of free discussion may be supposed to say, that there is no necessity for mankind in general to know and understand all that can be said against or for their opinions by philosophers and theologians. That it is not needful for common men to be able to expose all the misstatements or fallacies of an ingenious opponent. That it is enough if there is always somebody capable of answering them, so that nothing likely to mislead uninstructed persons remains unrefuted. That simple minds, having been taught the obvious grounds of the truths inculcated on them, may trust to authority for the rest, and being aware that they have neither knowledge nor talent to resolve every difficulty which can be raised, may repose in the assurance that all those which have been raised have been or can be answered, by those who are specially trained to the task.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG34901.B00096",
      "bookId": 34901,
      "start": 113102,
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      "text": "Conceding to this view of the subject the utmost that can be claimed for it by those most easily satisfied with the amount of understanding of truth which ought to accompany the belief of it; even so, the argument for free discussion is no way weakened. For even this doctrine acknowledges that mankind ought to have a rational assurance that all objections have been satisfactorily answered; and how are they to be answered if that which requires to be answered is not spoken? or how can the answer be known to be satisfactory, if the objectors have no opportunity of showing that it is unsatisfactory? If not the public, at least the philosophers and theologians who are to resolve the difficulties, must make themselves familiar with those difficulties in their most puzzling form; and this cannot be accomplished unless they are freely stated, and placed in the most advantageous light which they admit of. The Catholic Church has its own way of dealing with this embarrassing problem. It makes a broad separation between those who can be permitted to receive its doctrines on conviction, and those who must accept them on trust. Neither, indeed, are allowed any choice as to what they will accept; but the clergy, such at least as can be fully confided in, may admissibly and meritoriously make themselves acquainted with the arguments of opponents, in order to answer them, and may, therefore, read heretical books; the laity, not unless by special permission, hard to be obtained. This discipline recognises a knowledge of the enemy's case as beneficial to the teachers, but finds means, consistent with this, of denying it to the rest of the world: thus giving to the _elite_ more mental culture, though not more mental freedom, than it allows to the mass. By this device it succeeds in obtaining the kind of mental superiority which its purposes require; for though culture without freedom never made a large and liberal mind, it can make a clever _nisi prius_ advocate of a cause. But in countries professing Protestantism, this resource is denied; since Protestants hold, at least in theory, that the responsibility for the choice of a religion must be borne by each for himself, and cannot be thrown off upon teachers. Besides, in the present state of the world, it is practically impossible that writings which are read by the instructed can be kept from the uninstructed. If the teachers of mankind are to be cognisant of all that they ought to know, everything must be free to be written and published without restraint.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG34901.B00097",
      "bookId": 34901,
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      "text": "If, however, the mischievous operation of the absence of free discussion, when the received opinions are true, were confined to leaving men ignorant of the grounds of those opinions, it might be thought that this, if an intellectual, is no moral evil, and does not affect the worth of the opinions, regarded in their influence on the character. The fact, however, is, that not only the grounds of the opinion are forgotten in the absence of discussion, but too often the meaning of the opinion itself. The words which convey it, cease to suggest ideas, or suggest only a small portion of those they were originally employed to communicate. Instead of a vivid conception and a living belief, there remain only a few phrases retained by rote; or, if any part, the shell and husk only of the meaning is retained, the finer essence being lost. The great chapter in human history which this fact occupies and fills, cannot be too earnestly studied and meditated on.",
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      "text": "It may be objected, \"But _some_ received principles, especially on the highest and most vital subjects, are more than half-truths. The Christian morality, for instance, is the whole truth on that subject, and if any one teaches a morality which varies from it, he is wholly in error.\" As this is of all cases the most important in practice, none can be fitter to test the general maxim. But before pronouncing what Christian morality is or is not, it would be desirable to decide what is meant by Christian morality. If it means the morality of the New Testament, I wonder that any one who derives his knowledge of this from the book itself, can suppose that it was announced, or intended, as a complete doctrine of morals. The Gospel always refers to a pre-existing morality, and confines its precepts to the particulars in which that morality was to be corrected, or superseded by a wider and higher; expressing itself, moreover, in terms most general, often impossible to be interpreted literally, and possessing rather the impressiveness of poetry or eloquence than the precision of legislation. To extract from it a body of ethical doctrine, has ever been possible without eking it out from the Old Testament, that is, from a system elaborate indeed, but in many respects barbarous, and intended only for a barbarous people. St. Paul, a declared enemy to this Judaical mode of interpreting the doctrine and filling up the scheme of his Master, equally assumes a pre-existing morality, namely, that of the Greeks and Romans; and his advice to Christians is in a great measure a system of accommodation to that; even to the extent of giving an apparent sanction to slavery. What is called Christian, but should rather be termed theological, morality, was not the work of Christ or the Apostles, but is of much later origin, having been gradually built up by the Catholic church of the first five centuries, and though not implicitly adopted by moderns and Protestants, has been much less modified by them than might have been expected. For the most part, indeed, they have contented themselves with cutting off the additions which had been made to it in the middle ages, each sect supplying the place by fresh additions, adapted to its own character and tendencies. That mankind owe a great debt to this morality, and to its early teachers, I should be the last person to deny; but I do not scruple to say of it, that it is, in many important points, incomplete and one-sided, and that unless ideas and feelings, not sanctioned by it, had contributed to the formation of European life and character, human affairs would have been in a worse condition than they now are. Christian morality (so called) has all the characters of a reaction; it is, in great part, a protest against Paganism. Its ideal is negative rather than positive; passive rather than active; Innocence rather than Nobleness; Abstinence from Evil, rather than energetic Pursuit of Good: in its precepts (as has been well said) \"thou shalt not\" predominates unduly over \"thou shalt.\" In its horror of sensuality, it made an idol of asceticism, which has been gradually compromised away into one of legality. It holds out the hope of heaven and the threat of hell, as the appointed and appropriate motives to a virtuous life: in this falling far below the best of the ancients, and doing what lies in it to give to human morality an essentially selfish character, by disconnecting each man's feelings of duty from the interests of his fellow-creatures, except so far as a self-interested inducement is offered to him for consulting them. It is essentially a doctrine of passive obedience; it inculcates submission to all authorities found established; who indeed are not to be actively obeyed when they command what religion forbids, but who are not to be resisted, far less rebelled against, for any amount of wrong to ourselves. And while, in the morality of the best Pagan nations, duty to the State holds even a disproportionate place, infringing on the just liberty of the individual; in purely Christian ethics, that grand department of duty is scarcely noticed or acknowledged. It is in the Koran, not the New Testament, that we read the maxim--\"A ruler who appoints any man to an office, when there is in his dominions another man better qualified for it, sins against God and against the State.\" What little recognition the idea of obligation to the public obtains in modern morality, is derived from Greek and Roman sources, not from Christian; as, even in the morality of private life, whatever exists of magnanimity, high-mindedness, personal dignity, even the sense of honour, is derived from the purely human, not the religious part of our education, and never could have grown out of a standard of ethics in which the only worth, professedly recognised, is that of obedience.",
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      "text": "I am as far as any one from pretending that these defects are necessarily inherent in the Christian ethics, in every manner in which it can be conceived, or that the many requisites of a complete moral doctrine which it does not contain, do not admit of being reconciled with it. Far less would I insinuate this of the doctrines and precepts of Christ himself. I believe that the sayings of Christ are all, that I can see any evidence of their having been intended to be; that they are irreconcilable with nothing which a comprehensive morality requires; that everything which is excellent in ethics may be brought within them, with no greater violence to their language than has been done to it by all who have attempted to deduce from them any practical system of conduct whatever. But it is quite consistent with this, to believe that they contain, and were meant to contain, only a part of the truth; that many essential elements of the highest morality are among the things which are not provided for, nor intended to be provided for, in the recorded deliverances of the Founder of Christianity, and which have been entirely thrown aside in the system of ethics erected on the basis of those deliverances by the Christian Church. And this being so, I think it a great error to persist in attempting to find in the Christian doctrine that complete rule for our guidance, which its author intended it to sanction and enforce, but only partially to provide. I believe, too, that this narrow theory is becoming a grave practical evil, detracting greatly from the value of the moral training and instruction, which so many well-meaning persons are now at length exerting themselves to promote. I much fear that by attempting to form the mind and feelings on an exclusively religious type, and discarding those secular standards (as for want of a better name they may be called) which heretofore co-existed with and supplemented the Christian ethics, receiving some of its spirit, and infusing into it some of theirs, there will result, and is even now resulting, a low, abject, servile type of character, which, submit itself as it may to what it deems the Supreme Will, is incapable of rising to or sympathising in the conception of Supreme Goodness. I believe that other ethics than any which can be evolved from exclusively Christian sources, must exist side by side with Christian ethics to produce the moral regeneration of mankind; and that the Christian system is no exception to the rule, that in an imperfect state of the human mind, the interests of truth require a diversity of opinions. It is not necessary that in ceasing to ignore the moral truths not contained in Christianity, men should ignore any of those which it does contain. Such prejudice, or oversight, when it occurs, is altogether an evil; but it is one from which we cannot hope to be always exempt, and must be regarded as the price paid for an inestimable good. The exclusive pretension made by a part of the truth to be the whole, must and ought to be protested against, and if a reactionary impulse should make the protestors unjust in their turn, this one-sidedness, like the other, may be lamented, but must be tolerated. If Christians would teach infidels to be just to Christianity, they should themselves be just to infidelity. It can do truth no service to blink the fact, known to all who have the most ordinary acquaintance with literary history, that a large portion of the noblest and most valuable moral teaching has been the work, not only of men who did not know, but of men who knew and rejected, the Christian faith.",
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      "text": "I do not pretend that the most unlimited use of the freedom of enunciating all possible opinions would put an end to the evils of religious or philosophical sectarianism. Every truth which men of narrow capacity are in earnest about, is sure to be asserted, inculcated, and in many ways even acted on, as if no other truth existed in the world, or at all events none that could limit or qualify the first. I acknowledge that the tendency of all opinions to become sectarian is not cured by the freest discussion, but is often heightened and exacerbated thereby; the truth which ought to have been, but was not, seen, being rejected all the more violently because proclaimed by persons regarded as opponents. But it is not on the impassioned partisan, it is on the calmer and more disinterested bystander, that this collision of opinions works its salutary effect. Not the violent conflict between parts of the truth, but the quiet suppression of half of it, is the formidable evil: there is always hope when people are forced to listen to both sides; it is when they attend only to one that errors harden into prejudices, and truth itself ceases to have the effect of truth, by being exaggerated into falsehood. And since there are few mental attributes more rare than that judicial faculty which can sit in intelligent judgment between two sides of a question, of which only one is represented by an advocate before it, truth has no chance but in proportion as every side of it, every opinion which embodies any fraction of the truth, not only finds advocates, but is so advocated as to be listened to.",
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      "text": "We have now recognised the necessity to the mental well-being of mankind (on which all their other well-being depends) of freedom of opinion, and freedom of the expression of opinion, on four distinct grounds; which we will now briefly recapitulate.",
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      "text": "First, if any opinion is compelled to silence, that opinion may, for aught we can certainly know, be true. To deny this is to assume our own infallibility.",
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      "text": "Secondly, though the silenced opinion be an error, it may, and very commonly does, contain a portion of truth; and since the general or prevailing opinion on any subject is rarely or never the whole truth, it is only by the collision of adverse opinions, that the remainder of the truth has any chance of being supplied.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER III.",
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      "text": "OF INDIVIDUALITY, AS ONE OF THE ELEMENTS OF WELL-BEING.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00125",
      "bookId": 34901,
      "start": 159435,
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      "text": "Such being the reasons which make it imperative that human beings should be free to form opinions, and to express their opinions without reserve; and such the baneful consequences to the intellectual, and through that to the moral nature of man, unless this liberty is either conceded, or asserted in spite of prohibition; let us next examine whether the same reasons do not require that men should be free to act upon their opinions--to carry these out in their lives, without hindrance, either physical or moral, from their fellow-men, so long as it is at their own risk and peril. This last proviso is of course indispensable. No one pretends that actions should be as free as opinions. On the contrary, even opinions lose their immunity, when the circumstances in which they are expressed are such as to constitute their expression a positive instigation to some mischievous act. An opinion that corn-dealers are starvers of the poor, or that private property is robbery, ought to be unmolested when simply circulated through the press, but may justly incur punishment when delivered orally to an excited mob assembled before the house of a corn-dealer, or when handed about among the same mob in the form of a placard. Acts, of whatever kind, which, without justifiable cause, do harm to others, may be, and in the more important cases absolutely require to be, controlled by the unfavourable sentiments, and, when needful, by the active interference of mankind. The liberty of the individual must be thus far limited; he must not make himself a nuisance to other people. But if he refrains from molesting others in what concerns them, and merely acts according to his own inclination and judgment in things which concern himself, the same reasons which show that opinion should be free, prove also that he should be allowed, without molestation, to carry his opinions into practice at his own cost. That mankind are not infallible; that their truths, for the most part, are only half-truths; that unity of opinion, unless resulting from the fullest and freest comparison of opposite opinions, is not desirable, and diversity not an evil, but a good, until mankind are much more capable than at present of recognising all sides of the truth, are principles applicable to men's modes of action, not less than to their opinions. As it is useful that while mankind are imperfect there should be different opinions, so is it that there should be different experiments of living; that free scope should be given to varieties of character, short of injury to others; and that the worth of different modes of life should be proved practically, when any one thinks fit to try them. It is desirable, in short, that in things which do not primarily concern others, individuality should assert itself. Where, not the person's own character, but the traditions or customs of other people are the rule of conduct, there is wanting one of the principal ingredients of human happiness, and quite the chief ingredient of individual and social progress.",
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      "text": "In maintaining this principle, the greatest difficulty to be encountered does not lie in the appreciation of means towards an acknowledged end, but in the indifference of persons in general to the end itself. If it were felt that the free development of individuality is one of the leading essentials of well-being; that it is not only a co-ordinate element with all that is designated by the terms civilisation, instruction, education, culture, but is itself a necessary part and condition of all those things; there would be no danger that liberty should be under-valued, and the adjustment of the boundaries between it and social control would present no extraordinary difficulty. But the evil is, that individual spontaneity is hardly recognised by the common modes of thinking, as having any intrinsic worth, or deserving any regard on its own account. The majority, being satisfied with the ways of mankind as they now are (for it is they who make them what they are), cannot comprehend why those ways should not be good enough for everybody; and what is more, spontaneity forms no part of the ideal of the majority of moral and social reformers, but is rather looked on with jealousy, as a troublesome and perhaps rebellious obstruction to the general acceptance of what these reformers, in their own judgment, think would be best for mankind. Few persons, out of Germany, even comprehend the meaning of the doctrine which Wilhelm von Humboldt, so eminent both as a _savant_ and as a politician, made the text of a treatise--that \"the end of man, or that which is prescribed by the eternal or immutable dictates of reason, and not suggested by vague and transient desires, is the highest and most harmonious development of his powers to a complete and consistent whole;\" that, therefore, the object \"towards which every human being must ceaselessly direct his efforts, and on which especially those who design to influence their fellow-men must ever keep their eyes, is the individuality of power and development;\" that for this there are two requisites, \"freedom, and a variety of situations;\" and that from the union of these arise \"individual vigour and manifold diversity,\" which combine themselves in \"originality.\"[11]",
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      "text": "Little, however, as people are accustomed to a doctrine like that of Von Humboldt, and surprising as it may be to them to find so high a value attached to individuality, the question, one must nevertheless think, can only be one of degree. No one's idea of excellence in conduct is that people should do absolutely nothing but copy one another. No one would assert that people ought not to put into their mode of life, and into the conduct of their concerns, any impress whatever of their own judgment, or of their own individual character. On the other hand, it would be absurd to pretend that people ought to live as if nothing whatever had been known in the world before they came into it; as if experience had as yet done nothing towards showing that one mode of existence, or of conduct, is preferable to another. Nobody denies that people should be so taught and trained in youth, as to know and benefit by the ascertained results of human experience. But it is the privilege and proper condition of a human being, arrived at the maturity of his faculties, to use and interpret experience in his own way. It is for him to find out what part of recorded experience is properly applicable to his own circumstances and character. The traditions and customs of other people are, to a certain extent, evidence of what their experience has taught _them_; presumptive evidence, and as such, have a claim to his deference: but, in the first place, their experience may be too narrow; or they may not have interpreted it rightly. Secondly, their interpretation of experience may be correct, but unsuitable to him. Customs are made for customary circumstances, and customary characters: and his circumstances or his character may be uncustomary. Thirdly, though the customs be both good as customs, and suitable to him, yet to conform to custom, merely _as_ custom, does not educate or develop in him any of the qualities which are the distinctive endowment of a human being. The human faculties of perception, judgment, discriminative feeling, mental activity, and even moral preference, are exercised only in making a choice. He who does anything because it is the custom, makes no choice. He gains no practice either in discerning or in desiring what is best. The mental and moral, like the muscular powers, are improved only by being used. The faculties are called into no exercise by doing a thing merely because others do it, no more than by believing a thing only because others believe it. If the grounds of an opinion are not conclusive to the person's own reason, his reason cannot be strengthened, but is likely to be weakened by his adopting it: and if the inducements to an act are not such as are consentaneous to his own feelings and character (where affection, or the rights of others, are not concerned), it is so much done towards rendering his feelings and character inert and torpid, instead of active and energetic.",
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      "text": "He who lets the world, or his own portion of it, choose his plan of life for him, has no need of any other faculty than the ape-like one of imitation. He who chooses his plan for himself, employs all his faculties. He must use observation to see, reasoning and judgment to foresee, activity to gather materials for decision, discrimination to decide, and when he has decided, firmness and self-control to hold to his deliberate decision. And these qualities he requires and exercises exactly in proportion as the part of his conduct which he determines according to his own judgment and feelings is a large one. It is possible that he might be guided in some good path, and kept out of harm's way, without any of these things. But what will be his comparative worth as a human being? It really is of importance, not only what men do, but also what manner of men they are that do it. Among the works of man, which human life is rightly employed in perfecting and beautifying, the first in importance surely is man himself. Supposing it were possible to get houses built, corn grown, battles fought, causes tried, and even churches erected and prayers said, by machinery--by automatons in human form--it would be a considerable loss to exchange for these automatons even the men and women who at present inhabit the more civilised parts of the world, and who assuredly are but starved specimens of what nature can and will produce. Human nature is not a machine to be built after a model, and set to do exactly the work prescribed for it, but a tree, which requires to grow and develop itself on all sides, according to the tendency of the inward forces which make it a living thing.",
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      "text": "It will probably be conceded that it is desirable people should exercise their understandings, and that an intelligent following of custom, or even occasionally an intelligent deviation from custom, is better than a blind and simply mechanical adhesion to it. To a certain extent it is admitted, that our understanding should be our own: but there is not the same willingness to admit that our desires and impulses should be our own likewise; or that to possess impulses of our own, and of any strength, is anything but a peril and a snare. Yet desires and impulses are as much a part of a perfect human being, as beliefs and restraints: and strong impulses are only perilous when not properly balanced; when one set of aims and inclinations is developed into strength, while others, which ought to co-exist with them, remain weak and inactive. It is not because men's desires are strong that they act ill; it is because their consciences are weak. There is no natural connection between strong impulses and a weak conscience. The natural connection is the other way. To say that one person's desires and feelings are stronger and more various than those of another, is merely to say that he has more of the raw material of human nature, and is therefore capable, perhaps of more evil, but certainly of more good. Strong impulses are but another name for energy. Energy may be turned to bad uses; but more good may always be made of an energetic nature, than of an indolent and impassive one. Those who have most natural feeling, are always those whose cultivated feelings may be made the strongest. The same strong susceptibilities which make the personal impulses vivid and powerful, are also the source from whence are generated the most passionate love of virtue, and the sternest self-control. It is through the cultivation of these, that society both does its duty and protects its interests: not by rejecting the stuff of which heroes are made, because it knows not how to make them. A person whose desires and impulses are his own--are the expression of his own nature, as it has been developed and modified by his own culture--is said to have a character. One whose desires and impulses are not his own, has no character, no more than a steam-engine has a character. If, in addition to being his own, his impulses are strong, and are under the government of a strong will, he has an energetic character. Whoever thinks that individuality of desires and impulses should not be encouraged to unfold itself, must maintain that society has no need of strong natures--is not the better for containing many persons who have much character--and that a high general average of energy is not desirable.",
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      "text": "It is not by wearing down into uniformity all that is individual in themselves, but by cultivating it and calling it forth, within the limits imposed by the rights and interests of others, that human beings become a noble and beautiful object of contemplation; and as the works partake the character of those who do them, by the same process human life also becomes rich, diversified, and animating, furnishing more abundant aliment to high thoughts and elevating feelings, and strengthening the tie which binds every individual to the race, by making the race infinitely better worth belonging to. In proportion to the development of his individuality, each person becomes more valuable to himself, and is therefore capable of being more valuable to others. There is a greater fulness of life about his own existence, and when there is more life in the units there is more in the mass which is composed of them. As much compression as is necessary to prevent the stronger specimens of human nature from encroaching on the rights of others, cannot be dispensed with; but for this there is ample compensation even in the point of view of human development. The means of development which the individual loses by being prevented from gratifying his inclinations to the injury of others, are chiefly obtained at the expense of the development of other people. And even to himself there is a full equivalent in the better development of the social part of his nature, rendered possible by the restraint put upon the selfish part. To be held to rigid rules of justice for the sake of others, develops the feelings and capacities which have the good of others for their object. But to be restrained in things not affecting their good, by their mere displeasure, develops nothing valuable, except such force of character as may unfold itself in resisting the restraint. If acquiesced in, it dulls and blunts the whole nature. To give any fair-play to the nature of each, it is essential that different persons should be allowed to lead different lives. In proportion as this latitude has been exercised in any age, has that age been noteworthy to posterity. Even despotism does not produce its worst effects, so long as Individuality exists under it; and whatever crushes individuality is despotism, by whatever name it may be called, and whether it professes to be enforcing the will of God or the injunctions of men.",
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      "text": "Having said that Individuality is the same thing with development, and that it is only the cultivation of individuality which produces, or can produce, well-developed human beings, I might here close the argument: for what more or better can be said of any condition of human affairs, than that it brings human beings themselves nearer to the best thing they can be? or what worse can be said of any obstruction to good, than that it prevents this? Doubtless, however, these considerations will not suffice to convince those who most need convincing; and it is necessary further to show, that these developed human beings are of some use to the undeveloped--to point out to those who do not desire liberty, and would not avail themselves of it, that they may be in some intelligible manner rewarded for allowing other people to make use of it without hindrance.",
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      "text": "In the first place, then, I would suggest that they might possibly learn something from them. It will not be denied by anybody, that originality is a valuable element in human affairs. There is always need of persons not only to discover new truths, and point out when what were once truths are true no longer, but also to commence new practices, and set the example of more enlightened conduct, and better taste and sense in human life. This cannot well be gainsaid by anybody who does not believe that the world has already attained perfection in all its ways and practices. It is true that this benefit is not capable of being rendered by everybody alike: there are but few persons, in comparison with the whole of mankind, whose experiments, if adopted by others, would be likely to be any improvement on established practice. But these few are the salt of the earth; without them, human life would become a stagnant pool. Not only is it they who introduce good things which did not before exist; it is they who keep the life in those which already existed. If there were nothing new to be done, would human intellect cease to be necessary? Would it be a reason why those who do the old things should forget why they are done, and do them like cattle, not like human beings? There is only too great a tendency in the best beliefs and practices to degenerate into the mechanical; and unless there were a succession of persons whose ever-recurring originality prevents the grounds of those beliefs and practices from becoming merely traditional, such dead matter would not resist the smallest shock from anything really alive, and there would be no reason why civilisation should not die out, as in the Byzantine Empire. Persons of genius, it is true, are, and are always likely to be, a small minority; but in order to have them, it is necessary to preserve the soil in which they grow. Genius can only breathe freely in an _atmosphere_ of freedom. Persons of genius are, _ex vi termini_, _more_ individual than any other people--less capable, consequently, of fitting themselves, without hurtful compression, into any of the small number of moulds which society provides in order to save its members the trouble of forming their own character. If from timidity they consent to be forced into one of these moulds, and to let all that part of themselves which cannot expand under the pressure remain unexpanded, society will be little the better for their genius. If they are of a strong character, and break their fetters, they become a mark for the society which has not succeeded in reducing them to commonplace, to point at with solemn warning as \"wild,\" \"erratic,\" and the like; much as if one should complain of the Niagara river for not flowing smoothly between its banks like a Dutch canal.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00136",
      "bookId": 34901,
      "start": 183866,
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      "text": "I insist thus emphatically on the importance of genius, and the necessity of allowing it to unfold itself freely both in thought and in practice, being well aware that no one will deny the position in theory, but knowing also that almost every one, in reality, is totally indifferent to it. People think genius a fine thing if it enables a man to write an exciting poem, or paint a picture. But in its true sense, that of originality in thought and action, though no one says that it is not a thing to be admired, nearly all, at heart, think that they can do very well without it. Unhappily this is too natural to be wondered at. Originality is the one thing which unoriginal minds cannot feel the use of. They cannot see what it is to do for them: how should they? If they could see what it would do for them, it would not be originality. The first service which originality has to render them, is that of opening their eyes: which being once fully done, they would have a chance of being themselves original. Meanwhile, recollecting that nothing was ever yet done which some one was not the first to do, and that all good things which exist are the fruits of originality, let them be modest enough to believe that there is something still left for it to accomplish, and assure themselves that they are more in need of originality, the less they are conscious of the want.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00137",
      "bookId": 34901,
      "start": 185262,
      "end": 189230,
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      "text": "In sober truth, whatever homage may be professed, or even paid, to real or supposed mental superiority, the general tendency of things throughout the world is to render mediocrity the ascendant power among mankind. In ancient history, in the middle ages, and in a diminishing degree through the long transition from feudality to the present time, the individual was a power in himself; and if he had either great talents or a high social position, he was a considerable power. At present individuals are lost in the crowd. In politics it is almost a triviality to say that public opinion now rules the world. The only power deserving the name is that of masses, and of governments while they make themselves the organ of the tendencies and instincts of masses. This is as true in the moral and social relations of private life as in public transactions. Those whose opinions go by the name of public opinion, are not always the same sort of public: in America they are the whole white population; in England, chiefly the middle class. But they are always a mass, that is to say, collective mediocrity. And what is a still greater novelty, the mass do not now take their opinions from dignitaries in Church or State, from ostensible leaders, or from books. Their thinking is done for them by men much like themselves, addressing them or speaking in their name, on the spur of the moment, through the newspapers. I am not complaining of all this. I do not assert that anything better is compatible, as a general rule, with the present low state of the human mind. But that does not hinder the government of mediocrity from being mediocre government. No government by a democracy or a numerous aristocracy, either in its political acts or in the opinions, qualities, and tone of mind which it fosters, ever did or could rise above mediocrity, except in so far as the sovereign Many have let themselves be guided (which in their best times they always have done) by the counsels and influence of a more highly gifted and instructed One or Few. The initiation of all wise or noble things, comes and must come from individuals; generally at first from some one individual. The honour and glory of the average man is that he is capable of following that initiative; that he can respond internally to wise and noble things, and be led to them with his eyes open. I am not countenancing the sort of \"hero-worship\" which applauds the strong man of genius for forcibly seizing on the government of the world and making it do his bidding in spite of itself. All he can claim is, freedom to point out the way. The power of compelling others into it, is not only inconsistent with the freedom and development of all the rest, but corrupting to the strong man himself. It does seem, however, that when the opinions of masses of merely average men are everywhere become or becoming the dominant power, the counterpoise and corrective to that tendency would be, the more and more pronounced individuality of those who stand on the higher eminences of thought. It is in these circumstances most especially, that exceptional individuals, instead of being deterred, should be encouraged in acting differently from the mass. In other times there was no advantage in their doing so, unless they acted not only differently, but better. In this age the mere example of nonconformity, the mere refusal to bend the knee to custom, is itself a service. Precisely because the tyranny of opinion is such as to make eccentricity a reproach, it is desirable, in order to break through that tyranny, that people should be eccentric. Eccentricity has always abounded when and where strength of character has abounded; and the amount of eccentricity in a society has generally been proportional to the amount of genius, mental vigour, and moral courage which it contained. That so few now dare to be eccentric, marks the chief danger of the time.",
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      "bookId": 34901,
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      "end": 207868,
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      "text": "OF THE LIMITS TO THE AUTHORITY OF SOCIETY OVER THE INDIVIDUAL.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00150",
      "bookId": 34901,
      "start": 207874,
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      "text": "What, then, is the rightful limit to the sovereignty of the individual over himself? Where does the authority of society begin? How much of human life should be assigned to individuality, and how much to society?",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00151",
      "bookId": 34901,
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      "text": "Each will receive its proper share, if each has that which more particularly concerns it. To individuality should belong the part of life in which it is chiefly the individual that is interested; to society, the part which chiefly interests society.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG34901.B00152",
      "bookId": 34901,
      "start": 208348,
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      "text": "Though society is not founded on a contract, and though no good purpose is answered by inventing a contract in order to deduce social obligations from it, every one who receives the protection of society owes a return for the benefit, and the fact of living in society renders it indispensable that each should be bound to observe a certain line of conduct towards the rest. This conduct consists, first, in not injuring the interests of one another; or rather certain interests which, either by express legal provision or by tacit understanding, ought to be considered as rights; and secondly, in each person's bearing his share (to be fixed on some equitable principle) of the labours and sacrifices incurred for defending the society or its members from injury and molestation. These conditions society is justified in enforcing, at all costs to those who endeavour to withhold fulfilment. Nor is this all that society may do. The acts of an individual may be hurtful to others, or wanting in due consideration for their welfare, without going the length of violating any of their constituted rights. The offender may then be justly punished by opinion though not by law. As soon as any part of a person's conduct affects prejudicially the interests of others, society has jurisdiction over it, and the question whether the general welfare will or will not be promoted by interfering with it, becomes open to discussion. But there is no room for entertaining any such question when a person's conduct affects the interests of no persons besides himself, or needs not affect them unless they like (all the persons concerned being of full age, and the ordinary amount of understanding). In all such cases there should be perfect freedom, legal and social, to do the action and stand the consequences.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG34901.B00153",
      "bookId": 34901,
      "start": 210178,
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      "text": "It would be a great misunderstanding of this doctrine, to suppose that it is one of selfish indifference, which pretends that human beings have no business with each other's conduct in life, and that they should not concern themselves about the well-doing or well-being of one another, unless their own interest is involved. Instead of any diminution, there is need of a great increase of disinterested exertion to promote the good of others. But disinterested benevolence can find other instruments to persuade people to their good, than whips and scourges, either of the literal or the metaphorical sort. I am the last person to undervalue the self-regarding virtues; they are only second in importance, if even second, to the social. It is equally the business of education to cultivate both. But even education works by conviction and persuasion as well as by compulsion, and it is by the former only that, when the period of education is past, the self-regarding virtues should be inculcated. Human beings owe to each other help to distinguish the better from the worse, and encouragement to choose the former and avoid the latter. They should be for ever stimulating each other to increased exercise of their higher faculties, and increased direction of their feelings and aims towards wise instead of foolish, elevating instead of degrading, objects and contemplations. But neither one person, nor any number of persons, is warranted in saying to another human creature of ripe years, that he shall not do with his life for his own benefit what he chooses to do with it. He is the person most interested in his own well-being: the interest which any other person, except in cases of strong personal attachment, can have in it, is trifling, compared with that which he himself has; the interest which society has in him individually (except as to his conduct to others) is fractional, and altogether indirect: while, with respect to his own feelings and circumstances, the most ordinary man or woman has means of knowledge immeasurably surpassing those that can be possessed by any one else. The interference of society to overrule his judgment and purposes in what only regards himself, must be grounded on general presumptions; which may be altogether wrong, and even if right, are as likely as not to be misapplied to individual cases, by persons no better acquainted with the circumstances of such cases than those are who look at them merely from without. In this department, therefore, of human affairs, Individuality has its proper field of action. In the conduct of human beings towards one another, it is necessary that general rules should for the most part be observed, in order that people may know what they have to expect; but in each person's own concerns, his individual spontaneity is entitled to free exercise. Considerations to aid his judgment, exhortations to strengthen his will, may be offered to him, even obtruded on him, by others; but he himself is the final judge. All errors which he is likely to commit against advice and warning, are far outweighed by the evil of allowing others to constrain him to what they deem his good.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG34901.B00154",
      "bookId": 34901,
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      "text": "I do not mean that the feelings with which a person is regarded by others, ought not to be in any way affected by his self-regarding qualities or deficiencies. This is neither possible nor desirable. If he is eminent in any of the qualities which conduce to his own good, he is, so far, a proper object of admiration. He is so much the nearer to the ideal perfection of human nature. If he is grossly deficient in those qualities, a sentiment the opposite of admiration will follow. There is a degree of folly, and a degree of what may be called (though the phrase is not unobjectionable) lowness or depravation of taste, which, though it cannot justify doing harm to the person who manifests it, renders him necessarily and properly a subject of distaste, or, in extreme cases, even of contempt: a person could not have the opposite qualities in due strength without entertaining these feelings. Though doing no wrong to any one, a person may so act as to compel us to judge him, and feel to him, as a fool, or as a being of an inferior order: and since this judgment and feeling are a fact which he would prefer to avoid, it is doing him a service to warn him of it beforehand, as of any other disagreeable consequence to which he exposes himself. It would be well, indeed, if this good office were much more freely rendered than the common notions of politeness at present permit, and if one person could honestly point out to another that he thinks him in fault, without being considered unmannerly or presuming. We have a right, also, in various ways, to act upon our unfavourable opinion of any one, not to the oppression of his individuality, but in the exercise of ours. We are not bound, for example, to seek his society; we have a right to avoid it (though not to parade the avoidance), for we have a right to choose the society most acceptable to us. We have a right, and it may be our duty, to caution others against him, if we think his example or conversation likely to have a pernicious effect on those with whom he associates. We may give others a preference over him in optional good offices, except those which tend to his improvement. In these various modes a person may suffer very severe penalties at the hands of others, for faults which directly concern only himself; but he suffers these penalties only in so far as they are the natural, and, as it were, the spontaneous consequences of the faults themselves, not because they are purposely inflicted on him for the sake of punishment. A person who shows rashness, obstinacy, self-conceit--who cannot live within moderate means--who cannot restrain himself from hurtful indulgences--who pursues animal pleasures at the expense of those of feeling and intellect--must expect to be lowered in the opinion of others, and to have a less share of their favourable sentiments; but of this he has no right to complain, unless he has merited their favour by special excellence in his social relations, and has thus established a title to their good offices, which is not affected by his demerits towards himself.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00155",
      "bookId": 34901,
      "start": 216512,
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      "text": "What I contend for is, that the inconveniences which are strictly inseparable from the unfavourable judgment of others, are the only ones to which a person should ever be subjected for that portion of his conduct and character which concerns his own good, but which does not affect the interests of others in their relations with him. Acts injurious to others require a totally different treatment. Encroachment on their rights; infliction on them of any loss or damage not justified by his own rights; falsehood or duplicity in dealing with them; unfair or ungenerous use of advantages over them; even selfish abstinence from defending them against injury--these are fit objects of moral reprobation, and, in grave cases, of moral retribution and punishment. And not only these acts, but the dispositions which lead to them, are properly immoral, and fit subjects of disapprobation which may rise to abhorrence. Cruelty of disposition; malice and ill-nature; that most anti-social and odious of all passions, envy; dissimulation and insincerity; irascibility on insufficient cause, and resentment disproportioned to the provocation; the love of domineering over others; the desire to engross more than one's share of advantages (the [Greek: pleonexia] of the Greeks); the pride which derives gratification from the abasement of others; the egotism which thinks self and its concerns more important than everything else, and decides all doubtful questions in its own favour;--these are moral vices, and constitute a bad and odious moral character: unlike the self-regarding faults previously mentioned, which are not properly immoralities, and to whatever pitch they may be carried, do not constitute wickedness. They may be proofs of any amount of folly, or want of personal dignity and self-respect; but they are only a subject of moral reprobation when they involve a breach of duty to others, for whose sake the individual is bound to have care for himself. What are called duties to ourselves are not socially obligatory, unless circumstances render them at the same time duties to others. The term duty to oneself, when it means anything more than prudence, means self-respect or self-development; and for none of these is any one accountable to his fellow-creatures, because for none of them is it for the good of mankind that he be held accountable to them.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00166",
      "bookId": 34901,
      "start": 239816,
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      "text": "To imagine another contingency, perhaps more likely to be realised than the one last mentioned. There is confessedly a strong tendency in the modern world towards a democratic constitution of society, accompanied or not by popular political institutions. It is affirmed that in the country where this tendency is most completely realised--where both society and the government are most democratic--the United States--the feeling of the majority, to whom any appearance of a more showy or costly style of living than they can hope to rival is disagreeable, operates as a tolerably effectual sumptuary law, and that in many parts of the Union it is really difficult for a person possessing a very large income, to find any mode of spending it, which will not incur popular disapprobation. Though such statements as these are doubtless much exaggerated as a representation of existing facts, the state of things they describe is not only a conceivable and possible, but a probable result of democratic feeling, combined with the notion that the public has a right to a veto on the manner in which individuals shall spend their incomes. We have only further to suppose a considerable diffusion of Socialist opinions, and it may become infamous in the eyes of the majority to possess more property than some very small amount, or any income not earned by manual labour. Opinions similar in principle to these, already prevail widely among the artisan class, and weigh oppressively on those who are amenable to the opinion chiefly of that class, namely, its own members. It is known that the bad workmen who form the majority of the operatives in many branches of industry, are decidedly of opinion that bad workmen ought to receive the same wages as good, and that no one ought to be allowed, through piecework or otherwise, to earn by superior skill or industry more than others can without it. And they employ a moral police, which occasionally becomes a physical one, to deter skilful workmen from receiving, and employers from giving, a larger remuneration for a more useful service. If the public have any jurisdiction over private concerns, I cannot see that these people are in fault, or that any individual's particular public can be blamed for asserting the same authority over his individual conduct, which the general public asserts over people in general.",
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      "text": "But, without dwelling upon supposititious cases, there are, in our own day, gross usurpations upon the liberty of private life actually practised, and still greater ones threatened with some expectation of success, and opinions proposed which assert an unlimited right in the public not only to prohibit by law everything which it thinks wrong, but in order to get at what it thinks wrong, to prohibit any number of things which it admits to be innocent.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG34901.B00168",
      "bookId": 34901,
      "start": 242679,
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      "text": "Under the name of preventing intemperance, the people of one English colony, and of nearly half the United States, have been interdicted by law from making any use whatever of fermented drinks, except for medical purposes: for prohibition of their sale is in fact, as it is intended to be, prohibition of their use. And though the impracticability of executing the law has caused its repeal in several of the States which had adopted it, including the one from which it derives its name, an attempt has notwithstanding been commenced, and is prosecuted with considerable zeal by many of the professed philanthropists, to agitate for a similar law in this country. The association, or \"Alliance\" as it terms itself, which has been formed for this purpose, has acquired some notoriety through the publicity given to a correspondence between its Secretary and one of the very few English public men who hold that a politician's opinions ought to be founded on principles. Lord Stanley's share in this correspondence is calculated to strengthen the hopes already built on him, by those who know how rare such qualities as are manifested in some of his public appearances, unhappily are among those who figure in political life. The organ of the Alliance, who would \"deeply deplore the recognition of any principle which could be wrested to justify bigotry and persecution,\" undertakes to point out the \"broad and impassable barrier\" which divides such principles from those of the association. \"All matters relating to thought, opinion, conscience, appear to me,\" he says, \"to be without the sphere of legislation; all pertaining to social act, habit, relation, subject only to a discretionary power vested in the State itself, and not in the individual, to be within it.\" No mention is made of a third class, different from either of these, viz. acts and habits which are not social, but individual; although it is to this class, surely, that the act of drinking fermented liquors belongs. Selling fermented liquors, however, is trading, and trading is a social act. But the infringement complained of is not on the liberty of the seller, but on that of the buyer and consumer; since the State might just as well forbid him to drink wine, as purposely make it impossible for him to obtain it. The Secretary, however, says, \"I claim, as a citizen, a right to legislate whenever my social rights are invaded by the social act of another.\" And now for the definition of these \"social rights.\" \"If anything invades my social rights, certainly the traffic in strong drink does. It destroys my primary right of security, by constantly creating and stimulating social disorder. It invades my right of equality, by deriving a profit from the creation of a misery, I am taxed to support. It impedes my right to free moral and intellectual development, by surrounding my path with dangers, and by weakening and demoralising society, from which I have a right to claim mutual aid and intercourse.\" A theory of \"social rights,\" the like of which probably never before found its way into distinct language--being nothing short of this--that it is the absolute social right of every individual, that every other individual shall act in every respect exactly as he ought; that whosoever fails thereof in the smallest particular, violates my social right, and entitles me to demand from the legislature the removal of the grievance. So monstrous a principle is far more dangerous than any single interference with liberty; there is no violation of liberty which it would not justify; it acknowledges no right to any freedom whatever, except perhaps to that of holding opinions in secret, without ever disclosing them: for the moment an opinion which I consider noxious, passes any one's lips, it invades all the \"social rights\" attributed to me by the Alliance. The doctrine ascribes to all mankind a vested interest in each other's moral, intellectual, and even physical perfection, to be defined by each claimant according to his own standard.",
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      "ref": "PG34901.B00169",
      "bookId": 34901,
      "start": 246766,
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      "text": "Another important example of illegitimate interference with the rightful liberty of the individual, not simply threatened, but long since carried into triumphant effect, is Sabbatarian legislation. Without doubt, abstinence on one day in the week, so far as the exigencies of life permit, from the usual daily occupation, though in no respect religiously binding on any except Jews, is a highly beneficial custom. And inasmuch as this custom cannot be observed without a general consent to that effect among the industrious classes, therefore, in so far as some persons by working may impose the same necessity on others, it may be allowable and right that the law should guarantee to each, the observance by others of the custom, by suspending the greater operations of industry on a particular day. But this justification, grounded on the direct interest which others have in each individual's observance of the practice, does not apply to the self-chosen occupations in which a person may think fit to employ his leisure; nor does it hold good, in the smallest degree, for legal restrictions on amusements. It is true that the amusement of some is the day's work of others; but the pleasure, not to say the useful recreation, of many, is worth the labour of a few, provided the occupation is freely chosen, and can be freely resigned. The operatives are perfectly right in thinking that if all worked on Sunday, seven days' work would have to be given for six days' wages: but so long as the great mass of employments are suspended, the small number who for the enjoyment of others must still work, obtain a proportional increase of earnings; and they are not obliged to follow those occupations, if they prefer leisure to emolument. If a further remedy is sought, it might be found in the establishment by custom of a holiday on some other day of the week for those particular classes of persons. The only ground, therefore, on which restrictions on Sunday amusements can be defended, must be that they are religiously wrong; a motive of legislation which never can be too earnestly protested against. \"Deorum injuriae Diis curae.\" It remains to be proved that society or any of its officers holds a commission from on high to avenge any supposed offence to Omnipotence, which is not also a wrong to our fellow-creatures. The notion that it is one man's duty that another should be religious, was the foundation of all the religious persecutions ever perpetrated, and if admitted, would fully justify them. Though the feeling which breaks out in the repeated attempts to stop railway travelling on Sunday, in the resistance to the opening of Museums, and the like, has not the cruelty of the old persecutors, the state of mind indicated by it is fundamentally the same. It is a determination not to tolerate others in doing what is permitted by their religion, because it is not permitted by the persecutor's religion. It is a belief that God not only abominates the act of the misbeliever, but will not hold us guiltless if we leave him unmolested.",
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      "text": "I cannot refrain from adding to these examples of the little account commonly made of human liberty, the language of downright persecution which breaks out from the press of this country, whenever it feels called on to notice the remarkable phenomenon of Mormonism. Much might be said on the unexpected and instructive fact, that an alleged new revelation, and a religion founded on it, the product of palpable imposture, not even supported by the _prestige_ of extraordinary qualities in its founder, is believed by hundreds of thousands, and has been made the foundation of a society, in the age of newspapers, railways, and the electric telegraph. What here concerns us is, that this religion, like other and better religions, has its martyrs; that its prophet and founder was, for his teaching, put to death by a mob; that others of its adherents lost their lives by the same lawless violence; that they were forcibly expelled, in a body, from the country in which they first grew up; while, now that they have been chased into a solitary recess in the midst of a desert, many in this country openly declare that it would be right (only that it is not convenient) to send an expedition against them, and compel them by force to conform to the opinions of other people. The article of the Mormonite doctrine which is the chief provocative to the antipathy which thus breaks through the ordinary restraints of religious tolerance, is its sanction of polygamy; which, though permitted to Mahomedans, and Hindoos, and Chinese, seems to excite unquenchable animosity when practised by persons who speak English, and profess to be a kind of Christians. No one has a deeper disapprobation than I have of this Mormon institution; both for other reasons, and because, far from being in any way countenanced by the principle of liberty, it is a direct infraction of that principle, being a mere riveting of the chains of one half of the community, and an emancipation of the other from reciprocity of obligation towards them. Still, it must be remembered that this relation is as much voluntary on the part of the women concerned in it, and who may be deemed the sufferers by it, as is the case with any other form of the marriage institution; and however surprising this fact may appear, it has its explanation in the common ideas and customs of the world, which teaching women to think marriage the one thing needful, make it intelligible that many a woman should prefer being one of several wives, to not being a wife at all. Other countries are not asked to recognise such unions, or release any portion of their inhabitants from their own laws on the score of Mormonite opinions. But when the dissentients have conceded to the hostile sentiments of others, far more than could justly be demanded; when they have left the countries to which their doctrines were unacceptable, and established themselves in a remote corner of the earth, which they have been the first to render habitable to human beings; it is difficult to see on what principles but those of tyranny they can be prevented from living there under what laws they please, provided they commit no aggression on other nations, and allow perfect freedom of departure to those who are dissatisfied with their ways. A recent writer, in some respects of considerable merit, proposes (to use his own words), not a crusade, but a _civilizade_, against this polygamous community, to put an end to what seems to him a retrograde step in civilisation. It also appears so to me, but I am not aware that any community has a right to force another to be civilised. So long as the sufferers by the bad law do not invoke assistance from other communities, I cannot admit that persons entirely unconnected with them ought to step in and require that a condition of things with which all who are directly interested appear to be satisfied, should be put an end to because it is a scandal to persons some thousands of miles distant, who have no part or concern in it. Let them send missionaries, if they please, to preach against it; and let them, by any fair means (of which silencing the teachers is not one), oppose the progress of similar doctrines among their own people. If civilisation has got the better of barbarism when barbarism had the world to itself, it is too much to profess to be afraid lest barbarism, after having been fairly got under, should revive and conquer civilisation. A civilisation that can thus succumb to its vanquished enemy, must first have become so degenerate, that neither its appointed priests and teachers, nor anybody else, has the capacity, or will take the trouble, to stand up for it. If this be so, the sooner such a civilisation receives notice to quit, the better. It can only go on from bad to worse, until destroyed and regenerated (like the Western Empire) by energetic barbarians.",
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      "text": "APPLICATIONS.",
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      "text": "The principles asserted in these pages must be more generally admitted as the basis for discussion of details, before a consistent application of them to all the various departments of government and morals can be attempted with any prospect of advantage. The few observations I propose to make on questions of detail, are designed to illustrate the principles, rather than to follow them out to their consequences. I offer, not so much applications, as specimens of application; which may serve to bring into greater clearness the meaning and limits of the two maxims which together form the entire doctrine of this Essay, and to assist the judgment in holding the balance between them, in the cases where it appears doubtful which of them is applicable to the case.",
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      "text": "The maxims are, first, that the individual is not accountable to society for his actions, in so far as these concern the interests of no person but himself. Advice, instruction, persuasion, and avoidance by other people if thought necessary by them for their own good, are the only measures by which society can justifiably express its dislike or disapprobation of his conduct. Secondly, that for such actions as are prejudicial to the interests of others, the individual is accountable and may be subjected either to social or to legal punishments, if society is of opinion that the one or the other is requisite for its protection.",
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      "text": "In the first place, it must by no means be supposed, because damage, or probability of damage, to the interests of others, can alone justify the interference of society, that therefore it always does justify such interference. In many cases, an individual, in pursuing a legitimate object, necessarily and therefore legitimately causes pain or loss to others, or intercepts a good which they had a reasonable hope of obtaining. Such oppositions of interest between individuals often arise from bad social institutions, but are unavoidable while those institutions last; and some would be unavoidable under any institutions. Whoever succeeds in an overcrowded profession, or in a competitive examination; whoever is preferred to another in any contest for an object which both desire, reaps benefit from the loss of others, from their wasted exertion and their disappointment. But it is, by common admission, better for the general interest of mankind, that persons should pursue their objects undeterred by this sort of consequences. In other words, society admits no rights, either legal or moral, in the disappointed competitors, to immunity from this kind of suffering; and feels called on to interfere, only when means of success have been employed which it is contrary to the general interest to permit--namely, fraud or treachery, and force.",
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      "text": "Again, trade is a social act. Whoever undertakes to sell any description of goods to the public, does what affects the interest of other persons, and of society in general; and thus his conduct, in principle, comes within the jurisdiction of society: accordingly, it was once held to be the duty of governments, in all cases which were considered of importance, to fix prices, and regulate the processes of manufacture. But it is now recognised, though not till after a long struggle, that both the cheapness and the good quality of commodities are most effectually provided for by leaving the producers and sellers perfectly free, under the sole check of equal freedom to the buyers for supplying themselves elsewhere. This is the so-called doctrine of Free Trade, which rests on grounds different from, though equally solid with, the principle of individual liberty asserted in this Essay. Restrictions on trade, or on production for purposes of trade, are indeed restraints; and all restraint, _qua_ restraint, is an evil: but the restraints in question affect only that part of conduct which society is competent to restrain, and are wrong solely because they do not really produce the results which it is desired to produce by them. As the principle of individual liberty is not involved in the doctrine of Free Trade, so neither is it in most of the questions which arise respecting the limits of that doctrine: as for example, what amount of public control is admissible for the prevention of fraud by adulteration; how far sanitary precautions, or arrangements to protect work-people employed in dangerous occupations, should be enforced on employers. Such questions involve considerations of liberty, only in so far as leaving people to themselves is always better, _caeteris paribus_, than controlling them: but that they may be legitimately controlled for these ends, is in principle undeniable. On the other hand, there are questions relating to interference with trade, which are essentially questions of liberty; such as the Maine Law, already touched upon; the prohibition of the importation of opium into China; the restriction of the sale of poisons; all cases, in short, where the object of the interference is to make it impossible or difficult to obtain a particular commodity. These interferences are objectionable, not as infringements on the liberty of the producer or seller, but on that of the buyer.",
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      "text": "One of these examples, that of the sale of poisons, opens a new question; the proper limits of what may be called the functions of police; how far liberty may legitimately be invaded for the prevention of crime, or of accident. It is one of the undisputed functions of government to take precautions against crime before it has been committed, as well as to detect and punish it afterwards. The preventive function of government, however, is far more liable to be abused, to the prejudice of liberty, than the punitory function; for there is hardly any part of the legitimate freedom of action of a human being which would not admit of being represented, and fairly too, as increasing the facilities for some form or other of delinquency. Nevertheless, if a public authority, or even a private person, sees any one evidently preparing to commit a crime, they are not bound to look on inactive until the crime is committed, but may interfere to prevent it. If poisons were never bought or used for any purpose except the commission of murder, it would be right to prohibit their manufacture and sale. They may, however, be wanted not only for innocent but for useful purposes, and restrictions cannot be imposed in the one case without operating in the other. Again, it is a proper office of public authority to guard against accidents. If either a public officer or any one else saw a person attempting to cross a bridge which had been ascertained to be unsafe, and there were no time to warn him of his danger, they might seize him and turn him back, without any real infringement of his liberty; for liberty consists in doing what one desires, and he does not desire to fall into the river. Nevertheless, when there is not a certainty, but only a danger of mischief, no one but the person himself can judge of the sufficiency of the motive which may prompt him to incur the risk: in this case, therefore (unless he is a child, or delirious, or in some state of excitement or absorption incompatible with the full use of the reflecting faculty), he ought, I conceive, to be only warned of the danger; not forcibly prevented from exposing himself to it. Similar considerations, applied to such a question as the sale of poisons, may enable us to decide which among the possible modes of regulation are or are not contrary to principle. Such a precaution, for example, as that of labelling the drug with some word expressive of its dangerous character, may be enforced without violation of liberty: the buyer cannot wish not to know that the thing he possesses has poisonous qualities. But to require in all cases the certificate of a medical practitioner, would make it sometimes impossible, always expensive, to obtain the article for legitimate uses. The only mode apparent to me, in which difficulties may be thrown in the way of crime committed through this means, without any infringement, worth taking into account, upon the liberty of those who desire the poisonous substance for other purposes, consists in providing what, in the apt language of Bentham, is called \"preappointed evidence.\" This provision is familiar to every one in the case of contracts. It is usual and right that the law, when a contract is entered into, should require as the condition of its enforcing performance, that certain formalities should be observed, such as signatures, attestation of witnesses, and the like, in order that in case of subsequent dispute, there may be evidence to prove that the contract was really entered into, and that there was nothing in the circumstances to render it legally invalid: the effect being, to throw great obstacles in the way of fictitious contracts, or contracts made in circumstances which, if known, would destroy their validity. Precautions of a similar nature might be enforced in the sale of articles adapted to be instruments of crime. The seller, for example, might be required to enter into a register the exact time of the transaction, the name and address of the buyer, the precise quality and quantity sold; to ask the purpose for which it was wanted, and record the answer he received. When there was no medical prescription, the presence of some third person might be required, to bring home the fact to the purchaser, in case there should afterwards be reason to believe that the article had been applied to criminal purposes. Such regulations would in general be no material impediment to obtaining the article, but a very considerable one to making an improper use of it without detection.",
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      "text": "The right inherent in society, to ward off crimes against itself by antecedent precautions, suggests the obvious limitations to the maxim, that purely self-regarding misconduct cannot properly be meddled with in the way of prevention or punishment. Drunkenness, for example, in ordinary cases, is not a fit subject for legislative interference; but I should deem it perfectly legitimate that a person, who had once been convicted of any act of violence to others under the influence of drink, should be placed under a special legal restriction, personal to himself; that if he were afterwards found drunk, he should be liable to a penalty, and that if when in that state he committed another offence, the punishment to which he would be liable for that other offence should be increased in severity. The making himself drunk, in a person whom drunkenness excites to do harm to others, is a crime against others. So, again, idleness, except in a person receiving support from the public, or except when it constitutes a breach of contract, cannot without tyranny be made a subject of legal punishment; but if either from idleness or from any other avoidable cause, a man fails to perform his legal duties to others, as for instance to support his children, it is no tyranny to force him to fulfil that obligation, by compulsory labour, if no other means are available.",
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      "text": "Again, there are many acts which, being directly injurious only to the agents themselves, ought not to be legally interdicted, but which, if done publicly, are a violation of good manners and coming thus within the category of offences against others may rightfully be prohibited. Of this kind are offences against decency; on which it is unnecessary to dwell, the rather as they are only connected indirectly with our subject, the objection to publicity being equally strong in the case of many actions not in themselves condemnable, nor supposed to be so.",
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      "text": "There is another question to which an answer must be found, consistent with the principles which have been laid down. In cases of personal conduct supposed to be blamable, but which respect for liberty precludes society from preventing or punishing, because the evil directly resulting falls wholly on the agent; what the agent is free to do, ought other persons to be equally free to counsel or instigate? This question is not free from difficulty. The case of a person who solicits another to do an act, is not strictly a case of self-regarding conduct. To give advice or offer inducements to any one, is a social act, and may therefore, like actions in general which affect others, be supposed amenable to social control. But a little reflection corrects the first impression, by showing that if the case is not strictly within the definition of individual liberty, yet the reasons on which the principle of individual liberty is grounded, are applicable to it. If people must be allowed, in whatever concerns only themselves, to act as seems best to themselves at their own peril, they must equally be free to consult with one another about what is fit to be so done; to exchange opinions, and give and receive suggestions. Whatever it is permitted to do, it must be permitted to advise to do. The question is doubtful, only when the instigator derives a personal benefit from his advice; when he makes it his occupation, for subsistence or pecuniary gain, to promote what society and the state consider to be an evil. Then, indeed, a new element of complication is introduced; namely, the existence of classes of persons with an interest opposed to what is considered as the public weal, and whose mode of living is grounded on the counteraction of it. Ought this to be interfered with, or not? Fornication, for example, must be tolerated, and so must gambling; but should a person be free to be a pimp, or to keep a gambling-house? The case is one of those which lie on the exact boundary line between two principles, and it is not at once apparent to which of the two it properly belongs. There are arguments on both sides. On the side of toleration it may be said, that the fact of following anything as an occupation, and living or profiting by the practice of it, cannot make that criminal which would otherwise be admissible; that the act should either be consistently permitted or consistently prohibited; that if the principles which we have hitherto defended are true, society has no business, _as_ society, to decide anything to be wrong which concerns only the individual; that it cannot go beyond dissuasion, and that one person should be as free to persuade, as another to dissuade. In opposition to this it may be contended, that although the public, or the State, are not warranted in authoritatively deciding, for purposes of repression or punishment, that such or such conduct affecting only the interests of the individual is good or bad, they are fully justified in assuming, if they regard it as bad, that its being so or not is at least a disputable question: That, this being supposed, they cannot be acting wrongly in endeavouring to exclude the influence of solicitations which are not disinterested, of instigators who cannot possibly be impartial--who have a direct personal interest on one side, and that side the one which the State believes to be wrong, and who confessedly promote it for personal objects only. There can surely, it may be urged, be nothing lost, no sacrifice of good, by so ordering matters that persons shall make their election, either wisely or foolishly, on their own prompting, as free as possible from the arts of persons who stimulate their inclinations for interested purposes of their own. Thus (it may be said) though the statutes respecting unlawful games are utterly indefensible--though all persons should be free to gamble in their own or each other's houses, or in any place of meeting established by their own subscriptions, and open only to the members and their visitors--yet public gambling-houses should not be permitted. It is true that the prohibition is never effectual, and that whatever amount of tyrannical power is given to the police, gambling-houses can always be maintained under other pretences; but they may be compelled to conduct their operations with a certain degree of secrecy and mystery, so that nobody knows anything about them but those who seek them; and more than this, society ought not to aim at. There is considerable force in these arguments; I will not venture to decide whether they are sufficient to justify the moral anomaly of punishing the accessary, when the principal is (and must be) allowed to go free; or fining or imprisoning the procurer, but not the fornicator, the gambling-house keeper, but not the gambler. Still less ought the common operations of buying and selling to be interfered with on analogous grounds. Almost every article which is bought and sold may be used in excess, and the sellers have a pecuniary interest in encouraging that excess; but no argument can be founded on this, in favour, for instance, of the Maine Law; because the class of dealers in strong drinks, though interested in their abuse, are indispensably required for the sake of their legitimate use. The interest, however, of these dealers in promoting intemperance is a real evil, and justifies the State in imposing restrictions and requiring guarantees, which but for that justification would be infringements of legitimate liberty.",
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      "text": "A further question is, whether the State, while it permits, should nevertheless indirectly discourage conduct which it deems contrary to the best interests of the agent; whether, for example, it should take measures to render the means of drunkenness more costly, or add to the difficulty of procuring them, by limiting the number of the places of sale. On this as on most other practical questions, many distinctions require to be made. To tax stimulants for the sole purpose of making them more difficult to be obtained, is a measure differing only in degree from their entire prohibition; and would be justifiable only if that were justifiable. Every increase of cost is a prohibition, to those whose means do not come up to the augmented price; and to those who do, it is a penalty laid on them for gratifying a particular taste. Their choice of pleasures, and their mode of expending their income, after satisfying their legal and moral obligations to the State and to individuals, are their own concern, and must rest with their own judgment. These considerations may seem at first sight to condemn the selection of stimulants as special subjects of taxation for purposes of revenue. But it must be remembered that taxation for fiscal purposes is absolutely inevitable; that in most countries it is necessary that a considerable part of that taxation should be indirect; that the State, therefore, cannot help imposing penalties, which to some persons may be prohibitory, on the use of some articles of consumption. It is hence the duty of the State to consider, in the imposition of taxes, what commodities the consumers can best spare; and _a fortiori_, to select in preference those of which it deems the use, beyond a very moderate quantity, to be positively injurious. Taxation, therefore, of stimulants, up to the point which produces the largest amount of revenue (supposing that the State needs all the revenue which it yields) is not only admissible, but to be approved of.",
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      "text": "The question of making the sale of these commodities a more or less exclusive privilege, must be answered differently, according to the purposes to which the restriction is intended to be subservient. All places of public resort require the restraint of a police, and places of this kind peculiarly, because offences against society are especially apt to originate there. It is, therefore, fit to confine the power of selling these commodities (at least for consumption on the spot) to persons of known or vouched-for respectability of conduct; to make such regulations respecting hours of opening and closing as may be requisite for public surveillance, and to withdraw the licence if breaches of the peace repeatedly take place through the connivance or incapacity of the keeper of the house, or if it becomes a rendezvous for concocting and preparing offences against the law. Any further restriction I do not conceive to be, in principle, justifiable. The limitation in number, for instance, of beer and spirit-houses, for the express purpose of rendering them more difficult of access, and diminishing the occasions of temptation, not only exposes all to an inconvenience because there are some by whom the facility would be abused, but is suited only to a state of society in which the labouring classes are avowedly treated as children or savages, and placed under an education of restraint, to fit them for future admission to the privileges of freedom. This is not the principle on which the labouring classes are professedly governed in any free country; and no person who sets due value on freedom will give his adhesion to their being so governed, unless after all efforts have been exhausted to educate them for freedom and govern them as freemen, and it has been definitively proved that they can only be governed as children. The bare statement of the alternative shows the absurdity of supposing that such efforts have been made in any case which needs be considered here. It is only because the institutions of this country are a mass of inconsistencies, that things find admittance into our practice which belong to the system of despotic, or what is called paternal, government, while the general freedom of our institutions precludes the exercise of the amount of control necessary to render the restraint of any real efficacy as a moral education.",
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      "text": "It was pointed out in an early part of this Essay, that the liberty of the individual, in things wherein the individual is alone concerned, implies a corresponding liberty in any number of individuals to regulate by mutual agreement such things as regard them jointly, and regard no persons but themselves. This question presents no difficulty, so long as the will of all the persons implicated remains unaltered; but since that will may change, it is often necessary, even in things in which they alone are concerned, that they should enter into engagements with one another; and when they do, it is fit, as a general rule, that those engagements should be kept. Yet in the laws, probably, of every country, this general rule has some exceptions. Not only persons are not held to engagements which violate the rights of third parties, but it is sometimes considered a sufficient reason for releasing them from an engagement, that it is injurious to themselves. In this and most other civilised countries, for example, an engagement by which a person should sell himself, or allow himself to be sold, as a slave, would be null and void; neither enforced by law nor by opinion. The ground for thus limiting his power of voluntarily disposing of his own lot in life, is apparent, and is very clearly seen in this extreme case. The reason for not interfering, unless for the sake of others, with a person's voluntary acts, is consideration for his liberty. His voluntary choice is evidence that what he so chooses is desirable, or at the least endurable, to him, and his good is on the whole best provided for by allowing him to take his own means of pursuing it. But by selling himself for a slave, he abdicates his liberty; he foregoes any future use of it, beyond that single act. He therefore defeats, in his own case, the very purpose which is the justification of allowing him to dispose of himself. He is no longer free; but is thenceforth in a position which has no longer the presumption in its favour, that would be afforded by his voluntarily remaining in it. The principle of freedom cannot require that he should be free not to be free. It is not freedom, to be allowed to alienate his freedom. These reasons, the force of which is so conspicuous in this peculiar case, are evidently of far wider application; yet a limit is everywhere set to them by the necessities of life, which continually require, not indeed that we should resign our freedom, but that we should consent to this and the other limitation of it. The principle, however, which demands uncontrolled freedom of action in all that concerns only the agents themselves, requires that those who have become bound to one another, in things which concern no third party, should be able to release one another from the engagement: and even without such voluntary release, there are perhaps no contracts or engagements, except those that relate to money or money's worth, of which one can venture to say that there ought to be no liberty whatever of retractation. Baron Wilhelm von Humboldt, in the excellent essay from which I have already quoted, states it as his conviction, that engagements which involve personal relations or services, should never be legally binding beyond a limited duration of time; and that the most important of these engagements, marriage, having the peculiarity that its objects are frustrated unless the feelings of both the parties are in harmony with it, should require nothing more than the declared will of either party to dissolve it. This subject is too important, and too complicated, to be discussed in a parenthesis, and I touch on it only so far as is necessary for purposes of illustration. If the conciseness and generality of Baron Humboldt's dissertation had not obliged him in this instance to content himself with enunciating his conclusion without discussing the premises, he would doubtless have recognised that the question cannot be decided on grounds so simple as those to which he confines himself. When a person, either by express promise or by conduct, has encouraged another to rely upon his continuing to act in a certain way--to build expectations and calculations, and stake any part of his plan of life upon that supposition, a new series of moral obligations arises on his part towards that person, which may possibly be overruled, but cannot be ignored. And again, if the relation between two contracting parties has been followed by consequences to others; if it has placed third parties in any peculiar position, or, as in the case of marriage, has even called third parties into existence, obligations arise on the part of both the contracting parties towards those third persons, the fulfilment of which, or at all events the mode of fulfilment, must be greatly affected by the continuance or disruption of the relation between the original parties to the contract. It does not follow, nor can I admit, that these obligations extend to requiring the fulfilment of the contract at all costs to the happiness of the reluctant party; but they are a necessary element in the question; and even if, as Von Humboldt maintains, they ought to make no difference in the _legal_ freedom of the parties to release themselves from the engagement (and I also hold that they ought not to make _much_ difference), they necessarily make a great difference in the _moral_ freedom. A person is bound to take all these circumstances into account, before resolving on a step which may affect such important interests of others; and if he does not allow proper weight to those interests, he is morally responsible for the wrong. I have made these obvious remarks for the better illustration of the general principle of liberty, and not because they are at all needed on the particular question, which, on the contrary, is usually discussed as if the interest of children was everything, and that of grown persons nothing.",
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      "text": "I have already observed that, owing to the absence of any recognised general principles, liberty is often granted where it should be withheld, as well as withheld where it should be granted; and one of the cases in which, in the modern European world, the sentiment of liberty is the strongest, is a case where, in my view, it is altogether misplaced. A person should be free to do as he likes in his own concerns; but he ought not to be free to do as he likes in acting for another, under the pretext that the affairs of another are his own affairs. The State, while it respects the liberty of each in what specially regards himself, is bound to maintain a vigilant control over his exercise of any power which it allows him to possess over others. This obligation is almost entirely disregarded in the case of the family relations, a case, in its direct influence on human happiness, more important than all others taken together. The almost despotic power of husbands over wives need not be enlarged upon here because nothing more is needed for the complete removal of the evil, than that wives should have the same rights, and should receive the protection of law in the same manner, as all other persons; and because, on this subject, the defenders of established injustice do not avail themselves of the plea of liberty, but stand forth openly as the champions of power. It is in the case of children, that misapplied notions of liberty are a real obstacle to the fulfilment by the State of its duties. One would almost think that a man's children were supposed to be literally, and not metaphorically, a part of himself, so jealous is opinion of the smallest interference of law with his absolute and exclusive control over them; more jealous than of almost any interference with his own freedom of action: so much less do the generality of mankind value liberty than power. Consider, for example, the case of education. Is it not almost a self-evident axiom, that the State should require and compel the education, up to a certain standard, of every human being who is born its citizen? Yet who is there that is not afraid to recognise and assert this truth? Hardly any one indeed will deny that it is one of the most sacred duties of the parents (or, as law and usage now stand, the father), after summoning a human being into the world, to give to that being an education fitting him to perform his part well in life towards others and towards himself. But while this is unanimously declared to be the father's duty, scarcely anybody, in this country, will bear to hear of obliging him to perform it. Instead of his being required to make any exertion or sacrifice for securing education to the child, it is left to his choice to accept it or not when it is provided gratis! It still remains unrecognised, that to bring a child into existence without a fair prospect of being able, not only to provide food for its body, but instruction and training for its mind, is a moral crime, both against the unfortunate offspring and against society; and that if the parent does not fulfil this obligation, the State ought to see it fulfilled, at the charge, as far as possible, of the parent.",
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      "text": "Were the duty of enforcing universal education once admitted, there would be an end to the difficulties about what the State should teach, and how it should teach, which now convert the subject into a mere battle-field for sects and parties, causing the time and labour which should have been spent in educating, to be wasted in quarrelling about education. If the government would make up its mind to _require_ for every child a good education, it might save itself the trouble of _providing_ one. It might leave to parents to obtain the education where and how they pleased, and content itself with helping to pay the school fees of the poorer class of children, and defraying the entire school expenses of those who have no one else to pay for them. The objections which are urged with reason against State education, do not apply to the enforcement of education by the State, but to the State's taking upon itself to direct that education; which is a totally different thing. That the whole or any large part of the education of the people should be in State hands, I go as far as any one in deprecating. All that has been said of the importance of individuality of character, and diversity in opinions and modes of conduct, involves, as of the same unspeakable importance, diversity of education. A general State education is a mere contrivance for moulding people to be exactly like one another; and as the mould in which it casts them is that which pleases the predominant power in the government, whether this be a monarch, a priesthood, an aristocracy, or the majority of the existing generation, in proportion as it is efficient and successful, it establishes a despotism over the mind, leading by natural tendency to one over the body. An education established and controlled by the State, should only exist, if it exist at all, as one among many competing experiments, carried on for the purpose of example and stimulus, to keep the others up to a certain standard of excellence. Unless, indeed, when society in general is in so backward a state that it could not or would not provide for itself any proper institutions of education, unless the government undertook the task; then, indeed, the government may, as the less of two great evils, take upon itself the business of schools and universities, as it may that of joint stock companies, when private enterprise, in a shape fitted for undertaking great works of industry, does not exist in the country. But in general, if the country contains a sufficient number of persons qualified to provide education under government auspices, the same persons would be able and willing to give an equally good education on the voluntary principle, under the assurance of remuneration afforded by a law rendering education compulsory, combined with State aid to those unable to defray the expense.",
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      "text": "The instrument for enforcing the law could be no other than public examinations, extending to all children, and beginning at an early age. An age might be fixed at which every child must be examined, to ascertain if he (or she) is able to read. If a child proves unable, the father, unless he has some sufficient ground of excuse, might be subjected to a moderate fine, to be worked out, if necessary, by his labour, and the child might be put to school at his expense. Once in every year the examination should be renewed, with a gradually extending range of subjects, so as to make the universal acquisition, and what is more, retention, of a certain minimum of general knowledge, virtually compulsory. Beyond that minimum, there should be voluntary examinations on all subjects, at which all who come up to a certain standard of proficiency might claim a certificate. To prevent the State from exercising, through these arrangements, an improper influence over opinion, the knowledge required for passing an examination (beyond the merely instrumental parts of knowledge, such as languages and their use) should, even in the higher class of examinations, be confined to facts and positive science exclusively. The examinations on religion, politics, or other disputed topics, should not turn on the truth or falsehood of opinions, but on the matter of fact that such and such an opinion is held, on such grounds, by such authors, or schools, or churches. Under this system, the rising generation would be no worse off in regard to all disputed truths, than they are at present; they would be brought up either churchmen or dissenters as they now are, the state merely taking care that they should be instructed churchmen, or instructed dissenters. There would be nothing to hinder them from being taught religion, if their parents chose, at the same schools where they were taught other things. All attempts by the state to bias the conclusions of its citizens on disputed subjects, are evil; but it may very properly offer to ascertain and certify that a person possesses the knowledge, requisite to make his conclusions, on any given subject, worth attending to. A student of philosophy would be the better for being able to stand an examination both in Locke and in Kant, whichever of the two he takes up with, or even if with neither: and there is no reasonable objection to examining an atheist in the evidences of Christianity, provided he is not required to profess a belief in them. The examinations, however, in the higher branches of knowledge should, I conceive, be entirely voluntary. It would be giving too dangerous a power to governments, were they allowed to exclude any one from professions, even from the profession of teacher, for alleged deficiency of qualifications: and I think, with Wilhelm von Humboldt, that degrees, or other public certificates of scientific or professional acquirements, should be given to all who present themselves for examination, and stand the test; but that such certificates should confer no advantage over competitors, other than the weight which may be attached to their testimony by public opinion.",
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      "text": "It is not in the matter of education only, that misplaced notions of liberty prevent moral obligations on the part of parents from being recognised, and legal obligations from being imposed, where there are the strongest grounds for the former always, and in many cases for the latter also. The fact itself, of causing the existence of a human being, is one of the most responsible actions in the range of human life. To undertake this responsibility--to bestow a life which may be either a curse or a blessing--unless the being on whom it is to be bestowed will have at least the ordinary chances of a desirable existence, is a crime against that being. And in a country either over-peopled, or threatened with being so, to produce children, beyond a very small number, with the effect of reducing the reward of labour by their competition, is a serious offence against all who live by the remuneration of their labour. The laws which, in many countries on the Continent, forbid marriage unless the parties can show that they have the means of supporting a family, do not exceed the legitimate powers of the state: and whether such laws be expedient or not (a question mainly dependent on local circumstances and feelings), they are not objectionable as violations of liberty. Such laws are interferences of the state to prohibit a mischievous act--an act injurious to others, which ought to be a subject of reprobation, and social stigma, even when it is not deemed expedient to superadd legal punishment. Yet the current ideas of liberty, which bend so easily to real infringements of the freedom of the individual, in things which concern only himself, would repel the attempt to put any restraint upon his inclinations when the consequence of their indulgence is a life, or lives, of wretchedness and depravity to the offspring, with manifold evils to those sufficiently within reach to be in any way affected by their actions. When we compare the strange respect of mankind for liberty, with their strange want of respect for it, we might imagine that a man had an indispensable right to do harm to others, and no right at all to please himself without giving pain to any one.",
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      "text": "I have reserved for the last place a large class of questions respecting the limits of government interference, which, though closely connected with the subject of this Essay, do not, in strictness, belong to it. These are cases in which the reasons against interference do not turn upon the principle of liberty: the question is not about restraining the actions of individuals, but about helping them: it is asked whether the government should do, or cause to be done, something for their benefit, instead of leaving it to be done by themselves, individually, or in voluntary combination.",
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      "text": "The objections to government interference, when it is not such as to involve infringement of liberty, may be of three kinds.",
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      "text": "The first is, when the thing to be done is likely to be better done by individuals than by the government. Speaking generally, there is no one so fit to conduct any business, or to determine how or by whom it shall be conducted, as those who are personally interested in it. This principle condemns the interferences, once so common, of the legislature, or the officers of government, with the ordinary processes of industry. But this part of the subject has been sufficiently enlarged upon by political economists, and is not particularly related to the principles of this Essay.",
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      "text": "Translation by F. Storr, BA Formerly Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge From the Loeb Library Edition Originally published by Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA and William Heinemann Ltd, London First published in 1912",
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      "text": "ARGUMENT",
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      "text": "To Laius, King of Thebes, an oracle foretold that the child born to him by his queen Jocasta would slay his father and wed his mother. So when in time a son was born the infant’s feet were riveted together and he was left to die on Mount Cithaeron. But a shepherd found the babe and tended him, and delivered him to another shepherd who took him to his master, the King of Corinth. Polybus being childless adopted the boy, who grew up believing that he was indeed the King’s son. Afterwards doubting his parentage he inquired of the Delphic god and heard himself the word declared before to Laius. Wherefore he fled from what he deemed his father’s house and in his flight he encountered and unwillingly slew his father Laius. Arriving at Thebes he answered the riddle of the Sphinx and the grateful Thebans made their deliverer king. So he reigned in the room of Laius, and espoused the widowed queen. Children were born to them and Thebes prospered under his rule, but again a grievous plague fell upon the city. Again the oracle was consulted and it bade them purge themselves of blood-guiltiness. Oedipus denounces the crime of which he is unaware, and undertakes to track out the criminal. Step by step it is brought home to him that he is the man. The closing scene reveals Jocasta slain by her own hand and Oedipus blinded by his own act and praying for death or exile.",
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      "text": "DRAMATIS PERSONAE",
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      "text": "Oedipus. The Priest of Zeus. Creon. Chorus of Theban Elders. Teiresias. Jocasta. Messenger. Herd of Laius. Second Messenger.",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS THE KING",
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      "text": "Suppliants of all ages are seated round the altar at the palace doors, at their head a PRIEST OF ZEUS. To them enter OEDIPUS.",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. My children, latest born to Cadmus old, Why sit ye here as suppliants, in your hands Branches of olive filleted with wool? What means this reek of incense everywhere, And everywhere laments and litanies? Children, it were not meet that I should learn From others, and am hither come, myself, I Oedipus, your world-renowned king. Ho! aged sire, whose venerable locks Proclaim thee spokesman of this company, Explain your mood and purport. Is it dread Of ill that moves you or a boon ye crave? My zeal in your behalf ye cannot doubt; Ruthless indeed were I and obdurate If such petitioners as you I spurned.",
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      "text": "PRIEST. Yea, Oedipus, my sovereign lord and king, Thou seest how both extremes of age besiege Thy palace altars—fledglings hardly winged, and greybeards bowed with years; priests, as am I of Zeus, and these the flower of our youth. Meanwhile, the common folk, with wreathed boughs Crowd our two market-places, or before Both shrines of Pallas congregate, or where Ismenus gives his oracles by fire. For, as thou seest thyself, our ship of State, Sore buffeted, can no more lift her head, Foundered beneath a weltering surge of blood. A blight is on our harvest in the ear, A blight upon the grazing flocks and herds, A blight on wives in travail; and withal Armed with his blazing torch the God of Plague Hath swooped upon our city emptying The house of Cadmus, and the murky realm Of Pluto is full fed with groans and tears. Therefore, O King, here at thy hearth we sit, I and these children; not as deeming thee A new divinity, but the first of men; First in the common accidents of life, And first in visitations of the Gods. Art thou not he who coming to the town of Cadmus freed us from the tax we paid To the fell songstress? Nor hadst thou received Prompting from us or been by others schooled; No, by a god inspired (so all men deem, And testify) didst thou renew our life. And now, O Oedipus, our peerless king, All we thy votaries beseech thee, find Some succor, whether by a voice from heaven Whispered, or haply known by human wit. Tried counselors, methinks, are aptest found1 To furnish for the future pregnant rede. Upraise, O chief of men, upraise our State! Look to thy laurels! for thy zeal of yore Our country’s savior thou art justly hailed: O never may we thus record thy reign:— “He raised us up only to cast us down.” Uplift us, build our city on a rock. Thy happy star ascendant brought us luck, O let it not decline! If thou wouldst rule This land, as now thou reignest, better sure To rule a peopled than a desert realm. Nor battlements nor galleys aught avail, If men to man and guards to guard them tail.",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. Ah! my poor children, known, ah, known too well, The quest that brings you hither and your need. Ye sicken all, well wot I, yet my pain, How great soever yours, outtops it all. Your sorrow touches each man severally, Him and none other, but I grieve at once Both for the general and myself and you. Therefore ye rouse no sluggard from day-dreams. Many, my children, are the tears I’ve wept, And threaded many a maze of weary thought. Thus pondering one clue of hope I caught, And tracked it up; I have sent Menoeceus’ son, Creon, my consort’s brother, to inquire Of Pythian Phoebus at his Delphic shrine, How I might save the State by act or word. And now I reckon up the tale of days Since he set forth, and marvel how he fares. ’Tis strange, this endless tarrying, passing strange. But when he comes, then I were base indeed, If I perform not all the god declares.",
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      "text": "PRIEST. Thy words are well timed; even as thou speakest That shouting tells me Creon is at hand.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00041",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 8289,
      "end": 8386,
      "sha256": "fcc37c2283237ce265e98f7828a60b0ef6f2ee67a0233141f4ceff9ab06751c3",
      "text": "CREON. He fell; and now the god’s command is plain: Punish his takers-off, whoe’er they be.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00042",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 8392,
      "end": 8491,
      "sha256": "baf0bc6bca9855d6a593d40c2b0541c3a08ea7228356a8ee83cba112e8c34216",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Where are they? Where in the wide world to find The far, faint traces of a bygone crime?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00043",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 8497,
      "end": 8608,
      "sha256": "8ac4af8c4483abfe95e749ba72557f63eddc0ebd603b3060bdf02508bde0011c",
      "text": "CREON. In this land, said the god; “who seeks shall find; Who sits with folded hands or sleeps is blind.”",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00044",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 8614,
      "end": 8700,
      "sha256": "fc5a2505128cb79ec49461f19caf23f7510807168651282c694c48bf888433ab",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Was he within his palace, or afield, Or traveling, when Laius met his fate?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00045",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 8706,
      "end": 8797,
      "sha256": "69ca74a282411444ebede0743104c81a05eeb645f8f7f26ae5519415b6fa484f",
      "text": "CREON. Abroad; he started, so he told us, bound For Delphi, but he never thence returned.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00051",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 9310,
      "end": 9408,
      "sha256": "82ba320367ef3d66b5955384aff4b62396f36aded2b96772c30a63b037a04e27",
      "text": "CREON. So ’twas surmised, but none was found to avenge His murder mid the trouble that ensued.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00052",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 9414,
      "end": 9509,
      "sha256": "02bd30cc9d0381571694302524c0181e10c120e5058064042487a69c1564f955",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. What trouble can have hindered a full quest, When royalty had fallen thus miserably?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00053",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 9515,
      "end": 9611,
      "sha256": "c11cf17d0210fc43809704f09a472256bd2fb24733780545d6fb04772aec7f04",
      "text": "CREON. The riddling Sphinx compelled us to let slide The dim past and attend to instant needs.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00054",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 9617,
      "end": 10282,
      "sha256": "61d5da602c4ecd422b89327b3b59feee6e08c507f085dc1b8cb25be717ea748b",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Well, _I_ will start afresh and once again Make dark things clear. Right worthy the concern Of Phoebus, worthy thine too, for the dead; I also, as is meet, will lend my aid To avenge this wrong to Thebes and to the god. Not for some far-off kinsman, but myself, Shall I expel this poison in the blood; For whoso slew that king might have a mind To strike me too with his assassin hand. Therefore in righting him I serve myself. Up, children, haste ye, quit these altar stairs, Take hence your suppliant wands, go summon hither The Theban commons. With the god’s good help Success is sure; ’tis ruin if we fail. [Exeunt OEDIPUS and CREON]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00055",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 10288,
      "end": 10499,
      "sha256": "825fa3befa3646c7ac8fa538ce37a802fade06dbd3c40f767c1930d75dc70008",
      "text": "PRIEST. Come, children, let us hence; these gracious words Forestall the very purpose of our suit. And may the god who sent this oracle Save us withal and rid us of this pest. [Exeunt PRIEST and SUPPLIANTS]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00061",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 12502,
      "end": 13018,
      "sha256": "c37d4b8ce0f52d49eef7aa08131b2845576e923fb64e02ac9b0362c117d86745",
      "text": "(Ant. 3) O that thine arrows too, Lycean King, From that taut bow’s gold string, Might fly abroad, the champions of our rights; Yea, and the flashing lights Of Artemis, wherewith the huntress sweeps Across the Lycian steeps. Thee too I call with golden-snooded hair, Whose name our land doth bear, Bacchus to whom thy Maenads Evoe shout; Come with thy bright torch, rout, Blithe god whom we adore, The god whom gods abhor.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00062",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 13022,
      "end": 13038,
      "sha256": "bdfbaa7eb457bb038abf708be4d7c7f4cd407f1f7a77f942615f0867eac9b5ae",
      "text": "[Enter OEDIPUS.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00063",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 13042,
      "end": 15726,
      "sha256": "89ea5280ed27c7cc843ff581f071eddebb9375ceb07dcbf7b0f3359bbb8f47a6",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Ye pray; ’tis well, but would ye hear my words And heed them and apply the remedy, Ye might perchance find comfort and relief. Mind you, I speak as one who comes a stranger To this report, no less than to the crime; For how unaided could I track it far Without a clue? Which lacking (for too late Was I enrolled a citizen of Thebes) This proclamation I address to all:— Thebans, if any knows the man by whom Laius, son of Labdacus, was slain, I summon him to make clean shrift to me. And if he shrinks, let him reflect that thus Confessing he shall ’scape the capital charge; For the worst penalty that shall befall him Is banishment—unscathed he shall depart. But if an alien from a foreign land Be known to any as the murderer, Let him who knows speak out, and he shall have Due recompense from me and thanks to boot. But if ye still keep silence, if through fear For self or friends ye disregard my hest, Hear what I then resolve; I lay my ban On the assassin whosoe’er he be. Let no man in this land, whereof I hold The sovereign rule, harbor or speak to him; Give him no part in prayer or sacrifice Or lustral rites, but hound him from your homes. For this is our defilement, so the god Hath lately shown to me by oracles. Thus as their champion I maintain the cause Both of the god and of the murdered King. And on the murderer this curse I lay (On him and all the partners in his guilt):— Wretch, may he pine in utter wretchedness! And for myself, if with my privity He gain admittance to my hearth, I pray The curse I laid on others fall on me. See that ye give effect to all my hest, For my sake and the god’s and for our land, A desert blasted by the wrath of heaven. For, let alone the god’s express command, It were a scandal ye should leave unpurged The murder of a great man and your king, Nor track it home. And now that I am lord, Successor to his throne, his bed, his wife, (And had he not been frustrate in the hope Of issue, common children of one womb Had forced a closer bond twixt him and me, But Fate swooped down upon him), therefore I His blood-avenger will maintain his cause As though he were my sire, and leave no stone Unturned to track the assassin or avenge The son of Labdacus, of Polydore, Of Cadmus, and Agenor first of the race. And for the disobedient thus I pray: May the gods send them neither timely fruits Of earth, nor teeming increase of the womb, But may they waste and pine, as now they waste, Aye and worse stricken; but to all of you, My loyal subjects who approve my acts, May Justice, our ally, and all the gods Be gracious and attend you evermore.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00064",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 15732,
      "end": 15977,
      "sha256": "0a7064cbe22593bc07ab97b1690597a3c31a0bc1d53789ebd64ad2382e851dcb",
      "text": "CHORUS. The oath thou profferest, sire, I take and swear. I slew him not myself, nor can I name The slayer. For the quest, ’twere well, methinks That Phoebus, who proposed the riddle, himself Should give the answer—who the murderer was.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00065",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 15983,
      "end": 16080,
      "sha256": "85f8947ba06806b38d91291847340aec007c8e47bf5c2c47353e9b8d2d6fbdc3",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Well argued; but no living man can hope To force the gods to speak against their will.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00074",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 16820,
      "end": 16916,
      "sha256": "545f76aedeb0d8377bd5d4494c2f692245fd8aed980d8188a8ab3c62562d6d59",
      "text": "CHORUS. Well, if he knows what fear is, he will quail And flee before the terror of thy curse.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00075",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 16922,
      "end": 16978,
      "sha256": "17e717b1ad18423f33519048c01c326c0c7610c7574b4fe14e3325cee8868983",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Words scare not him who blenches not at deeds.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00076",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 16984,
      "end": 17152,
      "sha256": "788f7ebba8214076a4609522a5cc6df0e65626c99bf1003836ba8cee33fb248d",
      "text": "CHORUS. But here is one to arraign him. Lo, at length They bring the god-inspired seer in whom Above all other men is truth inborn. [Enter TEIRESIAS, led by a boy.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00077",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 17158,
      "end": 17942,
      "sha256": "9b60cd8bbfc742d5d01d864d28ca38e0782221a03a214382951f4b33c71492e4",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Teiresias, seer who comprehendest all, Lore of the wise and hidden mysteries, High things of heaven and low things of the earth, Thou knowest, though thy blinded eyes see naught, What plague infects our city; and we turn To thee, O seer, our one defense and shield. The purport of the answer that the God Returned to us who sought his oracle, The messengers have doubtless told thee—how One course alone could rid us of the pest, To find the murderers of Laius, And slay them or expel them from the land. Therefore begrudging neither augury Nor other divination that is thine, O save thyself, thy country, and thy king, Save all from this defilement of blood shed. On thee we rest. This is man’s highest end, To others’ service all his powers to lend.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00078",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 17948,
      "end": 18078,
      "sha256": "24dea48ddaa296ea2a4ca7b01074bd0a3a8898f3ef102c18d3d6191b6327947b",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. Alas, alas, what misery to be wise When wisdom profits nothing! This old lore I had forgotten; else I were not here.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00079",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 18084,
      "end": 18135,
      "sha256": "481eeb003c1ab6d3d0b1cdd413aa157545ade587103349a3ba7380cc8bfb86da",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. What ails thee? Why this melancholy mood?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00080",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 18141,
      "end": 18246,
      "sha256": "6705dd3d114fd43573653939321c52c9084d3aa8b124110c0e12565031a9dd8e",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. Let me go home; prevent me not; ’twere best That thou shouldst bear thy burden and I mine.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00081",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 18252,
      "end": 18343,
      "sha256": "162e43758366823db2e0487b3505136f19f48a1e92a7700ef0eed13dfef78d39",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. For shame! no true-born Theban patriot Would thus withhold the word of prophecy.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00082",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 18349,
      "end": 18448,
      "sha256": "0a4e2e7e09dc0b59475f970ffa104c2e013f5f34d831733149879f80e35858f3",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. _Thy_ words, O king, are wide of the mark, and I For fear lest I too trip like thee...",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00083",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 18454,
      "end": 18605,
      "sha256": "ad6a070b0697deef1e045621d50d29ea263ae7411725eac7d1d2a92f87061b6b",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Oh speak, Withhold not, I adjure thee, if thou know’st, Thy knowledge. We are all thy suppliants.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00084",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 18611,
      "end": 18710,
      "sha256": "be46a1db35aaa406ddfefba7cab6318e74af3bff30f5f98eb5f3a648f714ae1e",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. Aye, for ye all are witless, but my voice Will ne’er reveal my miseries—or thine.2",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00085",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 18716,
      "end": 18823,
      "sha256": "549e096e1673f97ca2c16e37fc4097f5501d56d31ddc438778ea4a44b773c157",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. What then, thou knowest, and yet willst not speak! Wouldst thou betray us and destroy the State?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00086",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 18829,
      "end": 18926,
      "sha256": "d8b87be74d33252797de560d6507ecf6d105643b4437881ab6052454584aa718",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. I will not vex myself nor thee. Why ask Thus idly what from me thou shalt not learn?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00087",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 18932,
      "end": 19074,
      "sha256": "d1379068a8812df4741a7deb6397c09aba42aebaf600158f3adecc2c479d06a0",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Monster! thy silence would incense a flint. Will nothing loose thy tongue? Can nothing melt thee, Or shake thy dogged taciturnity?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00088",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 19080,
      "end": 19185,
      "sha256": "c2f2f449a14d70b8d052c7b0360936155b8662765fac78bf10356cd071bce076",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. Thou blam’st my mood and seest not thine own Wherewith thou art mated; no, thou taxest me.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00089",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 19191,
      "end": 19287,
      "sha256": "68ba5c7a269518c23b7912ac876c704f196b6399ecd078707897dbfb4a348f71",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. And who could stay his choler when he heard How insolently thou dost flout the State?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00090",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 19293,
      "end": 19352,
      "sha256": "c0ee9fba7f4486189f98b8f45748358cee9f96977c3354c4c69df893e10b926a",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. Well, it will come what will, though I be mute.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00091",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 19358,
      "end": 19411,
      "sha256": "fd7d2940cf840b0f05b0528f56fe8a917e3916d604bcace5ccb815b23101af02",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Since come it must, thy duty is to tell me.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00092",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 19417,
      "end": 19517,
      "sha256": "504d746118c2b923ba2f272f9b075f8d0f0e83abec9e0ca6c27b9dfec139db3a",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. I have no more to say; storm as thou willst, And give the rein to all thy pent-up rage.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00102",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 20485,
      "end": 20566,
      "sha256": "e70ac5fbc0d6c0bf7e964042d3280a093c0dfe621c1be0c689241aaca91713e8",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. I say thou art the murderer of the man Whose murderer thou pursuest.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00103",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 20572,
      "end": 20666,
      "sha256": "98ae492c08e286283e8dbdde371733e496670fc739a4736896b7e079dcca0a17",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Thou shalt rue it Twice to repeat so gross a calumny.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00104",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 20672,
      "end": 20722,
      "sha256": "dde093e7614df7865740b64703a2440747d90cf14b5d5e4769cfcd7e69af6eb3",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. Must I say more to aggravate thy rage?",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00105",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. Say all thou wilt; it will be but waste of breath.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00106",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 20794,
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      "sha256": "74327b8292bdb112ea35cbd07c8191395887fe323669893b8ff08fee95c4e6f9",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. I say thou livest with thy nearest kin In infamy, unwitting in thy shame.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00107",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "sha256": "bb9c2786421873b475f9fee6d9207a875411eef3b00f317ced32450d6c27b62e",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Think’st thou for aye unscathed to wag thy tongue?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00108",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 20954,
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      "sha256": "9f32cfe9ea356178efeb3083cae7ee6bf19c11b014e979f16127b3a894bbf890",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. Yea, if the might of truth can aught prevail.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00109",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 21015,
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      "sha256": "9c86bcc965bea6e907b5a5cfba97b0886eac480cc065b24956e58e77dc37df20",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. With other men, but not with thee, for thou In ear, wit, eye, in everything art blind.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00110",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 21118,
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      "sha256": "3b959aa4f6f25b2222956dcd370e5be1dbaf1836edc108c31d6dc9fcbd604d42",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. Poor fool to utter gibes at me which all Here present will cast back on thee ere long.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00111",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 21223,
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      "sha256": "208955213fb8133a26c31fe36208da5d875b88beee37339020bf2c7a06b2f365",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Offspring of endless Night, thou hast no power O’er me or any man who sees the sun.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00112",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "text": "TEIRESIAS. No, for thy weird is not to fall by me. I leave to Apollo what concerns the god.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00113",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 21424,
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      "sha256": "34995a33c0bbfaed26cad3a43cef76e7b6cc289bb4bf11adfb49e8c0a35c8942",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Is this a plot of Creon, or thine own?",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00114",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 21478,
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      "sha256": "bf5eef66fa0a97aceeaa104e0547ac736c8ffa29dcd80db5b161b047f4f18b36",
      "text": "TEIRESIAS. Not Creon, thou thyself art thine own bane.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00115",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 21539,
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. O wealth and empiry and skill by skill Outwitted in the battlefield of life, What spite and envy follow in your train! See, for this crown the State conferred on me. A gift, a thing I sought not, for this crown The trusty Creon, my familiar friend, Hath lain in wait to oust me and suborned This mountebank, this juggling charlatan, This tricksy beggar-priest, for gain alone Keen-eyed, but in his proper art stone-blind. Say, sirrah, hast thou ever proved thyself A prophet? When the riddling Sphinx was here Why hadst thou no deliverance for this folk? And yet the riddle was not to be solved By guess-work but required the prophet’s art; Wherein thou wast found lacking; neither birds Nor sign from heaven helped thee, but _I_ came, The simple Oedipus; _I_ stopped her mouth By mother wit, untaught of auguries. This is the man whom thou wouldst undermine, In hope to reign with Creon in my stead. Methinks that thou and thine abettor soon Will rue your plot to drive the scapegoat out. Thank thy grey hairs that thou hast still to learn What chastisement such arrogance deserves.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00116",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 22664,
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      "sha256": "323a48e779523b5fd0e09b00808592b09d4036ebe21553afb6aa59fab70afffe",
      "text": "CHORUS. To us it seems that both the seer and thou, O Oedipus, have spoken angry words. This is no time to wrangle but consult How best we may fulfill the oracle.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00173",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "sha256": "71350c13a1c245e5663d1a1339f90d991cce3f046e3c0932b1da190d6fb60b2d",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Yea, and it is that proves thee a false friend.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00174",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "text": "CREON. Not so, if thou wouldst reason with thyself, As I with myself. First, I bid thee think, Would any mortal choose a troubled reign Of terrors rather than secure repose, If the same power were given him? As for me, I have no natural craving for the name Of king, preferring to do kingly deeds, And so thinks every sober-minded man. Now all my needs are satisfied through thee, And I have naught to fear; but were I king, My acts would oft run counter to my will. How could a title then have charms for me Above the sweets of boundless influence? I am not so infatuate as to grasp The shadow when I hold the substance fast. Now all men cry me Godspeed! wish me well, And every suitor seeks to gain my ear, If he would hope to win a grace from thee. Why should I leave the better, choose the worse? That were sheer madness, and I am not mad. No such ambition ever tempted me, Nor would I have a share in such intrigue. And if thou doubt me, first to Delphi go, There ascertain if my report was true Of the god’s answer; next investigate If with the seer I plotted or conspired, And if it prove so, sentence me to death, Not by thy voice alone, but mine and thine. But O condemn me not, without appeal, On bare suspicion. ’Tis not right to adjudge Bad men at random good, or good men bad. I would as lief a man should cast away The thing he counts most precious, his own life, As spurn a true friend. Thou wilt learn in time The truth, for time alone reveals the just; A villain is detected in a day.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00175",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "text": "CHORUS. To one who walketh warily his words Commend themselves; swift counsels are not sure.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00176",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. When with swift strides the stealthy plotter stalks I must be quick too with my counterplot. To wait his onset passively, for him Is sure success, for me assured defeat.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00177",
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      "text": "CREON. What then’s thy will? To banish me the land?",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00178",
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      "sha256": "d67aedaa9cfdbd3b09cd300133b2329710344dedbfce1d72aaccacf1a346dfe1",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. I would not have thee banished, no, but dead, That men may mark the wages envy reaps.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00179",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 33137,
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      "text": "CREON. I see thou wilt not yield, nor credit me.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00180",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. [None but a fool would credit such as thou.]3",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00181",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 33253,
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      "text": "CREON. Thou art not wise.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00202",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "text": "CHORUS. Brand not a friend whom babbling tongues assail; Let not suspicion ’gainst his oath prevail.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00203",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. Bethink you that in seeking this ye seek In very sooth my death or banishment?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00204",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 35201,
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      "sha256": "2fde12ae216b2103b814f56bf450315a1db1444d2801e54f467b239a1008a626",
      "text": "CHORUS. No, by the leader of the host divine! (Str. 2) Witness, thou Sun, such thought was never mine, Unblest, unfriended may I perish, If ever I such wish did cherish! But O my heart is desolate Musing on our striken State, Doubly fall’n should discord grow Twixt you twain, to crown our woe.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00205",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "sha256": "778883f4623c2805a3274f2f014fe83f99182ad1d4ca7b0ab904fb4a0dbdd782",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Well, let him go, no matter what it cost me, Or certain death or shameful banishment, For your sake I relent, not his; and him, Where’er he be, my heart shall still abhor.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00206",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "sha256": "7c49f581dcbc1f993dc12b2384c093aebad61ea13310f11f0d7212176cc62a56",
      "text": "CREON. Thou art as sullen in thy yielding mood As in thine anger thou wast truculent. Such tempers justly plague themselves the most.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00309",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 51266,
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      "sha256": "050d0c713504e67901cc62f980538871aa052408aa3e185f41724df4e5ba993a",
      "text": "MESSENGER. My son, ’tis plain, thou know’st not what thou doest.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00310",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 51341,
      "end": 51400,
      "sha256": "5bdd790a9eca45a3d27f1e30d2a109448faf78e10c4836f6945bb3d089262d6d",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. How so, old man? For heaven’s sake tell me all.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00311",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 51406,
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      "sha256": "2003bfe1bf5d238e8a78c60843b1e2ee7c69729199d8db65d1fce38c56e0c3d1",
      "text": "MESSENGER. If this is why thou dreadest to return.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00312",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 51463,
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      "sha256": "a910a8c38564dfa3b4873c93bd66f68365528c8fd3f8ae3bfc97791570ca2e1b",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Yea, lest the god’s word be fulfilled in me.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00313",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 51525,
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      "sha256": "7e51df27079a2212197e88e7d30832d7c6d6f5816617ca4846a244928f4f570b",
      "text": "MESSENGER. Lest through thy parents thou shouldst be accursed?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00314",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "sha256": "8ae51acf72e89276eab5b08979d43ad76d40c6bb0b4f38e8acfe52c9733131f1",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. This and none other is my constant dread.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00315",
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      "sha256": "906bc8a3cf7477a36a35aadf4864dd000314de09a5caad9b9b90465d7451cbc0",
      "text": "MESSENGER. Dost thou not know thy fears are baseless all?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00316",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "sha256": "1c79a630962c522fd6fbcc263c4ed4e39fa78d1526b81da73fa310013bbe7be5",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. How baseless, if I am their very son?",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00317",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 51768,
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      "sha256": "a148e160d519099363b21014e8666ca5835d2c4894da130df94a9810ec8d9917",
      "text": "MESSENGER. Since Polybus was naught to thee in blood.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00318",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 51828,
      "end": 51882,
      "sha256": "a3949131359cf16d2a3999452185b7eb176bdfdff104959f8c87e0c8be514279",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. What say’st thou? was not Polybus my sire?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00319",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "sha256": "c5be5cadcb4a4176c633f0c1ed9c74db309977bb5a0477fa19d1a8d563ff3676",
      "text": "MESSENGER. As much thy sire as I am, and no more.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00320",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 51944,
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      "sha256": "01a2c6d0f0d3b5ed563b3f7876dac9e448f587e672677cfcb7fe851bc008d081",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. My sire no more to me than one who is naught?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00321",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52005,
      "end": 52056,
      "sha256": "0dc45dccbff1d0153ca4c956409498b9545b4e54935c07e39c46f64eb2d7dea8",
      "text": "MESSENGER. Since I begat thee not, no more did he.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00322",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "sha256": "e28e762e1001d490942fb9361ba387bdd2bceed8045f4559e5a595415b3f91ac",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. What reason had he then to call me son?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00323",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52117,
      "end": 52174,
      "sha256": "184a6b806bd13195fde6723f3aea7a949ca2cbe096a46076a1c6a21bf9daa50e",
      "text": "MESSENGER. Know that he took thee from my hands, a gift.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00324",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52180,
      "end": 52232,
      "sha256": "8092b6e12f889a2c7d977c7c9e1f763f65d62d98e62c03e3e8258ebae0f188ea",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Yet, if no child of his, he loved me well.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00325",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52238,
      "end": 52295,
      "sha256": "205a7021218c64bcbcb248c6fbd1c912fc397322f3372b1496c050fe6cbda02a",
      "text": "MESSENGER. A childless man till then, he warmed to thee.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00326",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52301,
      "end": 52356,
      "sha256": "94f19ea40edd60a62789ba7696f36b584f844354f4568ad96057a8e88a4e357b",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. A foundling or a purchased slave, this child?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00327",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52362,
      "end": 52417,
      "sha256": "4644e438cf290636618cc243a18098ecab49fbeca20a540594ad2dafd1c0f2c4",
      "text": "MESSENGER. I found thee in Cithaeron’s wooded glens.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00328",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52423,
      "end": 52478,
      "sha256": "34c3c9ad3bb5626cb375263a3d2b49648927579c7864f55e609f3b5a1795a699",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. What led thee to explore those upland glades?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00329",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52484,
      "end": 52540,
      "sha256": "efd77f5411d389776af87c8d4345286459ff2b2b6ffa7ff44ad3a89d461ebb28",
      "text": "MESSENGER. My business was to tend the mountain flocks.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00330",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52546,
      "end": 52595,
      "sha256": "0ef56ce0ee2aac4b7a39f8076ec0c70a2f1eb656653cb61c5e651e593ec87193",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. A vagrant shepherd journeying for hire?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00331",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52601,
      "end": 52655,
      "sha256": "efc00bd9a6aad8ee8107b8b93ec4b15b255771680d0a7b3db4cd11d03825de22",
      "text": "MESSENGER. True, but thy savior in that hour, my son.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00332",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52661,
      "end": 52717,
      "sha256": "accd4375519fbae4d18469451ee06f6aaba2a9e8a646fad396ceac09ccf6ba2d",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. My savior? from what harm? what ailed me then?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00333",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52723,
      "end": 52772,
      "sha256": "57bae881beee7fc2c03a70f5f0ccda29fd6525347262bc73ced23ef9dbb2d700",
      "text": "MESSENGER. Those ankle joints are evidence enow.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00334",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52778,
      "end": 52827,
      "sha256": "16e9c47b445e4792cdb951f990cdf98f063b2a584ac23edec4f83805d36716d5",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Ah, why remind me of that ancient sore?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00335",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52833,
      "end": 52884,
      "sha256": "ceace5bdb5a4732109b31366adabc9971350f3014f2ce1bf7dc05ad4eed2cf3e",
      "text": "MESSENGER. I loosed the pin that riveted thy feet.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00336",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52890,
      "end": 52944,
      "sha256": "0136ed7d160c840963e7bff5bf38cf4c676d9ab5622ba420cca29d91c782e719",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Yes, from my cradle that dread brand I bore.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00337",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 52950,
      "end": 53014,
      "sha256": "602c1206f6a6e586cebf80ef1970e75212f5fb3fe183f617d0e384fc5332eff6",
      "text": "MESSENGER. Whence thou deriv’st the name that still is thine.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00338",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 53020,
      "end": 53097,
      "sha256": "b305f6a83075c699d90fd628346720b94fb1f9649b10497ae0190dd077ba8b20",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Who did it? I adjure thee, tell me who Say, was it father, mother?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00339",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 53103,
      "end": 53201,
      "sha256": "83c20a04a29f649c9ec1175e4ee336c6c1d865867dda9fc9cc313dc28486eed0",
      "text": "MESSENGER. I know not. The man from whom I had thee may know more.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00340",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 53207,
      "end": 53256,
      "sha256": "52082e6d69eef692375a6a43bb5fa4cfe75fa842be4382c5968b95cfde85ff97",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. What, did another find me, not thyself?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00341",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 53262,
      "end": 53311,
      "sha256": "d59ec65a6e040cc521eeb87a2b4c4692e41ab84d75f3f79412067b78734ad22c",
      "text": "MESSENGER. Not I; another shepherd gave thee me.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00342",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 53317,
      "end": 53374,
      "sha256": "f838ae9d555f62df52ec353cb84d42ca943761be205f8d997717a13e69ec37a3",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Who was he? Would’st thou know again the man?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00343",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 53380,
      "end": 53435,
      "sha256": "07c4e69d4a6510fd79eb5b9ca94a74041031c5023f038793fa0b51b0f2523489",
      "text": "MESSENGER. He passed indeed for one of Laius’ house.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00344",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 53441,
      "end": 53491,
      "sha256": "5f7008c14276b1a3f0ca0bb2b91782f98e73649f417357bdef9f87d80fa056cb",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. The king who ruled the country long ago?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00345",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 53497,
      "end": 53549,
      "sha256": "94d1d562ed9d6184ec0ec1227ae591f0b9ad7d8c6ba227a9c0312cefeaa88d32",
      "text": "MESSENGER. The same: he was a herdsman of the king.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00346",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 53555,
      "end": 53606,
      "sha256": "16ab84599c74932b4d6b878fa431c435676357a112e681d544c13ca5a6056dd2",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. And is he living still for me to see him?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00347",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 53612,
      "end": 53668,
      "sha256": "fc393257eb4937815dbfa9b724b1c77f149eaaebe2b02fb4c6808e063cb20543",
      "text": "MESSENGER. His fellow-countrymen should best know that.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00427",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 62831,
      "end": 62936,
      "sha256": "9d54fbbe8252e621e291ada85d3925b6fe4589727c1e4094c42239bb461d2816",
      "text": "SECOND MESSENGER. My tale is quickly told and quickly heard. Our sovereign lady queen Jocasta’s dead.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00428",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 62942,
      "end": 62995,
      "sha256": "88275bf56ec353b11001588e23218d84c60af42a24dfa0b2582a2e2e20c57b30",
      "text": "CHORUS. Alas, poor queen! how came she by her death?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00429",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 63001,
      "end": 65535,
      "sha256": "be919ac00fc74d167e7beffcb3de41839cf6472bf1339c7344726c5327843ea3",
      "text": "SECOND MESSENGER. By her own hand. And all the horror of it, Not having seen, yet cannot comprehend. Nathless, as far as my poor memory serves, I will relate the unhappy lady’s woe. When in her frenzy she had passed inside The vestibule, she hurried straight to win The bridal-chamber, clutching at her hair With both her hands, and, once within the room, She shut the doors behind her with a crash. “Laius,” she cried, and called her husband dead Long, long ago; her thought was of that child By him begot, the son by whom the sire Was murdered and the mother left to breed With her own seed, a monstrous progeny. Then she bewailed the marriage bed whereon Poor wretch, she had conceived a double brood, Husband by husband, children by her child. What happened after that I cannot tell, Nor how the end befell, for with a shriek Burst on us Oedipus; all eyes were fixed On Oedipus, as up and down he strode, Nor could we mark her agony to the end. For stalking to and fro “A sword!” he cried, “Where is the wife, no wife, the teeming womb That bore a double harvest, me and mine?” And in his frenzy some supernal power (No mortal, surely, none of us who watched him) Guided his footsteps; with a terrible shriek, As though one beckoned him, he crashed against The folding doors, and from their staples forced The wrenched bolts and hurled himself within. Then we beheld the woman hanging there, A running noose entwined about her neck. But when he saw her, with a maddened roar He loosed the cord; and when her wretched corpse Lay stretched on earth, what followed—O ’twas dread! He tore the golden brooches that upheld Her queenly robes, upraised them high and smote Full on his eye-balls, uttering words like these: “No more shall ye behold such sights of woe, Deeds I have suffered and myself have wrought; Henceforward quenched in darkness shall ye see Those ye should ne’er have seen; now blind to those Whom, when I saw, I vainly yearned to know.” Such was the burden of his moan, whereto, Not once but oft, he struck with his hand uplift His eyes, and at each stroke the ensanguined orbs Bedewed his beard, not oozing drop by drop, But one black gory downpour, thick as hail. Such evils, issuing from the double source, Have whelmed them both, confounding man and wife. Till now the storied fortune of this house Was fortunate indeed; but from this day Woe, lamentation, ruin, death, disgrace, All ills that can be named, all, all are theirs.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00430",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 65541,
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      "sha256": "6dc5e5c3e9031aae52ce1afa217aaa93eacaf613f6e8e44b1cf1865afcb51337",
      "text": "CHORUS. But hath he still no respite from his pain?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00431",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 65599,
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      "sha256": "34a867fd030c19c0d30391e41fa723880879dd9f76869756e7ef4a98c42afec1",
      "text": "SECOND MESSENGER. He cries, “Unbar the doors and let all Thebes Behold the slayer of his sire, his mother’s—” That shameful word my lips may not repeat. He vows to fly self-banished from the land, Nor stay to bring upon his house the curse Himself had uttered; but he has no strength Nor one to guide him, and his torture’s more Than man can suffer, as yourselves will see. For lo, the palace portals are unbarred, And soon ye shall behold a sight so sad That he who must abhorred would pity it. [Enter OEDIPUS blinded.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00446",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 68563,
      "end": 68661,
      "sha256": "2dffa5667ba2cc325fb9b5478c1ef5ca419d6531073386b4a67b5b180b729b4c",
      "text": "CHORUS. I cannot say that thou hast counseled well, For thou wert better dead than living blind.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00447",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 68667,
      "end": 70910,
      "sha256": "0e7e7a0ed8159defa0e8429eb42fbbc2af8260a433b60e13e262f72defb95f0e",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. What’s done was well done. Thou canst never shake My firm belief. A truce to argument. For, had I sight, I know not with what eyes I could have met my father in the shades, Or my poor mother, since against the twain I sinned, a sin no gallows could atone. Aye, but, ye say, the sight of children joys A parent’s eyes. What, born as mine were born? No, such a sight could never bring me joy; Nor this fair city with its battlements, Its temples and the statues of its gods, Sights from which I, now wretchedst of all, Once ranked the foremost Theban in all Thebes, By my own sentence am cut off, condemned By my own proclamation ’gainst the wretch, The miscreant by heaven itself declared Unclean—and of the race of Laius. Thus branded as a felon by myself, How had I dared to look you in the face? Nay, had I known a way to choke the springs Of hearing, I had never shrunk to make A dungeon of this miserable frame, Cut off from sight and hearing; for ’tis bliss to bide in regions sorrow cannot reach. Why didst thou harbor me, Cithaeron, why Didst thou not take and slay me? Then I never Had shown to men the secret of my birth. O Polybus, O Corinth, O my home, Home of my ancestors (so wast thou called) How fair a nursling then I seemed, how foul The canker that lay festering in the bud! Now is the blight revealed of root and fruit. Ye triple high-roads, and thou hidden glen, Coppice, and pass where meet the three-branched ways, Ye drank my blood, the life-blood these hands spilt, My father’s; do ye call to mind perchance Those deeds of mine ye witnessed and the work I wrought thereafter when I came to Thebes? O fatal wedlock, thou didst give me birth, And, having borne me, sowed again my seed, Mingling the blood of fathers, brothers, children, Brides, wives and mothers, an incestuous brood, All horrors that are wrought beneath the sun, Horrors so foul to name them were unmeet. O, I adjure you, hide me anywhere Far from this land, or slay me straight, or cast me Down to the depths of ocean out of sight. Come hither, deign to touch an abject wretch; Draw near and fear not; I myself must bear The load of guilt that none but I can share. [Enter CREON.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00448",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 70916,
      "end": 71054,
      "sha256": "a5f4e8cf026ee6ca11ee0ab530765f964ecc9459998a0314b9000f8523068285",
      "text": "CREON. Lo, here is Creon, the one man to grant Thy prayer by action or advice, for he Is left the State’s sole guardian in thy stead.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00449",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 71060,
      "end": 71197,
      "sha256": "6ebbc3162811b34fc3d264d4a57df6828868d258cd054d7efe0c8d11e478a56f",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Ah me! what words to accost him can I find? What cause has he to trust me? In the past I have bee proved his rancorous enemy.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00450",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 71203,
      "end": 71650,
      "sha256": "5858d21bc89f45d73a0ceddfffe10afabe7beeb8b7fca10cdbfc5b92f6aa470a",
      "text": "CREON. Not in derision, Oedipus, I come Nor to upbraid thee with thy past misdeeds. (To BYSTANDERS) But shame upon you! if ye feel no sense Of human decencies, at least revere The Sun whose light beholds and nurtures all. Leave not thus nakedly for all to gaze at A horror neither earth nor rain from heaven Nor light will suffer. Lead him straight within, For it is seemly that a kinsman’s woes Be heard by kin and seen by kin alone.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00457",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 72334,
      "end": 72385,
      "sha256": "b2f2df1b1d9bea2c8915e48afcabf44fab46ef037921a0cacdedd852d96c6cc0",
      "text": "OEDIPUS. Dare ye inquire concerning such a wretch?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B00458",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 72391,
      "end": 72444,
      "sha256": "c98d35fcd629146ac5252adb2b28379a09dda6b2738c2326d29b4ab543ef11be",
      "text": "CREON. Yea, for thyself wouldst credit now his word.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. Aye, and on thee in all humility I lay this charge: let her who lies within Receive such burial as thou shalt ordain; Such rites ’tis thine, as brother, to perform. But for myself, O never let my Thebes, The city of my sires, be doomed to bear The burden of my presence while I live. No, let me be a dweller on the hills, On yonder mount Cithaeron, famed as mine, My tomb predestined for me by my sire And mother, while they lived, that I may die Slain as they sought to slay me, when alive. This much I know full surely, nor disease Shall end my days, nor any common chance; For I had ne’er been snatched from death, unless I was predestined to some awful doom. So be it. I reck not how Fate deals with me But my unhappy children—for my sons Be not concerned, O Creon, they are men, And for themselves, where’er they be, can fend. But for my daughters twain, poor innocent maids, Who ever sat beside me at the board Sharing my viands, drinking of my cup, For them, I pray thee, care, and, if thou willst, O might I feel their touch and make my moan. Hear me, O prince, my noble-hearted prince! Could I but blindly touch them with my hands I’d think they still were mine, as when I saw. [ANTIGONE and ISMENE are led in.] What say I? can it be my pretty ones Whose sobs I hear? Has Creon pitied me And sent me my two darlings? Can this be?",
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      "text": "CREON. ’Tis true; ’twas I procured thee this delight, Knowing the joy they were to thee of old.",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. God speed thee! and as meed for bringing them May Providence deal with thee kindlier Than it has dealt with me! O children mine, Where are ye? Let me clasp you with these hands, A brother’s hands, a father’s; hands that made Lack-luster sockets of his once bright eyes; Hands of a man who blindly, recklessly, Became your sire by her from whom he sprang. Though I cannot behold you, I must weep In thinking of the evil days to come, The slights and wrongs that men will put upon you. Where’er ye go to feast or festival, No merrymaking will it prove for you, But oft abashed in tears ye will return. And when ye come to marriageable years, Where’s the bold wooers who will jeopardize To take unto himself such disrepute As to my children’s children still must cling, For what of infamy is lacking here? “Their father slew his father, sowed the seed Where he himself was gendered, and begat These maidens at the source wherefrom he sprang.” Such are the gibes that men will cast at you. Who then will wed you? None, I ween, but ye Must pine, poor maids, in single barrenness. O Prince, Menoeceus’ son, to thee, I turn, With the it rests to father them, for we Their natural parents, both of us, are lost. O leave them not to wander poor, unwed, Thy kin, nor let them share my low estate. O pity them so young, and but for thee All destitute. Thy hand upon it, Prince. To you, my children I had much to say, Were ye but ripe to hear. Let this suffice: Pray ye may find some home and live content, And may your lot prove happier than your sire’s.",
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      "text": "Translation by F. Storr, BA Formerly Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge From the Loeb Library Edition Originally published by Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA and William Heinemann Ltd, London First published in 1912",
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      "text": "ARGUMENT",
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      "text": "Oedipus, the blind and banished King of Thebes, has come in his wanderings to Colonus, a deme of Athens, led by his daughter Antigone. He sits to rest on a rock just within a sacred grove of the Furies and is bidden depart by a passing native. But Oedipus, instructed by an oracle that he had reached his final resting-place, refuses to stir, and the stranger consents to go and consult the Elders of Colonus (the Chorus of the Play). Conducted to the spot they pity at first the blind beggar and his daughter, but on learning his name they are horror-striken and order him to quit the land. He appeals to the world-famed hospitality of Athens and hints at the blessings that his coming will confer on the State. They agree to await the decision of King Theseus. From Theseus Oedipus craves protection in life and burial in Attic soil; the benefits that will accrue shall be told later. Theseus departs having promised to aid and befriend him. No sooner has he gone than Creon enters with an armed guard who seize Antigone and carry her off (Ismene, the other sister, they have already captured) and he is about to lay hands on Oedipus, when Theseus, who has heard the tumult, hurries up and, upbraiding Creon for his lawless act, threatens to detain him till he has shown where the captives are and restored them. In the next scene Theseus returns bringing with him the rescued maidens. He informs Oedipus that a stranger who has taken sanctuary at the altar of Poseidon wishes to see him. It is Polyneices who has come to crave his father’s forgiveness and blessing, knowing by an oracle that victory will fall to the side that Oedipus espouses. But Oedipus spurns the hypocrite, and invokes a dire curse on both his unnatural sons. A sudden clap of thunder is heard, and as peal follows peal, Oedipus is aware that his hour is come and bids Antigone summon Theseus. Self-guided he leads the way to the spot where death should overtake him, attended by Theseus and his daughters. Halfway he bids his daughters farewell, and what followed none but Theseus knew. He was not (so the Messenger reports) for the gods took him.",
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      "text": "DRAMATIS PERSONAE",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS, banished King of Thebes. ANTIGONE, his daughter. ISMENE, his daughter. THESEUS, King of Athens. CREON, brother of Jocasta, now reigning at Thebes. POLYNEICES, elder son of Oedipus. STRANGER, a native of Colonus. MESSENGER, an attendant of Theseus. CHORUS, citizens of Colonus.",
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      "text": "Scene: In front of the grove of the Eumenides.",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS AT COLONUS",
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      "text": "ANTIGONE. O sirs! ye suffered not my father blind, Albeit gracious and to ruth inclined, Knowing the deeds he wrought, not innocent, But with no ill intent; Yet heed a maiden’s moan Who pleads for him alone; My eyes, not reft of sight, Plead with you as a daughter’s might You are our providence, O make us not go hence! O with a gracious nod Grant us the nigh despaired-of boon we crave? Hear us, O hear, But all that ye hold dear, Wife, children, homestead, hearth and God! Where will you find one, search ye ne’er so well. Who ’scapes perdition if a god impel!",
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      "text": "CHORUS. Surely we pity thee and him alike Daughter of Oedipus, for your distress; But as we reverence the decrees of Heaven We cannot say aught other than we said.",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. O what avails renown or fair repute? Are they not vanity? For, look you, now Athens is held of States the most devout, Athens alone gives hospitality And shelters the vexed stranger, so men say. Have I found so? I whom ye dislodged First from my seat of rock and now would drive Forth from your land, dreading my name alone; For me you surely dread not, nor my deeds, Deeds of a man more sinned against than sinning, As I might well convince you, were it meet To tell my mother’s story and my sire’s, The cause of this your fear. Yet am I then A villain born because in self-defense, Striken, I struck the striker back again? E’en had I known, no villainy ’twould prove: But all unwitting whither I went, I went— To ruin; my destroyers knew it well, Wherefore, I pray you, sirs, in Heaven’s name, Even as ye bade me quit my seat, defend me. O pay not a lip service to the gods And wrong them of their dues. Bethink ye well, The eye of Heaven beholds the just of men, And the unjust, nor ever in this world Has one sole godless sinner found escape. Stand then on Heaven’s side and never blot Athens’ fair scutcheon by abetting wrong. I came to you a suppliant, and you pledged Your honor; O preserve me to the end, O let not this marred visage do me wrong! A holy and god-fearing man is here Whose coming purports comfort for your folk. And when your chief arrives, whoe’er he be, Then shall ye have my story and know all. Meanwhile I pray you do me no despite.",
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      "text": "CHORUS. The plea thou urgest, needs must give us pause, Set forth in weighty argument, but we Must leave the issue with the ruling powers.",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. Where is he, strangers, he who sways the realm?",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. I slew who else would me have slain; I slew without intent, A wretch, but innocent In the law’s eye, I stand, without a stain.",
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      "text": "CHORUS. Behold our sovereign, Theseus, Aegeus’ son, Comes at thy summons to perform his part. [Enter THESEUS]",
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      "text": "THESEUS. Oft had I heard of thee in times gone by— The bloody mutilation of thine eyes— And therefore know thee, son of Laius. All that I lately gathered on the way Made my conjecture doubly sure; and now Thy garb and that marred visage prove to me That thou art he. So pitying thine estate, Most ill-starred Oedipus, I fain would know What is the suit ye urge on me and Athens, Thou and the helpless maiden at thy side. Declare it; dire indeed must be the tale Whereat _I_ should recoil. I too was reared, Like thee, in exile, and in foreign lands Wrestled with many perils, no man more. Wherefore no alien in adversity Shall seek in vain my succor, nor shalt thou; I know myself a mortal, and my share In what the morrow brings no more than thine.",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. Theseus, thy words so apt, so generous So comfortable, need no long reply Both who I am and of what lineage sprung, And from what land I came, thou hast declared. So without prologue I may utter now My brief petition, and the tale is told.",
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      "text": "THESEUS. Say on, and tell me what I fain would learn.",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. Dear son of Aegeus, to the gods alone Is given immunity from eld and death; But nothing else escapes all-ruinous time. Earth’s might decays, the might of men decays, Honor grows cold, dishonor flourishes, There is no constancy ’twixt friend and friend, Or city and city; be it soon or late, Sweet turns to bitter, hate once more to love. If now ’tis sunshine betwixt Thebes and thee And not a cloud, Time in his endless course Gives birth to endless days and nights, wherein The merest nothing shall suffice to cut With serried spears your bonds of amity. Then shall my slumbering and buried corpse In its cold grave drink their warm life-blood up, If Zeus be Zeus and Phoebus still speak true. No more: ’tis ill to tear aside the veil Of mysteries; let me cease as I began: Enough if thou wilt keep thy plighted troth, Then shall thou ne’er complain that Oedipus Proved an unprofitable and thankless guest, Except the gods themselves shall play me false.",
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      "text": "CHORUS. The man, my lord, has from the very first Declared his power to offer to our land These and like benefits.",
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      "text": "THESEUS. Who could reject The proffered amity of such a friend? First, he can claim the hospitality To which by mutual contract we stand pledged: Next, coming here, a suppliant to the gods, He pays full tribute to the State and me; His favors therefore never will I spurn, But grant him the full rights of citizen; And, if it suits the stranger here to bide, I place him in your charge, or if he please Rather to come with me—choose, Oedipus, Which of the two thou wilt. Thy choice is mine.",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. Zeus, may the blessing fall on men like these!",
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      "text": "THESEUS. What dost thou then decide—to come with me?",
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      "text": "CHORUS. Thy case is perilous; though by birth and race Thou should’st be just, thou plainly doest wrong.",
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      "text": "CREON. Not deeming this city void of men Or counsel, son of Aegeus, as thou say’st I did what I have done; rather I thought Your people were not like to set such store by kin of mine and keep them ’gainst my will. Nor would they harbor, so I stood assured, A godless parricide, a reprobate Convicted of incestuous marriage ties. For on her native hill of Ares here (I knew your far-famed Areopagus) Sits Justice, and permits not vagrant folk To stay within your borders. In that faith I hunted down my quarry; and e’en then I had refrained but for the curses dire Wherewith he banned my kinsfolk and myself: Such wrong, methought, had warrant for my act. Anger has no old age but only death; The dead alone can feel no touch of spite. So thou must work thy will; my cause is just But weak without allies; yet will I try, Old as I am, to answer deeds with deeds.",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. O shameless railer, think’st thou this abuse Defames my grey hairs rather than thine own? Murder and incest, deeds of horror, all Thou blurtest forth against me, all I have borne, No willing sinner; so it pleased the gods Wrath haply with my sinful race of old, Since thou could’st find no sin in me myself For which in retribution I was doomed To trespass thus against myself and mine. Answer me now, if by some oracle My sire was destined to a bloody end By a son’s hand, can this reflect on me, Me then unborn, begotten by no sire, Conceived in no mother’s womb? And if When born to misery, as born I was, I met my sire, not knowing whom I met or what I did, and slew him, how canst thou With justice blame the all-unconscious hand? And for my mother, wretch, art not ashamed, Seeing she was thy sister, to extort From me the story of her marriage, such A marriage as I straightway will proclaim. For I will speak; thy lewd and impious speech Has broken all the bonds of reticence. She was, ah woe is me! she was my mother; I knew it not, nor she; and she my mother Bare children to the son whom she had borne, A birth of shame. But this at least I know Wittingly thou aspersest her and me; But I unwitting wed, unwilling speak. Nay neither in this marriage or this deed Which thou art ever casting in my teeth— A murdered sire—shall I be held to blame. Come, answer me one question, if thou canst: If one should presently attempt thy life, Would’st thou, O man of justice, first inquire If the assassin was perchance thy sire, Or turn upon him? As thou lov’st thy life, On thy aggressor thou would’st turn, no stay Debating, if the law would bear thee out. Such was my case, and such the pass whereto The gods reduced me; and methinks my sire, Could he come back to life, would not dissent. Yet thou, for just thou art not, but a man Who sticks at nothing, if it serve his plea, Reproachest me with this before these men. It serves thy turn to laud great Theseus’ name, And Athens as a wisely governed State; Yet in thy flatteries one thing is to seek: If any land knows how to pay the gods Their proper rites, ’tis Athens most of all. This is the land whence thou wast fain to steal Their aged suppliant and hast carried off My daughters. Therefore to yon goddesses, I turn, adjure them and invoke their aid To champion my cause, that thou mayest learn What is the breed of men who guard this State.",
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      "text": "CHORUS. An honest man, my liege, one sore bestead By fortune, and so worthy our support.",
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      "text": "THESEUS. Enough of words; the captors speed amain, While we the victims stand debating here.",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. Thy words have told me who the suppliant is.",
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      "text": "THESEUS. Who can he be that I should frown on him?",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. My son, O king, my hateful son, whose words Of all men’s most would jar upon my ears.",
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      "text": "THESEUS. Thou sure mightest listen. If his suit offend, No need to grant it. Why so loth to hear him?",
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      "text": "OEDIPUS. That voice, O king, grates on a father’s ears; I have come to loathe it. Force me not to yield.",
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      "text": "Translation by F. Storr, BA Formerly Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge From the Loeb Library Edition Originally published by Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA and William Heinemann Ltd, London First published in 1912",
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      "text": "ARGUMENT",
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      "text": "Antigone, daughter of Oedipus, the late king of Thebes, in defiance of Creon who rules in his stead, resolves to bury her brother Polyneices, slain in his attack on Thebes. She is caught in the act by Creon’s watchmen and brought before the king. She justifies her action, asserting that she was bound to obey the eternal laws of right and wrong in spite of any human ordinance. Creon, unrelenting, condemns her to be immured in a rock-hewn chamber. His son Haemon, to whom Antigone is betrothed, pleads in vain for her life and threatens to die with her. Warned by the seer Teiresias Creon repents him and hurries to release Antigone from her rocky prison. But he is too late: he finds lying side by side Antigone who had hanged herself and Haemon who also has perished by his own hand. Returning to the palace he sees within the dead body of his queen who on learning of her son’s death has stabbed herself to the heart.",
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      "text": "DRAMATIS PERSONAE",
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      "text": "ANTIGONE and ISMENE—daughters of Oedipus and sisters of Polyneices and Eteocles. CREON, King of Thebes. HAEMON, Son of Creon, betrothed to Antigone. EURYDICE, wife of Creon. TEIRESIAS, the prophet. CHORUS, of Theban elders. A WATCHMAN A MESSENGER A SECOND MESSENGER",
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      "text": "GUARD. I cannot tell, for there was ne’er a trace Of pick or mattock—hard unbroken ground, Without a scratch or rut of chariot wheels, No sign that human hands had been at work. When the first sentry of the morning watch Gave the alarm, we all were terror-stricken. The corpse had vanished, not interred in earth, But strewn with dust, as if by one who sought To avert the curse that haunts the unburied dead: Of hound or ravening jackal, not a sign. Thereat arose an angry war of words; Guard railed at guard and blows were like to end it, For none was there to part us, each in turn Suspected, but the guilt brought home to none, From lack of evidence. We challenged each The ordeal, or to handle red-hot iron, Or pass through fire, affirming on our oath Our innocence—we neither did the deed Ourselves, nor know who did or compassed it. Our quest was at a standstill, when one spake And bowed us all to earth like quivering reeds, For there was no gainsaying him nor way To escape perdition: _Ye_are_bound_to_tell_ _The_King,_ye_cannot_hide_it; so he spake. And he convinced us all; so lots were cast, And I, unlucky scapegoat, drew the prize. So here I am unwilling and withal Unwelcome; no man cares to hear ill news.",
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      "text": "CHORUS. I had misgivings from the first, my liege, Of something more than natural at work.",
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      "text": "CREON. O cease, you vex me with your babblement; I am like to think you dote in your old age. Is it not arrant folly to pretend That gods would have a thought for this dead man? Did they forsooth award him special grace, And as some benefactor bury him, Who came to fire their hallowed sanctuaries, To sack their shrines, to desolate their land, And scout their ordinances? Or perchance The gods bestow their favors on the bad. No! no! I have long noted malcontents Who wagged their heads, and kicked against the yoke, Misliking these my orders, and my rule. ’Tis they, I warrant, who suborned my guards By bribes. Of evils current upon earth The worst is money. Money ’tis that sacks Cities, and drives men forth from hearth and home; Warps and seduces native innocence, And breeds a habit of dishonesty. But they who sold themselves shall find their greed Out-shot the mark, and rue it soon or late. Yea, as I still revere the dread of Zeus, By Zeus I swear, except ye find and bring Before my presence here the very man Who carried out this lawless burial, Death for your punishment shall not suffice. Hanged on a cross, alive ye first shall make Confession of this outrage. This will teach you What practices are like to serve your turn. There are some villainies that bring no gain. For by dishonesty the few may thrive, The many come to ruin and disgrace.",
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      "text": "GUARD. May I not speak, or must I turn and go Without a word?—",
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      "text": "CREON. Begone! canst thou not see That e’en this question irks me?",
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      "text": "ANTIGONE. Guilty. I did it, I deny it not.",
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      "text": "CREON (to GUARD) Sirrah, begone whither thou wilt, and thank Thy luck that thou hast ’scaped a heavy charge. (To ANTIGONE) Now answer this plain question, yes or no, Wast thou acquainted with the interdict?",
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      "text": "ANTIGONE. I knew, all knew; how should I fail to know?",
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      "text": "CREON. And yet wert bold enough to break the law?",
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      "text": "ANTIGONE. Yea, for these laws were not ordained of Zeus, And she who sits enthroned with gods below, Justice, enacted not these human laws. Nor did I deem that thou, a mortal man, Could’st by a breath annul and override The immutable unwritten laws of Heaven. They were not born today nor yesterday; They die not; and none knoweth whence they sprang. I was not like, who feared no mortal’s frown, To disobey these laws and so provoke The wrath of Heaven. I knew that I must die, E’en hadst thou not proclaimed it; and if death Is thereby hastened, I shall count it gain. For death is gain to him whose life, like mine, Is full of misery. Thus my lot appears Not sad, but blissful; for had I endured To leave my mother’s son unburied there, I should have grieved with reason, but not now. And if in this thou judgest me a fool, Methinks the judge of folly’s not acquit.",
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      "text": "CHORUS. A stubborn daughter of a stubborn sire, This ill-starred maiden kicks against the pricks.",
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      "text": "CREON. Well, let her know the stubbornest of wills Are soonest bended, as the hardest iron, O’er-heated in the fire to brittleness, Flies soonest into fragments, shivered through. A snaffle curbs the fieriest steed, and he Who in subjection lives must needs be meek. But this proud girl, in insolence well-schooled, First overstepped the established law, and then— A second and worse act of insolence— She boasts and glories in her wickedness. Now if she thus can flout authority Unpunished, I am woman, she the man. But though she be my sister’s child or nearer Of kin than all who worship at my hearth, Nor she nor yet her sister shall escape The utmost penalty, for both I hold, As arch-conspirators, of equal guilt. Bring forth the older; even now I saw her Within the palace, frenzied and distraught. The workings of the mind discover oft Dark deeds in darkness schemed, before the act. More hateful still the miscreant who seeks When caught, to make a virtue of a crime.",
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      "text": "ANTIGONE. Would’st thou do more than slay thy prisoner?",
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      "text": "CREON. Not I, thy life is mine, and that’s enough.",
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      "text": "ANTIGONE. Why dally then? To me no word of thine Is pleasant: God forbid it e’er should please; Nor am I more acceptable to thee. And yet how otherwise had I achieved A name so glorious as by burying A brother? so my townsmen all would say, Where they not gagged by terror, Manifold A king’s prerogatives, and not the least That all his acts and all his words are law.",
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      "text": "CREON. I’ faith thy wit forsook thee when thou mad’st Thy choice with evil-doers to do ill.",
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      "text": "ISMENE. What life for me without my sister here?",
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      "text": "CREON. Say not thy sister _here_: thy sister’s dead.",
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      "text": "ISMENE. What, wilt thou slay thy own son’s plighted bride?",
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      "text": "CREON. Aye, let him raise him seed from other fields.",
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      "sha256": "c9bddb14db3bc2013e5ec905519d37e31e7e659ef6671e0bef29f428d8141670",
      "text": "ISMENE. No new espousal can be like the old.",
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      "text": "CREON. A plague on trulls who court and woo our sons.",
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      "start": 192048,
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      "text": "ANTIGONE. O Haemon, how thy sire dishonors thee!",
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    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01183",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 192103,
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      "text": "CREON. A plague on thee and thy accursed bride!",
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    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01184",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 192157,
      "end": 192213,
      "sha256": "4a0a05ac662bdbb15aad520df2d55b8069c816c3d654d7fb0b1e0a27af32ae43",
      "text": "CHORUS. What, wilt thou rob thine own son of his bride?",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01185",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 192219,
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      "sha256": "6be5ada7cfde1f2914aa8ca0b15d8342d55fdd1fa7a780480812d2542c150218",
      "text": "CREON. ’Tis death that bars this marriage, not his sire.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01186",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 192284,
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      "sha256": "49247ef1c9adba92dfd5ab1cd1265b337b02f5691caab50726d8b224764ca8d7",
      "text": "CHORUS. So her death-warrant, it would seem, is sealed.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01187",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 192346,
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      "text": "CREON. By you, as first by me; off with them, guards, And keep them close. Henceforward let them learn To live as women use, not roam at large. For e’en the bravest spirits run away When they perceive death pressing on life’s heels.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
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      "ref": "PG31.B01188",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 192593,
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      "text": "CHORUS. (Str. 1) Thrice blest are they who never tasted pain! If once the curse of Heaven attaint a race, The infection lingers on and speeds apace, Age after age, and each the cup must drain.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01189",
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      "start": 192804,
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      "sha256": "b0a196e0b1be7de01147173268ac0f3c3f2ee9391a240919a4acf18cdbcc81f0",
      "text": "So when Etesian blasts from Thrace downpour Sweep o’er the blackening main and whirl to land From Ocean’s cavernous depths his ooze and sand, Billow on billow thunders on the shore.",
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    },
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      "sha256": "6361e3b86d993848f8b2e75249eb2b918226069d913218599d27d3832da1e87e",
      "text": "(Ant. 1) On the Labdacidae I see descending Woe upon woe; from days of old some god Laid on the race a malison, and his rod Scourges each age with sorrows never ending.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "text": "The light that dawned upon its last born son Is vanished, and the bloody axe of Fate Has felled the goodly tree that blossomed late. O Oedipus, by reckless pride undone!",
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      "sha256": "e0f48768b390638c691b8da27e856312480ca111654c3bd2488f3eb74200fef4",
      "text": "(Str. 2) Thy might, O Zeus, what mortal power can quell? Not sleep that lays all else beneath its spell, Nor moons that never tire: untouched by Time, Throned in the dazzling light That crowns Olympus’ height, Thou reignest King, omnipotent, sublime.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
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      "text": "Past, present, and to be, All bow to thy decree, All that exceeds the mean by Fate Is punished, Love or Hate.",
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      "text": "(Ant. 2) Hope flits about never-wearying wings; Profit to some, to some light loves she brings, But no man knoweth how her gifts may turn, Till ’neath his feet the treacherous ashes burn. Sure ’twas a sage inspired that spake this word; _If evil good appear_ _To any, Fate is near_; And brief the respite from her flaming sword.",
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      "sha256": "0bedadc5c304e80ffe7dc43940344f2785117ed6188f4d5ab266bc90fdac1882",
      "text": "Hither comes in angry mood Haemon, latest of thy brood; Is it for his bride he’s grieved, Or her marriage-bed deceived, Doth he make his mourn for thee, Maid forlorn, Antigone? [Enter HAEMON]",
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      "text": "CREON. Soon shall we know, better than seer can tell. Learning may fixed decree anent thy bride, Thou mean’st not, son, to rave against thy sire? Know’st not whate’er we do is done in love?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01197",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "text": "HAEMON. O father, I am thine, and I will take Thy wisdom as the helm to steer withal. Therefore no wedlock shall by me be held More precious than thy loving goverance.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01198",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 194827,
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      "sha256": "102bbf41191ca399277237da02c70eaa62781ceb939d3285cda5c491fc0e3887",
      "text": "CREON. Well spoken: so right-minded sons should feel, In all deferring to a father’s will. For ’tis the hope of parents they may rear A brood of sons submissive, keen to avenge Their father’s wrongs, and count his friends their own. But who begets unprofitable sons, He verily breeds trouble for himself, And for his foes much laughter. Son, be warned And let no woman fool away thy wits. Ill fares the husband mated with a shrew, And her embraces very soon wax cold. For what can wound so surely to the quick As a false friend? So spue and cast her off, Bid her go find a husband with the dead. For since I caught her openly rebelling, Of all my subjects the one malcontent, I will not prove a traitor to the State. She surely dies. Go, let her, if she will, Appeal to Zeus the God of Kindred, for If thus I nurse rebellion in my house, Shall not I foster mutiny without? For whoso rules his household worthily, Will prove in civic matters no less wise. But he who overbears the laws, or thinks To overrule his rulers, such as one I never will allow. Whome’er the State Appoints must be obeyed in everything, But small and great, just and unjust alike. I warrant such a one in either case Would shine, as King or subject; such a man Would in the storm of battle stand his ground, A comrade leal and true; but Anarchy— What evils are not wrought by Anarchy! She ruins States, and overthrows the home, She dissipates and routs the embattled host; While discipline preserves the ordered ranks. Therefore we must maintain authority And yield to title to a woman’s will. Better, if needs be, men should cast us out Than hear it said, a woman proved his match.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01199",
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      "sha256": "9e00ee697c5ef1ae336117b85d2853bbf5da88515e6a26866c48997716187279",
      "text": "CHORUS. To me, unless old age have dulled wits, Thy words appear both reasonable and wise.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01200",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "text": "HAEMON. Father, the gods implant in mortal men Reason, the choicest gift bestowed by heaven. ’Tis not for me to say thou errest, nor Would I arraign thy wisdom, if I could; And yet wise thoughts may come to other men And, as thy son, it falls to me to mark The acts, the words, the comments of the crowd. The commons stand in terror of thy frown, And dare not utter aught that might offend, But I can overhear their muttered plaints, Know how the people mourn this maiden doomed For noblest deeds to die the worst of deaths. When her own brother slain in battle lay Unsepulchered, she suffered not his corse To lie for carrion birds and dogs to maul: Should not her name (they cry) be writ in gold? Such the low murmurings that reach my ear. O father, nothing is by me more prized Than thy well-being, for what higher good Can children covet than their sire’s fair fame, As fathers too take pride in glorious sons? Therefore, my father, cling not to one mood, And deemed not thou art right, all others wrong. For whoso thinks that wisdom dwells with him, That he alone can speak or think aright, Such oracles are empty breath when tried. The wisest man will let himself be swayed By others’ wisdom and relax in time. See how the trees beside a stream in flood Save, if they yield to force, each spray unharmed, But by resisting perish root and branch. The mariner who keeps his mainsheet taut, And will not slacken in the gale, is like To sail with thwarts reversed, keel uppermost. Relent then and repent thee of thy wrath; For, if one young in years may claim some sense, I’ll say ’tis best of all to be endowed With absolute wisdom; but, if that’s denied, (And nature takes not readily that ply) Next wise is he who lists to sage advice.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01201",
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      "sha256": "6e42c1f8bf8f1b069d9dc08b47366e7442971de2c50af7715bd3b7c01c2b9ec7",
      "text": "CHORUS. If he says aught in season, heed him, King. (To HAEMON) Heed thou thy sire too; both have spoken well.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01202",
      "bookId": 31,
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      "sha256": "d9cf6f21e0d7b4dce3c359e02132e770999f53d9276eb5e8a78bfa3f1cca3314",
      "text": "CREON. What, would you have us at our age be schooled, Lessoned in prudence by a beardless boy?",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01203",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 198658,
      "end": 198748,
      "sha256": "b3ce1ec9e0bf971a773514e7037f638480e709985c1168948b7dbfcd5e24f068",
      "text": "HAEMON. I plead for justice, father, nothing more. Weigh me upon my merit, not my years.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01204",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 198754,
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      "sha256": "1a942d190c2d7f38369fa799dd834d5f204a84a1e52f98ad54edc4b8c1b82969",
      "text": "CREON. Strange merit this to sanction lawlessness!",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01205",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 198811,
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      "sha256": "bff3a34ec9ec04cbb031056fe289f65ae436b65cd652293caa62a4ccb0dd9ea6",
      "text": "HAEMON. For evil-doers I would urge no plea.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01206",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 198862,
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      "sha256": "9bf727a852ce7a5e783eff156810cec45ed8541b4101b47dcb77f3b84ff8524e",
      "text": "CREON. Is not this maid an arrant law-breaker?",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01207",
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      "start": 198915,
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      "sha256": "72d15fd457b4f2fab4c821d368ac97071fc6cba3bd0b3de900ad5b437f706dbe",
      "text": "HAEMON. The Theban commons with one voice say, No.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01208",
      "bookId": 31,
      "start": 198972,
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      "sha256": "780cbaf2e53de1e4910ca27780c7bededdf61dc3a548dcb1b2ea2b81ac8e9334",
      "text": "CREON. What, shall the mob dictate my policy?",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01209",
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      "start": 199024,
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      "sha256": "9620281d427d54ce1cda9a00d46ca50c9719260e714c22df1b27043de7cffa81",
      "text": "HAEMON. ’Tis thou, methinks, who speakest like a boy.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01210",
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      "start": 199086,
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      "sha256": "9cc670413c9efa669d28d4917ba7629be22594122308586def6f6548eee9cd40",
      "text": "CREON. Am I to rule for others, or myself?",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01211",
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      "sha256": "c08bf5e6f64cc70d937fde82109fd93d2de972b706ce33f220ad3500e9a0bfc8",
      "text": "HAEMON. A State for one man is no State at all.",
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    {
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      "text": "CREON. The State is his who rules it, so ’tis held.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01213",
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      "sha256": "cfc43faeb3e5e9dc787b4977769014aa2fdf377ea6f5949db65957ee755bcb84",
      "text": "HAEMON. As monarch of a desert thou wouldst shine.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG31.B01214",
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      "sha256": "4e0dd187683194686d8e51e890a8e0ac7ca94fb44b9fd7d2f7f328d232440db3",
      "text": "CREON. This boy, methinks, maintains the woman’s cause.",
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      "ref": "PG31.B01215",
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      "sha256": "d5dcac617afe5de5fb21cf41343e352950810b85ec21d4f7a103d3e92ea3e060",
      "text": "HAEMON. If thou be’st woman, yes. My thought’s for thee.",
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      "text": "CREON. O reprobate, would’st wrangle with thy sire?",
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      "text": "Language: English",
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      "text": "Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33310",
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      "text": "Credits: Produced by Fritz Ohrenschall, Turgut Dincer and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by the Posner Memorial Collection (http://posner.library.cmu.edu/Posner/))",
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      "text": "*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ON THE PRINCIPLES OF POLITICAL ECONOMY, AND TAXATION ***",
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      "text": "+---------------------------------------------------+ | Transcriber's note: | | Corrections in the ERRATA section have been made | | and duplicate Chapter numbers are marked by | | asterisks as shown in the original text. | +---------------------------------------------------+",
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      "text": "ON",
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      "text": "Black Horse Court, London.",
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      "text": "PREFACE.",
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      "text": "The produce of the earth--all that is derived from its surface by the united application of labour, machinery, and capital, is divided among three classes of the community; namely, the proprietor of the land, the owner of the stock or capital necessary for its cultivation, and the labourers by whose industry it is cultivated.",
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      "text": "But in different stages of society, the proportions of the whole produce of the earth which will be allotted to each of these classes, under the names of rent, profit, and wages, will be essentially different; depending mainly on the actual fertility of the soil, on the accumulation of capital and population, and on the skill, ingenuity, and instruments employed in agriculture.",
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      "text": "To determine the laws which regulate this distribution, is the principal problem in Political Economy: much as the science has been improved by the writings of Turgot, Stuart, Smith, Say, Sismondi, and others, they afford very little satisfactory information respecting the natural course of rent, profit, and wages.",
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      "text": "In 1815, Mr. Malthus in his \"Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent,\" and a Fellow of University College, Oxford, in his \"Essay on the Application of Capital to Land,\" presented to the world, nearly at the same moment, the true doctrine of rent; without a knowledge of which it is impossible to understand the effect of the progress of wealth on profits and wages, or to trace satisfactorily the influence of taxation on different classes of the community, particularly when the commodities taxed are the productions immediately derived from the surface of the earth. Adam Smith, and the other able writers to whom I have alluded, not having viewed correctly the principles of rent, have, it appears to me, overlooked many important truths, which can only be discovered after the subject of rent is thoroughly understood.",
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      "text": "To supply this deficiency, abilities are required of a far superior cast to any possessed by the writer of the following pages; yet after having given to this subject his best consideration--after the aid which he has derived from the works of the above-mentioned eminent writers--and after the valuable experience which a few late years, abounding in facts, have yielded to the present generation--it will not, he trusts, be deemed presumptuous in him to state his opinions on the laws of profits and wages, and on the operation of taxes. If the principles which he deems correct should be found to be so, it will be for others more able than himself to trace them to all their important consequences.",
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      "text": "The writer, in combating received opinions, has found it necessary to advert more particularly to those passages in the writings of Adam Smith from which he sees reason to differ; but he hopes it will not on that account be suspected that he does not, in common with all those who acknowledge the importance of the science of Political Economy, participate in the admiration which the profound work of this celebrated author so justly excites.",
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      "text": "The same remark may be applied to the excellent works of M. Say, who not only was the first, or among the first, of continental writers, who justly appreciated and applied the principles of Smith, and who has done more than all other continental writers taken together, to recommend the principles of that enlightened and beneficial system to the nations of Europe; but who has succeeded in placing the science in a more logical, and more instructive order; and has enriched it by several discussions, original, accurate, and profound.[1] The respect, however, which the author entertains for the writings of this gentleman, has not prevented him from commenting with that freedom which he thinks the interests of science require, on such passages of the \"Economie Politique,\" as appeared at variance with his own ideas.",
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      "text": "XXII. _Doctrine of Adam Smith concerning the Rent of Land_ 458",
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      "text": "XXVI. _On the comparative Value of Gold, Corn, and Labour, in Rich and in Poor Countries_ 527",
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      "text": "CHAPTER I.",
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      "text": "ON VALUE.",
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      "text": "It has been observed by Adam Smith, that \"the word Value has two different meanings, and sometimes expresses the utility of some particular object, and sometimes the power of purchasing other goods which the possession of that object conveys. The one may be called _value in use_; the other, _value in exchange_. The things,\" he continues, \"which have the greatest value in use, have frequently little or no value in exchange; and, on the contrary, those which have the greatest value in exchange, have little or no value in use.\" Water and air are abundantly useful; they are indeed indispensable to existence, yet, under ordinary circumstances, nothing can be obtained in exchange for them. Gold, on the contrary, though of little use compared with air or water, will exchange for a great quantity of other goods.",
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      "text": "Utility then is not the measure of exchangeable value, although it is absolutely essential to it. If a commodity were in no way useful,--in other words, if it could in no way contribute to our gratification,--it would be destitute of exchangeable value, however scarce it might be, or whatever quantity of labour might be necessary to procure it.",
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      "text": "Possessing utility, commodities derive their exchangeable value from two sources: from their scarcity, and from the quantity of labour required to obtain them.",
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      "text": "There are some commodities, the value of which is determined by their scarcity alone. No labour can increase the quantity of such goods, and therefore their value cannot be lowered by an increased supply. Some rare statues and pictures, scarce books and coins, wines of a peculiar quality, which can be made only from grapes grown on a particular soil, of which there is a very limited quantity, are all of this description. Their value is wholly independent of the quantity of labour originally necessary to produce them, and varies with the varying wealth and inclinations of those who are desirous to possess them.",
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      "text": "These commodities, however, form a very small part of the mass of commodities daily exchanged in the market. By far the greatest part of those goods which are the objects of desire, are procured by labour; and they may be multiplied, not in one country alone, but in many, almost without any assignable limit, if we are disposed to bestow the labour necessary to obtain them.",
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      "text": "In speaking then of commodities, of their exchangeable value, and of the laws which regulate their relative prices, we mean always such commodities only as can be increased in quantity by the exertion of human industry, and on the production of which competition operates without restraint.",
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      "text": "In the early stages of society, the exchangeable value of these commodities, or the rule which determines how much of one shall be given in exchange for another, depends solely on the comparative quantity of labour expended on each.",
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      "text": "\"The real price of every thing,\" says Adam Smith, \"what every thing really costs to the man who wants to acquire it, is the toil and trouble of acquiring it. What every thing is really worth to the man who has acquired it, and who wants to dispose of it, or exchange it for something else, is the toil and trouble which it can save to himself, and which it can impose upon other people.\" \"Labour was the first price--the original purchase-money that was paid for all things.\" Again, \"in that early and rude state of society, which precedes both the accumulation of stock and the appropriation of land, the proportion between the quantities of labour necessary for acquiring different objects, seems to be the only circumstance which can afford any rule for exchanging them for one another. If among a nation of hunters, for example, it usually cost twice the labour to kill a beaver which it does to kill a deer, one beaver should naturally exchange for, or be worth two deer. It is natural that what is usually the produce of two days', or two hours' labour, should be worth double of what is usually the produce of one day's, or one hour's labour.\"[2]",
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      "text": "That this is really the foundation of the exchangeable value of all things, excepting those which cannot be increased by human industry, is a doctrine of the utmost importance in political economy; for from no source do so many errors, and so much difference of opinion in that science proceed, as from the vague ideas, which are attached to the word value.",
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      "text": "Adam Smith, who so accurately defined the original source of exchangeable value, and who was bound in consistency to maintain, that all things became more or less valuable in proportion as more or less labour was bestowed on their production, has himself erected another standard measure of value, and speaks of things being more or less valuable, in proportion as they will exchange for more or less of this standard measure. Sometimes he speaks of corn, at other times of labour, as a standard measure; not the quantity of labour bestowed on the production of any object, but the quantity which it can command in the market: as if these were two equivalent expressions, and as if because a man's labour had become doubly efficient, and he could therefore produce twice the quantity of a commodity, he would necessarily receive twice the former quantity in exchange for it.",
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      "text": "If this indeed were true, if the reward of the labourer were always in proportion to what he produced, the quantity of labour bestowed on a commodity, and the quantity of labour which that commodity would purchase, would be equal, and either might accurately measure the variations of other things: but they are not equal; the first is under many circumstances an invariable standard, indicating correctly the variations of other things; the latter is subject to as many fluctuations as the commodities compared with it. Adam Smith, after most ably shewing the insufficiency of a variable medium, such as gold and silver, for the purpose of determining the varying value of other things, has himself, by fixing on corn or labour, chosen a medium no less variable.",
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      "text": "Gold and silver are no doubt subject to fluctuations, from the discovery of new and more abundant mines; but such discoveries are rare, and their effects, though powerful, are limited to periods of comparatively short duration. They are subject also to fluctuation, from improvements in the skill and machinery with which the mines may be worked; as in consequence of such improvements, a greater quantity may be obtained with the same labour. They are further subject to fluctuation from the decreasing produce of the mines, after they have yielded a supply to the world, for a succession of ages. But from which of these sources of fluctuation is corn exempted? Does not that also vary, on one hand, from improvements in agriculture, from improved machinery and implements used in husbandry, as well as from the discovery of new tracts of fertile land, which in other countries may be taken into cultivation, and which will affect the value of corn in every market where importation is free? Is it not on the other hand subject to be enhanced in value from prohibitions of importation, from increasing population and wealth, and the greater difficulty of obtaining the increased supplies, on account of the additional quantity of labour which the cultivation of inferior lands requires? Is not the value of labour equally variable; being not only affected, as all other things are, by the proportion between the supply and demand, which uniformly varies with every change in the condition of the community, but also by the varying price of food and other necessaries, on which the wages of labour are expended?",
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      "ref": "PG33310.B00080",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "In the same country double the quantity of labour may be required to produce a given quantity of food and necessaries at one time, that may be necessary at another, and a distant time; yet the labourer's reward may possibly be very little diminished. If the labourer's wages at the former period, were a certain quantity of food and necessaries, he probably could not have subsisted if that quantity had been reduced. Food and necessaries in this case will have risen 100 per cent. if estimated by the _quantity_ of labour necessary to their production, while they will scarcely have increased in value, if measured by the quantity of labour for which they will _exchange_.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00081",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "The same remark may be made respecting two or more countries. In America and Poland, a year's labour will produce much more corn than in England. Now, supposing all other necessaries to be equally cheap in those three countries, would it not be a great mistake to conclude, that the quantity of corn awarded to the labourer, would in each country be in proportion to the facility of production?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00082",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 17680,
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      "text": "If the shoes and clothing of the labourer, could, by improvements in machinery, be produced by one fourth of the labour now necessary to their production, they would probably fall 75 per cent.; but so far is it from being true, that the labourer would thereby be enabled permanently to consume four coats, or four pair of shoes, instead of one, that his wages would in no long time be adjusted by the effects of competition, and the stimulus to population, to the new value of the necessaries on which they were expended. If these improvements extended to all the objects of the labourer's consumption, we should find him probably at the end of a very few years, in possession of only a small, if any, addition to his enjoyments, although the exchangeable value of those commodities, compared with any other commodity, in the manufacture of which no such improvement were made, had sustained a very considerable reduction; and though they were the produce of a very considerably diminished quantity of labour.",
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    {
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      "text": "It cannot then be correct, to say with Adam Smith, \"that as labour may sometimes _purchase_ a greater, and sometimes a smaller quantity of goods, it is their value which varies, not that of the labour which purchases them;\" and therefore, \"that labour _alone never varying in its own value_, is alone the ultimate and real standard by which the value of all commodities can at all times and places be estimated and compared;\"--but it is correct to say, as Adam Smith had previously said, \"that the proportion between the quantities of labour necessary for acquiring different objects, seems to be the only circumstance which can afford any rule for exchanging them for one another;\" or in other words, that it is the comparative quantity of commodities which labour will produce, that determines their present or past relative value, and not the comparative quantities of commodities, which are given to the labourer in exchange for his labour.",
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      "ref": "PG33310.B00095",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "All the implements necessary to kill the beaver and deer might belong to one class of men, and the labour employed in their destruction might be furnished by another class; still, their comparative prices would be in proportion to the actual labour bestowed, both on the formation of the capital, and on the destruction of the animals. Under different circumstances of plenty or scarcity of capital, as compared with labour, under different circumstances of plenty or scarcity of the food and necessaries essential to the support of men, those who furnished an equal value of capital for either one employment or for the other, might have a half, a fourth, or an eighth of the produce obtained, the remainder being paid as wages to those who furnished the labour; yet this division could not affect the relative value of these commodities, since whether the profits of capital were greater or less, whether they were 50, 20, or 10 per cent., or whether the wages of labour were high or low, they would operate equally on both employments.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00096",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "If we suppose the occupations of the society extended, that some provide canoes and tackle necessary for fishing, others the seed and rude machinery first used in agriculture, still the same principle would hold true, that the exchangeable value of the commodities produced would be in proportion to the labour bestowed on their production; not on their immediate production only, but on all those implements or machines required to give effect to the particular labour to which they were applied.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00097",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 27199,
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      "text": "If we look to a state of society in which greater improvements have been made, and in which arts and commerce flourish, we shall still find that commodities vary in value conformably with this principle: in estimating the exchangeable value of stockings, for example, we shall find that their value, comparatively with other things, depends on the total quantity of labour necessary to manufacture them, and bring them to market. First, there is the labour necessary to cultivate the land on which the raw cotton is grown; secondly, the labour of conveying the cotton to the country where the stockings are to be manufactured, which includes a portion of the labour bestowed in building the ship in which it is conveyed, and which is charged in the freight of the goods; thirdly, the labour of the spinner and weaver; fourthly, a portion of the labour of the engineer, smith, and carpenter, who erected the buildings and machinery, by the help of which they are made; fifthly, the labour of the retail dealer, and of many others, whom it is unnecessary further to particularize. The aggregate sum of these various kinds of labour, determines the quantity of other things for which these stockings will exchange, while the same consideration of the various quantities of labour which have been bestowed on those other things, will equally govern the portion of them which will be given for the stockings.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00098",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "To convince ourselves that this is the real foundation of exchangeable value, let us suppose any improvement to be made in the means of abridging labour in any one of the various processes through which the raw cotton must pass, before the manufactured stockings come to the market, to be exchanged for other things; and observe the effects which will follow. If fewer men were required to cultivate the raw cotton, or if fewer sailors were employed in navigating, or shipwrights in constructing the ship, in which it was conveyed to us; if fewer hands were employed in raising the buildings and machinery, or if these when raised, were rendered more efficient, the stockings would inevitably fall in value, and consequently command less of other things. They would fall, because a less quantity of labour was necessary to their production, and would therefore exchange for a smaller quantity of those things in which no such abridgment of labour had been made.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00099",
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      "text": "Economy in the use of labour never fails to reduce the relative value of a commodity, whether the saving be in the labour necessary to the manufacture of the commodity itself, or in that necessary to the formation of the capital, by the aid of which it is produced. In either case the price of stockings would fall, whether there were fewer men employed as bleachers, spinners, and weavers, persons immediately necessary to their manufacture; or as sailors, carriers, engineers, and smiths, persons more indirectly concerned. In the one case, the whole saving of labour would fall on the stockings, because that portion of labour was wholly confined to the stockings; in the other, a portion only would fall on the stockings, the remainder being applied to all those other commodities, to the production of which the buildings, machinery, and carriage, were subservient.",
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      "ref": "PG33310.B00100",
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      "text": "In every society the capital which is employed in production, is necessarily of limited durability. The food and clothing consumed by the labourer, the buildings in which he works, the implements with which his labour is assisted, are all of a perishable nature. There is however a vast difference in the time for which these different capitals will endure: a steam-engine will last longer than a ship, a ship than the clothing of the labourer, and the clothing of the labourer longer than the food which he consumes.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00101",
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      "text": "According as capital is rapidly perishable, and requires to be frequently reproduced, or is of slow consumption, it is classed under the heads of circulating, or of fixed capital. A brewer, whose buildings and machinery are valuable and durable, is said to employ a large portion of fixed capital: on the contrary, a shoemaker, whose capital is chiefly employed in the payment of wages, which are expended on food and clothing, commodities more perishable than buildings and machinery, is said to employ a large proportion of his capital as circulating capital.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "Two trades then may employ the same amount of capital; but it may be very differently divided with respect to the portion which is fixed, and that which is circulating.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00103",
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      "text": "Again two manufacturers may employ the same amount of fixed, and the same amount of circulating capital; but the durability of their fixed capitals may be very unequal. One may have steam engines of the value of 10,000_l._ the other, ships of the same value.",
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      "ref": "PG33310.B00112",
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      "text": "Now suppose, that with the same labour and fixed capital, more fish could be produced, but no more gold or game, the relative value of fish would fall in comparison with gold or game. If, instead of twenty salmon, twenty-five were the produce of one day's labour, the price of a salmon would be sixteen shillings instead of a pound, and two salmon and a half, instead of two salmon, would be given in exchange for one deer, but the price of deer would continue at 2_l._ as before. In the same manner, if fewer fish could be obtained with the same capital and labour, fish would rise in comparative value. Fish then would rise or fall in exchangeable value, only because more or less labour was required to obtain a given quantity; and it never could rise or fall beyond the proportion of the increased or diminished quantity of labour required.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00113",
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      "text": "If we had then an invariable standard, by which we could measure the variation in other commodities, we should find that the utmost limit to which they could permanently rise, was proportioned to the additional quantity of labour required for their production; and that unless more labour were required for their production, they could not rise in any degree whatever. A rise of wages would not raise them in money value, nor relatively to any other commodities, the production of which required no additional quantity of labour, which employed the same proportion of fixed and circulating capital, and fixed capital of the same durability. If more or less labour were required in the production of the other commodity, we have already stated that this will immediately occasion an alteration in its relative value, but such alteration is owing to the altered quantity of requisite labour, and not to the rise of wages.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00114",
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      "text": "If the fixed and circulating capitals were in different proportions, or if the fixed capital were of different durability, then the relative value of the commodities produced, would be altered in consequence of a rise of wages.",
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      "ref": "PG33310.B00115",
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      "text": "First, when the fixed and circulating capitals were in different proportions, suppose that instead of 100_l._ fixed capital and 100_l._ circulating capital, the hunter should employ 150_l._ fixed capital and 50_l._ circulating capital, and that the fisherman should on the contrary employ only 50_l._ fixed capital and 150_l._ circulating capital.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG33310.B00116",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "If profits be 10 per cent., the hunter must sell his goods for 79_l._ 8_s._ For, To replace his circulating capital of 50_l._ with a profit of 10 per cent. would require a value of 55_l._",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG33310.B00117",
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      "sha256": "1574f0779d294cd65a6da447a003d1c5e301dafbddd44336ae0b3287db27801a",
      "text": "To replace his fixed capital with 10 per cent. profit, the present value of an annuity for ten years of 24.4_l._ at 10 per cent. being 150_l._ 24.4_l._ ------ 79.4_l._",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00125",
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      "sha256": "f47d66846813959f8f41ef9b697d7422947afa8963c1bc21ca94fbd3ffea918d",
      "text": "Game was to fish before as 100 to 218. It would now be as 100 to 233.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00126",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "Thus we see, that with every rise of wages, in proportion as the capital employed in any occupation consists of circulating capital, its produce will be of greater relative value than the goods produced in another occupation, where a less proportion of circulating, and a greater proportion of fixed capital are employed.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00127",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "end": 44803,
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      "text": "Secondly, suppose the proportions of fixed capital to be the same; but of different degrees of durability. In proportion as fixed capital is less durable, it approaches to the nature of circulating capital. It will be consumed in a shorter time, and its value reproduced in order to preserve the capital of the manufacturer. We have just seen, that in proportion as circulating capital preponderates in a manufacture, when wages rise, the value of commodities produced in that manufacture, is relatively higher than that of commodities produced in manufactures where fixed capital preponderates. In proportion to the less durability of fixed capital, and its approach to the nature of circulating capital, the same effect will be produced by the same cause.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00128",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 44807,
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      "text": "Suppose that an engine is made, which will last for a hundred years, and that its value is 20,000_l._. Suppose too, that this machine, without any labour whatever, could produce a certain quantity of commodities annually, and that profits were 10 per cent.: the whole value of the goods produced would be annually 2,000_l._ 2_s._ 11_d._; for the profit of 20,000_l._",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00129",
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      "sha256": "2b5e471f9ba871d2db1773043404d8a551f590d497d922e245da6022503b2110",
      "text": "at 10 per cent. per annum, is L2,000",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00161",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 61201,
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      "sha256": "adeb063bf61cbdfa95d193e3e2e3c1d192dd0e7463667cb2d7b30a3b60e72b1a",
      "text": "CHAPTER II.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00162",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 61216,
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      "sha256": "a5f29f520ef819b91dddd5151162624176666017684601e91e06077385764d1f",
      "text": "ON RENT.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00163",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 61230,
      "end": 64937,
      "sha256": "7f54ff92347548919d79f58da42759b865b9e684f61fbd88f883dda1e67614ea",
      "text": "It remains however to be considered, whether the appropriation of land, and the consequent creation of rent, will occasion any variation in the relative value of commodities, independently of the quantity of labour necessary to production. In order to understand this part of the subject, we must inquire into the nature of rent, and the laws by which its rise or fall is regulated. Rent is that portion of the produce of the earth, which is paid to the landlord for the use of the original and indestructible powers of the soil. It is often however confounded with the interest and profit of capital, and in popular language the term is applied to whatever is annually paid by a farmer to his landlord. If, of two adjoining farms of the same extent, and of the same natural fertility, one had all the conveniences of farming buildings, were, besides, properly drained and manured, and advantageously divided by hedges, fences, and walls, while the other had none of these advantages, more remuneration would naturally be paid for the use of one, than for the use of the other; yet in both cases this remuneration would be called rent. But it is evident, that a portion only of the money annually to be paid for the improved farm, would be given for the original and indestructible powers of the soil; the other portion would be paid for the use of the capital which had been employed in ameliorating the quality of the land, and in erecting such buildings as were necessary to secure and preserve the produce. Adam Smith sometimes speaks of rent, in the strict sense to which I am desirous of confining it, but more often in the popular sense, in which the term is usually employed. He tells us, that the demand for timber, and its consequent high price, in the more southern countries of Europe, caused a rent to be paid for forests in Norway, which could before afford no rent. Is it not however evident, that the person who paid, what he thus calls rent, paid it in consideration of the valuable commodity which was then standing on the land, and that he actually repaid himself with a profit, by the sale of the timber? If, indeed, after the timber was removed, any compensation were paid to the landlord for the use of the land, for the purpose of growing timber or any other produce, with a view to future demand, such compensation might justly be called rent, because it would be paid for the productive powers of the land; but in the case stated by Adam Smith, the compensation was paid for the liberty of removing and selling the timber, and not for the liberty of growing it. He speaks also of the rent of coal mines, and of stone quarries, to which the same observation applies--that the compensation given for the mine or quarry, is paid for the value of the coal or stone which can be removed from them, and has no connexion with the original and indestructible powers of the land. This is a distinction of great importance, in an inquiry concerning rent and profits; for it is found, that the laws which regulate the progress of rent, are widely different from those which regulate the progress of profits, and seldom operate in the same direction. In all improved countries, that which is annually paid to the landlord, partaking of both characters, rent and profit, is sometimes kept stationary by the effects of opposing causes, at other times advances or recedes, as one or other of these causes preponderates. In the future pages of this work, then, whenever I speak of the rent of land, I wish to be understood as speaking of that compensation, which is paid to the owner of land for the use of its original and indestructible powers.",
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      "text": "On the first settling of a country, in which there is an abundance of rich and fertile land, a very small proportion of which is required to be cultivated for the support of the actual population, or indeed can be cultivated with the capital which the population can command, there will be no rent; for no one would pay for the use of land, when there was an abundant quantity not yet appropriated, and therefore at the disposal of whosoever might choose to cultivate it.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00165",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "On the common principles of supply and demand, no rent could be paid for such land, for the reason stated, why nothing is given for the use of air and water, or for any other of the gifts of nature which exist in boundless quantity. With a given quantity of materials, and with the assistance of the pressure of the atmosphere, and the elasticity of steam, engines may perform work, and abridge human labour to a very great extent; but no charge is made for the use of these natural aids, because they are inexhaustible, and at every man's disposal. In the same manner the brewer, the distiller, the dyer, make incessant use of the air and water for the production of their commodities; but as the supply is boundless, it bears no price.[5] If all land had the same properties, if it were boundless in quantity, and uniform in quality, no charge could be made for its use, unless where it possessed peculiar advantages of situation. It is only then because land is of different qualities with respect to its productive powers, and because in the progress of population, land of an inferior quality, or less advantageously situated, is called into cultivation, that rent is ever paid for the use of it. When, in the progress of society, land of the second degree of fertility is taken into cultivation, rent immediately commences on that of the first quality, and the amount of that rent will depend on the difference in the quality of these two portions of land.",
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      "text": "When land of the third quality is taken into cultivation, rent immediately commences on the second, and it is regulated as before, by the difference in their productive powers. At the same time, the rent of the first quality will rise, for that must always be above the rent of the second, by the difference between the produce which they yield with a given quantity of capital and labour. With every step in the progress of population, which shall oblige a country to have recourse to land of a worse quality, to enable it to raise its supply of food, rent, on all the more fertile land, will rise.",
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      "text": "Thus suppose land--No. 1, 2, 3,--to yield, with an equal employment of capital and labour, a net produce of 100, 90, and 80 quarters of corn. In a new country, where there is an abundance of fertile land compared with the population, and where therefore it is only necessary to cultivate No. 1, the whole net produce will belong to the cultivator, and will be the profits of the stock which he advances. As soon as population had so far increased as to make it necessary to cultivate No. 2, from which ninety quarters only can be obtained after supporting the labourers, rent would commence on No. 1; for either there must be two rates of profit on agricultural capital, or ten quarters, or the value of ten quarters must be withdrawn from the produce of No. 1, for some other purpose. Whether the proprietor of the land, or any other person, cultivated No. 1, these ten quarters would equally constitute rent; for the cultivator of No. 2 would get the same result with his capital, whether he cultivated No. 1, paying ten quarters for rent, or continued to cultivate No. 2, paying no rent. In the same manner it might be shewn that when No. 3 is brought into cultivation, the rent of No. 2 must be ten quarters, or the value of ten quarters, whilst the rent of No. 1 would rise to twenty quarters; for the cultivator of No. 3 would have the same profits whether he paid twenty quarters for the rent of No. 1, ten quarters for the rent of No. 2, or cultivated No. 3 free of all rent.",
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    },
    {
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      "text": "It often, and indeed commonly happens that before No. 2, 3, 4, or 5, or the inferior lands are cultivated, capital can be employed more productively on those lands which are already in cultivation. It may perhaps be found, that by doubling the original capital employed on No. 1, though the produce will not be doubled, will not be increased by 100 quarters, it may be increased by eighty-five quarters, and that this quantity exceeds what could be obtained by employing the same capital on land, No. 3.",
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      "text": "In such case, capital will be preferably employed on the old land, and will equally create a rent; for rent is always the difference between the produce obtained by the employment of two equal quantities of capital and labour. If with a capital of 1000_l._ a tenant obtain 100 quarters of wheat from his land, and by the employment of a second capital of 1000_l._, he obtain a further return of eighty-five, his landlord would have the power at the expiration of his lease, of obliging him to pay fifteen quarters, or an equivalent value, for additional rent; for there cannot be two rates of profit. If he is satisfied with a diminution of fifteen quarters in the return for his second 1000_l._, it is because no employment more profitable can be found for it. The common rate of profit would be in that proportion, and if the original tenant refused, some other person would be found willing to give all which exceeded that rate of profit to the owner of the land from which he derived it.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00170",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "In this case, as well as in the other, the capital last employed pays no rent. For the greater productive powers of the first 1000_l._, fifteen quarters is paid for rent, for the employment of the second 1000_l._ no rent whatever is paid. If a third 1000_l._ be employed on the same land, with a return of seventy-five quarters, rent will then be paid for the second 1000_l._ and will be equal to the difference between the produce of these two, or ten quarters; and at the same time the rent of the first 1000_l._ will rise from fifteen to twenty-five quarters; while the last 1000_l._ will pay no rent whatever.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00171",
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      "text": "If then good land existed in a quantity much more abundant than the production of food for an increasing population required, or if capital could be indefinitely employed without a diminished return on the old land, there could be no rise of rent; for rent invariably proceeds from the employment of an additional quantity of labour with a proportionally less return.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00172",
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      "text": "The most fertile, and most favourably situated land will be first cultivated, and the exchangeable value of its produce will be adjusted in the same manner as the exchangeable value of all other commodities, by the total quantity of labour necessary in various forms, from first to last, to produce it, and bring it to market. When land of an inferior quality is taken into cultivation, the exchangeable value of raw produce will rise, because more labour is required to produce it.",
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      "text": "The exchangeable value of all commodities, whether they be manufactured, or the produce of the mines, or the produce of land, is always regulated, not by the less quantity of labour that will suffice for their production under circumstances highly favourable, and exclusively enjoyed by those who have peculiar facilities of production; but by the greater quantity of labour necessarily bestowed on their production by those who have no such facilities; by those who continue to produce them under the most unfavourable circumstances; meaning--by the most unfavourable circumstances, the most unfavourable under which the quantity of produce required renders it necessary to carry on the production.",
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      "text": "Thus, in a charitable institution, where the poor are set to work with the funds of benefactors, the general prices of the commodities, which are the produce of such work, will not be governed by the peculiar facilities afforded to these workmen, but by the common, usual, and natural difficulties, which every other manufacturer will have to encounter. The manufacturer enjoying none of these facilities might indeed be driven altogether from the market, if the supply afforded by these favoured workmen were equal to all the wants of the community; but if he continued the trade, it would be only on condition that he should derive from it the usual and general rate of profits on stock; and that could only happen when his commodity sold for a price proportioned to the quantity of labour bestowed on its production.[6]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00175",
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      "text": "It is true, that on the best land, the same produce would still be obtained with the same labour as before, but its value would be enhanced in consequence of the diminished returns obtained by those who employed fresh labour and stock on the less fertile land. Notwithstanding then, that the advantages of fertile over inferior lands are in no case lost, but only transferred from the cultivator, or consumer, to the landlord, yet since more labour is required on the inferior lands, and since it is from such land only that we are enabled to furnish ourselves with the additional supply of raw produce, the comparative value of that produce will continue permanently above its former level, and make it exchange for more hats, cloth, shoes, &c. &c. in the production of which no such additional quantity of labour is required.",
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    {
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      "text": "The reason then, why raw produce rises in comparative value, is because more labour is employed in the production of the last portion obtained, and not because a rent is paid to the landlord. The value of corn is regulated by the quantity of labour bestowed on its production on that quality of land, or with that portion of capital, which pays no rent. Corn is not high because a rent is paid, but a rent is paid because corn is high; and it has been justly observed, that no reduction would take place in the price of corn, although landlords should forego the whole of their rent. Such a measure would only enable some farmers to live like gentlemen, but would not diminish the quantity of labour necessary to raise raw produce on the least productive land in cultivation.",
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      "ref": "PG33310.B00177",
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      "text": "Nothing is more common than to hear of the advantages which the land possesses over every other source of useful produce, on account of the surplus which it yields in the form of rent. Yet when land is most abundant, when most productive, and most fertile, it yields no rent; and it is only when its powers decay, and less is yielded in return for labour, that a share of the original produce of the more fertile portions is set apart for rent. It is singular that this quality in the land, which should have been noticed as an imperfection, compared with the natural agents by which manufacturers are assisted, should have been pointed out as constituting its peculiar pre-eminence. If air, water, the elasticity of steam, and the pressure of the atmosphere, were of various qualities; if they could be appropriated, and each quality existed only in moderate abundance, they as well as the land would afford a rent, as the successive qualities were brought into use. With every worse quality employed, the value of the commodities in the manufacture of which they were used would rise, because equal quantities of labour would be less productive. Man would do more by the sweat of his brow, and nature perform less; and the land would be no longer pre-eminent for its limited powers.",
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      "ref": "PG33310.B00178",
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      "text": "If the surplus produce which land affords in the form of rent be an advantage, it is desirable that, every year, the machinery newly constructed should be less efficient than the old, as that would undoubtedly give a greater exchangeable value to the goods manufactured, not only by that machinery, but by all the other machinery in the kingdom; and a rent would be paid to all those who possessed the most productive machinery.[7]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00190",
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      "text": "But with such an increase of produce, without an increase of demand, there could be no motive for employing so much capital on the land; one portion would be withdrawn, and consequently the last portion of capital would yield 105 instead of 95, and rent would fall to 30, or the difference between",
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      "ref": "PG33310.B00191",
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      "text": "105 and 125 = 20 } whilst the produce would be still { 125 105 and 115 = 10 } adequate to the wants of the { 115 -- } population, for it would be 345 { 105 30 } quarters, or { --- { 345",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00192",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "the demand being only for 340 quarters.--But there are improvements which may lower the relative value of produce without lowering the corn rent, though they will lower the money rent of land. Such improvements do not increase the productive powers of the land, but they enable us to obtain its produce with less labour. They are rather directed to the formation of the capital applied to the land, than to the cultivation of the land itself. Improvements in agricultural implements, such as the plough and the threshing machine, economy in the use of horses employed in husbandry, and a better knowledge of the veterinary art, are of this nature. Less capital, which is the same thing as less labour, will be employed on the land; but to obtain the same produce, less land cannot be cultivated. Whether improvements of this kind, however, affect corn rent, must depend on the question, whether the difference between the produce obtained by the employment of different portions of capital be increased, stationary, or diminished. If four portions of capital, 50, 60, 70, 80, be employed on the land, giving each the same results, and any improvement in the formation of such capital should enable me to withdraw 5 from each, so that they should be 45, 55, 65, and 75, no alteration would take place in the corn rent; but if the improvements were such as to enable me to make the whole saving on the largest portion of capital, that portion which is least productively employed, corn rent would immediately fall, because the difference between the capital most productive and the capital least productive would be diminished; and it is this difference which constitutes rent.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00193",
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      "text": "Without multiplying instances, I hope enough has been said to shew, that whatever diminishes the inequality in the produce obtained from successive portions of capital employed on the same or on new land, tends to lower rent; and that whatever increases that inequality, necessarily produces an opposite effect, and tends to raise it.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00194",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 87888,
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      "text": "In speaking of the rent of the landlord, we have rather considered it as the proportion of the whole produce, without any reference to its exchangeable value; but since the same cause, the difficulty of production, raises the exchangeable value of raw produce, and raises also the proportion of raw produce paid to the landlord for rent, it is obvious that the landlord is doubly benefited by difficulty of production. First he obtains a greater share, and secondly the commodity in which he is paid is of greater value.[8]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00218",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 101297,
      "end": 101307,
      "sha256": "e3daf2d4156a0b23cfc3a5f2ca9503220e1314d703750b217a5dda58a3597ed8",
      "text": "CHAPTER V.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "ON WAGES",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00220",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 101325,
      "end": 101664,
      "sha256": "36b43f4f8d5f451bd76220fa86eb935a525953521a72436796166a4b4a843437",
      "text": "Labour, like all other things which are purchased and sold, and which may be increased or diminished in quantity, has its natural and its market price. The natural price of labour is that price which is necessary to enable the labourers, one with another, to subsist and to perpetuate their race, without either increase or diminution.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00221",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 101668,
      "end": 102316,
      "sha256": "60c3ed2adced83a2fb35e42fe765fa24f80891433923a2d65742e37d4e00173e",
      "text": "The power of the labourer to support himself, and the family which may be necessary to keep up the number of labourers, does not depend on the quantity of money, which he may receive for wages; but on the quantity of food, necessaries, and conveniences become essential to him from habit, which that money will purchase. The natural price of labour, therefore, depends on the price of the food, necessaries, and conveniences required for the support of the labourer and his family. With a rise in the price of food and necessaries, the natural price of labour will rise; with the fall in their price, the natural price of labour will fall.",
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      "ref": "PG33310.B00222",
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      "start": 102320,
      "end": 102906,
      "sha256": "72613e097fa605ee041d64c867c029074694faae3ee3e264b49120b576c3c794",
      "text": "With the progress of society, the natural price of labour has always a tendency to rise, because one of the principal commodities by which its natural price is regulated, has a tendency to become dearer, from the greater difficulty of producing it. As, however, the improvements in agriculture, the discovery of new markets, whence provisions may be imported, may for a time counteract the tendency to a rise in the price of necessaries, and may even occasion their natural price to fall, so will the same causes produce the correspondent effects on the natural price of labour.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00223",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 102910,
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      "text": "The natural price of all commodities excepting raw produce and labour has a tendency to fall, in the progress of wealth and population; for though, on one hand, they are enhanced in real value, from the rise in the natural price of the raw material of which they are made, this is more than counterbalanced by the improvements in machinery, by the better division and distribution of labour, and by the increasing skill, both in science and art, of the producers.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00224",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 103383,
      "end": 103726,
      "sha256": "4017fd7b3b47c197e9dc2833a119efa9d39fa323b222fde698ffafef43f45392",
      "text": "The market price of labour is the price which is really paid for it, from the natural operation of the proportion of the supply to the demand; labour is dear when it is scarce, and cheap when it is plentiful. However much the market price of labour may deviate from its natural price, it has, like commodities, a tendency to conform to it.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00225",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 103730,
      "end": 104238,
      "sha256": "b622fed60b26c6bac504fb51526f6ae917336b68098c3b06933d6d279c4b5326",
      "text": "It is when the market price of labour exceeds its natural price, that the condition of the labourer is flourishing and happy, that he has it in his power to command a greater proportion of the necessaries and enjoyments of life, and therefore to rear a healthy and numerous family. When however, by the encouragement which high wages give to the increase of population, the number of labourers is increased, wages again fall to their natural price, and indeed from a re-action sometimes fall below it.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00226",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 104242,
      "end": 104710,
      "sha256": "45d281e482a3ba49e97134ed1c5e0147ecce6f085f13cfc6a928c7c0c6aaba3d",
      "text": "When the market price of labour is below its natural price, the condition of the labourers is most wretched: then poverty deprives them of those comforts which custom renders absolute necessaries. It is only after their privations have reduced their number, or the demand for labour has increased, that the market price of labour will rise to its natural price, and that the labourer will have the moderate comforts, which the natural price of wages will afford.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00227",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 104714,
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      "sha256": "bebcdb1777f8e16f5f29f7f7f5f1c9e26dd3c6a0600befb41078a0cd228707f9",
      "text": "Notwithstanding the tendency of wages to conform to their natural rate, their market rate may, in an improving society, for an indefinite period, be constantly above it; for no sooner may the impulse, which an increased capital gives to a new demand for labour be obeyed, than another increase of capital may produce the same effect; and thus if the increase of capital be gradual and constant, the demand for labour may give a continued stimulus to an increase of people.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00228",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 105196,
      "end": 105383,
      "sha256": "a7d551bb2c91dbeae35faec9b908bdb752cd66f070e3ff95b21413959faa51b2",
      "text": "Capital is that part of the wealth of a country, which is employed in production, and consists of food, clothing, tools, raw material, machinery, &c. necessary to give effect to labour.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00229",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 105387,
      "end": 105695,
      "sha256": "eae049055b37e29a6ebfbd72d150581c704214ae5421cd57027ea22cf6d4fb03",
      "text": "Capital may increase in quantity at the same time that its value rises. An addition may be made to the food and clothing of a country, at the same time that more labour may be required to produce the additional quantity than before; in that case not only the quantity, but the value of capital will rise.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00230",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 105699,
      "end": 106196,
      "sha256": "404271f81d86eb3f8f74b0df79266a302a13e5849c95d09151abae31745d37e0",
      "text": "Or capital may increase without its value increasing, and even while its value is actually diminishing; not only may an addition be made to the food and clothing of a country, but the addition may be made by the aid of machinery, without any increase, and even with an absolute diminution in the proportional quantity of labour required to produce them. The quantity of capital may increase, while neither the whole together, nor any part of it singly, will have a greater value than before.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00231",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 106200,
      "end": 106619,
      "sha256": "3ef0a8083808ae64b597a2abd3a2e1898fc7fd91b86c4b6af817e29dd5ffa83d",
      "text": "In the first case, the natural price of wages, which always depends on the price of food, clothing, and other necessaries, will rise; in the second, it will remain stationary, or fall; but in both cases the market rate of wages will rise, for in proportion to the increase of capital will be the increase in the demand for labour; in proportion to the work to be done will be the demand for those who are to do it.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00232",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 106623,
      "end": 107186,
      "sha256": "51976404dbf9af027ed7ae12e75f50c648c211b8b9eb736742ff4f76ccc6ef62",
      "text": "In both cases too the market price of labour will rise above its natural price; and in both cases it will have a tendency to conform to its natural price, but in the first case this agreement will be most speedily effected. The situation of the labourer will be improved, but not much improved; for the increased price of food and necessaries will absorb a large portion of his increased wages; consequently a small supply of labour, or a trifling increase in the population, will soon reduce the market price to the then increased natural price of labour.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00319",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 161860,
      "end": 161871,
      "sha256": "21b2684012bd9e7216d99aa81e3891b6fe162134bfe0e7fd50752e8c4e4dc93c",
      "text": "CHAPTER VI.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00320",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 161875,
      "end": 161892,
      "sha256": "ad64cacffd48f6ecc82b5b7eb0debc0a7b7d84af6a1be194ac755dee469af2f7",
      "text": "ON FOREIGN TRADE.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00321",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 161898,
      "end": 163453,
      "sha256": "02a9721a8c17d58130eb2fc07a08b30755d9eb5cdcfa6e87f9b01f161cead0ec",
      "text": "No extension of foreign trade will immediately increase the amount of value in a country, although it will very powerfully contribute to increase the mass of commodities, and therefore the sum of enjoyments. As the value of all foreign goods is measured by the quantity of the produce of our land and labour, which is given in exchange for them, we should have no greater value, if by the discovery of new markets, we obtained double the quantity of foreign goods in exchange for a given quantity of ours. If by the purchase of English goods to the amount of 1000_l._ a merchant can obtain a quantity of foreign goods, which he can sell in the English market for 1,200_l._, he will obtain 20 per cent. profit by such an employment of his capital; but neither his gains, nor the value of the commodities imported, will be increased or diminished by the greater or smaller quantity of foreign goods obtained. Whether, for example, he imports twenty-five or fifty pipes of wine, his interest can be no way affected, if at one time the twenty-five pipes, and at another the fifty pipes, equally sell for 1,200_l._ In either case his profit will be limited to 200_l._, or 20 per cent. on his capital; and in either case the same value will be imported into England. If the fifty pipes sold for more than 1,200_l._, the profits of this individual merchant would exceed the general rate of profits, and capital would naturally flow into this advantageous trade, till the fall of the price of wine had brought every thing to the former level.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00322",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 163457,
      "end": 164177,
      "sha256": "675ca8157a529df68431b7ab4e293114f3ad2249fd6d0b06c0f1a8e8cabe0f12",
      "text": "It has indeed been contended, that the great profits which are sometimes made by particular merchants in foreign trade, will elevate the general rate of profits in the country, and that the abstraction of capital from other employments, to partake of the new and beneficial foreign commerce, will raise prices generally, and thereby increase profits. It has been said, by high authority, that less capital being necessarily devoted to the growth of corn, to the manufacture of cloth, hats, shoes, &c. while the demand continues the same, the price of these commodities will be so increased, that the farmer, hatter, clothier, and shoemaker, will have an increase of profits, as well as the foreign merchant.[13]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00323",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 164181,
      "end": 164577,
      "sha256": "64a293650fc42b4e39d43118fa8c6272ac1269aecb74faadc54eb179cbe9842f",
      "text": "They who hold this argument agree with me, that the profits of different employments have a tendency to conform to one another; to advance and recede together. Our variance consists in this: They contend, that the equality of profits will be brought about by the general rise of profits; and I am of opinion, that the profits of the favoured trade will speedily subside to the general level.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00330",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 171927,
      "end": 173035,
      "sha256": "22786fd95a2e508ecb50f5c2b1e62bf4c3600794f7eb9173141732fee0f98b1a",
      "text": "The remarks which have been made respecting foreign trade, apply equally to home trade. The rate of profits is never increased by a better distribution of labour, by the invention of machinery, by the establishment of roads and canals, or by any means of abridging labour either in the manufacture or in the conveyance of goods. These are causes which operate on price, and never fail to be highly beneficial to consumers; since they enable them with the same labour, or with the value of the produce of the same labour, to obtain in exchange a greater quantity of the commodity to which the improvement is applied; but they have no effect whatever on profit. On the other hand, every diminution in the wages of labour raises profits, but produces no effect on the price of commodities. One is advantageous to all classes, for all classes are consumers; the other is beneficial only to producers; they gain more, but every thing remains at its former price. In the first case, they get the same as before; but every thing on which their gains are expended, is diminished in exchangeable value.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00331",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 173039,
      "end": 173217,
      "sha256": "508b41e2e3ba06ce5346f1f9d05dcec08097e98ea655327a389945307f3b3ddb",
      "text": "The same rule which regulates the relative value of commodities in one country, does not regulate the relative value of the commodities exchanged between two or more countries.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00332",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 173221,
      "end": 174078,
      "sha256": "7c39853687f5483878c7bd2659cc37efa637f744bef8e316441d6a9e70df7c5f",
      "text": "Under a system of perfectly free commerce, each country naturally devotes its capital and labour to such employments as are most beneficial to each. This pursuit of individual advantage is admirably connected with the universal good of the whole. By stimulating industry, by rewarding ingenuity, and by using most efficaciously the peculiar powers bestowed by nature, it distributes labour most effectively and most economically: while, by increasing the general mass of productions, it diffuses general benefit, and binds together by one common tie of interest and intercourse, the universal society of nations throughout the civilized world. It is this principle which determines that wine shall be made in France and Portugal, that corn shall be grown in America and Poland, and that hardware and other goods shall be manufactured in England.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00333",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 174082,
      "end": 174821,
      "sha256": "8b3ac7bd268353ccf1853482e3e0eba377a6c5e69fb7b0e2edfa623ad859a27b",
      "text": "In one and the same country, profits are, generally speaking, always on the same level; or differ only as the employment of capital may be more or less secure and agreeable. It is not so between different countries. If the profits of capital employed in Yorkshire, should exceed those of capital employed in London, capital would speedily move from London to Yorkshire, and an equality of profits would be effected; but if in consequence of the diminished rate of production in the lands of England, from the increase of capital and population, wages should rise, and profits fall, it would not follow that capital and population would necessarily move from England to Holland, or Spain, or Russia, where profits might be higher.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00334",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 174825,
      "end": 175238,
      "sha256": "8b840180c4a2267215de1adf4721ed5bf9fc601e19fccc257613f74b0efe3da7",
      "text": "If Portugal had no commercial connexion with other countries, instead of employing a great part of her capital and industry in the production of wines, with which she purchases for her own use the cloth and hardware of other countries, she would be obliged to devote a part of that capital to the manufacture of those commodities, which she would thus obtain probably inferior in quality as well as quantity.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00335",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 175242,
      "end": 175503,
      "sha256": "b32cb5668376e814c9ed3acd33572fe87c1838d42fa4e055c04a643160448bdc",
      "text": "The quantity of wine which she shall give in exchange for the cloth of England, is not determined by the respective quantities of labour devoted to the production of each, as it would be, if both commodities were manufactured in England, or both in Portugal.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00336",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 175507,
      "end": 175823,
      "sha256": "14970cdf4eb855fdc4421594c8746edbdab48cf0b96a1eb2e4fe0fe1fdc73f56",
      "text": "England may be so circumstanced, that to produce the cloth may require the labour of 100 men for one year; and if she attempted to make the wine, it might require the labour of 120 men for the same time. England would therefore find it her interest to import wine, and to purchase it by the exportation of cloth.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00337",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 175827,
      "end": 176686,
      "sha256": "6b6a457ae218a9a9cfb84e6fe93af0fa916d1c15409533642ad545156b932266",
      "text": "To produce the wine in Portugal, might require only the labour of eighty men for one year, and to produce the cloth in the same country, might require the labour of ninety men for the same time. It would therefore be advantageous for her to export wine in exchange for cloth. This exchange might even take place, notwithstanding that the commodity imported by Portugal could be produced there with less labour than in England. Though she could make the cloth with the labour of ninety men, she would import it from a country where it required the labour of 100 men to produce it, because it would be advantageous to her rather to employ her capital in the production of wine, for which she would obtain more cloth from England, than she could produce by diverting a portion of her capital from the cultivation of vines to the manufacture of cloth.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00338",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 176690,
      "end": 177413,
      "sha256": "f3b299a3d6aac58fe9d0158f0560266db80c8c3a4e58e2cd45adbfa9de5f2634",
      "text": "Thus, England would give the produce of the labour of 100 men for the produce of the labour of 80. Such an exchange could not take place between the individuals of the same country. The labour of 100 Englishmen cannot be given for that of 80 Englishmen, but the produce of the labour of 100 Englishmen may be given for the produce of the labour of 80 Portuguese, 60 Russians, or 120 East Indians. The difference in this respect, between a single country and many, is easily accounted for, by considering the difficulty with which capital moves from one country to another, to seek a more profitable employment, and the activity with which it invariably passes from one province to another in the same country.[14]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00339",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 177417,
      "end": 178263,
      "sha256": "5d865b5ebcd8cc0bf3dff6c3b6028d337ed518308e49fcc13d5a6382750b261c",
      "text": "It would undoubtedly be advantageous to the capitalists of England, and to the consumers in both countries, that under such circumstances, the wine and the cloth should both be made in Portugal, and therefore that the capital and labour of England employed in making cloth, should be removed to Portugal for that purpose. In that case, the relative value of these commodities would be regulated by the same principle, as if one were the produce of Yorkshire, and the other of London; and in every other case, if capital freely flowed towards those countries where it could be most profitably employed, there could be no difference in the rate of profit, and no other difference in the real or labour price of commodities, than the additional quantity of labour required to convey them to the various markets where they were to be sold.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00340",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 178267,
      "end": 178862,
      "sha256": "2d4553d9cfda895dbafd18c1019a05e7bc11629d2479ee69f3f16bc707d0af05",
      "text": "Experience however shews, that the fancied or real insecurity of capital, when not under the immediate control of its owner, together with the natural disinclination which every man has to quit the country of his birth and connexions, and intrust himself with all his habits fixed, to a strange government and new laws, check the emigration of capital. These feelings, which I should be sorry to see weakened, induce most men of property to be satisfied with a low rate of profits in their own country, rather than seek a more advantageous employment for their wealth in foreign nations.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00341",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 178866,
      "end": 179229,
      "sha256": "a2f03a96b415fb614b3a243e92659857f53db2952748ca7a8b2a4d8cf1178675",
      "text": "Gold and silver having been chosen for the general medium of circulation, they are, by the competition of commerce, distributed in such proportions amongst the different countries of the world, as to accommodate themselves to the natural traffic which would take place if no such metals existed, and the trade between countries were purely a trade of barter.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00342",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 179233,
      "end": 181348,
      "sha256": "ab7a64eb7e5a8edd691ac40570a6436f4dfb1c245db21ac3ce7cbb55a92f6756",
      "text": "Thus, cloth cannot be imported into Portugal, unless it sell there for more gold than it cost in the country from which it was imported; and wine cannot be imported into England, unless it will sell for more there than it cost in Portugal. If the trade were purely a trade of barter, it could only continue whilst England could make cloth so cheap as to obtain a greater quantity of wine with a given quantity of labour, by manufacturing cloth than by growing vines; and also whilst the industry of Portugal were attended by the reverse effects. Now suppose England to discover a process for making wine, so that it should become her interest rather to grow it than import it: she would naturally divert a portion of her capital from the foreign trade to the home trade; she would cease to manufacture cloth for exportation, and would grow wine for herself. The money price of these commodities would be regulated accordingly; wine would fall here while cloth continued at its former price, and in Portugal no alteration would take place in the price of either commodity. Cloth would continue for some time to be exported from this country, because its price would continue to be higher in Portugal than here; but money instead of wine would be given in exchange for it, till the accumulation of money here, and its diminution abroad, should so operate on the relative value of cloth in the two countries, that it would cease to be profitable to export it. If the improvement in making wine were of a very important description, it might become profitable for the two countries to exchange employments; for England to make all the wine, and Portugal all the cloth, consumed by them: but this could be effected only by a new distribution of the precious metals, which should raise the price of cloth in England, and lower it in Portugal. The relative price of wine would fall in England in consequence of the real advantage from the improvement of its manufacture; that is to say, its natural price would fall: the relative price of cloth would rise there from the accumulation of money.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00343",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "Thus, suppose before the improvement in making wine in England, the price of wine here were 50_l._ per pipe, and the price of a certain quantity of cloth were 45_l._, whilst in Portugal the price of the same quantity of wine was 45_l._, and that of the same quantity of cloth 50_l._; wine would be exported from Portugal with a profit of 5_l._, and cloth from England with a profit of the same amount.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00344",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "Suppose that, after the improvement, wine falls to 45_l._ in England, the cloth continuing at the same price. Every transaction in commerce is an independent transaction. Whilst a merchant can buy cloth in England for 45_l._, and sell it with the usual profit in Portugal, he will continue to export it from England. His business is simply to purchase English cloth, and to pay for it by a bill of exchange, which he purchases with Portuguese money. It is to him of no importance what becomes of this money; he has discharged his debt by the remittance of the bill. His transaction is undoubtedly regulated by the terms on which he can obtain this bill, but they are known to him at the time; and the causes which may influence the market price of bills, or the rate of exchange, is no consideration of his.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00345",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 182584,
      "end": 183259,
      "sha256": "c1c5fa4e8cd960f7ebeca141082c46c9299e839a94ac4032e66de82f319b9a87",
      "text": "If the markets be favourable for the exportation of wine from Portugal to England, the exporter of the wine will be a seller of a bill, which will be purchased either by the importer of the cloth, or by the person who sold him his bill; and thus without the necessity of money passing from either country, the exporters in each country will be paid for their goods. Without having any direct transaction with each other, the money paid in Portugal by the importer of cloth will be paid to the Portuguese exporter of wine; and in England by the negociation of the same bill, the exporter of the cloth will be authorized to receive its value from the importer of wine.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00364",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 193522,
      "end": 194498,
      "sha256": "baff38cc9d3ff273fdc97de16a3b2b2c1e124edc6801c3fd6cfcab50c42d7e63",
      "text": "If however Poland should be the first to improve her manufactures, if she should succeed in making a commodity which was generally desirable, including great value in little bulk, or if she should be exclusively blessed with some natural production, generally desirable, and not possessed by other countries, she would obtain an additional quantity of gold in exchange for this commodity, which would operate on the price of her corn, cattle, and coarse clothing. The disadvantage of distance would probably be more than compensated by the advantage of having an exportable commodity of great value, and money would be permanently of lower value in Poland than in England. If on the contrary, the advantage of skill and machinery were possessed by England, another reason would be added to that which before existed, why gold should be less valuable in England than in Poland, and why corn, cattle, and clothing, should be at a higher price in the former country.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00365",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "end": 194834,
      "sha256": "ed95f44bc3db16138c0e9b10c336b3a0cc2f10508f5a5555896692dcdffa0b49",
      "text": "These I believe to be the only two causes which regulate the comparative value of money in the different countries of the world; for although taxation occasions a disturbance of the equilibrium of money, it does so by depriving the country in which it is imposed of some of the advantages attending skill, industry, and climate.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00366",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 194838,
      "end": 196638,
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      "text": "It has been my endeavour carefully to distinguish between a low value of money, and a high value of corn, or any other commodity with which money may be compared. These have been generally considered as meaning the same thing; but it is evident, that when corn rises from five to ten shillings a bushel, it may be owing either to a fall in the value of money, or to a rise in the value of corn. Thus we have seen, that from the necessity of having recourse successively to land of a worse and worse quality, in order to feed an increasing population, corn must rise in relative value to other things. If therefore money continue permanently of the same value, corn will exchange for more of such money, that is to say, it will rise in price. The same rise in the price of corn will be produced by such improvement of machinery in manufactures, as shall enable us to manufacture commodities with peculiar advantages: for the influx of money will be the consequence; it will fall in value, and therefore exchange for less corn. But the effects resulting from a high price of corn when produced by the rise in the value of corn, and when caused by a fall in the value of money, are totally different. In both cases the money price of wages will rise, but if it be in consequence of the fall in the value of money, not only wages and corn, but all other commodities will rise. If the manufacturer has more to pay for wages, he will receive more for his manufactured goods, and the rate of profits will remain unaffected. But when the rise in the price of corn is the effect of the difficulty of production, profits will fall; for the manufacturer will be obliged to pay more wages, and will not be enabled to remunerate himself by raising the price of his manufactured commodity.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00367",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 196642,
      "end": 197115,
      "sha256": "4db27e5d1c1027ab0df34422b9d374deaf344be556abf3efbfcfee68fb1a5d91",
      "text": "Any improvement in the facility of working the mines, by which the precious metals may be produced with a less quantity of labour, will sink the value of money generally. It will then exchange for fewer commodities in all countries; but when any particular country excels in manufactures, so as to occasion an influx of money towards it, the value of money will be lower, and the prices of corn and labour will be relatively higher in that country, than in any other.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00368",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 197119,
      "end": 198241,
      "sha256": "93adabb19df75d9d8ab791344d1abc039725bce6e9ce3c104fb6bdbf344c3bf6",
      "text": "This higher value of money will not be indicated by the exchange; bills may continue to be negotiated at par, although the prices of corn and labour should be 10, 20, or 30 per cent. higher in one country than another. Under the circumstances supposed, such a difference of prices is the natural order of things, and the exchange can only be at par when a sufficient quantity of money is introduced into the country excelling in manufactures, so as to raise the price of its corn and labour. If foreign countries should prohibit the exportation of money, and could successfully enforce obedience to such a law, they might indeed prevent the rise in the prices of the corn and labour of the manufacturing country; for such rise can only take place after the influx of the precious metals, supposing paper money not to be used; but they could not prevent the exchange from being very unfavourable to them. If England were the manufacturing country, and it were possible to prevent the importation of money, the exchange with France, Holland, and Spain, might be 5, 10, or 20 per cent. against those countries.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00369",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 198245,
      "end": 199095,
      "sha256": "068785a5bfc7384ef4e01099aed0e98378cd076c87345202e91a8aac999505e2",
      "text": "Whenever the current of money is forcibly stopped, and when money is prevented from settling at its just level, there are no limits to the possible variations of the exchange. The effects are similar to those which follow, when a paper money, not exchangeable for specie at the will of the holder, is forced into circulation. Such a currency is necessarily confined to the country where it is issued: it cannot, when too abundant, diffuse itself generally amongst other countries. The level of circulation is destroyed, and the exchange will inevitably be unfavourable to the country where it is excessive in quantity: just so would be the effects of a metallic circulation, if by forcible means, by laws which could not be evaded, money should be detained in a country, when the stream of trade gave it an impetus towards other countries.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00370",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 199099,
      "end": 199506,
      "sha256": "7e69682117ccbfca555d216ea145779ba9222ac40db0c414a196bbd7f6fe859f",
      "text": "When each country has precisely the quantity of money which it ought to have, money will not indeed be of the same value in each, for with respect to many commodities it may differ 5, 10, or even 20 per cent., but the exchange will be at par. One hundred pounds in England, or the silver which is in 100_l._, will purchase a bill of 100_l._, or an equal quantity of silver in France, Spain, or Holland.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00371",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 199510,
      "end": 199909,
      "sha256": "dcd4c9c761348a916293aa2134f696d92bad0e6824609cf75c45be8483a94755",
      "text": "In speaking of the exchange and the comparative value of money in different countries, we must not in the least refer to the value of money estimated in commodities, in either country. The exchange is never ascertained by estimating the comparative value of money in corn, cloth, or any commodity whatever, but by estimating the value of the currency of one country, in the currency of another.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00372",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 199913,
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      "sha256": "dabf28214af3410c9d9a2c0906cf3690bf7e6c213544d4c32b942d5ac54362f2",
      "text": "It may also be ascertained by comparing it with some standard common to both countries. If a bill on England for 100_l._ will purchase the same quantity of goods in France or Spain, that a bill on Hamburgh for the same sum will do, the exchange between Hamburgh and England is at par; but if a bill on England for 130_l._, will purchase no more than a bill on Hamburgh for 100_l._, the exchange is 30 per cent. against England.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00373",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 200349,
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      "sha256": "a7ad5d0828142a50d1b38f5807c98f084b7e7f9ea5b14ed70f6359f2f23ae7d2",
      "text": "In England 100_l._ may purchase a bill, or the right of receiving 101_l._ in Holland, 102_l._ in France, and 105_l._ in Spain. The exchange with England is, in that case, said to be 1 per cent. against Holland, 2 per cent. against France, and 5 per cent. against Spain. It indicates that the level of currency is higher than it should be in those countries, and the comparative value of their currencies, and that of England, would be immediately restored to par, by abstracting from theirs, or by adding to that of England.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00374",
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      "sha256": "90b0997951398952ec569c265a37c272c21a6f91664ff25845abd8674ed621e8",
      "text": "Those who maintained that our currency was depreciated during the last ten years, when the exchange varied from 20 to 30 per cent. against this country, have never contended, as they have been accused of doing, that money could not be more valuable in one country than another, as compared with various commodities; but they did contend, that 130_l._ could not be detained in England, when it was of no more value, estimated in the money of Hamburgh, or of Holland, than 100_l._",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00375",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 201372,
      "end": 202096,
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      "text": "By sending 130_l._ good English pounds sterling to Hamburgh, even at an expense of 5_l._, I should be possessed there of 125_l._; what then could make me consent to give 130_l._ for a bill which would give me 100_l._ in Hamburgh, but that my pounds were not good pounds sterling?--they were deteriorated, were degraded in intrinsic value below the pounds sterling of Hamburgh, and if actually sent there, at an expense of 5_l._, would sell only for 100_l._ With metallic pounds sterling, it is not denied that my 130_l._ would procure me 125_l._ in Hamburgh, but with paper pounds sterling I can only obtain 100_l._; and yet it is maintained that 130_l._ in paper, is of equal value with 130_l._ in silver or gold.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00451",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 246880,
      "end": 246891,
      "sha256": "dc69c38aa136a468d0c239d5294cb4471429df104d4deb839e8994b881397cc3",
      "text": "CHAPTER IX.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00452",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 246895,
      "end": 246902,
      "sha256": "b7fba7c90643704ab0b0f62ec208c9aef10614db66464538579766142b7bd322",
      "text": "TITHES.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00453",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 246908,
      "end": 247393,
      "sha256": "504e901f54f51267c4636390cc0a1d24d7e9fdb3cfe51019e2dbfc3f150994e0",
      "text": "Tithes are a tax on the gross produce of the land, and, like taxes on raw produce, fall wholly on the consumer. They differ from a tax on rent, inasmuch as they affect land which such a tax would not reach; and raise the price of raw produce, which that tax e of raw produce, which that tax would not alter. Lands of the worst quality, as well as of the best, pay tithes, and exactly in proportion to the quantity of produce obtained from them; tithes are therefore an equal tax.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00454",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 247397,
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      "text": "If land of the last quality, or that which pays no rent, and which regulates the price of corn, yield a sufficient quantity to give the farmer the usual profits of stock, when the price of wheat is 4_l._ per quarter, the price must rise to 4_l._ 8_s._ before the same profits can be obtained after the tithes are imposed, because for every quarter of wheat the cultivator must pay eight shillings to the church.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00455",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 247817,
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      "sha256": "2bc702d67ae2eb7438fe3221564b975b6b7951073d96c600bd968a21f66680cb",
      "text": "The only difference between tithes and taxes on raw produce, is, that one is a variable money tax, the other a fixed money tax. In a stationary state of society, where there is neither increased nor diminished facility of producing corn, they will be precisely the same in their effects; for in such a state corn will be at an invariable price, and the tax will therefore be also invariable. In either a retrograde state, or in a state in which great improvements are made in agriculture, and where consequently raw produce will fall in value comparatively with other things, tithes will be a lighter tax than a permanent money tax; for if the price of corn should fall from 4_l._ to 3_l._, the tax would fall from eight to six shillings. In a progressive state of society, yet without any marked improvements in agriculture, the price of corn would rise, and tithes would be a heavier tax than a permanent money tax. If corn rose from 4_l._ to 5_l._, the tithes on the same land would advance from eight to ten shillings.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00513",
      "bookId": 33310,
      "start": 295931,
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      "text": "If money be not taxed, and therefore be permitted to preserve its value, whilst every thing else is taxed, and is raised in value, the hatter, the farmer, and clothier, each employing the same capitals, and obtaining the same profits, will pay the same amount of tax. If the tax be 100_l._, the hats, the cloth, and the corn, will each be increased in value 100_l._ If the hatter gain by his hats 1100_l._, instead of 1000_l._, he will pay 100_l._ to Government for the tax; and therefore will still have 1000_l._ to lay out on goods for his own consumption. But as the cloth, corn, and all other commodities, will be raised in price from the same cause, he will not obtain more for his 1000_l._ than he before obtained for 910_l._, and thus will he contribute by his diminished expenditure to the exigencies of the state; he will, by the payment of the tax, have placed a portion of the produce of the land and labour of the country at the disposal of Government, instead of using that portion himself. If instead of expending his 1000_l._, he adds it to his capital, he will find in the rise of wages, and in the increased cost of the raw material and machinery, that his saving of 1000_l._ does not amount to more than a saving of 910_l._ amounted to before.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00514",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "end": 298154,
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      "text": "If money be taxed, or if by any other cause its value be altered, and all commodities remain precisely at the same price as before, the profits of the manufacturer and farmer will also be the same as before, they will continue to be 1000_l._; and as they will each have to pay 100_l._ to Government, they will retain only 900_l._, which will give them a less command over the produce of the land and labour of the country, whether they expend it in productive or unproductive labour. Precisely what they lose, Government will gain. In the first case the contributor to the tax would, for 1000_l._, have as great a quantity of goods as he before had for 910_l._; in the second, he would have only as much as he before had for 900_l._ This proceeds from the difference in the amount of the tax; in the first case it is only an eleventh of his income, in the second it is a tenth; money in the two cases being of a different value.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00515",
      "bookId": 33310,
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      "text": "But although, if money be not taxed, and do not alter in value, all commodities will rise in price, they will not rise in the same proportion; they will not after the tax bear the same relative value to each other which they did before the tax. In a former part of this work, we discussed the effects of the division of capital into fixed and circulating, or rather into durable and perishable capital, on the prices of commodities. We shewed that two manufacturers might employ precisely the same amount of capital, and might derive from it precisely the same amount of profits, but that they would sell their commodities for very different sums of money, according as the capitals they employed were rapidly, or slowly, consumed and reproduced. The one might sell his goods for 4000_l._, the other for 10,000_l._, and they might both employ 10,000_l._ of capital, and obtain 20 per cent. profit, or 2000_l._ The capital of one might consist for example of 2000_l._ circulating capital, to be reproduced, and 8000_l._ fixed, in buildings and machinery; the capital of the other on the contrary might consist of 8000_l._ of circulating, and of only 2000_l._ fixed capital in machinery and buildings. Now if each of these persons were to be taxed 10 per cent. on his income, or 200_l._, the one, to make his business yield him the general rate of profit, must raise his goods from 10,000_l._ to 10,200_l._; the other would also be obliged to raise the price of his goods from 4000_l._ to 4200_l._ Before the tax, the goods sold by one of these manufacturers were 2-1/2 times more valuable than the goods of the other; after the tax they will be 2.42 times more valuable: the one kind will have risen 2 per cent.; the other 5 per cent.: consequently a tax upon income, whilst money continued unaltered in value, would alter the relative prices and value of commodities. This is true, if the tax instead of being laid on the profits were laid on the commodities themselves: provided they were taxed in proportion to the value of the capital employed on their production, they would rise equally, whatever might be their value, and therefore they would not preserve the same proportion as before. A commodity, which rose from ten to eleven thousand pounds, would not bear the same relation as before, to another which rose from 2 to 3000_l._ If under these circumstances money rose in value, from whatever cause it might proceed, it would not affect the prices of commodities in the same proportion. The same cause which would lower the price of one from 10,200_l._ to 10,000_l._ or less than 2 per cent., would lower the price of the other from 4200_l._ to 4000_l._ or 4-3/4 per cent. If they fell in any different proportion, profits would not be equal; for to make them equal, when the price of the first commodity was 10,000_l._, the price of the second should be 4000_l._; and when the price of the first was 10,200_l._, the price of the other should be 4200_l._",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33310.B00516",
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      "text": "The consideration of this fact will lead to the understanding of a very important principle, which I believe has never been adverted to. It is this; that in a country where no taxation subsists, the alteration in the value of money arising from scarcity or abundance will operate in an equal proportion on the prices of all commodities; that if a commodity of 1000_l._ value rise to 1200_l._, or fall to 800_l._, a commodity of 10,000_l._ value will rise to 12,000_l._ or fall to 8000_l._; but in a country where prices are artificially raised by taxation, the abundance of money from an influx, or the exportation and consequent scarcity of it from foreign demand, will not operate in the same proportion on the prices of all commodities; some it will raise or lower 5, 6, or 12 per cent., others 3, 4, or 7 per cent. If a country were not taxed, and money should fall in value, its abundance in every market would produce similar effects in each. If meat rose 20 per cent., bread, beer, shoes, labour, and every commodity, would also rise 20 per cent.; it is necessary they should do so, to secure to each trade the same rate of profits. But this is no longer true when any of these commodities is taxed; if in that case they should all rise in proportion to the fall in the value of money, profits would be rendered unequal; in the case of the commodities taxed profits would be raised above the general level, and capital would be removed from one employment to another, till an equilibrium of profits was restored, which could only be, after the relative prices were altered.",
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      "text": "Will not this principle account for the different effects, which it was remarked were produced on the prices of commodities, from the altered value of money during the Bank-restriction? It was objected to those who contended that the currency was at that period depreciated, from the too great abundance of the paper circulation, that, if that were the fact, all commodities ought to have risen in the same proportion; but it was found that many had varied considerably more than others, and thence it was inferred that the rise of prices was owing to something affecting the value of commodities, and not to any alteration in the value of the currency. It appears however, as we have just seen, that in a country where commodities are taxed, they will not all vary in price in the same proportion, either in consequence of a rise or of a fall in the value of currency.",
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      "text": "TAXES ON WAGES.",
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      "text": "Taxes on wages will raise wages, and therefore will diminish the rate of the profits of stock. We have already seen that a tax on necessaries will raise their prices, and will be followed by a rise of wages. The only difference between a tax on necessaries, and a tax on wages is, that the former will necessarily be accompanied by a rise in the price of necessaries, but the latter will not; towards a tax on wages, consequently, neither the stockholder, the landlord, nor any other class but the employers of labour will contribute. A tax on wages is wholly a tax on profits, a tax on necessaries is partly a tax on profits, and partly a tax on rich consumers. The ultimate effects which will result from such taxes then are precisely the same as those which result from a direct tax on profits.",
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      "text": "\"The wages of the inferior classes of workmen,\" says Adam Smith, \"I have endeavoured to shew in the first book, are every where necessarily regulated by two different circumstances; the demand for labour, and the ordinary or average price of provisions. The demand for labour, according as it happens to be either increasing, stationary, or declining, or to require an increasing, stationary, or declining population, regulates the subsistence of the labourer, and determines in what degree it shall be either liberal, moderate, or scanty. The _ordinary or average_ price of provisions determines the quantity of money which must be paid to the workman, in order to enable him one year with another to purchase this liberal, moderate, or scanty subsistence. While the demand for labour, and the price of provisions, therefore remain the same, a direct tax upon the wages of labour can have no other effect than to raise them somewhat higher than the tax.\"",
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      "text": "To the proposition, as it is here advanced by Dr. Smith, Mr. Buchanan offers two objections. First, he denies that the money wages of labour are regulated by the price of provisions; and secondly, he denies that a tax on the wages of labour would raise the price of labour. On the first point, Mr. Buchanan's argument is as follows, page 59: \"The wages of labour, it has already been remarked, consist not in money, but in what money purchases, namely, provisions and other necessaries; and the allowance of the labourer out of the common stock, will always be in proportion to the supply. Where provisions are _cheap and abundant_, his share will be the larger; and where they are _scarce and dear_, it will be the less. His wages will always give him his just share, and they cannot give him more. It is an opinion indeed, adopted by Dr. Smith and most other writers, that the money price of labour is regulated by the money price of provisions, and that when provisions rise in price, wages rise in proportion. But it is clear that the price of labour has no necessary connexion with the price of food, since it depends entirely on the supply of labourers compared with the demand. Besides, it is to be observed, that the high price of provisions is a certain indication of a deficient supply, and arises in the natural course of things, for the purpose of retarding the consumption. A smaller supply of food, shared among the same number of consumers, will evidently leave a smaller portion to each, and the labourer must bear his share of the common want. To distribute this burden equally, and to prevent the labourer from consuming subsistence so freely as before, the price rises. But wages it seems must rise along with it, that he may still use the same quantity of a scarcer commodity; and thus nature is represented as counteracting her own purposes: first, raising the price of food, to diminish the consumption, and afterwards, raising wages to give the labourer the same supply as before.\"",
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      "text": "In this argument of Mr. Buchanan, there appears to me, to be a great mixture of truth and error. Because a high price of provisions is sometimes occasioned by a deficient supply, Mr. Buchanan assumes it as a certain indication of a deficient supply. He attributes to one cause exclusively, that which may arise from many. It is undoubtedly true, that in the case of a deficient supply, a smaller quantity will be shared among the same number of consumers, and a smaller portion will fall to each. To distribute this privation equally, and to prevent the labourer from consuming subsistence so freely as before, the price rises. It must therefore be conceded to Mr. Buchanan, that any rise in the price of provisions, occasioned by a deficient supply, will not necessarily raise the money wages of labour; as the consumption must be retarded; which can only be effected by diminishing the power of the consumers to purchase. But, because the price of provisions is raised by a deficient supply, we are by no means warranted in concluding, as Mr. Buchanan appears to do, that there may not be an abundant supply, with a high price; not a high price with regard to money only, but with regard to all other things.",
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      "text": "Of all commodities, none are perhaps so proper for taxation, as those which either by the aid of nature or art, are produced with peculiar facility. With respect to foreign countries, such commodities may be classed under the head of those which are not regulated in their price by the quantity of labour bestowed, but rather by the caprice, the tastes, and the power of the purchasers. If England had more productive tin mines than other countries, or if from superior machinery or fuel she had peculiar facilities in manufacturing cotton goods, the prices of tin, and of cotton goods would still in England be regulated by the comparative quantity of labour and capital required to produce them, and the competition of our merchants would make them very little dearer to the foreign consumer. Our advantage in the production of these commodities might be so decided, that probably they could bear a very great additional price in the foreign market, without very materially diminishing their consumption. This price they never could attain, whilst competition was free at home, by any other means but by a tax on their exportation. This tax would fall wholly on foreign consumers, and part of the expenses of the Government of England would be defrayed, by a tax on the land and labour of other countries. The tax on tea, which at present is paid by the people of England, and goes to aid the expenses of the Government of England, might, if laid in China, on the exportation of the tea, be diverted to the payment of the expenses of the Government of China.",
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      "text": "Taxes on luxuries have some advantage over taxes on necessaries. They are generally paid from income, and therefore do not diminish the productive capital of the country. If wine were much raised in price in consequence of taxation, it is probable that a man would rather forego the enjoyments of wine, than make any important encroachments on his capital, to be enabled to purchase it. They are so identified with price, that the contributor is hardly aware that he is paying a tax. But they have also their disadvantages. First, they never reach capital, and on some extraordinary occasions it may be expedient that even capital should contribute towards the public exigencies; and secondly, there is no certainty as to the amount of the tax, for it may not reach even income. A man intent on saving will exempt himself from a tax on wine, by giving up the use of it. The income of the country may be undiminished, and yet the state may be unable to raise a shilling by the tax.",
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      "text": "Whatever habit has rendered delightful, will be relinquished with reluctance, and will continue to be consumed notwithstanding a very heavy tax; but this reluctance has its limits, and experience every day demonstrates that an increase in the nominal amount of taxation, often diminishes the produce. One man will continue to drink the same quantity of wine, though the price of every bottle should be raised three shillings, who would yet relinquish the use of wine rather than pay four. Another will be content to pay four, yet refuse to pay five shillings. The same may be said of other taxes on luxuries: many would pay a tax of 5_l._ for the enjoyment which a horse affords, who would not pay 10_l._ or 20_l._ It is not because they cannot pay more, that they give up the use of wine and of horses, but because they will not pay more. Every man has some standard in his own mind by which he estimates the value of his enjoyments, but that standard is as various as the human character. A country whose financial situation has become extremely artificial, by the mischievous policy of accumulating a large national debt, and a consequently enormous taxation, is particularly exposed to the inconvenience attendant on this mode of raising taxes. After visiting with a tax the whole round of luxuries; after laying horses, carriages, wine, servants, and all the other enjoyments of the rich, under contribution; a minister is disposed to conclude that the country is arrived at the maximum of taxation, because by increasing the rate, he cannot increase the amount of any one of these taxes. But in this conclusion he will not be always correct, for it is very possible that such a country could bear a very great addition to its burdens without infringing on the integrity of its capital.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XV.",
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      "text": "TAXES ON OTHER COMMODITIES THAN RAW PRODUCE.",
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      "text": "In this state of things it is evident that a guinea might sometimes pass for 22_s._ or more, and sometimes for 18_s._ or less, depending entirely on the alteration in the relative market value of gold and silver. All the variations too in the value of gold, as well as in the value of silver, would be rated in the gold coin,--it would appear as if silver was invariable, and that gold only was subject to rise or fall. Thus, although a guinea passed for 22_s._ instead of 18_s._ gold might not have varied in value, the variation might have been wholly confined to the silver, and therefore 22_s._ might have been of no more value than 18_s._ were before. And on the contrary, the whole variation might have been in the gold: a guinea, which was worth 18_s._ might have risen to the value of 22_s._",
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      "text": "If now we suppose this silver currency to be debased by clipping, and also increased in quantity, a guinea might pass for 30_s._; for the silver in 30_s._ of such debased money might be of no more value than the gold in one guinea. By restoring the silver currency to its mint value, silver money would rise; but it would appear as if gold fell, for a guinea would probably be of no more value than 21 of such good shillings.",
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      "text": "If now gold be also made a legal tender, and every debtor be at liberty to discharge a debt by the payment of 420 shillings, or twenty guineas, for every 21_l._ that he owes, he will pay in one or the other according as he can most cheaply discharge his debt. If with five quarters of wheat he can procure as much gold bullion as the mint will coin into twenty guineas, and for the same wheat as much silver bullion as the mint will coin for him into 430 shillings, he will prefer paying in silver, because he would be a gainer of ten shillings by so paying his debt. But if on the contrary he could obtain with this wheat as much gold as would be coined into twenty guineas and a half, and as much silver only as would coin into 420 shillings, he would naturally prefer paying his debt in gold. If the quantity of gold which he could procure could be coined only into twenty guineas, and the quantity of silver into 420 shillings, it would be a matter of perfect indifference to him in which money, silver or gold, it was that he paid his debt. It is not then a matter of chance; it is not because gold is better fitted for carrying on the circulation of a rich country, that gold is ever preferred for the purpose of paying debts; but simply because it is the interest of the debtor so to pay them.",
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      "text": "During a long period previous to 1797, the year of the restriction on the Bank payments in coin, gold was so cheap, compared with silver, that it suited the Bank of England, and all other debtors, to purchase gold in the market, and not silver, for the purpose of carrying it to the mint to be coined, as they could in that coined metal more cheaply discharge their debts. The silver currency was during a great part of this period very much debased, but it existed in a degree of scarcity, and therefore on the principle which I have before explained, it never sunk in its current value. Though so debased, it was still the interest of debtors to pay in the gold coin. If indeed the quantity of this debased silver coin had been enormously great, or if the mint had issued such debased pieces, it might have been the interest of debtors to pay in this debased money; but its quantity was limited and it sustained its value, and therefore gold was in practice the real standard of currency.",
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      "text": "That it was so, is no where denied; but it has been contended that it was made so by the law which declared that silver should not be a legal tender for any debt exceeding 25_l._, unless by weight, according to the mint standard.",
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      "text": "The Project Gutenberg eBook of The History of Mary Prince, a West Indian Slave",
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      "text": "This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.",
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      "text": "Title: The History of Mary Prince, a West Indian Slave",
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      "text": "Author: Mary Prince",
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      "text": "Release date: February 24, 2006 [eBook #17851]",
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      "text": "THE NARRATIVE OF ASA-ASA,",
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      "text": "A CAPTURED AFRICAN.",
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      "text": "\"By our sufferings, since ye brought us To the man-degrading mart,-- All sustain'd by patience, taught us Only by a broken heart,-- Deem our nation brutes no longer, Till some reason ye shall find Worthier of regard, and stronger Than the colour of our kind.\" COWPER.",
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      "text": "LONDON: PUBLISHED BY F. WESTLEY AND A. H. DAVIS, STATIONERS' HALL COURT; AND BY WAUGH & INNES, EDINBURGH.",
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      "text": "1831.",
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      "text": "PREFACE.",
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      "text": "The idea of writing Mary Prince's history was first suggested by herself. She wished it to be done, she said, that good people in England might hear from a slave what a slave had felt and suffered; and a letter of her late master's, which will be found in the Supplement, induced me to accede to her wish without farther delay. The more immediate object of the publication will afterwards appear.",
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      "text": "The narrative was taken down from Mary's own lips by a lady who happened to be at the time residing in my family as a visitor. It was written out fully, with all the narrator's repetitions and prolixities, and afterwards pruned into its present shape; retaining, as far as was practicable, Mary's exact expressions and peculiar phraseology. No fact of importance has been omitted, and not a single circumstance or sentiment has been added. It is essentially her own, without any material alteration farther than was requisite to exclude redundancies and gross grammatical errors, so as to render it clearly intelligible.",
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      "text": "After it had been thus written out, I went over the whole, carefully examining her on every fact and circumstance detailed; and in all that relates to her residence in Antigua I had the advantage of being assisted in this scrutiny by Mr. Joseph Phillips, who was a resident in that colony during the same period, and had known her there.",
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      "text": "The names of all the persons mentioned by the narrator have been printed in full, except those of Capt. I---- and his wife, and that of Mr. D----, to whom conduct of peculiar atrocity is ascribed. These three individuals are now gone to answer at a far more awful tribunal than that of public opinion, for the deeds of which their former bondwoman accuses them; and to hold them up more openly to human reprobation could no longer affect themselves, while it might deeply lacerate the feelings of their surviving and perhaps innocent relatives, without any commensurate public advantage.",
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      "text": "Without detaining the reader with remarks on other points which will be adverted to more conveniently in the Supplement, I shall here merely notice farther, that the Anti-Slavery Society have no concern whatever with this publication, nor are they in any degree responsible for the statements it contains. I have published the tract, not as their Secretary, but in my private capacity; and any profits that may arise from the sale will be exclusively appropriated to the benefit of Mary Prince herself.",
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      "text": "THO. PRINGLE.",
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      "text": "THE HISTORY OF MARY PRINCE, A WEST INDIAN SLAVE.",
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      "text": "(Related by herself.)",
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      "text": "I was born at Brackish-Pond, in Bermuda, on a farm belonging to Mr. Charles Myners. My mother was a household slave; and my father, whose name was Prince, was a sawyer belonging to Mr. Trimmingham, a ship-builder at Crow-Lane. When I was an infant, old Mr. Myners died, and there was a division of the slaves and other property among the family. I was bought along with my mother by old Captain Darrel, and given to his grandchild, little Miss Betsey Williams. Captain Williams, Mr. Darrel's son-in-law, was master of a vessel which traded to several places in America and the West Indies, and he was seldom at home long together.",
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      "text": "Mrs. Williams was a kind-hearted good woman, and she treated all her slaves well. She had only one daughter, Miss Betsey, for whom I was purchased, and who was about my own age. I was made quite a pet of by Miss Betsey, and loved her very much. She used to lead me about by the hand, and call me her little nigger. This was the happiest period of my life; for I was too young to understand rightly my condition as a slave, and too thoughtless and full of spirits to look forward to the days of toil and sorrow.",
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      "text": "My mother was a household slave in the same family. I was under her own care, and my little brothers and sisters were my play-fellows and companions. My mother had several fine children after she came to Mrs. Williams,--three girls and two boys. The tasks given out to us children were light, and we used to play together with Miss Betsey, with as much freedom almost as if she had been our sister.",
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      "text": "My master, however, was a very harsh, selfish man; and we always dreaded his return from sea. His wife was herself much afraid of him; and, during his stay at home, seldom dared to shew her usual kindness to the slaves. He often left her, in the most distressed circumstances, to reside in other female society, at some place in the West Indies of which I have forgot the name. My poor mistress bore his ill-treatment with great patience, and all her slaves loved and pitied her. I was truly attached to her, and, next to my own mother, loved her better than any creature in the world. My obedience to her commands was cheerfully given: it sprung solely from the affection I felt for her, and not from fear of the power which the white people's law had given her over me.",
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      "text": "I had scarcely reached my twelfth year when my mistress became too poor to keep so many of us at home; and she hired me out to Mrs. Pruden, a lady who lived about five miles off, in the adjoining parish, in a large house near the sea. I cried bitterly at parting with my dear mistress and Miss Betsey, and when I kissed my mother and brothers and sisters, I thought my young heart would break, it pained me so. But there was no help; I was forced to go. Good Mrs. Williams comforted me by saying that I should still be near the home I was about to quit, and might come over and see her and my kindred whenever I could obtain leave of absence from Mrs. Pruden. A few hours after this I was taken to a strange house, and found myself among strange people. This separation seemed a sore trial to me then; but oh! 'twas light, light to the trials I have since endured!--'twas nothing--nothing to be mentioned with them; but I was a child then, and it was according to my strength.",
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      "text": "I knew that Mrs. Williams could no longer maintain me; that she was fain to part with me for my food and clothing; and I tried to submit myself to the change. My new mistress was a passionate woman; but yet she did not treat me very unkindly. I do not remember her striking me but once, and that was for going to see Mrs. Williams when I heard she was sick, and staying longer than she had given me leave to do. All my employment at this time was nursing a sweet baby, little Master Daniel; and I grew so fond of my nursling that it was my greatest delight to walk out with him by the sea-shore, accompanied by his brother and sister, Miss Fanny and Master James.--Dear Miss Fanny! She was a sweet, kind young lady, and so fond of me that she wished me to learn all that she knew herself; and her method of teaching me was as follows:--Directly she had said her lessons to her grandmamma, she used to come running to me, and make me repeat them one by one after her; and in a few months I was able not only to say my letters but to spell many small words. But this happy state was not to last long. Those days were too pleasant to last. My heart always softens when I think of them.",
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      "text": "At this time Mrs. Williams died. I was told suddenly of her death, and my grief was so great that, forgetting I had the baby in my arms, I ran away directly to my poor mistress's house; but reached it only in time to see the corpse carried out. Oh, that was a day of sorrow,--a heavy day! All the slaves cried. My mother cried and lamented her sore; and I (foolish creature!) vainly entreated them to bring my dear mistress back to life. I knew nothing rightly about death then, and it seemed a hard thing to bear. When I thought about my mistress I felt as if the world was all gone wrong; and for many days and weeks I could think of nothing else. I returned to Mrs. Pruden's; but my sorrow was too great to be comforted, for my own dear mistress was always in my mind. Whether in the house or abroad, my thoughts were always talking to me about her.",
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      "text": "I staid at Mrs. Pruden's about three months after this; I was then sent back to Mr. Williams to be sold. Oh, that was a sad sad time! I recollect the day well. Mrs. Pruden came to me and said, \"Mary, you will have to go home directly; your master is going to be married, and he means to sell you and two of your sisters to raise money for the wedding.\" Hearing this I burst out a crying,--though I was then far from being sensible of the full weight of my misfortune, or of the misery that waited for me. Besides, I did not like to leave Mrs. Pruden, and the dear baby, who had grown very fond of me. For some time I could scarcely believe that Mrs. Pruden was in earnest, till I received orders for my immediate return.--Dear Miss Fanny! how she cried at parting with me, whilst I kissed and hugged the baby, thinking I should never see him again. I left Mrs. Pruden's, and walked home with a heart full of sorrow. The idea of being sold away from my mother and Miss Betsey was so frightful, that I dared not trust myself to think about it. We had been bought of Mr. Myners, as I have mentioned, by Miss Betsey's grandfather, and given to her, so that we were by right _her_ property, and I never thought we should be separated or sold away from her.",
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      "text": "When I reached the house, I went in directly to Miss Betsey. I found her in great distress; and she cried out as soon as she saw me, \"Oh, Mary! my father is going to sell you all to raise money to marry that wicked woman. You are _my_ slaves, and he has no right to sell you; but it is all to please her.\" She then told me that my mother was living with her father's sister at a house close by, and I went there to see her. It was a sorrowful meeting; and we lamented with a great and sore crying our unfortunate situation. \"Here comes one of my poor picaninnies!\" she said, the moment I came in, \"one of the poor slave-brood who are to be sold to-morrow.\"",
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      "text": "Oh dear! I cannot bear to think of that day,--it is too much.--It recalls the great grief that filled my heart, and the woeful thoughts that passed to and fro through my mind, whilst listening to the pitiful words of my poor mother, weeping for the loss of her children. I wish I could find words to tell you all I then felt and suffered. The great God above alone knows the thoughts of the poor slave's heart, and the bitter pains which follow such separations as these. All that we love taken away from us--Oh, it is sad, sad! and sore to be borne!--I got no sleep that night for thinking of the morrow; and dear Miss Betsey was scarcely less distressed. She could not bear to part with her old playmates, and she cried sore and would not be pacified.",
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      "text": "The black morning at length came; it came too soon for my poor mother and us. Whilst she was putting on us the new osnaburgs in which we were to be sold, she said, in a sorrowful voice, (I shall never forget it!) \"See, I am _shrouding_ my poor children; what a task for a mother!\"--She then called Miss Betsey to take leave of us. \"I am going to carry my little chickens to market,\" (these were her very words,) \"take your last look of them; may be you will see them no more.\" \"Oh, my poor slaves! my own slaves!\" said dear Miss Betsey, \"you belong to me; and it grieves my heart to part with you.\"--Miss Betsey kissed us all, and, when she left us, my mother called the rest of the slaves to bid us good bye. One of them, a woman named Moll, came with her infant in her arms. \"Ay!\" said my mother, seeing her turn away and look at her child with the tears in her eyes, \"your turn will come next.\" The slaves could say nothing to comfort us; they could only weep and lament with us. When I left my dear little brothers and the house in which I had been brought up, I thought my heart would burst.",
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      "text": "Our mother, weeping as she went, called me away with the children Hannah and Dinah, and we took the road that led to Hamble Town, which we reached about four o'clock in the afternoon. We followed my mother to the market-place, where she placed us in a row against a large house, with our backs to the wall and our arms folded across our breasts. I, as the eldest, stood first, Hannah next to me, then Dinah; and our mother stood beside, crying over us. My heart throbbed with grief and terror so violently, that I pressed my hands quite tightly across my breast, but I could not keep it still, and it continued to leap as though it would burst out of my body. But who cared for that? Did one of the many by-standers, who were looking at us so carelessly, think of the pain that wrung the hearts of the negro woman and her young ones? No, no! They were not all bad, I dare say; but slavery hardens white people's hearts towards the blacks; and many of them were not slow to make their remarks upon us aloud, without regard to our grief--though their light words fell like cayenne on the fresh wounds of our hearts. Oh those white people have small hearts who can only feel for themselves.",
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      "text": "At length the vendue master, who was to offer us for sale like sheep or cattle, arrived, and asked my mother which was the eldest. She said nothing, but pointed to me. He took me by the hand, and led me out into the middle of the street, and, turning me slowly round, exposed me to the view of those who attended the vendue. I was soon surrounded by strange men, who examined and handled me in the same manner that a butcher would a calf or a lamb he was about to purchase, and who talked about my shape and size in like words--as if I could no more understand their meaning than the dumb beasts. I was then put up to sale. The bidding commenced at a few pounds, and gradually rose to fifty-seven,[1] when I was knocked down to the highest bidder; and the people who stood by said that I had fetched a great sum for so young a slave.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Bermuda currency; about L38 sterling.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Let the reader compare the above affecting account, taken down from the mouth of this negro woman, with the following description of a vendue of slaves at the Cape of Good Hope, published by me in 1826, from the letter of a friend,--and mark their similarity in several characteristic circumstances. The resemblance is easily accounted for: slavery wherever it prevails produces similar effects.--\"Having heard that there was to be a sale of cattle, farm stock, &c. by auction, at a Veld-Cornet's in the vicinity, we halted our waggon one day for the purpose of procuring a fresh spann of oxen. Among the stock of the farm sold, was a female slave and her three children. The two eldest children were girls, the one about thirteen years of age, and the other about eleven; the youngest was a boy. The whole family were exhibited together, but they were sold separately, and to different purchasers. The farmers examined them as if they had been so many head of cattle. While the sale was going on, the mother and her children were exhibited on a table, that they might be seen by the company, which was very large. There could not have been a finer subject for an able painter than this unhappy group. The tears, the anxiety, the anguish of the mother, while she met the gaze of the multitude, eyed the different countenances of the bidders, or cast a heart-rending look upon the children; and the simplicity and touching sorrow of the young ones, while they clung to their distracted parent, wiping their eyes, and half concealing their faces,--contrasted with the marked insensibility and jocular countenances of the spectators and purchasers,--furnished a striking commentary on the miseries of slavery, and its debasing effects upon the hearts of its abettors. While the woman was in this distressed situation she was asked, 'Can you feed sheep?' Her reply was so indistinct that it escaped me; but it was probably in the negative, for her purchaser rejoined, in a loud and harsh voice, 'Then I will teach you with the sjamboc,' (a whip made of the rhinoceros' hide.) The mother and her three children were sold to three separate purchasers; and they were literally torn from each other.\"--_Ed._]",
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      "text": "My new master was a Captain I----, who lived at Spanish Point. After parting with my mother and sisters, I followed him to his store, and he gave me into the charge of his son, a lad about my own age, Master Benjy, who took me to my new home. I did not know where I was going, or what my new master would do with me. My heart was quite broken with grief, and my thoughts went back continually to those from whom I had been so suddenly parted. \"Oh, my mother! my mother!\" I kept saying to myself, \"Oh, my mammy and my sisters and my brothers, shall I never see you again!\"",
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      "text": "Oh, the trials! the trials! they make the salt water come into my eyes when I think of the days in which I was afflicted--the times that are gone; when I mourned and grieved with a young heart for those whom I loved.",
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      "text": "It was night when I reached my new home. The house was large, and built at the bottom of a very high hill; but I could not see much of it that night. I saw too much of it afterwards. The stones and the timber were the best things in it; they were not so hard as the hearts of the owners.[3]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: These strong expressions, and all of a similar character in this little narrative, are given verbatim as uttered by Mary Prince.--_Ed._]",
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      "text": "Before I entered the house, two slave women, hired from another owner, who were at work in the yard, spoke to me, and asked who I belonged to? I replied, \"I am come to live here.\" \"Poor child, poor child!\" they both said; \"you must keep a good heart, if you are to live here.\"--When I went in, I stood up crying in a corner. Mrs. I---- came and took off my hat, a little black silk hat Miss Pruden made for me, and said in a rough voice, \"You are not come here to stand up in corners and cry, you are come here to work.\" She then put a child into my arms, and, tired as I was, I was forced instantly to take up my old occupation of a nurse.--I could not bear to look at my mistress, her countenance was so stern. She was a stout tall woman with a very dark complexion, and her brows were always drawn together into a frown. I thought of the words of the two slave women when I saw Mrs. I----, and heard the harsh sound of her voice.",
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      "text": "The person I took the most notice of that night was a French Black called Hetty, whom my master took in privateering from another vessel, and made his slave. She was the most active woman I ever saw, and she was tasked to her utmost. A few minutes after my arrival she came in from milking the cows, and put the sweet-potatoes on for supper. She then fetched home the sheep, and penned them in the fold; drove home the cattle, and staked them about the pond side;[4] fed and rubbed down my master's horse, and gave the hog and the fed cow[5] their suppers; prepared the beds, and undressed the children, and laid them to sleep. I liked to look at her and watch all her doings, for hers was the only friendly face I had as yet seen, and I felt glad that she was there. She gave me my supper of potatoes and milk, and a blanket to sleep upon, which she spread for me in the passage before the door of Mrs. I----'s chamber.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 4: The cattle on a small plantation in Bermuda are, it seems, often thus staked or tethered, both night and day, in situations where grass abounds.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 5: A cow fed for slaughter.]",
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      "text": "I got a sad fright, that night. I was just going to sleep, when I heard a noise in my mistress's room; and she presently called out to inquire if some work was finished that she had ordered Hetty to do. \"No, Ma'am, not yet,\" was Hetty's answer from below. On hearing this, my master started up from his bed, and just as he was, in his shirt, ran down stairs with a long cow-skin[6] in his hand. I heard immediately after, the cracking of the thong, and the house rang to the shrieks of poor Hetty, who kept crying out, \"Oh, Massa! Massa! me dead. Massa! have mercy upon me--don't kill me outright.\"--This was a sad beginning for me. I sat up upon my blanket, trembling with terror, like a frightened hound, and thinking that my turn would come next. At length the house became still, and I forgot for a little while all my sorrows by falling fast asleep.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 6: A thong of hard twisted hide, known by this name in the West Indies.]",
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      "text": "The next morning my mistress set about instructing me in my tasks. She taught me to do all sorts of household work; to wash and bake, pick cotton and wool, and wash floors, and cook. And she taught me (how can I ever forget it!) more things than these; she caused me to know the exact difference between the smart of the rope, the cart-whip, and the cow-skin, when applied to my naked body by her own cruel hand. And there was scarcely any punishment more dreadful than the blows I received on my face and head from her hard heavy fist. She was a fearful woman, and a savage mistress to her slaves.",
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      "text": "Poor Hetty, my fellow slave, was very kind to me, and I used to call her my Aunt; but she led a most miserable life, and her death was hastened (at least the slaves all believed and said so,) by the dreadful chastisement she received from my master during her pregnancy. It happened as follows. One of the cows had dragged the rope away from the stake to which Hetty had fastened it, and got loose. My master flew into a terrible passion, and ordered the poor creature to be stripped quite naked, notwithstanding her pregnancy, and to be tied up to a tree in the yard. He then flogged her as hard as he could lick, both with the whip and cow-skin, till she was all over streaming with blood. He rested, and then beat her again and again. Her shrieks were terrible. The consequence was that poor Hetty was brought to bed before her time, and was delivered after severe labour of a dead child. She appeared to recover after her confinement, so far that she was repeatedly flogged by both master and mistress afterwards; but her former strength never returned to her. Ere long her body and limbs swelled to a great size; and she lay on a mat in the kitchen, till the water burst out of her body and she died. All the slaves said that death was a good thing for poor Hetty; but I cried very much for her death. The manner of it filled me with horror. I could not bear to think about it; yet it was always present to my mind for many a day.",
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      "text": "After Hetty died all her labours fell upon me, in addition to my own. I had now to milk eleven cows every morning before sunrise, sitting among the damp weeds; to take care of the cattle as well as the children; and to do the work of the house. There was no end to my toils--no end to my blows. I lay down at night and rose up in the morning in fear and sorrow; and often wished that like poor Hetty I could escape from this cruel bondage and be at rest in the grave. But the hand of that God whom then I knew not, was stretched over me; and I was mercifully preserved for better things. It was then, however, my heavy lot to weep, weep, weep, and that for years; to pass from one misery to another, and from one cruel master to a worse. But I must go on with the thread of my story.",
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      "text": "One day a heavy squall of wind and rain came on suddenly, and my mistress sent me round the corner of the house to empty a large earthen jar. The jar was already cracked with an old deep crack that divided it in the middle, and in turning it upside down to empty it, it parted in my hand. I could not help the accident, but I was dreadfully frightened, looking forward to a severe punishment. I ran crying to my mistress, \"O mistress, the jar has come in two.\" \"You have broken it, have you?\" she replied; \"come directly here to me.\" I came trembling; she stripped and flogged me long and severely with the cow-skin; as long as she had strength to use the lash, for she did not give over till she was quite tired.--When my master came home at night, she told him of my fault; and oh, frightful! how he fell a swearing. After abusing me with every ill name he could think of, (too, too bad to speak in England,) and giving me several heavy blows with his hand, he said, \"I shall come home to-morrow morning at twelve, on purpose to give you a round hundred.\" He kept his word--Oh sad for me! I cannot easily forget it. He tied me up upon a ladder, and gave me a hundred lashes with his own hand, and master Benjy stood by to count them for him. When he had licked me for some time he sat down to take breath; then after resting, he beat me again and again, until he was quite wearied, and so hot (for the weather was very sultry), that he sank back in his chair, almost like to faint. While my mistress went to bring him drink, there was a dreadful earthquake. Part of the roof fell down, and every thing in the house went--clatter, clatter, clatter. Oh I thought the end of all things near at hand; and I was so sore with the flogging, that I scarcely cared whether I lived or died. The earth was groaning and shaking; every thing tumbling about; and my mistress and the slaves were shrieking and crying out, \"The earthquake! the earthquake!\" It was an awful day for us all.",
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      "text": "During the confusion I crawled away on my hands and knees, and laid myself down under the steps of the piazza, in front of the house. I was in a dreadful state--my body all blood and bruises, and I could not help moaning piteously. The other slaves, when they saw me, shook their heads and said, \"Poor child! poor child!\"--I lay there till the morning, careless of what might happen, for life was very weak in me, and I wished more than ever to die. But when we are very young, death always seems a great way off, and it would not come that night to me. The next morning I was forced by my master to rise and go about my usual work, though my body and limbs were so stiff and sore, that I could not move without the greatest pain.--Nevertheless, even after all this severe punishment, I never heard the last of that jar; my mistress was always throwing it in my face.",
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      "text": "Some little time after this, one of the cows got loose from the stake, and eat one of the sweet-potatoe slips. I was milking when my master found it out. He came to me, and without any more ado, stooped down, and taking off his heavy boot, he struck me such a severe blow in the small of my back, that I shrieked with agony, and thought I was killed; and I feel a weakness in that part to this day. The cow was frightened at his violence, and kicked down the pail and spilt the milk all about. My master knew that this accident was his own fault, but he was so enraged that he seemed glad of an excuse to go on with his ill usage. I cannot remember how many licks he gave me then, but he beat me till I was unable to stand, and till he himself was weary.",
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      "text": "After this I ran away and went to my mother, who was living with Mr. Richard Darrel. My poor mother was both grieved and glad to see me; grieved because I had been so ill used, and glad because she had not seen me for a long, long while. She dared not receive me into the house, but she hid me up in a hole in the rocks near, and brought me food at night, after every body was asleep. My father, who lived at Crow-Lane, over the salt-water channel, at last heard of my being hid up in the cavern, and he came and took me back to my master. Oh I was loth, loth to go back; but as there was no remedy, I was obliged to submit.",
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      "text": "When we got home, my poor father said to Capt. I----, \"Sir, I am sorry that my child should be forced to run away from her owner; but the treatment she has received is enough to break her heart. The sight of her wounds has nearly broke mine.--I entreat you, for the love of God, to forgive her for running away, and that you will be a kind master to her in future.\" Capt. I---- said I was used as well as I deserved, and that I ought to be punished for running away. I then took courage and said that I could stand the floggings no longer; that I was weary of my life, and therefore I had run away to my mother; but mothers could only weep and mourn over their children, they could not save them from cruel masters--from the whip, the rope, and the cow-skin. He told me to hold my tongue and go about my work, or he would find a way to settle me. He did not, however, flog me that day.",
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      "text": "For five years after this I remained in his house, and almost daily received the same harsh treatment. At length he put me on board a sloop, and to my great joy sent me away to Turk's Island. I was not permitted to see my mother or father, or poor sisters and brothers, to say good bye, though going away to a strange land, and might never see them again. Oh the Buckra people who keep slaves think that black people are like cattle, without natural affection. But my heart tells me it is far otherwise.",
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      "text": "We were nearly four weeks on the voyage, which was unusually long. Sometimes we had a light breeze, sometimes a great calm, and the ship made no way; so that our provisions and water ran very low, and we were put upon short allowance. I should almost have been starved had it not been for the kindness of a black man called Anthony, and his wife, who had brought their own victuals, and shared them with me.",
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      "text": "When we went ashore at the Grand Quay, the captain sent me to the house of my new master, Mr. D----, to whom Captain I----had sold me. Grand Quay is a small town upon a sandbank; the houses low and built of wood. Such was my new master's. The first person I saw, on my arrival, was Mr. D----, a stout sulky looking man, who carried me through the hall to show me to his wife and children. Next day I was put up by the vendue master to know how much I was worth, and I was valued at one hundred pounds currency.",
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      "text": "My new master was one of the owners or holders of the salt ponds, and he received a certain sum for every slave that worked upon his premises, whether they were young or old. This sum was allowed him out of the profits arising from the salt works. I was immediately sent to work in the salt water with the rest of the slaves. This work was perfectly new to me. I was given a half barrel and a shovel, and had to stand up to my knees in the water, from four o'clock in the morning till nine, when we were given some Indian corn boiled in water, which we were obliged to swallow as fast as we could for fear the rain should come on and melt the salt. We were then called again to our tasks, and worked through the heat of the day; the sun flaming upon our heads like fire, and raising salt blisters in those parts which were not completely covered. Our feet and legs, from standing in the salt water for so many hours, soon became full of dreadful boils, which eat down in some cases to the very bone, afflicting the sufferers with great torment. We came home at twelve; ate our corn soup, called _blawly_, as fast as we could, and went back to our employment till dark at night. We then shovelled up the salt in large heaps, and went down to the sea, where we washed the pickle from our limbs, and cleaned the barrows and shovels from the salt. When we returned to the house, our master gave us each our allowance of raw Indian corn, which we pounded in a mortar and boiled in water for our suppers.",
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      "text": "We slept in a long shed, divided into narrow slips, like the stalls used for cattle. Boards fixed upon stakes driven into the ground, without mat or covering, were our only beds. On Sundays, after we had washed the salt bags, and done other work required of us, we went into the bush and cut the long soft grass, of which we made trusses for our legs and feet to rest upon, for they were so full of the salt boils that we could get no rest lying upon the bare boards.",
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      "text": "Though we worked from morning till night, there was no satisfying Mr. D----. I hoped, when I left Capt. I----, that I should have been better off, but I found it was but going from one butcher to another. There was this difference between them: my former master used to beat me while raging and foaming with passion; Mr. D---- was usually quite calm. He would stand by and give orders for a slave to be cruelly whipped, and assist in the punishment, without moving a muscle of his face; walking about and taking snuff with the greatest composure. Nothing could touch his hard heart--neither sighs, nor tears, nor prayers, nor streaming blood; he was deaf to our cries, and careless of our sufferings. Mr. D---- has often stripped me naked, hung me up by the wrists, and beat me with the cow-skin, with his own hand, till my body was raw with gashes. Yet there was nothing very remarkable in this; for it might serve as a sample of the common usage of the slaves on that horrible island.",
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      "text": "Owing to the boils in my feet, I was unable to wheel the barrow fast through the sand, which got into the sores, and made me stumble at every step; and my master, having no pity for my sufferings from this cause, rendered them far more intolerable, by chastising me for not being able to move so fast as he wished me. Another of our employments was to row a little way off from the shore in a boat, and dive for large stones to build a wall round our master's house. This was very hard work; and the great waves breaking over us continually, made us often so giddy that we lost our footing, and were in danger of being drowned.",
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      "text": "Ah, poor me!--my tasks were never ended. Sick or well, it was work--work--work!--After the diving season was over, we were sent to the South Creek, with large bills, to cut up mangoes to burn lime with. Whilst one party of slaves were thus employed, another were sent to the other side of the island to break up coral out of the sea.",
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      "text": "When we were ill, let our complaint be what it might, the only medicine given to us was a great bowl of hot salt water, with salt mixed with it, which made us very sick. If we could not keep up with the rest of the gang of slaves, we were put in the stocks, and severely flogged the next morning. Yet, not the less, our master expected, after we had thus been kept from our rest, and our limbs rendered stiff and sore with ill usage, that we should still go through the ordinary tasks of the day all the same.--Sometimes we had to work all night, measuring salt to load a vessel; or turning a machine to draw water out of the sea for the salt-making. Then we had no sleep--no rest--but were forced to work as fast as we could, and go on again all next day the same as usual. Work--work--work--Oh that Turk's Island was a horrible place! The people in England, I am sure, have never found out what is carried on there. Cruel, horrible place!",
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      "text": "Mr. D---- had a slave called old Daniel, whom he used to treat in the most cruel manner. Poor Daniel was lame in the hip, and could not keep up with the rest of the slaves; and our master would order him to be stripped and laid down on the ground, and have him beaten with a rod of rough briar till his skin was quite red and raw. He would then call for a bucket of salt, and fling upon the raw flesh till the man writhed on the ground like a worm, and screamed aloud with agony. This poor man's wounds were never healed, and I have often seen them full of maggots, which increased his torments to an intolerable degree. He was an object of pity and terror to the whole gang of slaves, and in his wretched case we saw, each of us, our own lot, if we should live to be as old.",
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      "text": "Oh the horrors of slavery!--How the thought of it pains my heart! But the truth ought to be told of it; and what my eyes have seen I think it is my duty to relate; for few people in England know what slavery is. I have been a slave--I have felt what a slave feels, and I know what a slave knows; and I would have all the good people in England to know it too, that they may break our chains, and set us free.",
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      "text": "Mr. D---- had another slave called Ben. He being very hungry, stole a little rice one night after he came in from work, and cooked it for his supper. But his master soon discovered the theft; locked him up all night; and kept him without food till one o'clock the next day. He then hung Ben up by his hands, and beat him from time to time till the slaves came in at night. We found the poor creature hung up when we came home; with a pool of blood beneath him, and our master still licking him. But this was not the worst. My master's son was in the habit of stealing the rice and rum. Ben had seen him do this, and thought he might do the same, and when master found out that Ben had stolen the rice and swore to punish him, he tried to excuse himself by saying that Master Dickey did the same thing every night. The lad denied it to his father, and was so angry with Ben for informing against him, that out of revenge he ran and got a bayonet, and whilst the poor wretch was suspended by his hands and writhing under his wounds, he run it quite through his foot. I was not by when he did it, but I saw the wound when I came home, and heard Ben tell the manner in which it was done.",
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      "text": "I must say something more about this cruel son of a cruel father.--He had no heart--no fear of God; he had been brought up by a bad father in a bad path, and he delighted to follow in the same steps. There was a little old woman among the slaves called Sarah, who was nearly past work; and, Master Dickey being the overseer of the slaves just then, this poor creature, who was subject to several bodily infirmities, and was not quite right in her head, did not wheel the barrow fast enough to please him. He threw her down on the ground, and after beating her severely, he took her up in his arms and flung her among the prickly-pear bushes, which are all covered over with sharp venomous prickles. By this her naked flesh was so grievously wounded, that her body swelled and festered all over, and she died a few days after. In telling my own sorrows, I cannot pass by those of my fellow-slaves--for when I think of my own griefs, I remember theirs.",
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      "text": "I think it was about ten years I had worked in the salt ponds at Turk's Island, when my master left off business, and retired to a house he had in Bermuda, leaving his son to succeed him in the island. He took me with him to wait upon his daughters; and I was joyful, for I was sick, sick of Turk's Island, and my heart yearned to see my native place again, my mother, and my kindred.",
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      "text": "I had seen my poor mother during the time I was a slave in Turk's Island. One Sunday morning I was on the beach with some of the slaves, and we saw a sloop come in loaded with slaves to work in the salt water. We got a boat and went aboard. When I came upon the deck I asked the black people, \"Is there any one here for me?\" \"Yes,\" they said, \"your mother.\" I thought they said this in jest--I could scarcely believe them for joy; but when I saw my poor mammy my joy was turned to sorrow, for she had gone from her senses. \"Mammy,\" I said, \"is this you?\" She did not know me. \"Mammy,\" I said, \"what's the matter?\" She began to talk foolishly, and said that she had been under the vessel's bottom. They had been overtaken by a violent storm at sea. My poor mother had never been on the sea before, and she was so ill, that she lost her senses, and it was long before she came quite to herself again. She had a sweet child with her--a little sister I had never seen, about four years of age, called Rebecca. I took her on shore with me, for I felt I should love her directly; and I kept her with me a week. Poor little thing! her's has been a sad life, and continues so to this day. My mother worked for some years on the island, but was taken back to Bermuda some time before my master carried me again thither.[7]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 7: Of the subsequent lot of her relatives she can tell but little. She says, her father died while she and her mother were at Turk's Island; and that he had been long dead and buried before any of his children in Bermuda knew of it, they being slaves on other estates. Her mother died after Mary went to Antigua. Of the fate of the rest of her kindred, seven brothers and three sisters, she knows nothing further than this--that the eldest sister, who had several children to her master, was taken by him to Trinidad; and that the youngest, Rebecca, is still alive, and in slavery in Bermuda. Mary herself is now about forty-three years of age.--_Ed._]",
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      "text": "After I left Turk's Island, I was told by some negroes that came over from it, that the poor slaves had built up a place with boughs and leaves, where they might meet for prayers, but the white people pulled it down twice, and would not allow them even a shed for prayers. A flood came down soon after and washed away many houses, filled the place with sand, and overflowed the ponds: and I do think that this was for their wickedness; for the Buckra men[8] there were very wicked. I saw and heard much that was very very bad at that place.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 8: Negro term for white people.]",
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      "text": "I was several years the slave of Mr. D---- after I returned to my native place. Here I worked in the grounds. My work was planting and hoeing sweet-potatoes, Indian corn, plantains, bananas, cabbages, pumpkins, onions, &c. I did all the household work, and attended upon a horse and cow besides,--going also upon all errands. I had to curry the horse--to clean and feed him--and sometimes to ride him a little. I had more than enough to do--but still it was not so very bad as Turk's Island.",
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      "text": "My old master often got drunk, and then he would get in a fury with his daughter, and beat her till she was not fit to be seen. I remember on one occasion, I had gone to fetch water, and when I Was coming up the hill I heard a great screaming; I ran as fast as I could to the house, put down the water, and went into the chamber, where I found my master beating Miss D---- dreadfully. I strove with all my strength to get her away from him; for she was all black and blue with bruises. He had beat her with his fist, and almost killed her. The people gave me credit for getting her away. He turned round and began to lick me. Then I said, \"Sir, this is not Turk's Island.\" I can't repeat his answer, the words were too wicked--too bad to say. He wanted to treat me the same in Bermuda as he had done in Turk's Island.",
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      "text": "He had an ugly fashion of stripping himself quite naked, and ordering me then to wash him in a tub of water. This was worse to me than all the licks. Sometimes when he called me to wash him I would not come, my eyes were so full of shame. He would then come to beat me. One time I had plates and knives in my hand, and I dropped both plates and knives, and some of the plates were broken. He struck me so severely for this, that at last I defended myself, for I thought it was high time to do so. I then told him I would not live longer with him, for he was a very indecent man--very spiteful, and too indecent; with no shame for his servants, no shame for his own flesh. So I went away to a neighbouring house and sat down and cried till the next morning, when I went home again, not knowing what else to do.",
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      "text": "After that I was hired to work at Cedar Hills, and every Saturday night I paid the money to my master. I had plenty of work to do there--plenty of washing; but yet I made myself pretty comfortable. I earned two dollars and a quarter a week, which is twenty pence a day.",
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      "ref": "PG17851.B00090",
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      "text": "During the time I worked there, I heard that Mr. John Wood was going to Antigua. I felt a great wish to go there, and I went to Mr. D----, and asked him to let me go in Mr. Wood's service. Mr. Wood did not then want to purchase me; it was my own fault that I came under him, I was so anxious to go. It was ordained to be, I suppose; God led me there. The truth is, I did not wish to be any longer the slave of my indecent master.",
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      "text": "Mr. Wood took me with him to Antigua, to the town of St. John's, where he lived. This was about fifteen years ago. He did not then know whether I was to be sold; but Mrs. Wood found that I could work, and she wanted to buy me. Her husband then wrote to my master to inquire whether I was to be sold? Mr. D---- wrote in reply, \"that I should not be sold to any one that would treat me ill.\" It was strange he should say this, when he had treated me so ill himself. So I was purchased by Mr. Wood for 300 dollars, (or L100 Bermuda currency.)[9]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 9: About L67. 10s. sterling.]",
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      "text": "My work there was to attend the chambers and nurse the child, and to go down to the pond and wash clothes. But I soon fell ill of the rheumatism, and grew so very lame that I was forced to walk with a stick. I got the Saint Anthony's fire, also, in my left leg, and became quite a cripple. No one cared much to come near me, and I was ill a long long time; for several months I could not lift the limb. I had to lie in a little old out-house, that was swarming with bugs and other vermin, which tormented me greatly; but I had no other place to lie in. I got the rheumatism by catching cold at the pond side, from washing in the fresh water; in the salt water I never got cold. The person who lived in next yard, (a Mrs. Greene,) could not bear to hear my cries and groans. She was kind, and used to send an old slave woman to help me, who sometimes brought me a little soup. When the doctor found I was so ill, he said I must be put into a bath of hot water. The old slave got the bark of some bush that was good for the pains, which she boiled in the hot water, and every night she came and put me into the bath, and did what she could for me: I don't know what I should have done, or what would have become of me, had it not been for her.--My mistress, it is true, did send me a little food; but no one from our family came near me but the cook, who used to shove my food in at the door, and say, \"Molly, Molly, there's your dinner.\" My mistress did not care to take any trouble about me; and if the Lord had not put it into the hearts of the neighbours to be kind to me, I must, I really think, have lain and died.",
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      "text": "It was a long time before I got well enough to work in the house. Mrs. Wood, in the meanwhile, hired a mulatto woman to nurse the child; but she was such a fine lady she wanted to be mistress over me. I thought it very hard for a coloured woman to have rule over me because I was a slave and she was free. Her name was Martha Wilcox; she was a saucy woman, very saucy; and she went and complained of me, without cause, to my mistress, and made her angry with me. Mrs. Wood told me that if I did not mind what I was about, she would get my master to strip me and give me fifty lashes: \"You have been used to the whip,\" she said, \"and you shall have it here.\" This was the first time she threatened to have me flogged; and she gave me the threatening so strong of what she would have done to me, that I thought I should have fallen down at her feet, I was so vexed and hurt by her words. The mulatto woman was rejoiced to have power to keep me down. She was constantly making mischief; there was no living for the slaves--no peace after she came.",
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      "text": "I was also sent by Mrs. Wood to be put in the Cage one night, and was next morning flogged, by the magistrate's order, at her desire; and this all for a quarrel I had about a pig with another slave woman. I was flogged on my naked back on this occasion: although I was in no fault after all; for old Justice Dyett, when we came before him, said that I was in the right, and ordered the pig to be given to me. This was about two or three years after I came to Antigua.",
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      "text": "When we moved from the middle of the town to the Point, I used to be in the house and do all the work and mind the children, though still very ill with the rheumatism. Every week I had to wash two large bundles of clothes, as much as a boy could help me to lift; but I could give no satisfaction. My mistress was always abusing and fretting after me. It is not possible to tell all her ill language.--One day she followed me foot after foot scolding and rating me. I bore in silence a great deal of ill words: at last my heart was quite full, and I told her that she ought not to use me so;--that when I was ill I might have lain and died for what she cared; and no one would then come near me to nurse me, because they were afraid of my mistress. This was a great affront. She called her husband and told him what I had said. He flew into a passion: but did not beat me then; he only abused and swore at me; and then gave me a note and bade me go and look for an owner. Not that he meant to sell me; but he did this to please his wife and to frighten me. I went to Adam White, a cooper, a free black, who had money, and asked him to buy me. He went directly to Mr. Wood, but was informed that I was not to be sold. The next day my master whipped me.",
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      "text": "Another time (about five years ago) my mistress got vexed with me, because I fell sick and I could not keep on with my work. She complained to her husband, and he sent me off again to look for an owner. I went to a Mr. Burchell, showed him the note, and asked him to buy me for my own benefit; for I had saved about 100 dollars, and hoped, with a little help, to purchase my freedom. He accordingly went to my master:--\"Mr. Wood,\" he said, \"Molly has brought me a note that she wants an owner. If you intend to sell her, I may as well buy her as another.\" My master put him off and said that he did not mean to sell me. I was very sorry at this, for I had no comfort with Mrs. Wood, and I wished greatly to get my freedom.",
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      "text": "The way in which I made my money was this.--When my master and mistress went from home, as they sometimes did, and left me to take care of the house and premises, I had a good deal of time to myself, and made the most of it. I took in washing, and sold coffee and yams and other provisions to the captains of ships. I did not sit still idling during the absence of my owners; for I wanted, by all honest means, to earn money to buy my freedom. Sometimes I bought a hog cheap on board ship, and sold it for double the money on shore; and I also earned a good deal by selling coffee. By this means I by degrees acquired a little cash. A gentleman also lent me some to help to buy my freedom--but when I could not get free he got it back again. His name was Captain Abbot.",
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      "text": "My master and mistress went on one occasion into the country, to Date Hill, for change of air, and carried me with them to take charge of the children, and to do the work of the house. While I was in the country, I saw how the field negroes are worked in Antigua. They are worked very hard and fed but scantily. They are called out to work before daybreak, and come home after dark; and then each has to heave his bundle of grass for the cattle in the pen. Then, on Sunday morning, each slave has to go out and gather a large bundle of grass; and, when they bring it home, they have all to sit at the manager's door and wait till he come out: often have they to wait there till past eleven o'clock, without any breakfast. After that, those that have yams or potatoes, or fire-wood to sell, hasten to market to buy a dog's worth[10] of salt fish, or pork, which is a great treat for them. Some of them buy a little pickle out of the shad barrels, which they call sauce, to season their yams and Indian corn. It is very wrong, I know, to work on Sunday or go to market; but will not God call the Buckra men to answer for this on the great day of judgment--since they will give the slaves no other day?",
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      "text": "[Footnote 10: A dog is the 72nd part of a dollar.]",
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      "text": "While we were at Date Hill Christmas came; and the slave woman who had the care of the place (which then belonged to Mr. Roberts the marshal), asked me to go with her to her husband's house, to a Methodist meeting for prayer, at a plantation called Winthorps. I went; and they were the first prayers I ever understood. One woman prayed; and then they all sung a hymn; then there was another prayer and another hymn; and then they all spoke by turns of their own griefs as sinners. The husband of the woman I went with was a black driver. His name was Henry. He confessed that he had treated the slaves very cruelly; but said that he was compelled to obey the orders of his master. He prayed them all to forgive him, and he prayed that God would forgive him. He said it was a horrid thing for a ranger[11] to have sometimes to beat his own wife or sister; but he must do so if ordered by his master.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 11: The head negro of an estate--a person who has the chief superintendence under the manager.]",
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      "text": "I felt sorry for my sins also. I cried the whole night, but I was too much ashamed to speak. I prayed God to forgive me. This meeting had a great impression on my mind, and led my spirit to the Moravian church; so that when I got back to town, I went and prayed to have my name put down in the Missionaries' book; and I followed the church earnestly every opportunity. I did not then tell my mistress about it; for I knew that she would not give me leave to go. But I felt I _must_ go. Whenever I carried the children their lunch at school, I ran round and went to hear the teachers.",
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      "ref": "PG17851.B00104",
      "bookId": 17851,
      "start": 58129,
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      "text": "The Moravian ladies (Mrs. Richter, Mrs. Olufsen, and Mrs. Sauter) taught me to read in the class; and I got on very fast. In this class there were all sorts of people, old and young, grey headed folks and children; but most of them were free people. After we had done spelling, we tried to read in the Bible. After the reading was over, the missionary gave out a hymn for us to sing. I dearly loved to go to the church, it was so solemn. I never knew rightly that I had much sin till I went there. When I found out that I was a great sinner, I was very sorely grieved, and very much frightened. I used to pray God to pardon my sins for Christ's sake, and forgive me for every thing I had done amiss; and when I went home to my work, I always thought about what I had heard from the missionaries, and wished to be good that I might go to heaven. After a while I was admitted a candidate for the holy Communion.--I had been baptized long before this, in August 1817, by the Rev. Mr. Curtin, of the English Church, after I had been taught to repeat the Creed and the Lord's Prayer. I wished at that time to attend a Sunday School taught by Mr. Curtin, but he would not receive me without a written note from my master, granting his permission. I did not ask my owner's permission, from the belief that it would be refused; so that I got no farther instruction at that time from the English Church.[12]",
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      "ref": "PG17851.B00105",
      "bookId": 17851,
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      "text": "[Footnote 12: She possesses a copy of Mrs. Trimmer's \"Charity School Spelling Book,\" presented to her by the Rev. Mr. Curtin, and dated August 30, 1817. In this book her name is written \"Mary, Princess of Wales\"--an appellation which, she says, was given her by her owners. It is a common practice with the colonists to give ridiculous names of this description to their slaves; being, in fact, one of the numberless modes of expressing the habitual contempt with which they regard the negro race.--In printing this narrative we have retained Mary's paternal name of Prince.--_Ed._]",
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      "ref": "PG17851.B00106",
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      "text": "Some time after I began to attend the Moravian Church, I met with Daniel James, afterwards my dear husband. He was a carpenter and cooper to his trade; an honest, hard-working, decent black man, and a widower. He had purchased his freedom of his mistress, old Mrs. Baker, with money he had earned whilst a slave. When he asked me to marry him, I took time to consider the matter over with myself, and would not say yes till he went to church with me and joined the Moravians. He was very industrious after he bought his freedom; and he had hired a comfortable house, and had convenient things about him. We were joined in marriage, about Christmas 1826, in the Moravian Chapel at Spring Gardens, by the Rev. Mr. Olufsen. We could not be married in the English Church. English marriage is not allowed to slaves; and no free man can marry a slave woman.",
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      "bookId": 17851,
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      "text": "When Mr. Wood heard of my marriage, he flew into a great rage, and sent for Daniel, who was helping to build a house for his old mistress. Mr. Wood asked him who gave him a right to marry a slave of his? My husband said, \"Sir, I am a free man, and thought I had a right to choose a wife; but if I had known Molly was not allowed to have a husband, I should not have asked her to marry me.\" Mrs. Wood was more vexed about my marriage than her husband. She could not forgive me for getting married, but stirred up Mr. Wood to flog me dreadfully with the horsewhip. I thought it very hard to be whipped at my time of life for getting a husband--I told her so. She said that she would not have nigger men about the yards and premises, or allow a nigger man's clothes to be washed in the same tub where hers were washed. She was fearful, I think, that I should lose her time, in order to wash and do things for my husband: but I had then no time to wash for myself; I was obliged to put out my own clothes, though I was always at the wash-tub.",
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      "text": "I had not much happiness in my marriage, owing to my being a slave. It made my husband sad to see me so ill-treated. Mrs. Wood was always abusing me about him. She did not lick me herself, but she got her husband to do it for her, whilst she fretted the flesh off my bones. Yet for all this she would not sell me. She sold five slaves whilst I was with her; but though she was always finding fault with me, she would not part with me. However, Mr. Wood afterwards allowed Daniel to have a place to live in our yard, which we were very thankful for.",
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      "text": "After this, I fell ill again with the rheumatism, and was sick a long time; but whether sick or well, I had my work to do. About this time I asked my master and mistress to let me buy my own freedom. With the help of Mr. Burchell, I could have found the means to pay Mr. Wood; for it was agreed that I should afterwards, serve Mr. Burchell a while, for the cash he was to advance for me. I was earnest in the request to my owners; but their hearts were hard--too hard to consent. Mrs. Wood was very angry--she grew quite outrageous--she called me a black devil, and asked me who had put freedom into my head. \"To be free is very sweet,\" I said: but she took good care to keep me a slave. I saw her change colour, and I left the room.",
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      "text": "About this time my master and mistress were going to England to put their son to school, and bring their daughters home; and they took me with them to take care of the child. I was willing to come to England: I thought that by going there I should probably get cured of my rheumatism, and should return with my master and mistress, quite well, to my husband. My husband was willing for me to come away, for he had heard that my master would free me,--and I also hoped this might prove true; but it was all a false report.",
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      "text": "The steward of the ship was very kind to me. He and my husband were in the same class in the Moravian Church. I was thankful that he was so friendly, for my mistress was not kind to me on the passage; and she told me, when she was angry, that she did not intend to treat me any better in England than in the West Indies--that I need not expect it. And she was as good as her word.",
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      "text": "When we drew near to England, the rheumatism seized all my limbs worse than ever, and my body was dreadfully swelled. When we landed at the Tower, I shewed my flesh to my mistress, but she took no great notice of it. We were obliged to stop at the tavern till my master got a house; and a day or two after, my mistress sent me down into the wash-house to learn to wash in the English way. In the West Indies we wash with cold water--in England with hot. I told my mistress I was afraid that putting my hands first into the hot water and then into the cold, would increase the pain in my limbs. The doctor had told my mistress long before I came from the West Indies, that I was a sickly body and the washing did not agree with me. But Mrs. Wood would not release me from the tub, so I was forced to do as I could. I grew worse, and could not stand to wash. I was then forced to sit down with the tub before me, and often through pain and weakness was reduced to kneel or to sit down on the floor, to finish my task. When I complained to my mistress of this, she only got into a passion as usual, and said washing in hot water could not hurt any one;--that I was lazy and insolent, and wanted to be free of my work; but that she would make me do it. I thought her very hard on me, and my heart rose up within me. However I kept still at that time, and went down again to wash the child's things; but the English washerwomen who were at work there, when they saw that I was so ill, had pity upon me and washed them for me.",
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      "text": "After that, when we came up to live in Leigh Street, Mrs. Wood sorted out five bags of clothes which we had used at sea, and also such as had been worn since we came on shore, for me and the cook to wash. Elizabeth the cook told her, that she did not think that I was able to stand to the tub, and that she had better hire a woman. I also said myself, that I had come over to nurse the child, and that I was sorry I had come from Antigua, since mistress would work me so hard, without compassion for my rheumatism. Mr. and Mrs. Wood, when they heard this, rose up in a passion against me. They opened the door and bade me get out. But I was a stranger, and did not know one door in the street from another, and was unwilling to go away. They made a dreadful uproar, and from that day they constantly kept cursing and abusing me. I was obliged to wash, though I was very ill. Mrs. Wood, indeed once hired a washerwoman, but she was not well treated, and would come no more.",
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      "text": "My master quarrelled with me another time, about one of our great washings, his wife having stirred him up to do so. He said he would compel me to do the whole of the washing given out to me, or if I again refused, he would take a short course with me: he would either send me down to the brig in the river, to carry me back to Antigua, or he would turn me at once out of doors, and let me provide for myself. I said I would willingly go back, if he would let me purchase my own freedom. But this enraged him more than all the rest: he cursed and swore at me dreadfully, and said he would never sell my freedom--if I wished to be free, I was free in England, and I might go and try what freedom would do for me, and be d----d. My heart was very sore with this treatment, but I had to go on. I continued to do my work, and did all I could to give satisfaction, but all would not do.",
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      "bookId": 17851,
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      "text": "Shortly after, the cook left them, and then matters went on ten times worse. I always washed the child's clothes without being commanded to do it, and any thing else that was wanted in the family; though still I was very sick--very sick indeed. When the great washing came round, which was every two months, my mistress got together again a great many heavy things, such as bed-ticks, bed-coverlets, &c. for me to wash. I told her I was too ill to wash such heavy things that day. She said, she supposed I thought myself a free woman, but I was not; and if I did not do it directly I should be instantly turned out of doors. I stood a long time before I could answer, for I did not know well what to do. I knew that I was free in England, but I did not know where to go, or how to get my living; and therefore, I did not like to leave the house. But Mr. Wood said he would send for a constable to thrust me out; and at last I took courage and resolved that I would not be longer thus treated, but would go and trust to Providence. This was the fourth time they had threatened turn me out, and, go where I might, I was determined now to take them at their word; though I thought it very hard, after I had lived with them for thirteen years, and worked for them like a horse, to be driven out in this way, like a beggar. My only fault was being sick, and therefore unable to please my mistress, who thought she never could get work enough out of her slaves; and I told them so: but they only abused me and drove me out. This took place from two to three months, I think, after we came to England.",
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      "text": "When I came away, I went to the man (one Mash) who used to black the shoes of the family, and asked his wife to get somebody to go with me to Hatton Garden to the Moravian Missionaries: these were the only persons I knew in England. The woman sent a young girl with me to the mission house, and I saw there a gentleman called Mr. Moore. I told him my whole story, and how my owners had treated me, and asked him to take in my trunk with what few clothes I had. The missionaries were very kind to me--they were sorry for my destitute situation, and gave me leave to bring my things to be placed under their care. They were very good people, and they told me to come to the church.",
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      "text": "When I went back to Mr. Wood's to get my trunk, I saw a lady, Mrs. Pell, who was on a visit to my mistress. When Mr. and Mrs. Wood heard me come in, they set this lady to stop me, finding that they had gone too far with me. Mrs. Pell came out to me, and said, \"Are you really going to leave, Molly? Don't leave, but come into the country with me.\" I believe she said this because she thought Mrs. Wood would easily get me back again. I replied to her, \"Ma'am, this is the fourth time my master and mistress have driven me out, or threatened to drive me--and I will give them no more occasion to bid me go. I was not willing to leave them, for I am a stranger in this country, but now I must go--I can stay no longer to be so used.\" Mrs. Pell then went up stairs to my mistress, and told that I would go, and that she could not stop me. Mrs. Wood was very much hurt and frightened when she found I was determined to go out that day. She said, \"If she goes the people will rob her, and then turn her adrift.\" She did not say this to me, but she spoke it loud enough for me to hear; that it might induce me not to go, I suppose. Mr. Wood also asked me where I was going to. I told him where I had been, and that I should never have gone away had I not been driven out by my owners. He had given me a written paper some time before, which said that I had come with them to England by my own desire; and that was true. It said also that I left them of my own free will, because I was a free woman in England; and that I was idle and would not do my work--which was not true. I gave this paper afterwards to a gentleman who inquired into my case.[13]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 13: See page 24.]",
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      "text": "I went into the kitchen and got my clothes out. The nurse and the servant girl were there, and I said to the man who was going to take out my trunk, \"Stop, before you take up this trunk, and hear what I have to say before these people. I am going out of this house, as I was ordered; but I have done no wrong at all to my owners, neither here nor in the West Indies. I always worked very hard to please them, both by night and day; but there was no giving satisfaction, for my mistress could never be satisfied with reasonable service. I told my mistress I was sick, and yet she has ordered me out of doors. This is the fourth time; and now I am going out.\"",
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      "text": "And so I came out, and went and carried my trunk to the Moravians. I then returned back to Mash the shoe-black's house, and begged his wife to take me in. I had a little West Indian money in my trunk; and they got it changed for me. This helped to support me for a little while. The man's wife was very kind to me. I was very sick, and she boiled nourishing things up for me. She also sent for a doctor to see me, and he sent me medicine, which did me good, though I was ill for a long time with the rheumatic pains. I lived a good many months with these poor people, and they nursed me, and did all that lay in their power to serve me. The man was well acquainted with my situation, as he used to go to and fro to Mr. Wood's house to clean shoes and knives; and he and his wife were sorry for me.",
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      "text": "About this time, a woman of the name of Hill told me of the Anti-Slavery Society, and went with me to their office, to inquire if they could do any thing to get me my freedom, and send me back to the West Indies. The gentlemen of the Society took me to a lawyer, who examined very strictly into my case; but told me that the laws of England could do nothing to make me free in Antigua[14]. However they did all they could for me: they gave me a little money from time to time to keep me from want; and some of them went to Mr. Wood to try to persuade him to let me return a free woman to my husband; but though they offered him, as I have heard, a large sum for my freedom, he was sulky and obstinate, and would not consent to let me go free.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 14: She came first to the Anti-Slavery Office in Aldermanbury, about the latter end of November 1828; and her case was referred to Mr. George Stephen to be investigated. More of this hereafter.--ED.]",
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      "text": "This was the first winter I spent in England, and I suffered much from the severe cold, and from the rheumatic pains, which still at times torment me. However, Providence was very good to me, and I got many friends--especially some Quaker ladies, who hearing of my case, came and sought me out, and gave me good warm clothing and money. Thus I had great cause to bless God in my affliction.",
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      "text": "When I got better I was anxious to get some work to do, as I was unwilling to eat the bread of idleness. Mrs. Mash, who was a laundress, recommended me to a lady for a charwoman. She paid me very handsomely for what work I did, and I divided the money with Mrs. Mash; for though very poor, they gave me food when my own money was done, and never suffered me to want.",
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      "text": "In the spring, I got into service with a lady, who saw me at the house where I sometimes worked as a charwoman. This lady's name was Mrs. Forsyth. She had been in the West Indies, and was accustomed to Blacks, and liked them. I was with her six months, and went with her to Margate. She treated me well, and gave me a good character when she left London.[15]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 15: She refers to a written certificate which will be inserted afterwards.]",
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      "text": "After Mrs. Forsyth went away, I was again out of place, and went to lodgings, for which I paid two shillings a week, and found coals and candle. After eleven weeks, the money I had saved in service was all gone, and I was forced to go back to the Anti-Slavery office to ask a supply, till I could get another situation. I did not like to go back--I did not like to be idle. I would rather work for my living than get it for nothing. They were very good to give me a supply, but I felt shame at being obliged to apply for relief whilst I had strength to work.",
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      "text": "At last I went into the service of Mr. and Mrs. Pringle, where I have been ever since, and am as comfortable as I can be while separated from my dear husband, and away from my own country and all old friends and connections. My dear mistress teaches me daily to read the word of God, and takes great pains to make me understand it. I enjoy the great privilege of being enabled to attend church three times on the Sunday; and I have met with many kind friends since I have been here, both clergymen and others. The Rev. Mr. Young, who lives in the next house, has shown me much kindness, and taken much pains to instruct me, particularly while my master and mistress were absent in Scotland. Nor must I forget, among my friends, the Rev. Mr. Mortimer, the good clergyman of the parish, under whose ministry I have now sat for upwards of twelve months. I trust in God I have profited by what I have heard from him. He never keeps back the truth, and I think he has been the means of opening my eyes and ears much better to understand the word of God. Mr. Mortimer tells me that he cannot open the eyes of my heart, but that I must pray to God to change my heart, and make me to know the truth, and the truth will make me free.",
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      "text": "I still live in the hope that God will find a way to give me my liberty, and give me back to my husband. I endeavour to keep down my fretting, and to leave all to Him, for he knows what is good for me better than I know myself. Yet, I must confess, I find it a hard and heavy task to do so.",
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      "text": "I am often much vexed, and I feel great sorrow when I hear some people in this country say, that the slaves do not need better usage, and do not want to be free.[16] They believe the foreign people,[17] who deceive them, and say slaves are happy. I say, Not so. How can slaves be happy when they have the halter round their neck and the whip upon their back? and are disgraced and thought no more of than beasts?--and are separated from their mothers, and husbands, and children, and sisters, just as cattle are sold and separated? Is it happiness for a driver in the field to take down his wife or sister or child, and strip them, and whip them in such a disgraceful manner?--women that have had children exposed in the open field to shame! There is no modesty or decency shown by the owner to his slaves; men, women, and children are exposed alike. Since I have been here I have often wondered how English people can go out into the West Indies and act in such a beastly manner. But when they go to the West Indies, they forget God and all feeling of shame, I think, since they can see and do such things. They tie up slaves like hogs--moor[18] them up like cattle, and they lick them, so as hogs, or cattle, or horses never were flogged;--and yet they come home and say, and make some good people believe, that slaves don't want to get out of slavery. But they put a cloak about the truth. It is not so. All slaves want to be free--to be free is very sweet. I will say the truth to English people who may read this history that my good friend, Miss S----, is now writing down for me. I have been a slave myself--I know what slaves feel--I can tell by myself what other slaves feel, and by what they have told me. The man that says slaves be quite happy in slavery--that they don't want to be free--that man is either ignorant or a lying person. I never heard a slave say so. I never heard a Buckra man say so, till I heard tell of it in England. Such people ought to be ashamed of themselves. They can't do without slaves, they say. What's the reason they can't do without slaves as well as in England? No slaves here--no whips--no stocks--no punishment, except for wicked people. They hire servants in England; and if they don't like them, they send them away: they can't lick them. Let them work ever so hard in England, they are far better off than slaves. If they get a bad master, they give warning and go hire to another. They have their liberty. That's just what we want. We don't mind hard work, if we had proper treatment, and proper wages like English servants, and proper time given in the week to keep us from breaking the Sabbath. But they won't give it: they will have work--work--work, night and day, sick or well, till we are quite done up; and we must not speak up nor look amiss, however much we be abused. And then when we are quite done up, who cares for us, more than for a lame horse? This is slavery. I tell it, to let English people know the truth; and I hope they will never leave off to pray God, and call loud to the great King of England, till all the poor blacks be given free, and slavery done up for evermore.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 16: The whole of this paragraph especially, is given as nearly as was possible in Mary's precise words.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 17: She means West Indians.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 18: A West Indian phrase: to fasten or tie up.]",
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      "text": "SUPPLEMENT",
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      "text": "TO THE",
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      "text": "HISTORY OF MARY PRINCE.",
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      "text": "BY THE EDITOR.",
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      "text": "Leaving Mary's narrative, for the present, without comment to the reader's reflections, I proceed to state some circumstances connected with her case which have fallen more particularly under my own notice, and which I consider it incumbent now to lay fully before the public.",
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      "text": "About the latter end of November, 1828, this poor woman found her way to the office of the Anti-Slavery Society in Aldermanbury, by the aid of a person who had become acquainted with her situation, and had advised her to apply there for advice and assistance. After some preliminary examination into the accuracy of the circumstances related by her, I went along with her to Mr. George Stephen, solicitor, and requested him to investigate and draw up a statement of her case, and have it submitted to counsel, in order to ascertain whether or not, under the circumstances, her freedom could be legally established on her return to Antigua. On this occasion, in Mr. Stephen's presence and mine, she expressed, in very strong terms, her anxiety to return thither if she could go as a free person, and, at the same time, her extreme apprehensions of the fate that would probably await her if she returned as a slave. Her words were, \"I would rather go into my grave than go back a slave to Antigua, though I wish to go back to my husband very much--very much--very much! I am much afraid my owners would separate me from my husband, and use me very hard, or perhaps sell me for a field negro;--and slavery is too too bad. I would rather go into my grave!\"",
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      "text": "The paper which Mr. Wood had given her before she left his house, was placed by her in Mr. Stephen's hands. It was expressed in the following terms:--",
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      "text": "\"I have already told Molly, and now give it her in writing, in order that there may be no misunderstanding on her part, that as I brought her from Antigua at her own request and entreaty, and that she is consequently now free, she is of course at liberty to take her baggage and go where she pleases. And, in consequence of her late conduct, she must do one of two things--either quit the house, or return to Antigua by the earliest opportunity, as she does not evince a disposition to make herself useful. As she is a stranger in London, I do not wish to turn her out, or would do so, as two female servants are sufficient for my establishment. If after this she does remain, it will be only during her good behaviour: but on no consideration will I allow her wages or any other remuneration for her services.",
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      "text": "\"JOHN A. WOOD.\"",
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      "text": "A Translation By S. H. Butcher",
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      "text": "[Transcriber's Annotations and Conventions: the translator left intact some Greek words to illustrate a specific point of the original discourse. In this transcription, in order to retain the accuracy of this text, those words are rendered by spelling out each Greek letter individually, such as {alpha beta gamma delta...}. The reader can distinguish these words by the enclosing braces {}. Where multiple words occur together, they are separated by the \"/\" symbol for clarity. Readers who do not speak or read the Greek language will usually neither gain nor lose understanding by skipping over these passages. Those who understand Greek, however, may gain a deeper insight to the original meaning and distinctions expressed by Aristotle.]",
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      "text": "Analysis of Contents",
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      "text": "I 'Imitation' the common principle of the Arts of Poetry. II The Objects of Imitation. III The Manner of Imitation. IV The Origin and Development of Poetry. V Definition of the Ludicrous, and a brief sketch of the rise of Comedy. VI Definition of Tragedy. VII The Plot must be a Whole. VIII The Plot must be a Unity. IX (Plot continued.) Dramatic Unity. X (Plot continued.) Definitions of Simple and Complex Plots. XI (Plot continued.) Reversal of the Situation, Recognition, and Tragic or disastrous Incident defined and explained. XII The 'quantitative parts' of Tragedy defined. XIII (Plot continued.) What constitutes Tragic Action. XIV (Plot continued.) The tragic emotions of pity and fear should spring out of the Plot itself. XV The element of Character in Tragedy. XVI (Plot continued.) Recognition: its various kinds, with examples. XVII Practical rules for the Tragic Poet. XVIII Further rules for the Tragic Poet. XIX Thought, or the Intellectual element, and Diction in Tragedy. XX Diction, or Language in general. XXI Poetic Diction. XXII (Poetic Diction continued.) How Poetry combines elevation of language with perspicuity. XXIII Epic Poetry. XXIV (Epic Poetry continued.) Further points of agreement with Tragedy. XXV Critical Objections brought against Poetry, and the principles on which they are to be answered. XXVI A general estimate of the comparative worth of Epic Poetry and Tragedy.",
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      "text": "ARISTOTLE'S POETICS",
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      "text": "I",
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      "text": "I propose to treat of Poetry in itself and of its various kinds, noting the essential quality of each; to inquire into the structure of the plot as requisite to a good poem; into the number and nature of the parts of which a poem is composed; and similarly into whatever else falls within the same inquiry. Following, then, the order of nature, let us begin with the principles which come first.",
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      "text": "Epic poetry and Tragedy, Comedy also and Dithyrambic: poetry, and the music of the flute and of the lyre in most of their forms, are all in their general conception modes of imitation. They differ, however, from one: another in three respects,--the medium, the objects, the manner or mode of imitation, being in each case distinct.",
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      "text": "For as there are persons who, by conscious art or mere habit, imitate and represent various objects through the medium of colour and form, or again by the voice; so in the arts above mentioned, taken as a whole, the imitation is produced by rhythm, language, or 'harmony,' either singly or combined.",
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      "text": "Thus in the music of the flute and of the lyre, 'harmony' and rhythm alone are employed; also in other arts, such as that of the shepherd's pipe, which are essentially similar to these. In dancing, rhythm alone is used without 'harmony'; for even dancing imitates character, emotion, and action, by rhythmical movement.",
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      "text": "There is another art which imitates by means of language alone, and that either in prose or verse--which, verse, again, may either combine different metres or consist of but one kind--but this has hitherto been without a name. For there is no common term we could apply to the mimes of Sophron and Xenarchus and the Socratic dialogues on the one hand; and, on the other, to poetic imitations in iambic, elegiac, or any similar metre. People do, indeed, add the word 'maker' or 'poet' to the name of the metre, and speak of elegiac poets, or epic (that is, hexameter) poets, as if it were not the imitation that makes the poet, but the verse that entitles them all indiscriminately to the name. Even when a treatise on medicine or natural science is brought out in verse, the name of poet is by custom given to the author; and yet Homer and Empedocles have nothing in common but the metre, so that it would be right to call the one poet, the other physicist rather than poet. On the same principle, even if a writer in his poetic imitation were to combine all metres, as Chaeremon did in his Centaur, which is a medley composed of metres of all kinds, we should bring him too under the general term poet. So much then for these distinctions.",
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      "text": "These, then, as we said at the beginning, are the three differences which distinguish artistic imitation,--the medium, the objects, and the manner. So that from one point of view, Sophocles is an imitator of the same kind as Homer--for both imitate higher types of character; from another point of view, of the same kind as Aristophanes--for both imitate persons acting and doing. Hence, some say, the name of 'drama' is given to such poems, as representing action. For the same reason the Dorians claim the invention both of Tragedy and Comedy. The claim to Comedy is put forward by the Megarians,--not only by those of Greece proper, who allege that it originated under their democracy, but also by the Megarians of Sicily, for the poet Epicharmus, who is much earlier than Chionides and Magnes, belonged to that country. Tragedy too is claimed by certain Dorians of the Peloponnese. In each case they appeal to the evidence of language. The outlying villages, they say, are by them called {kappa omega mu alpha iota}, by the Athenians {delta eta mu iota}: and they assume that Comedians were so named not from {kappa omega mu 'alpha zeta epsilon iota nu}, 'to revel,' but because they wandered from village to village (kappa alpha tau alpha / kappa omega mu alpha sigma), being excluded contemptuously from the city. They add also that the Dorian word for 'doing' is {delta rho alpha nu}, and the Athenian, {pi rho alpha tau tau epsilon iota nu}.",
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      "text": "This may suffice as to the number and nature of the various modes of imitation.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00034",
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      "text": "IV",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00035",
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      "text": "Poetry in general seems to have sprung from two causes, each of them lying deep in our nature. First, the instinct of imitation is implanted in man from childhood, one difference between him and other animals being that he is the most imitative of living creatures, and through imitation learns his earliest lessons; and no less universal is the pleasure felt in things imitated. We have evidence of this in the facts of experience. Objects which in themselves we view with pain, we delight to contemplate when reproduced with minute fidelity: such as the forms of the most ignoble animals and of dead bodies. The cause of this again is, that to learn gives the liveliest pleasure, not only to philosophers but to men in general; whose capacity, however, of learning is more limited. Thus the reason why men enjoy seeing a likeness is, that in contemplating it they find themselves learning or inferring, and saying perhaps, 'Ah, that is he.' For if you happen not to have seen the original, the pleasure will be due not to the imitation as such, but to the execution, the colouring, or some such other cause.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00036",
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      "text": "Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, metres being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00037",
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      "text": "Poetry now diverged in two directions, according to the individual character of the writers. The graver spirits imitated noble actions, and the actions of good men. The more trivial sort imitated the actions of meaner persons, at first composing satires, as the former did hymns to the gods and the praises of famous men. A poem of the satirical kind cannot indeed be put down to any author earlier than Homer; though many such writers probably there were. But from Homer onward, instances can be cited,--his own Margites, for example, and other similar compositions. The appropriate metre was also here introduced; hence the measure is still called the iambic or lampooning measure, being that in which people lampooned one another. Thus the older poets were distinguished as writers of heroic or of lampooning verse.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00038",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "text": "As, in the serious style, Homer is pre-eminent among poets, for he alone combined dramatic form with excellence of imitation, so he too first laid down the main lines of Comedy, by dramatising the ludicrous instead of writing personal satire. His Margites bears the same relation to Comedy that the Iliad and Odyssey do to Tragedy. But when Tragedy and Comedy came to light, the two classes of poets still followed their natural bent: the lampooners became writers of Comedy, and the Epic poets were succeeded by Tragedians, since the drama was a larger and higher form of art.",
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    {
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      "text": "VI",
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      "text": "Of the poetry which imitates in hexameter verse, and of Comedy, we will speak hereafter. Let us now discuss Tragedy, resuming its formal definition, as resulting from what has been already said.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00048",
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      "text": "Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions. By 'language embellished,' I mean language into which rhythm, 'harmony,' and song enter. By 'the several kinds in separate parts,' I mean, that some parts are rendered through the medium of verse alone, others again with the aid of song.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00049",
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      "text": "Now as tragic imitation implies persons acting, it necessarily follows, in the first place, that Spectacular equipment will be a part of Tragedy. Next, Song and Diction, for these are the medium of imitation. By 'Diction' I mean the mere metrical arrangement of the words: as for 'Song,' it is a term whose sense every one understands.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00050",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "text": "Again, Tragedy is the imitation of an action; and an action implies personal agents, who necessarily possess certain distinctive qualities both of character and thought; for it is by these that we qualify actions themselves, and these--thought and character--are the two natural causes from which actions spring, and on actions again all success or failure depends. Hence, the Plot is the imitation of the action: for by plot I here mean the arrangement of the incidents. By Character I mean that in virtue of which we ascribe certain qualities to the agents. Thought is required wherever a statement is proved, or, it may be, a general truth enunciated. Every Tragedy, therefore, must have six parts, which parts determine its quality--namely, Plot, Character, Diction, Thought, Spectacle, Song. Two of the parts constitute the medium of imitation, one the manner, and three the objects of imitation. And these complete the list. These elements have been employed, we may say, by the poets to a man; in fact, every play contains Spectacular elements as well as Character, Plot, Diction, Song, and Thought.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00051",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "text": "But most important of all is the structure of the incidents. For Tragedy is an imitation, not of men, but of an action and of life, and life consists in action, and its end is a mode of action, not a quality. Now character determines men's qualities, but it is by their actions that they are happy or the reverse. Dramatic action, therefore, is not with a view to the representation of character: character comes in as subsidiary to the actions. Hence the incidents and the plot are the end of a tragedy; and the end is the chief thing of all. Again, without action there cannot be a tragedy; there may be without character. The tragedies of most of our modern poets fail in the rendering of character; and of poets in general this is often true. It is the same in painting; and here lies the difference between Zeuxis and Polygnotus. Polygnotus delineates character well: the style of Zeuxis is devoid of ethical quality. Again, if you string together a set of speeches expressive of character, and well finished in point of diction and thought, you will not produce the essential tragic effect nearly so well as with a play which, however deficient in these respects, yet has a plot and artistically constructed incidents. Besides which, the most powerful elements of emotional: interest in Tragedy Peripeteia or Reversal of the Situation, and Recognition scenes--are parts of the plot. A further proof is, that novices in the art attain to finish: of diction and precision of portraiture before they can construct the plot. It is the same with almost all the early poets.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00052",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "text": "The Plot, then, is the first principle, and, as it were, the soul of a tragedy: Character holds the second place. A similar fact is seen in painting. The most beautiful colours, laid on confusedly, will not give as much pleasure as the chalk outline of a portrait. Thus Tragedy is the imitation of an action, and of the agents mainly with a view to the action.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
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      "text": "Third in order is Thought,--that is, the faculty of saying what is possible and pertinent in given circumstances. In the case of oratory, this is the function of the Political art and of the art of rhetoric: and so indeed the older poets make their characters speak the language of civic life; the poets of our time, the language of the rhetoricians. Character is that which reveals moral purpose, showing what kind of things a man chooses or avoids. Speeches, therefore, which do not make this manifest, or in which the speaker does not choose or avoid anything whatever, are not expressive of character. Thought, on the other hand, is found where something is proved to be, or not to be, or a general maxim is enunciated.",
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    {
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      "text": "Fourth among the elements enumerated comes Diction; by which I mean, as has been already said, the expression of the meaning in words; and its essence is the same both in verse and prose.",
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    {
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      "text": "VII",
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    {
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      "text": "These principles being established, let us now discuss the proper structure of the Plot, since this is the first and most important thing in Tragedy.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00059",
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      "text": "Now, according to our definition, Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is complete, and whole, and of a certain magnitude; for there may be a whole that is wanting in magnitude. A whole is that which has a beginning, a middle, and an end. A beginning is that which does not itself follow anything by causal necessity, but after which something naturally is or comes to be. An end, on the contrary, is that which itself naturally follows some other thing, either by necessity, or as a rule, but has nothing following it. A middle is that which follows something as some other thing follows it. A well constructed plot, therefore, must neither begin nor end at haphazard, but conform to these principles.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00060",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "text": "Again, a beautiful object, whether it be a living organism or any whole composed of parts, must not only have an orderly arrangement of parts, but must also be of a certain magnitude; for beauty depends on magnitude and order. Hence a very small animal organism cannot be beautiful; for the view of it is confused, the object being seen in an almost imperceptible moment of time. Nor, again, can one of vast size be beautiful; for as the eye cannot take it all in at once, the unity and sense of the whole is lost for the spectator; as for instance if there were one a thousand miles long. As, therefore, in the case of animate bodies and organisms a certain magnitude is necessary, and a magnitude which may be easily embraced in one view; so in the plot, a certain length is necessary, and a length which can be easily embraced by the memory. The limit of length in relation to dramatic competition and sensuous presentment, is no part of artistic theory. For had it been the rule for a hundred tragedies to compete together, the performance would have been regulated by the water-clock,--as indeed we are told was formerly done. But the limit as fixed by the nature of the drama itself is this: the greater the length, the more beautiful will the piece be by reason of its size, provided that the whole be perspicuous. And to define the matter roughly, we may say that the proper magnitude is comprised within such limits, that the sequence of events, according to the law of probability or necessity, will admit of a change from bad fortune to good, or from good fortune to bad.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00061",
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      "text": "VIII",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00062",
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      "text": "Unity of plot does not, as some persons think, consist in the Unity of the hero. For infinitely various are the incidents in one man's life which cannot be reduced to unity; and so, too, there are many actions of one man out of which we cannot make one action. Hence, the error, as it appears, of all poets who have composed a Heracleid, a Theseid, or other poems of the kind. They imagine that as Heracles was one man, the story of Heracles must also be a unity. But Homer, as in all else he is of surpassing merit, here too--whether from art or natural genius--seems to have happily discerned the truth. In composing the Odyssey he did not include all the adventures of Odysseus--such as his wound on Parnassus, or his feigned madness at the mustering of the host--incidents between which there was no necessary or probable connection: but he made the Odyssey, and likewise the Iliad, to centre round an action that in our sense of the word is one. As therefore, in the other imitative arts, the imitation is one when the object imitated is one, so the plot, being an imitation of an action, must imitate one action and that a whole, the structural union of the parts being such that, if any one of them is displaced or removed, the whole will be disjointed and disturbed. For a thing whose presence or absence makes no visible difference, is not an organic part of the whole.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00063",
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      "sha256": "5eb1f0f9433a0b6f61dd40a6c4369a77cbeaa0a98402d5b4f1add182dd7f4e23",
      "text": "IX",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00064",
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      "text": "It is, moreover, evident from what has been said, that it is not the function of the poet to relate what has happened, but what may happen,--what is possible according to the law of probability or necessity. The poet and the historian differ not by writing in verse or in prose. The work of Herodotus might be put into verse, and it would still be a species of history, with metre no less than without it. The true difference is that one relates what has happened, the other what may happen. Poetry, therefore, is a more philosophical and a higher thing than history: for poetry tends to express the universal, history the particular. By the universal, I mean how a person of a certain type will on occasion speak or act, according to the law of probability or necessity; and it is this universality at which poetry aims in the names she attaches to the personages. The particular is--for example--what Alcibiades did or suffered. In Comedy this is already apparent: for here the poet first constructs the plot on the lines of probability, and then inserts characteristic names;--unlike the lampooners who write about particular individuals. But tragedians still keep to real names, the reason being that what is possible is credible: what has not happened we do not at once feel sure to be possible: but what has happened is manifestly possible: otherwise it would not have happened. Still there are even some tragedies in which there are only one or two well known names, the rest being fictitious. In others, none are well known, as in Agathon's Antheus, where incidents and names alike are fictitious, and yet they give none the less pleasure. We must not, therefore, at all costs keep to the received legends, which are the usual subjects of Tragedy. Indeed, it would be absurd to attempt it; for even subjects that are known are known only to a few, and yet give pleasure to all. It clearly follows that the poet or 'maker' should be the maker of plots rather than of verses; since he is a poet because he imitates, and what he imitates are actions. And even if he chances to take an historical subject, he is none the less a poet; for there is no reason why some events that have actually happened should not conform to the law of the probable and possible, and in virtue of that quality in them he is their poet or maker.",
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    {
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      "text": "Of all plots and actions the epeisodic are the worst. I call a plot 'epeisodic' in which the episodes or acts succeed one another without probable or necessary sequence. Bad poets compose such pieces by their own fault, good poets, to please the players; for, as they write show pieces for competition, they stretch the plot beyond its capacity, and are often forced to break the natural continuity.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
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      "text": "But again, Tragedy is an imitation not only of a complete action, but of events inspiring fear or pity. Such an effect is best produced when the events come on us by surprise; and the effect is heightened when, at the same time, they follow as cause and effect. The tragic wonder will thee be greater than if they happened of themselves or by accident; for even coincidences are most striking when they have an air of design. We may instance the statue of Mitys at Argos, which fell upon his murderer while he was a spectator at a festival, and killed him. Such events seem not to be due to mere chance. Plots, therefore, constructed on these principles are necessarily the best.",
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      "text": "X",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
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      "text": "Plots are either Simple or Complex, for the actions in real life, of which the plots are an imitation, obviously show a similar distinction. An action which is one and continuous in the sense above defined, I call Simple, when the change of fortune takes place without Reversal of the Situation and without Recognition.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00069",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "sha256": "89e78eafd78f69b6aa4b5a6bccd183d1f8db069a2b1a6ce211b7b384731352a5",
      "text": "A Complex action is one in which the change is accompanied by such Reversal, or by Recognition, or by both. These last should arise from the internal structure of the plot, so that what follows should be the necessary or probable result of the preceding action. It makes all the difference whether any given event is a case of propter hoc or post hoc.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00070",
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      "sha256": "281317f5a54d671f07e300e15e5ca271bc8a5ecee2acbb642ecf8f0c21f0ceeb",
      "text": "XI",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00071",
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      "start": 30015,
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      "sha256": "85911f425c87f97adb86a336971cc692571a31bfb2de91897dde83d7504a72f9",
      "text": "Reversal of the Situation is a change by which the action veers round to its opposite, subject always to our rule of probability or necessity. Thus in the Oedipus, the messenger comes to cheer Oedipus and free him from his alarms about his mother, but by revealing who he is, he produces the opposite effect. Again in the Lynceus, Lynceus is being led away to his death, and Danaus goes with him, meaning, to slay him; but the outcome of the preceding incidents is that Danaus is killed and Lynceus saved. Recognition, as the name indicates, is a change from ignorance to knowledge, producing love or hate between the persons destined by the poet for good or bad fortune. The best form of recognition is coincident with a Reversal of the Situation, as in the Oedipus. There are indeed other forms. Even inanimate things of the most trivial kind may in a sense be objects of recognition. Again, we may recognise or discover whether a person has done a thing or not. But the recognition which is most intimately connected with the plot and action is, as we have said, the recognition of persons. This recognition, combined, with Reversal, will produce either pity or fear; and actions producing these effects are those which, by our definition, Tragedy represents. Moreover, it is upon such situations that the issues of good or bad fortune will depend. Recognition, then, being between persons, it may happen that one person only is recognised by the other-when the latter is already known--or it may be necessary that the recognition should be on both sides. Thus Iphigenia is revealed to Orestes by the sending of the letter; but another act of recognition is required to make Orestes known to Iphigenia.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00072",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "end": 32006,
      "sha256": "104acc705784f51c6e45f2f2ee4e84b855aa39393b6b74d967971a8121c2db02",
      "text": "Two parts, then, of the Plot--Reversal of the Situation and Recognition--turn upon surprises. A third part is the Scene of Suffering. The Scene of Suffering is a destructive or painful action, such as death on the stage, bodily agony, wounds and the like.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00073",
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      "end": 32019,
      "sha256": "89e979f628851dde99311432f4027093fc5f1ff992b926339a76a512f68a2a6d",
      "text": "XII",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00074",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 32023,
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      "sha256": "8004060aa0aeb34ef46e28644b562bd456eb3391197c53487bbed561d43c7694",
      "text": "[The parts of Tragedy which must be treated as elements of the whole have been already mentioned. We now come to the quantitative parts, and the separate parts into which Tragedy is divided, namely, Prologue, Episode, Exode, Choric song; this last being divided into Parode and Stasimon. These are common to all plays: peculiar to some are the songs of actors from the stage and the Commoi.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00075",
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      "text": "The Prologue is that entire part of a tragedy which precedes the Parode of the Chorus. The Episode is that entire part of a tragedy which is between complete choric songs. The Exode is that entire part of a tragedy which has no choric song after it. Of the Choric part the Parode is the first undivided utterance of the Chorus: the Stasimon is a Choric ode without anapaests or trochaic tetrameters: the Commos is a joint lamentation of Chorus and actors. The parts of Tragedy which must be treated as elements of the whole have been already mentioned. The quantitative parts the separate parts into which it is divided--are here enumerated.]",
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      "sha256": "1665cfc1eab3813746e0bd3af7c03d8f69978ba7cf3da5302850d6528496343c",
      "text": "XIII",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00077",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "end": 33315,
      "sha256": "3e2a8a7a30411bdc0d32cd0922ec4f67826eef55a781be109a9288412a67df7c",
      "text": "As the sequel to what has already been said, we must proceed to consider what the poet should aim at, and what he should avoid, in constructing his plots; and by what means the specific effect of Tragedy will be produced.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00078",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "text": "A perfect tragedy should, as we have seen, be arranged not on the simple but on the complex plan. It should, moreover, imitate actions which excite pity and fear, this being the distinctive mark of tragic imitation. It follows plainly, in the first place, that the change, of fortune presented must not be the spectacle of a virtuous man brought from prosperity to adversity: for this moves neither pity nor fear; it merely shocks us. Nor, again, that of a bad man passing from adversity to prosperity: for nothing can be more alien to the spirit of Tragedy; it possesses no single tragic quality; it neither satisfies the moral sense nor calls forth pity or fear. Nor, again, should the downfall of the utter villain be exhibited. A plot of this kind would, doubtless, satisfy the moral sense, but it would inspire neither pity nor fear; for pity is aroused by unmerited misfortune, fear by the misfortune of a man like ourselves. Such an event, therefore, will be neither pitiful nor terrible. There remains, then, the character between these two extremes,--that of a man who is not eminently good and just,-yet whose misfortune is brought about not by vice or depravity, but by some error or frailty. He must be one who is highly renowned and prosperous,--a personage like Oedipus, Thyestes, or other illustrious men of such families.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00079",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "end": 35885,
      "sha256": "299a81479844eed8d099fda152aec67bcf167b7952da5ecf57eac2164bcc2328",
      "text": "A well constructed plot should, therefore, be single in its issue, rather than double as some maintain. The change of fortune should be not from bad to good, but, reversely, from good to bad. It should come about as the result not of vice, but of some great error or frailty, in a character either such as we have described, or better rather than worse. The practice of the stage bears out our view. At first the poets recounted any legend that came in their way. Now, the best tragedies are founded on the story of a few houses, on the fortunes of Alcmaeon, Oedipus, Orestes, Meleager, Thyestes, Telephus, and those others who have done or suffered something terrible. A tragedy, then, to be perfect according to the rules of art should be of this construction. Hence they are in error who censure Euripides just because he follows this principle in his plays, many of which end unhappily. It is, as we have said, the right ending. The best proof is that on the stage and in dramatic competition, such plays, if well worked out, are the most tragic in effect; and Euripides, faulty though he may be in the general management of his subject, yet is felt to be the most tragic of the poets.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00080",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "sha256": "0b0a7a11ababaee68f30916f366bef5cf7cac9e9dd3ac133333ee4d3de749cb6",
      "text": "In the second rank comes the kind of tragedy which some place first. Like the Odyssey, it has a double thread of plot, and also an opposite catastrophe for the good and for the bad. It is accounted the best because of the weakness of the spectators; for the poet is guided in what he writes by the wishes of his audience. The pleasure, however, thence derived is not the true tragic pleasure. It is proper rather to Comedy, where those who, in the piece, are the deadliest enemies--like Orestes and Aegisthus--quit the stage as friends at the close, and no one slays or is slain.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00081",
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      "sha256": "4b2c561c6b0bc18c8acb8f47266efe27090b040bd582bd6e91b9fc8c536c8fdf",
      "text": "XIV",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00082",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 36493,
      "end": 37458,
      "sha256": "6703e96d0e8a8bef55547855538bef2f290101a3e81ef990dfdd834d13e430d8",
      "text": "Fear and pity may be aroused by spectacular means; but they may also result from the inner structure of the piece, which is the better way, and indicates a superior poet. For the plot ought to be so constructed that, even without the aid of the eye, he who hears the tale told will thrill with horror and melt to pity at what takes place. This is the impression we should receive from hearing the story of the Oedipus. But to produce this effect by the mere spectacle is a less artistic method, and dependent on extraneous aids. Those who employ spectacular means to create a sense not of the terrible but only of the monstrous, are strangers to the purpose of Tragedy; for we must not demand of Tragedy any and every kind of pleasure, but only that which is proper to it. And since the pleasure which the poet should afford is that which comes from pity and fear through imitation, it is evident that this quality must be impressed upon the incidents.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00083",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 37462,
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      "sha256": "33d7a20d9a55b68487cea3c31a6e2becf788dc19847c75cfba1f54b5fb7080c3",
      "text": "Let us then determine what are the circumstances which strike us as terrible or pitiful.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00084",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 37555,
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      "text": "Actions capable of this effect must happen between persons who are either friends or enemies or indifferent to one another. If an enemy kills an enemy, there is nothing to excite pity either in the act or the intention,--except so far as the suffering in itself is pitiful. So again with indifferent persons. But when the tragic incident occurs between those who are near or dear to one another--if, for example, a brother kills, or intends to kill, a brother, a son his father, a mother her son, a son his mother, or any other deed of the kind is done--these are the situations to be looked for by the poet. He may not indeed destroy the framework of the received legends--the fact, for instance, that Clytemnestra was slain by Orestes and Eriphyle by Alcmaeon but he ought to show invention of his own, and skilfully handle the traditional material. Let us explain more clearly what is meant by skilful handling.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00085",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 38485,
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      "sha256": "f7db94ad1cae72c0d81c6ac2648f1b921120e2f486429d50249abc4fe59304ed",
      "text": "The action may be done consciously and with knowledge of the persons, in the manner of the older poets. It is thus too that Euripides makes Medea slay her children. Or, again, the deed of horror may be done, but done in ignorance, and the tie of kinship or friendship be discovered afterwards. The Oedipus of Sophocles is an example. Here, indeed, the incident is outside the drama proper; but cases occur where it falls within the action of the play: one may cite the Alcmaeon of Astydamas, or Telegonus in the Wounded Odysseus. Again, there is a third case,--<to be about to act with knowledge of the persons and then not to act. The fourth case is> when some one is about to do an irreparable deed through ignorance, and makes the discovery before it is done. These are the only possible ways. For the deed must either be done or not done,--and that wittingly or unwittingly. But of all these ways, to be about to act knowing the persons, and then not to act, is the worst. It is shocking without being tragic, for no disaster follows. It is, therefore, never, or very rarely, found in poetry. One instance, however, is in the Antigone, where Haemon threatens to kill Creon. The next and better way is that the deed should be perpetrated. Still better, that it should be perpetrated in ignorance, and the discovery made afterwards. There is then nothing to shock us, while the discovery produces a startling effect. The last case is the best, as when in the Cresphontes Merope is about to slay her son, but, recognising who he is, spares his life. So in the Iphigenia, the sister recognises the brother just in time. Again in the Helle, the son recognises the mother when on the point of giving her up. This, then, is why a few families only, as has been already observed, furnish the subjects of tragedy. It was not art, but happy chance, that led the poets in search of subjects to impress the tragic quality upon their plots. They are compelled, therefore, to have recourse to those houses whose history contains moving incidents like these.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00086",
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      "sha256": "c97511879ec2fa3fc39b95ba6859ffc81b7e98ed15fc9df9d227f5d660c87220",
      "text": "Enough has now been said concerning the structure of the incidents, and the right kind of plot.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00087",
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      "text": "XV",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00088",
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      "text": "In respect of Character there are four things to be aimed at. First, and most important, it must be good. Now any speech or action that manifests moral purpose of any kind will be expressive of character: the character will be good if the purpose is good. This rule is relative to each class. Even a woman may be good, and also a slave; though the woman may be said to be an inferior being, and the slave quite worthless. The second thing to aim at is propriety. There is a type of manly valour; but valour in a woman, or unscrupulous cleverness, is inappropriate. Thirdly, character must be true to life: for this is a distinct thing from goodness and propriety, as here described. The fourth point is consistency: for though the subject of the imitation, who suggested the type, be inconsistent, still he must be consistently inconsistent. As an example of motiveless degradation of character, we have Menelaus in the Orestes: of character indecorous and inappropriate, the lament of Odysseus in the Scylla, and the speech of Melanippe: of inconsistency, the Iphigenia at Aulis,--for Iphigenia the suppliant in no way resembles her later self.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00089",
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      "text": "As in the structure of the plot, so too in the portraiture of character, the poet should always aim either at the necessary or the probable. Thus a person of a given character should speak or act in a given way, by the rule either of necessity or of probability; just as this event should follow that by necessary or probable sequence. It is therefore evident that the unravelling of the plot, no less than the complication, must arise out of the plot itself, it must not be brought about by the 'Deus ex Machina'--as in the Medea, or in the Return of the Greeks in the Iliad. The 'Deus ex Machina' should be employed only for events external to the drama,--for antecedent or subsequent events, which lie beyond the range of human knowledge, and which require to be reported or foretold; for to the gods we ascribe the power of seeing all things. Within the action there must be nothing irrational. If the irrational cannot be excluded, it should be outside the scope of the tragedy. Such is the irrational element in the Oedipus of Sophocles.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00090",
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      "text": "Again, since Tragedy is an imitation of persons who are above the common level, the example of good portrait-painters should be followed. They, while reproducing the distinctive form of the original, make a likeness which is true to life and yet more beautiful. So too the poet, in representing men who are irascible or indolent, or have other defects of character, should preserve the type and yet ennoble it. In this way Achilles is portrayed by Agathon and Homer.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00091",
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      "text": "These then are rules the poet should observe. Nor should he neglect those appeals to the senses, which, though not among the essentials, are the concomitants of poetry; for here too there is much room for error. But of this enough has been said in our published treatises.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
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      "text": "XVI",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00093",
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      "text": "What Recognition is has been already explained. We will now enumerate its kinds.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00094",
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      "text": "First, the least artistic form, which, from poverty of wit, is most commonly employed recognition by signs. Of these some are congenital,--such as 'the spear which the earth-born race bear on their bodies,' or the stars introduced by Carcinus in his Thyestes. Others are acquired after birth; and of these some are bodily marks, as scars; some external tokens, as necklaces, or the little ark in the Tyro by which the discovery is effected. Even these admit of more or less skilful treatment. Thus in the recognition of Odysseus by his scar, the discovery is made in one way by the nurse, in another by the swineherds. The use of tokens for the express purpose of proof--and, indeed, any formal proof with or without tokens--is a less artistic mode of recognition. A better kind is that which comes about by a turn of incident, as in the Bath Scene in the Odyssey.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00095",
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      "text": "Next come the recognitions invented at will by the poet, and on that account wanting in art. For example, Orestes in the Iphigenia reveals the fact that he is Orestes. She, indeed, makes herself known by the letter; but he, by speaking himself, and saying what the poet, not what the plot requires. This, therefore, is nearly allied to the fault above mentioned:--for Orestes might as well have brought tokens with him. Another similar instance is the 'voice of the shuttle' in the Tereus of Sophocles.",
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    {
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      "end": 45467,
      "sha256": "3aa012111955ddfa3dde10d7a1c78cc275a9aa2197c65a3df2ba9c1f2d30d936",
      "text": "The third kind depends on memory when the sight of some object awakens a feeling: as in the Cyprians of Dicaeogenes, where the hero breaks into tears on seeing the picture; or again in the 'Lay of Alcinous,' where Odysseus, hearing the minstrel play the lyre, recalls the past and weeps; and hence the recognition.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00097",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 45471,
      "end": 46501,
      "sha256": "9f9dd4e98ccec14a37fba51a9d1c398f17344146bc3f3e26454a6265b55972ba",
      "text": "The fourth kind is by process of reasoning. Thus in the Choephori: 'Some one resembling me has come: no one resembles me but Orestes: therefore Orestes has come.' Such too is the discovery made by Iphigenia in the play of Polyidus the Sophist. It was a natural reflection for Orestes to make, 'So I too must die at the altar like my sister.' So, again, in the Tydeus of Theodectes, the father says, 'I came to find my son, and I lose my own life.' So too in the Phineidae: the women, on seeing the place, inferred their fate:--'Here we are doomed to die, for here we were cast forth.' Again, there is a composite kind of recognition involving false inference on the part of one of the characters, as in the Odysseus Disguised as a Messenger. A said <that no one else was able to bend the bow;... hence B (the disguised Odysseus) imagined that A would> recognise the bow which, in fact, he had not seen; and to bring about a recognition by this means that the expectation A would recognise the bow is false inference.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00098",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 46505,
      "end": 46916,
      "sha256": "1a0585612e60fdf4d2da819496892dbaa2e53a67a0082ae6244f00fddcfbef20",
      "text": "But, of all recognitions, the best is that which arises from the incidents themselves, where the startling discovery is made by natural means. Such is that in the Oedipus of Sophocles, and in the Iphigenia; for it was natural that Iphigenia should wish to dispatch a letter. These recognitions alone dispense with the artificial aid of tokens or amulets. Next come the recognitions by process of reasoning.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00099",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 46926,
      "end": 46930,
      "sha256": "c189ff843bc4a93e6fedc9cf4c26d798e80d1c10b507e2ae61a68cfb17b0fe54",
      "text": "XVII",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00100",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 46934,
      "end": 47541,
      "sha256": "0ac1e858c13c7e7dc4cefc0fab9eed33b16ea91e7f16e740d266c6d4505bc529",
      "text": "In constructing the plot and working it out with the proper diction, the poet should place the scene, as far as possible, before his eyes. In this way, seeing everything with the utmost vividness, as if he were a spectator of the action, he will discover what is in keeping with it, and be most unlikely to overlook inconsistencies. The need of such a rule is shown by the fault found in Carcinus. Amphiaraus was on his way from the temple. This fact escaped the observation of one who did not see the situation. On the stage, however, the piece failed, the audience being offended at the oversight.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00101",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 47545,
      "end": 48027,
      "sha256": "43601b97b0b2292f185612ceccf816255715e23830e2b9bba07507c6fdfdd890",
      "text": "Again, the poet should work out his play, to the best of his power, with appropriate gestures; for those who feel emotion are most convincing through natural sympathy with the characters they represent; and one who is agitated storms, one who is angry rages, with the most life-like reality. Hence poetry implies either a happy gift of nature or a strain of madness. In the one case a man can take the mould of any character; in the other, he is lifted out of his proper self.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00102",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 48031,
      "end": 49056,
      "sha256": "cd0676b753b78f47dcb5a8924c787309315f9d5f1e51ea83478378739c2d1171",
      "text": "As for the story, whether the poet takes it ready made or constructs it for himself, he should first sketch its general outline, and then fill in the episodes and amplify in detail. The general plan may be illustrated by the Iphigenia. A young girl is sacrificed; she disappears mysteriously from the eyes of those who sacrificed her; She is transported to another country, where the custom is to offer up all strangers to the goddess. To this ministry she is appointed. Some time later her own brother chances to arrive. The fact that the oracle for some reason ordered him to go there, is outside the general plan of the play. The purpose, again, of his coming is outside the action proper. However, he comes, he is seized, and, when on the point of being sacrificed, reveals who he is. The mode of recognition may be either that of Euripides or of Polyidus, in whose play he exclaims very naturally:--'So it was not my sister only, but I too, who was doomed to be sacrificed'; and by that remark he is saved.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00103",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 49060,
      "end": 49929,
      "sha256": "b165bf7d0fa1dc873dfdbdbbd416a909d6cb9c8637e493802bffbd4dad79ff31",
      "text": "After this, the names being once given, it remains to fill in the episodes. We must see that they are relevant to the action. In the case of Orestes, for example, there is the madness which led to his capture, and his deliverance by means of the purificatory rite. In the drama, the episodes are short, but it is these that give extension to Epic poetry. Thus the story of the Odyssey can be stated briefly. A certain man is absent from home for many years; he is jealously watched by Poseidon, and left desolate. Meanwhile his home is in a wretched plight--suitors are wasting his substance and plotting against his son. At length, tempest-tost, he himself arrives; he makes certain persons acquainted with him; he attacks the suitors with his own hand, and is himself preserved while he destroys them. This is the essence of the plot; the rest is episode.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00121",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 57825,
      "end": 58430,
      "sha256": "945e383842c382a7142a6406310f4ecf146cacfbb68b77c5a99fdec0cdc32bfa",
      "text": "A Sentence or Phrase is a composite significant sound, some at least of whose parts are in themselves significant; for not every such group of words consists of verbs and nouns--'the definition of man,' for example--but it may dispense even with the verb. Still it will always have some significant part, as 'in walking,' or 'Cleon son of Cleon.' A sentence or phrase may form a unity in two ways,--either as signifying one thing, or as consisting of several parts linked together. Thus the Iliad is one by the linking together of parts, the definition of man by the unity of the thing signified.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00122",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 58440,
      "end": 58443,
      "sha256": "529455afadaf8eeeba4d3a57cd520247d51a47e4a556bc9750ddce83794e6b1b",
      "text": "XXI",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00123",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 58447,
      "end": 58921,
      "sha256": "cc9c9680949bb6716bdc83cc6de34163fa96512485ade587a8051fa9c179c46b",
      "text": "Words are of two kinds, simple and double. By simple I mean those composed of non-significant elements, such as {gamma eta}. By double or compound, those composed either of a significant and non-significant element (though within the whole word no element is significant), or of elements that are both significant. A word may likewise be triple, quadruple, or multiple in form, like so many Massilian expressions, e.g. 'Hermo-caico-xanthus who prayed to Father Zeus>.'",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00124",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 58925,
      "end": 59058,
      "sha256": "a18c5f43f32adb637294ad21a2999ffdb7203bba1e16b7b00742644d505e5ddf",
      "text": "Every word is either current, or strange, or metaphorical, or ornamental, or newly-coined, or lengthened, or contracted, or altered.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00125",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 59062,
      "end": 59433,
      "sha256": "729560dcfac1a44345abaeb80ae6916cac055b297b4b126e468c19ca2ae6ec46",
      "text": "By a current or proper word I mean one which is in general use among a people; by a strange word, one which is in use in another country. Plainly, therefore, the same word may be at once strange and current, but not in relation to the same people. The word {sigma iota gamma upsilon nu omicron nu}, 'lance,' is to the Cyprians a current term but to us a strange one.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00126",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 59437,
      "end": 61489,
      "sha256": "0b9336edd81f44ee5ea3b14b54de3e591bad52687b856f0c3c55c600949e751e",
      "text": "Metaphor is the application of an alien name by transference either from genus to species, or from species to genus, or from species to species, or by analogy, that is, proportion. Thus from genus to species, as: 'There lies my ship'; for lying at anchor is a species of lying. From species to genus, as: 'Verily ten thousand noble deeds hath Odysseus wrought'; for ten thousand is a species of large number, and is here used for a large number generally. From species to species, as: 'With blade of bronze drew away the life,' and 'Cleft the water with the vessel of unyielding bronze.' Here {alpha rho upsilon rho alpha iota}, 'to draw away,' is used for {tau alpha mu epsilon iota nu}, 'to cleave,' and {tau alpha mu epsilon iota nu} again for {alpha rho upsilon alpha iota},--each being a species of taking away. Analogy or proportion is when the second term is to the first as the fourth to the third. We may then use the fourth for the second, or the second for the fourth. Sometimes too we qualify the metaphor by adding the term to which the proper word is relative. Thus the cup is to Dionysus as the shield to Ares. The cup may, therefore, be called 'the shield of Dionysus,' and the shield 'the cup of Ares.' Or, again, as old age is to life, so is evening to day. Evening may therefore be called 'the old age of the day,' and old age, 'the evening of life,' or, in the phrase of Empedocles, 'life's setting sun.' For some of the terms of the proportion there is at times no word in existence; still the metaphor may be used. For instance, to scatter seed is called sowing: but the action of the sun in scattering his rays is nameless. Still this process bears to the sun the same relation as sowing to the seed. Hence the expression of the poet 'sowing the god-created light.' There is another way in which this kind of metaphor may be employed. We may apply an alien term, and then deny of that term one of its proper attributes; as if we were to call the shield, not 'the cup of Ares,' but 'the wineless cup.'",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00127",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 61493,
      "end": 61516,
      "sha256": "ce7209fbd3d7a7fe605ecd66b9f9892b82463518e3f4f8c36f7740ec1239ab5b",
      "text": "{An ornamental word...}",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00128",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 61520,
      "end": 61878,
      "sha256": "421fbc3c0d8e8cca935fa8f1ba077067354bd279776b9507b9bb9accb1ed54be",
      "text": "A newly-coined word is one which has never been even in local use, but is adopted by the poet himself. Some such words there appear to be: as {epsilon rho nu upsilon gamma epsilon sigma}, 'sprouters,' for {kappa epsilon rho alpha tau alpha}, 'horns,' and {alpha rho eta tau eta rho}, 'supplicator,' for {iota epsilon rho epsilon upsilon sigma}, 'priest.'",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00129",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 61882,
      "end": 62465,
      "sha256": "ee500aa954329a83fb644e6da1d77575e05e93e77a6d1ffaeafa397aa2e723f3",
      "text": "A word is lengthened when its own vowel is exchanged for a longer one, or when a syllable is inserted. A word is contracted when some part of it is removed. Instances of lengthening are,--{pi omicron lambda eta omicron sigma} for {pi omicron lambda epsilon omega sigma}, and {Pi eta lambda eta iota alpha delta epsilon omega} for {Pi eta lambda epsilon iota delta omicron upsilon}: of contraction,--{kappa rho iota}, {delta omega}, and {omicron psi}, as in {mu iota alpha / gamma iota nu epsilon tau alpha iota / alpha mu phi omicron tau episilon rho omega nu / omicron psi}.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00130",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 62469,
      "end": 62773,
      "sha256": "5c8ae920f6d0e1babd5355ec1e0829264d11e7542718a92ab343f9c0d9bf3206",
      "text": "An altered word is one in which part of the ordinary form is left unchanged, and part is re-cast; as in {delta epsilon xi iota-tau epsilon rho omicron nu / kappa alpha tau alpha / mu alpha zeta omicron nu}, {delta epsilon xi iota tau epsilon rho omicron nu} is for {delta epsilon xi iota omicron nu}.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00131",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 62777,
      "end": 63508,
      "sha256": "b2f9e9649213e3fac25dc366ae7730b6f523ccf401bff6124f5c096eabbaa47c",
      "text": "[Nouns in themselves are either masculine, feminine, or neuter. Masculine are such as end in {nu}, {rho}, {sigma}, or in some letter compounded with {sigma},--these being two, and {xi}. Feminine, such as end in vowels that are always long, namely {eta} and {omega}, and--of vowels that admit of lengthening--those in {alpha}. Thus the number of letters in which nouns masculine and feminine end is the same; for {psi} and {xi} are equivalent to endings in {sigma}. No noun ends in a mute or a vowel short by nature. Three only end in {iota},--{mu eta lambda iota}, {kappa omicron mu mu iota}, {pi epsilon pi epsilon rho iota}: five end in {upsilon}. Neuter nouns end in these two latter vowels; also in {nu} and {sigma}.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00132",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 63518,
      "end": 63522,
      "sha256": "df2199c6bea2e1fc74e009bb062957326bb3a128a7e3bd2f7acad0ebb53dcf2b",
      "text": "XXII",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00133",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 63526,
      "end": 66966,
      "sha256": "13aa4de1a4093b2ae1a01df5ad24a9d986a74242f03427ff47e11098c882bd6e",
      "text": "The perfection of style is to be clear without being mean. The clearest style is that which uses only current or proper words; at the same time it is mean:--witness the poetry of Cleophon and of Sthenelus. That diction, on the other hand, is lofty and raised above the commonplace which employs unusual words. By unusual, I mean strange (or rare) words, metaphorical, lengthened,--anything, in short, that differs from the normal idiom. Yet a style wholly composed of such words is either a riddle or a jargon; a riddle, if it consists of metaphors; a jargon, if it consists of strange (or rare) words. For the essence of a riddle is to express true facts under impossible combinations. Now this cannot be done by any arrangement of ordinary words, but by the use of metaphor it can. Such is the riddle:--'A man I saw who on another man had glued the bronze by aid of fire,' and others of the same kind. A diction that is made up of strange (or rare) terms is a jargon. A certain infusion, therefore, of these elements is necessary to style; for the strange (or rare) word, the metaphorical, the ornamental, and the other kinds above mentioned, will raise it above the commonplace and mean, while the use of proper words will make it perspicuous. But nothing contributes more to produce a clearness of diction that is remote from commonness than the lengthening, contraction, and alteration of words. For by deviating in exceptional cases from the normal idiom, the language will gain distinction; while, at the same time, the partial conformity with usage will give perspicuity. The critics, therefore, are in error who censure these licenses of speech, and hold the author up to ridicule. Thus Eucleides, the elder, declared that it would be an easy matter to be a poet if you might lengthen syllables at will. He caricatured the practice in the very form of his diction, as in the verse: '{Epsilon pi iota chi alpha rho eta nu / epsilon iota delta omicron nu / Mu alpha rho alpha theta omega nu alpha delta epsilon / Beta alpha delta iota zeta omicron nu tau alpha}, or, {omicron upsilon kappa / alpha nu / gamma / epsilon rho alpha mu epsilon nu omicron sigma / tau omicron nu / epsilon kappa epsilon iota nu omicron upsilon /epsilon lambda lambda epsilon beta omicron rho omicron nu}. To employ such license at all obtrusively is, no doubt, grotesque; but in any mode of poetic diction there must be moderation. Even metaphors, strange (or rare) words, or any similar forms of speech, would produce the like effect if used without propriety and with the express purpose of being ludicrous. How great a difference is made by the appropriate use of lengthening, may be seen in Epic poetry by the insertion of ordinary forms in the verse. So, again, if we take a strange (or rare) word, a metaphor, or any similar mode of expression, and replace it by the current or proper term, the truth of our observation will be manifest. For example Aeschylus and Euripides each composed the same iambic line. But the alteration of a single word by Euripides, who employed the rarer term instead of the ordinary one, makes one verse appear beautiful and the other trivial. Aeschylus in his Philoctetes says: {Phi alpha gamma epsilon delta alpha iota nu alpha / delta / eta / mu omicron upsilon / sigma alpha rho kappa alpha sigma / epsilon rho theta iota epsilon iota / pi omicron delta omicron sigma}.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00134",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 66970,
      "end": 68250,
      "sha256": "18b474b3d8d7c954981fd6394e88deeeba841c43d222298fcae1b1d7110e0292",
      "text": "Euripides substitutes {Theta omicron iota nu alpha tau alpha iota} 'feasts on' for {epsilon sigma theta iota epsilon iota} 'feeds on.' Again, in the line, {nu upsilon nu / delta epsilon / mu /epsilon omega nu / omicron lambda iota gamma iota gamma upsilon sigma / tau epsilon / kappa alpha iota / omicron upsilon tau iota delta alpha nu omicron sigma / kappa alpha iota / alpha epsilon iota kappa eta sigma), the difference will be felt if we substitute the common words, {nu upsilon nu / delta epsilon / mu / epsilon omega nu / mu iota kappa rho omicron sigma / tau epsilon / kappa alpha iota / alpha rho theta epsilon nu iota kappa omicron sigma / kappa alpha iota / alpha epsilon iota delta gamma sigma}. Or, if for the line, {delta iota phi rho omicron nu / alpha epsilon iota kappa epsilon lambda iota omicron nu / kappa alpha tau alpha theta epsilon iota sigma / omicron lambda iota gamma eta nu / tau epsilon / tau rho alpha pi epsilon iota sigma / omicron lambda iota gamma eta nu / tau epsilon / tau rho alpha pi epsilon zeta alpha nu,} We read, {delta iota phi rho omicron nu / mu omicron chi theta eta rho omicron nu / kappa alpha tau alpha theta epsilon iota sigma / mu iota kappa rho alpha nu / tau epsilon / tau rho alpha pi epsilon zeta alpha nu}.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00135",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 68254,
      "end": 68424,
      "sha256": "8de173e454a07e2919ad84b28ae417d35c2502ed2dd8841947786ddb6d3c4afb",
      "text": "Or, for {eta iota omicron nu epsilon sigma / beta omicron omicron omega rho iota nu, eta iota omicron nu epsilon sigma kappa rho alpha zeta omicron upsilon rho iota nu}",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00136",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 68428,
      "end": 69080,
      "sha256": "4994f1d09a6852f432c4a508aa8259188f67db46078d0f35179e90cf4f80b90f",
      "text": "Again, Ariphrades ridiculed the tragedians for using phrases which no one would employ in ordinary speech: for example, {delta omega mu alpha tau omega nu / alpha pi omicron} instead of {alpha pi omicron / delta omega mu alpha tau omega nu}, {rho epsilon theta epsilon nu}, {epsilon gamma omega / delta epsilon / nu iota nu}, {Alpha chi iota lambda lambda epsilon omega sigma / pi epsilon rho iota} instead of {pi epsilon rho iota / 'Alpha chi iota lambda lambda epsilon omega sigma}, and the like. It is precisely because such phrases are not part of the current idiom that they give distinction to the style. This, however, he failed to see.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00137",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 69084,
      "end": 69425,
      "sha256": "3023809da06c24e61625c0d8afd79007a3681ef68b7ec4f8d7745048102f7194",
      "text": "It is a great matter to observe propriety in these several modes of expression, as also in compound words, strange (or rare) words, and so forth. But the greatest thing by far is to have a command of metaphor. This alone cannot be imparted by another; it is the mark of genius, for to make good metaphors implies an eye for resemblances.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00138",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 69429,
      "end": 69833,
      "sha256": "b44b7d7e30a934e562e921a5b3a1c2f71ac4838293613bb5a1d46e92d82ad9a9",
      "text": "Of the various kinds of words, the compound are best adapted to Dithyrambs, rare words to heroic poetry, metaphors to iambic. In heroic poetry, indeed, all these varieties are serviceable. But in iambic verse, which reproduces, as far as may be, familiar speech, the most appropriate words are those which are found even in prose. These are,--the current or proper, the metaphorical, the ornamental.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00139",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 69837,
      "end": 69906,
      "sha256": "4bf51bcb5cbbe9b88aba173ba975de7f4ec1f3b86b81753aeefdd673a5027bae",
      "text": "Concerning Tragedy and imitation by means of action this may suffice.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00140",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 69916,
      "end": 69921,
      "sha256": "bf287a8a944d37a8a5e747d90753f837504d79bbf7280c6c7cb623797e86afe1",
      "text": "XXIII",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00141",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 69925,
      "end": 71992,
      "sha256": "516b0d45eacbb07e45fa5201735d9e7d9c0ec0bf43e4153eb0ef20c3f6cc410d",
      "text": "As to that poetic imitation which is narrative in form and employs a single metre, the plot manifestly ought, as in a tragedy, to be constructed on dramatic principles. It should have for its subject a single action, whole and complete, with a beginning, a middle, and an end. It will thus resemble a living organism in all its unity, and produce the pleasure proper to it. It will differ in structure from historical compositions, which of necessity present not a single action, but a single period, and all that happened within that period to one person or to many, little connected together as the events may be. For as the sea-fight at Salamis and the battle with the Carthaginians in Sicily took place at the same time, but did not tend to any one result, so in the sequence of events, one thing sometimes follows another, and yet no single result is thereby produced. Such is the practice, we may say, of most poets. Here again, then, as has been already observed, the transcendent excellence of Homer is manifest. He never attempts to make the whole war of Troy the subject of his poem, though that war had a beginning and an end. It would have been too vast a theme, and not easily embraced in a single view. If, again, he had kept it within moderate limits, it must have been over-complicated by the variety of the incidents. As it is, he detaches a single portion, and admits as episodes many events from the general story of the war--such as the Catalogue of the ships and others--thus diversifying the poem. All other poets take a single hero, a single period, or an action single indeed, but with a multiplicity of parts. Thus did the author of the Cypria and of the Little Iliad. For this reason the Iliad and the Odyssey each furnish the subject of one tragedy, or, at most, of two; while the Cypria supplies materials for many, and the Little Iliad for eight--the Award of the Arms, the Philoctetes, the Neoptolemus, the Eurypylus, the Mendicant Odysseus, the Laconian Women, the Fall of Ilium, the Departure of the Fleet.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00142",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 72002,
      "end": 72006,
      "sha256": "c967d1e79198bab0a58e8c80279965f5790efe25895333dba7ed6ff64c2caf67",
      "text": "XXIV",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00143",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 72010,
      "end": 72653,
      "sha256": "fedc85828924232c21e5b09b0b5ccc83b062ac1876a633a2bdff6f2cdb9ac422",
      "text": "Again, Epic poetry must have as many kinds as Tragedy: it must be simple, or complex, or 'ethical,' or 'pathetic.' The parts also, with the exception of song and spectacle, are the same; for it requires Reversals of the Situation, Recognitions, and Scenes of Suffering. Moreover, the thoughts and the diction must be artistic. In all these respects Homer is our earliest and sufficient model. Indeed each of his poems has a twofold character. The Iliad is at once simple and 'pathetic,' and the Odyssey complex (for Recognition scenes run through it), and at the same time 'ethical.' Moreover, in diction and thought they are supreme.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00144",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 72657,
      "end": 73070,
      "sha256": "81beb5b98afc9c1d5a402ca63487cf76aba45dadfe40b60536a52117e3e8d072",
      "text": "Epic poetry differs from Tragedy in the scale on which it is constructed, and in its metre. As regards scale or length, we have already laid down an adequate limit:--the beginning and the end must be capable of being brought within a single view. This condition will be satisfied by poems on a smaller scale than the old epics, and answering in length to the group of tragedies presented at a single sitting.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00145",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 73074,
      "end": 73800,
      "sha256": "f0b9dd14e6dd78dd44f00ef3d22efd74096c57a9b2541437dc851d824438dcd0",
      "text": "Epic poetry has, however, a great--a special--capacity for enlarging its dimensions, and we can see the reason. In Tragedy we cannot imitate several lines of actions carried on at one and the same time; we must confine ourselves to the action on the stage and the part taken by the players. But in Epic poetry, owing to the narrative form, many events simultaneously transacted can be presented; and these, if relevant to the subject, add mass and dignity to the poem. The Epic has here an advantage, and one that conduces to grandeur of effect, to diverting the mind of the hearer, and relieving the story with varying episodes. For sameness of incident soon produces satiety, and makes tragedies fail on the stage.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00146",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 73804,
      "end": 74616,
      "sha256": "f8e611e6159d369df708bd8e97977906bd15827a45d025b92210d7949c05919e",
      "text": "As for the metre, the heroic measure has proved its fitness by the test of experience. If a narrative poem in any other metre or in many metres were now composed, it would be found incongruous. For of all measures the heroic is the stateliest and the most massive; and hence it most readily admits rare words and metaphors, which is another point in which the narrative form of imitation stands alone. On the other hand, the iambic and the trochaic tetrameter are stirring measures, the latter being akin to dancing, the former expressive of action. Still more absurd would it be to mix together different metres, as was done by Chaeremon. Hence no one has ever composed a poem on a great scale in any other than heroic verse. Nature herself, as we have said, teaches the choice of the proper measure.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00147",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 74620,
      "end": 75143,
      "sha256": "65e0d17f7a197dbdbf9b2aead04dd5906e17ad1a43d4b97b3b726d98651bc974",
      "text": "Homer, admirable in all respects, has the special merit of being the only poet who rightly appreciates the part he should take himself. The poet should speak as little as possible in his own person, for it is not this that makes him an imitator. Other poets appear themselves upon the scene throughout, and imitate but little and rarely. Homer, after a few prefatory words, at once brings in a man, or woman, or other personage; none of them wanting in characteristic qualities, but each with a character of his own.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00148",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "end": 76305,
      "sha256": "9ee52f150637f98bf19a578356e257c2970a07a6c988d03b0ad5c61679810d93",
      "text": "The element of the wonderful is required in Tragedy. The irrational, on which the wonderful depends for its chief effects, has wider scope in Epic poetry, because there the person acting is not seen. Thus, the pursuit of Hector would be ludicrous if placed upon the stage--the Greeks standing still and not joining in the pursuit, and Achilles waving them back. But in the Epic poem the absurdity passes unnoticed. Now the wonderful is pleasing: as may be inferred from the fact that every one tells a story with some addition of his own, knowing that his hearers like it. It is Homer who has chiefly taught other poets the art of telling lies skilfully. The secret of it lies in a fallacy, For, assuming that if one thing is or becomes, a second is or becomes, men imagine that, if the second is, the first likewise is or becomes. But this is a false inference. Hence, where the first thing is untrue, it is quite unnecessary, provided the second be true, to add that the first is or has become. For the mind, knowing the second to be true, falsely infers the truth of the first. There is an example of this in the Bath Scene of the Odyssey.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00149",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 76309,
      "end": 77402,
      "sha256": "5ce666fe61252e1efc4484ef38218874e17721767cdc0ff287a2dd17a0bee2ad",
      "text": "Accordingly, the poet should prefer probable impossibilities to improbable possibilities. The tragic plot must not be composed of irrational parts. Everything irrational should, if possible, be excluded; or, at all events, it should lie outside the action of the play (as, in the Oedipus, the hero's ignorance as to the manner of Laius' death); not within the drama,--as in the Electra, the messenger's account of the Pythian games; or, as in the Mysians, the man who has come from Tegea to Mysia and is still speechless. The plea that otherwise the plot would have been ruined, is ridiculous; such a plot should not in the first instance be constructed. But once the irrational has been introduced and an air of likelihood imparted to it, we must accept it in spite of the absurdity. Take even the irrational incidents in the Odyssey, where Odysseus is left upon the shore of Ithaca. How intolerable even these might have been would be apparent if an inferior poet were to treat the subject. As it is, the absurdity is veiled by the poetic charm with which the poet invests it.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00150",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 77406,
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      "sha256": "b579c649b62d7285160f6c7d4fd2bb9e4e94db3a2b3247c0ec37e57ce76b6ee9",
      "text": "The diction should be elaborated in the pauses of the action, where there is no expression of character or thought. For, conversely, character and thought are merely obscured by a diction that is over brilliant.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00151",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "sha256": "5971054e28e0c9731f08b9d1433721b9f4bb362b7b442d9436f5420f0423ff77",
      "text": "XXV",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00152",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 77637,
      "end": 77786,
      "sha256": "c044d7b6ee66e42851f2b1b4a2ea8bb2107fb5e15f2f70b6f3f54691bbf52213",
      "text": "With respect to critical difficulties and their solutions, the number and nature of the sources from which they may be drawn may be thus exhibited.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00153",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "end": 78943,
      "sha256": "1186625033fe3cfbd58a13c125158495d738d8bfddaba0cc35a7081f59fa082f",
      "text": "The poet being an imitator, like a painter or any other artist, must of necessity imitate one of three objects,--things as they were or are, things as they are said or thought to be, or things as they ought to be. The vehicle of expression is language,--either current terms or, it may be, rare words or metaphors. There are also many modifications of language, which we concede to the poets. Add to this, that the standard of correctness is not the same in poetry and politics, any more than in poetry and any other art. Within the art of poetry itself there are two kinds of faults, those which touch its essence, and those which are accidental. If a poet has chosen to imitate something, <but has imitated it incorrectly> through want of capacity, the error is inherent in the poetry. But if the failure is due to a wrong choice if he has represented a horse as throwing out both his off legs at once, or introduced technical inaccuracies in medicine, for example, or in any other art the error is not essential to the poetry. These are the points of view from which we should consider and answer the objections raised by the critics.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00154",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 78947,
      "end": 79522,
      "sha256": "15ed513913b845c76780f7d3e5615be993be0a4ff3efc6c2ee79362510282b57",
      "text": "First as to matters which concern the poet's own art. If he describes the impossible, he is guilty of an error; but the error may be justified, if the end of the art be thereby attained (the end being that already mentioned), if, that is, the effect of this or any other part of the poem is thus rendered more striking. A case in point is the pursuit of Hector. If, however, the end might have been as well, or better, attained without violating the special rules of the poetic art, the error is not justified: for every kind of error should, if possible, be avoided.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00155",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 79526,
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      "sha256": "30cd4ef392831618e16cbd1e1d279fd2de774f4f0eb1afff622f33c297dadc45",
      "text": "Again, does the error touch the essentials of the poetic art, or some accident of it? For example,--not to know that a hind has no horns is a less serious matter than to paint it inartistically.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00156",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 79726,
      "end": 80541,
      "sha256": "5540bde9410287867453b669adf6cff9944470dff3e896acdd5cecd9037c1c23",
      "text": "Further, if it be objected that the description is not true to fact, the poet may perhaps reply,--'But the objects are as they ought to be': just as Sophocles said that he drew men as they ought to be; Euripides, as they are. In this way the objection may be met. If, however, the representation be of neither kind, the poet may answer,--This is how men say the thing is.' This applies to tales about the gods. It may well be that these stories are not higher than fact nor yet true to fact: they are, very possibly, what Xenophanes says of them. But anyhow, 'this is what is said.' Again, a description may be no better than the fact: 'still, it was the fact'; as in the passage about the arms: 'Upright upon their butt-ends stood the spears.' This was the custom then, as it now is among the Illyrians.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00157",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 80545,
      "end": 80924,
      "sha256": "7d8023980e089206e56dcdfad7c63f75428cf4eafd3704668f088a5b0e77a102",
      "text": "Again, in examining whether what has been said or done by some one is poetically right or not, we must not look merely to the particular act or saying, and ask whether it is poetically good or bad. We must also consider by whom it is said or done, to whom, when, by what means, or for what end; whether, for instance, it be to secure a greater good, or avert a greater evil.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00158",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 80928,
      "end": 81719,
      "sha256": "fd6604ce8832548543c63f81977ba825815c7042d8f9e2d12dc11e56bea90598",
      "text": "Other difficulties may be resolved by due regard to the usage of language. We may note a rare word, as in {omicron upsilon rho eta alpha sigma / mu epsilon nu / pi rho omega tau omicron nu}, where the poet perhaps employs {omicron upsilon rho eta alpha sigma} not in the sense of mules, but of sentinels. So, again, of Dolon: 'ill-favoured indeed he was to look upon.' It is not meant that his body was ill-shaped, but that his face was ugly; for the Cretans use the word {epsilon upsilon epsilon iota delta epsilon sigma}, 'well-favoured,' to denote a fair face. Again, {zeta omega rho omicron tau epsilon rho omicron nu / delta epsilon / kappa epsilon rho alpha iota epsilon}, 'mix the drink livelier,' does not mean `mix it stronger' as for hard drinkers, but 'mix it quicker.'",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00159",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 81723,
      "end": 82187,
      "sha256": "e12832f97d7efd154c1ce5804c60d663d1ed028bec50dc265952b8f535aea96d",
      "text": "Sometimes an expression is metaphorical, as 'Now all gods and men were sleeping through the night,'--while at the same time the poet says: 'Often indeed as he turned his gaze to the Trojan plain, he marvelled at the sound of flutes and pipes.' 'All' is here used metaphorically for 'many,' all being a species of many. So in the verse,--'alone she hath no part...,' {omicron iota eta}, 'alone,' is metaphorical; for the best known may be called the only one.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00160",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 82191,
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      "sha256": "4f2496a08b36d5381429545f9dd9eea2b870c979208a3f6f4c368713dcda7cce",
      "text": "Again, the solution may depend upon accent or breathing. Thus Hippias of Thasos solved the difficulties in the lines,--{delta iota delta omicron mu epsilon nu (delta iota delta omicron mu epsilon nu) delta epsilon / omicron iota,} and { tau omicron / mu epsilon nu / omicron upsilon (omicron upsilon) kappa alpha tau alpha pi upsilon theta epsilon tau alpha iota / omicron mu beta rho omega}.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00161",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "sha256": "18783571f49ac0fabf55e5387d657e8ae6ef568162277fad81ade31013226ea0",
      "text": "Or again, the question may be solved by punctuation, as in Empedocles,--'Of a sudden things became mortal that before had learnt to be immortal, and things unmixed before mixed.'",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00162",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 82776,
      "end": 82976,
      "sha256": "81ffd9b12784b5769c3bb0bafc31d220efa740654d082b91e0879cd337e2a179",
      "text": "Or again, by ambiguity of meaning,--as {pi alpha rho omega chi eta kappa epsilon nu / delta epsilon / pi lambda epsilon omega / nu upsilon xi}, where the word {pi lambda epsilon omega} is ambiguous.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00163",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 82980,
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      "sha256": "ab8fca8dc9bf315a0a0e0c44f0bb26fb2d2865bbf113b0b07a3825f84ce5908c",
      "text": "Or by the usage of language. Thus any mixed drink is called {omicron iota nu omicron sigma}, 'wine.' Hence Ganymede is said 'to pour the wine to Zeus,' though the gods do not drink wine. So too workers in iron are called {chi alpha lambda kappa epsilon alpha sigma}, or workers in bronze. This, however, may also be taken as a metaphor.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00164",
      "bookId": 1974,
      "start": 83324,
      "end": 84367,
      "sha256": "b1c81e9dbd5c6f505d9fde3c8113fed003b0adb83e1370a18566f1e972488714",
      "text": "Again, when a word seems to involve some inconsistency of meaning, we should consider how many senses it may bear in the particular passage. For example: 'there was stayed the spear of bronze'--we should ask in how many ways we may take 'being checked there.' The true mode of interpretation is the precise opposite of what Glaucon mentions. Critics, he says, jump at certain groundless conclusions; they pass adverse judgment and then proceed to reason on it; and, assuming that the poet has said whatever they happen to think, find fault if a thing is inconsistent with their own fancy. The question about Icarius has been treated in this fashion. The critics imagine he was a Lacedaemonian. They think it strange, therefore, that Telemachus should not have met him when he went to Lacedaemon. But the Cephallenian story may perhaps be the true one. They allege that Odysseus took a wife from among themselves, and that her father was Icadius not Icarius. It is merely a mistake, then, that gives plausibility to the objection.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00165",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "sha256": "13b828d89fd1db1f76ee9081b3d38213d080b810b45f38ccbc1eec2db372a63f",
      "text": "In general, the impossible must be justified by reference to artistic requirements, or to the higher reality, or to received opinion. With respect to the requirements of art, a probable impossibility is to be preferred to a thing improbable and yet possible. Again, it may be impossible that there should be men such as Zeuxis painted. 'Yes,' we say, 'but the impossible is the higher thing; for the ideal type must surpass the reality.' To justify the irrational, we appeal to what is commonly said to be. In addition to which, we urge that the irrational sometimes does not violate reason; just as 'it is probable that a thing may happen contrary to probability.'",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1974.B00166",
      "bookId": 1974,
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      "text": "Things that sound contradictory should be examined by the same rules as in dialectical refutation whether the same thing is meant, in the same relation, and in the same sense. We should therefore solve the question by reference to what the poet says himself, or to what is tacitly assumed by a person of intelligence.",
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      "text": "The element of the irrational, and, similarly, depravity of character, are justly censured when there is no inner necessity for introducing them. Such is the irrational element in the introduction of Aegeus by Euripides and the badness of Menelaus in the Orestes.",
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      "text": "Thus, there are five sources from which critical objections are drawn. Things are censured either as impossible, or irrational, or morally hurtful, or contradictory, or contrary to artistic correctness. The answers should be sought under the twelve heads above mentioned.",
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      "text": "Language: English",
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      "text": "Other information and formats: www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11030",
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      "text": "Credits: Juliet Sutherland, Andre Lapierre and PG Distributed Proofreaders. Revised by Richard Tonsing.",
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      "text": "*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INCIDENTS IN THE LIFE OF A SLAVE GIRL, WRITTEN BY HERSELF *** [Transcriber’s note: The spelling irregularities of the original have been retained in this etext.]",
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      "text": "INCIDENTS IN THE LIFE OF A SLAVE GIRL.",
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      "text": "Boston: Published For The Author. 1861.",
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      "text": "Preface by the Author",
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      "text": "Reader, be assured this narrative is no fiction. I am aware that some of my adventures may seem incredible; but they are, nevertheless, strictly true. I have not exaggerated the wrongs inflicted by Slavery; on the contrary, my descriptions fall far short of the facts. I have concealed the names of places, and given persons fictitious names. I had no motive for secrecy on my own account, but I deemed it kind and considerate towards others to pursue this course.",
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      "text": "I wish I were more competent to the task I have undertaken. But I trust my readers will excuse deficiencies in consideration of circumstances. I was born and reared in Slavery; and I remained in a Slave State twenty-seven years. Since I have been at the North, it has been necessary for me to work diligently for my own support, and the education of my children. This has not left me much leisure to make up for the loss of early opportunities to improve myself; and it has compelled me to write these pages at irregular intervals, whenever I could snatch an hour from household duties.",
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      "text": "When I first arrived in Philadelphia, Bishop Paine advised me to publish a sketch of my life, but I told him I was altogether incompetent to such an undertaking. Though I have improved my mind somewhat since that time, I still remain of the same opinion; but I trust my motives will excuse what might otherwise seem presumptuous. I have not written my experiences in order to attract attention to myself; on the contrary, it would have been more pleasant to me to have been silent about my own history. Neither do I care to excite sympathy for my own sufferings. But I do earnestly desire to arouse the women of the North to a realizing sense of the condition of two millions of women at the South, still in bondage, suffering what I suffered, and most of them far worse. I want to add my testimony to that of abler pens to convince the people of the Free States what Slavery really is. Only by experience can any one realize how deep, and dark, and foul is that pit of abominations. May the blessing of God rest on this imperfect effort in behalf of my persecuted people!",
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      "text": "Linda Brent.",
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      "text": "Introduction by the Editor",
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      "text": "The author of the following autobiography is personally known to me, and her conversation and manners inspire me with confidence. During the last seventeen years, she has lived the greater part of the time with a distinguished family in New York, and has so deported herself as to be highly esteemed by them. This fact is sufficient, without further credentials of her character. I believe those who know her will not be disposed to doubt her veracity, though some incidents in her story are more romantic than fiction.",
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      "text": "At her request, I have revised her manuscript; but such changes as I have made have been mainly for purposes of condensation and orderly arrangement. I have not added any thing to the incidents, or changed the import of her very pertinent remarks. With trifling exceptions, both the ideas and the language are her own. I pruned excrescences a little, but otherwise I had no reason for changing her lively and dramatic way of telling her own story. The names of both persons and places are known to me; but for good reasons I suppress them.",
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      "text": "It will naturally excite surprise that a woman reared in Slavery should be able to write so well. But circumstances will explain this. In the first place, nature endowed her with quick perceptions. Secondly, the mistress, with whom she lived till she was twelve years old, was a kind, considerate friend, who taught her to read and spell. Thirdly, she was placed in favorable circumstances after she came to the North; having frequent intercourse with intelligent persons, who felt a friendly interest in her welfare, and were disposed to give her opportunities for self-improvement.",
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      "text": "I am well aware that many will accuse me of indecorum for presenting these pages to the public; for the experiences of this intelligent and much-injured woman belong to a class which some call delicate subjects, and others indelicate. This peculiar phase of Slavery has generally been kept veiled; but the public ought to be made acquainted with its monstrous features, and I willingly take the responsibility of presenting them with the veil withdrawn. I do this for the sake of my sisters in bondage, who are suffering wrongs so foul, that our ears are too delicate to listen to them. I do it with the hope of arousing conscientious and reflecting women at the North to a sense of their duty in the exertion of moral influence on the question of Slavery, on all possible occasions. I do it with the hope that every man who reads this narrative will swear solemnly before God that, so far as he has power to prevent it, no fugitive from Slavery shall ever be sent back to suffer in that loathsome den of corruption and cruelty.",
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      "text": "L. Maria Child.",
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      "text": "The Slave Who Dared To Feel Like A Man",
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      "text": "What Slaves Are Taught To Think Of The North",
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      "text": "Free At Last",
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      "text": "INCIDENTS IN THE LIFE OF A SLAVE GIRL, SEVEN YEARS CONCEALED.",
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      "text": "* * * * *",
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      "text": "I. Childhood",
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      "text": "I was born a slave; but I never knew it till six years of happy childhood had passed away. My father was a carpenter, and considered so intelligent and skilful in his trade, that, when buildings out of the common line were to be erected, he was sent for from long distances, to be head workman. On condition of paying his mistress two hundred dollars a year, and supporting himself, he was allowed to work at his trade, and manage his own affairs. His strongest wish was to purchase his children; but, though he several times offered his hard earnings for that purpose, he never succeeded. In complexion my parents were a light shade of brownish yellow, and were termed mulattoes. They lived together in a comfortable home; and, though we were all slaves, I was so fondly shielded that I never dreamed I was a piece of merchandise, trusted to them for safe keeping, and liable to be demanded of them at any moment. I had one brother, William, who was two years younger than myself—a bright, affectionate child. I had also a great treasure in my maternal grandmother, who was a remarkable woman in many respects. She was the daughter of a planter in South Carolina, who, at his death, left her mother and his three children free, with money to go to St. Augustine, where they had relatives. It was during the Revolutionary War; and they were captured on their passage, carried back, and sold to different purchasers. Such was the story my grandmother used to tell me; but I do not remember all the particulars. She was a little girl when she was captured and sold to the keeper of a large hotel. I have often heard her tell how hard she fared during childhood. But as she grew older she evinced so much intelligence, and was so faithful, that her master and mistress could not help seeing it was for their interest to take care of such a valuable piece of property. She became an indispensable personage in the household, officiating in all capacities, from cook and wet nurse to seamstress. She was much praised for her cooking; and her nice crackers became so famous in the neighborhood that many people were desirous of obtaining them. In consequence of numerous requests of this kind, she asked permission of her mistress to bake crackers at night, after all the household work was done; and she obtained leave to do it, provided she would clothe herself and her children from the profits. Upon these terms, after working hard all day for her mistress, she began her midnight bakings, assisted by her two oldest children. The business proved profitable; and each year she laid by a little, which was saved for a fund to purchase her children. Her master died, and the property was divided among his heirs. The widow had her dower in the hotel, which she continued to keep open. My grandmother remained in her service as a slave; but her children were divided among her master’s children. As she had five, Benjamin, the youngest one, was sold, in order that each heir might have an equal portion of dollars and cents. There was so little difference in our ages that he seemed more like my brother than my uncle. He was a bright, handsome lad, nearly white; for he inherited the complexion my grandmother had derived from Anglo-Saxon ancestors. Though only ten years old, seven hundred and twenty dollars were paid for him. His sale was a terrible blow to my grandmother; but she was naturally hopeful, and she went to work with renewed energy, trusting in time to be able to purchase some of her children. She had laid up three hundred dollars, which her mistress one day begged as a loan, promising to pay her soon. The reader probably knows that no promise or writing given to a slave is legally binding; for, according to Southern laws, a slave, _being_ property, can _hold_ no property. When my grandmother lent her hard earnings to her mistress, she trusted solely to her honor. The honor of a slaveholder to a slave!",
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      "text": "To this good grandmother I was indebted for many comforts. My brother Willie and I often received portions of the crackers, cakes, and preserves, she made to sell; and after we ceased to be children we were indebted to her for many more important services.",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00078",
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      "text": "Such were the unusually fortunate circumstances of my early childhood. When I was six years old, my mother died; and then, for the first time, I learned, by the talk around me, that I was a slave. My mother’s mistress was the daughter of my grandmother’s mistress. She was the foster sister of my mother; they were both nourished at my grandmother’s breast. In fact, my mother had been weaned at three months old, that the babe of the mistress might obtain sufficient food. They played together as children; and, when they became women, my mother was a most faithful servant to her whiter foster sister. On her death-bed her mistress promised that her children should never suffer for any thing; and during her lifetime she kept her word. They all spoke kindly of my dead mother, who had been a slave merely in name, but in nature was noble and womanly. I grieved for her, and my young mind was troubled with the thought who would now take care of me and my little brother. I was told that my home was now to be with her mistress; and I found it a happy one. No toilsome or disagreeable duties were imposed upon me. My mistress was so kind to me that I was always glad to do her bidding, and proud to labor for her as much as my young years would permit. I would sit by her side for hours, sewing diligently, with a heart as free from care as that of any free-born white child. When she thought I was tired, she would send me out to run and jump; and away I bounded, to gather berries or flowers to decorate her room. Those were happy days—too happy to last. The slave child had no thought for the morrow; but there came that blight, which too surely waits on every human being born to be a chattel.",
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      "text": "My home now seemed more dreary than ever. The laugh of the little slave-children sounded harsh and cruel. It was selfish to feel so about the joy of others. My brother moved about with a very grave face. I tried to comfort him, by saying, “Take courage, Willie; brighter days will come by and by.”",
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      "text": "“You don’t know any thing about it, Linda,” he replied. “We shall have to stay here all our days; we shall never be free.”",
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      "text": "I argued that we were growing older and stronger, and that perhaps we might, before long, be allowed to hire our own time, and then we could earn money to buy our freedom. William declared this was much easier to say than to do; moreover, he did not intend to _buy_ his freedom. We held daily controversies upon this subject.",
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      "text": "Little attention was paid to the slaves’ meals in Dr. Flint’s house. If they could catch a bit of food while it was going, well and good. I gave myself no trouble on that score, for on my various errands I passed my grandmother’s house, where there was always something to spare for me. I was frequently threatened with punishment if I stopped there; and my grandmother, to avoid detaining me, often stood at the gate with something for my breakfast or dinner. I was indebted to _her_ for all my comforts, spiritual or temporal. It was _her_ labor that supplied my scanty wardrobe. I have a vivid recollection of the linsey-woolsey dress given me every winter by Mrs. Flint. How I hated it! It was one of the badges of slavery.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG11030.B00094",
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      "text": "While my grandmother was thus helping to support me from her hard earnings, the three hundred dollars she had lent her mistress were never repaid. When her mistress died, her son-in-law, Dr. Flint, was appointed executor. When grandmother applied to him for payment, he said the estate was insolvent, and the law prohibited payment. It did not, however, prohibit him from retaining the silver candelabra, which had been purchased with that money. I presume they will be handed down in the family, from generation to generation.",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00095",
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      "text": "My grandmother’s mistress had always promised her that, at her death, she should be free; and it was said that in her will she made good the promise. But when the estate was settled, Dr. Flint told the faithful old servant that, under existing circumstances, it was necessary she should be sold.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG11030.B00096",
      "bookId": 11030,
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      "text": "On the appointed day, the customary advertisement was posted up, proclaiming that there would be a “public sale of negroes, horses, &c.” Dr. Flint called to tell my grandmother that he was unwilling to wound her feelings by putting her up at auction, and that he would prefer to dispose of her at private sale. My grandmother saw through his hypocrisy; she understood very well that he was ashamed of the job. She was a very spirited woman, and if he was base enough to sell her, when her mistress intended she should be free, she was determined the public should know it. She had for a long time supplied many families with crackers and preserves; consequently, “Aunt Marthy,” as she was called, was generally known, and every body who knew her respected her intelligence and good character. Her long and faithful service in the family was also well known, and the intention of her mistress to leave her free. When the day of sale came, she took her place among the chattels, and at the first call she sprang upon the auction-block. Many voices called out, “Shame! Shame! Who is going to sell _you_, aunt Marthy? Don’t stand there! That is no place for _you_.” Without saying a word, she quietly awaited her fate. No one bid for her. At last, a feeble voice said, “Fifty dollars.” It came from a maiden lady, seventy years old, the sister of my grandmother’s deceased mistress. She had lived forty years under the same roof with my grandmother; she knew how faithfully she had served her owners, and how cruelly she had been defrauded of her rights; and she resolved to protect her. The auctioneer waited for a higher bid; but her wishes were respected; no one bid above her. She could neither read nor write; and when the bill of sale was made out, she signed it with a cross. But what consequence was that, when she had a big heart overflowing with human kindness? She gave the old servant her freedom.",
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      "text": "At that time, my grandmother was just fifty years old. Laborious years had passed since then; and now my brother and I were slaves to the man who had defrauded her of her money, and tried to defraud her of her freedom. One of my mother’s sisters, called Aunt Nancy, was also a slave in his family. She was a kind, good aunt to me; and supplied the place of both housekeeper and waiting maid to her mistress. She was, in fact, at the beginning and end of every thing.",
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      "text": "Mrs. Flint, like many southern women, was totally deficient in energy. She had not strength to superintend her household affairs; but her nerves were so strong, that she could sit in her easy chair and see a woman whipped, till the blood trickled from every stroke of the lash. She was a member of the church; but partaking of the Lord’s supper did not seem to put her in a Christian frame of mind. If dinner was not served at the exact time on that particular Sunday, she would station herself in the kitchen, and wait till it was dished, and then spit in all the kettles and pans that had been used for cooking. She did this to prevent the cook and her children from eking out their meagre fare with the remains of the gravy and other scrapings. The slaves could get nothing to eat except what she chose to give them. Provisions were weighed out by the pound and ounce, three times a day. I can assure you she gave them no chance to eat wheat bread from her flour barrel. She knew how many biscuits a quart of flour would make, and exactly what size they ought to be.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG11030.B00099",
      "bookId": 11030,
      "start": 26524,
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      "text": "Dr. Flint was an epicure. The cook never sent a dinner to his table without fear and trembling; for if there happened to be a dish not to his liking, he would either order her to be whipped, or compel her to eat every mouthful of it in his presence. The poor, hungry creature might not have objected to eating it; but she did object to having her master cram it down her throat till she choked.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG11030.B00111",
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      "text": "It is easy to find out, on that day, who clothes and feeds his slaves well; for he is surrounded by a crowd, begging, “Please, massa, hire me this year. I will work _very_ hard, massa.”",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00112",
      "bookId": 11030,
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      "text": "If a slave is unwilling to go with his new master, he is whipped, or locked up in jail, until he consents to go, and promises not to run away during the year. Should he chance to change his mind, thinking it justifiable to violate an extorted promise, woe unto him if he is caught! The whip is used till the blood flows at his feet; and his stiffened limbs are put in chains, to be dragged in the field for days and days!",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00113",
      "bookId": 11030,
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      "text": "If he lives until the next year, perhaps the same man will hire him again, without even giving him an opportunity of going to the hiring-ground. After those for hire are disposed of, those for sale are called up.",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00114",
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      "text": "O, you happy free women, contrast _your_ New Year’s day with that of the poor bond-woman! With you it is a pleasant season, and the light of the day is blessed. Friendly wishes meet you every where, and gifts are showered upon you. Even hearts that have been estranged from you soften at this season, and lips that have been silent echo back, “I wish you a happy New Year.” Children bring their little offerings, and raise their rosy lips for a caress. They are your own, and no hand but that of death can take them from you.",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00115",
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      "text": "But to the slave mother New Year’s day comes laden with peculiar sorrows. She sits on her cold cabin floor, watching the children who may all be torn from her the next morning; and often does she wish that she and they might die before the day dawns. She may be an ignorant creature, degraded by the system that has brutalized her from childhood; but she has a mother’s instincts, and is capable of feeling a mother’s agonies.",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00116",
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      "text": "On one of these sale days, I saw a mother lead seven children to the auction-block. She knew that _some_ of them would be taken from her; but they took _all_. The children were sold to a slave-trader, and their mother was bought by a man in her own town. Before night her children were all far away. She begged the trader to tell her where he intended to take them; this he refused to do. How _could_ he, when he knew he would sell them, one by one, wherever he could command the highest price? I met that mother in the street, and her wild, haggard face lives to-day in my mind. She wrung her hands in anguish, and exclaimed, “Gone! All gone! Why _don’t_ God kill me?” I had no words wherewith to comfort her. Instances of this kind are of daily, yea, of hourly occurrence.",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00117",
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      "text": "Slaveholders have a method, peculiar to their institution, of getting rid of _old_ slaves, whose lives have been worn out in their service. I knew an old woman, who for seventy years faithfully served her master. She had become almost helpless, from hard labor and disease. Her owners moved to Alabama, and the old black woman was left to be sold to any body who would give twenty dollars for her.",
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      "text": "IV. The Slave Who Dared To Feel Like A Man.",
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      "text": "I took them off, and my stockings also. She then sent me a long distance, on an errand. As I went through the snow, my bare feet tingled. That night I was very hoarse; and I went to bed thinking the next day would find me sick, perhaps dead. What was my grief on waking to find myself quite well!",
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      "text": "I had imagined if I died, or was laid up for some time, that my mistress would feel a twinge of remorse that she had so hated “the little imp,” as she styled me. It was my ignorance of that mistress that gave rise to such extravagant imaginings.",
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      "text": "Dr. Flint occasionally had high prices offered for me; but he always said, “She don’t belong to me. She is my daughter’s property, and I have no right to sell her.” Good, honest man! My young mistress was still a child, and I could look for no protection from her. I loved her, and she returned my affection. I once heard her father allude to her attachment to me; and his wife promptly replied that it proceeded from fear. This put unpleasant doubts into my mind. Did the child feign what she did not feel? or was her mother jealous of the mite of love she bestowed on me? I concluded it must be the latter. I said to myself, “Surely, little children are true.”",
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      "text": "One afternoon I sat at my sewing, feeling unusual depression of spirits. My mistress had been accusing me of an offence, of which I assured her I was perfectly innocent; but I saw, by the contemptuous curl of her lip, that she believed I was telling a lie.",
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      "text": "I wondered for what wise purpose God was leading me through such thorny paths, and whether still darker days were in store for me. As I sat musing thus, the door opened softly, and William came in. “Well, brother,” said I, “what is the matter this time?”",
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      "text": "My grandmother continued to send him fresh changes of clothes. The old ones were burned up. The last night we saw him in jail his mother still begged him to send for his master, and beg his pardon. Neither persuasion nor argument could turn him from his purpose. He calmly answered, “I am waiting his time.”",
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      "text": "Those chains were mournful to hear.",
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      "text": "Another three months passed, and Benjamin left his prison walls. We that loved him waited to bid him a long and last farewell. A slave trader had bought him. You remember, I told you what price he brought when ten years of age. Now he was more than twenty years old, and sold for three hundred dollars. The master had been blind to his own interest. Long confinement had made his face too pale, his form too thin; moreover, the trader had heard something of his character, and it did not strike him as suitable for a slave. He said he would give any price if the handsome lad was a girl. We thanked God that he was not.",
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      "bookId": 11030,
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      "text": "Could you have seen that mother clinging to her child, when they fastened the irons upon his wrists; could you have heard her heart-rending groans, and seen her bloodshot eyes wander wildly from face to face, vainly pleading for mercy; could you have witnessed that scene as I saw it, you would exclaim, _Slavery is damnable_! Benjamin, her youngest, her pet, was forever gone! She could not realize it. She had had an interview with the trader for the purpose of ascertaining if Benjamin could be purchased. She was told it was impossible, as he had given bonds not to sell him till he was out of the state. He promised that he would not sell him till he reached New Orleans.",
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      "text": "With a strong arm and unvaried trust, my grandmother began her work of love. Benjamin must be free. If she succeeded, she knew they would still be separated; but the sacrifice was not too great. Day and night she labored. The trader’s price would treble that he gave; but she was not discouraged.",
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      "text": "She employed a lawyer to write to a gentleman, whom she knew, in New Orleans. She begged him to interest himself for Benjamin, and he willingly favored her request. When he saw Benjamin, and stated his business, he thanked him; but said he preferred to wait a while before making the trader an offer. He knew he had tried to obtain a high price for him, and had invariably failed. This encouraged him to make another effort for freedom. So one morning, long before day, Benjamin was missing. He was riding over the blue billows, bound for Baltimore.",
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      "text": "For once his white face did him a kindly service. They had no suspicion that it belonged to a slave; otherwise, the law would have been followed out to the letter, and the _thing_ rendered back to slavery. The brightest skies are often overshadowed by the darkest clouds. Benjamin was taken sick, and compelled to remain in Baltimore three weeks. His strength was slow in returning; and his desire to continue his journey seemed to retard his recovery. How could he get strength without air and exercise? He resolved to venture on a short walk. A by-street was selected, where he thought himself secure of not being met by any one that knew him; but a voice called out, “Halloo, Ben, my boy! what are you doing _here_?”",
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      "text": "“No, never!” he replied. “Do you suppose, Phil, when I have got so far out of their clutches, I will give them one red cent? No! And do you suppose I would turn mother out of her home in her old age? That I would let her pay all those hard-earned dollars for me, and never to see me? For you know she will stay south as long as her other children are slaves. What a good mother! Tell her to buy _you_, Phil. You have been a comfort to her, and I have been a trouble. And Linda, poor Linda; what’ll become of her? Phil, you don’t know what a life they lead her. She has told me something about it, and I wish old Flint was dead, or a better man. When I was in jail, he asked her if she didn’t want _him_ to ask my master to forgive me, and take me home again. She told him, No; that I didn’t want to go back. He got mad, and said we were all alike. I never despised my own master half as much as I do that man. There is many a worse slaveholder than my master; but for all that I would not be his slave.”",
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      "text": "While Benjamin was sick, he had parted with nearly all his clothes to pay necessary expenses. But he did not part with a little pin I fastened in his bosom when we parted. It was the most valuable thing I owned, and I thought none more worthy to wear it. He had it still.",
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      "text": "His brother furnished him with clothes, and gave him what money he had.",
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      "text": "They parted with moistened eyes; and as Benjamin turned away, he said, “Phil, I part with all my kindred.” And so it proved. We never heard from him again.",
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      "text": "Uncle Phillip came home; and the first words he uttered when he entered the house were, “Mother, Ben is free! I have seen him in New York.” She stood looking at him with a bewildered air. “Mother, don’t you believe it?” he said, laying his hand softly upon her shoulder. She raised her hands, and exclaimed, “God be praised! Let us thank him.” She dropped on her knees, and poured forth her heart in prayer. Then Phillip must sit down and repeat to her every word Benjamin had said. He told her all; only he forbore to mention how sick and pale her darling looked. Why should he distress her when she could do him no good?",
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      "text": "The brave old woman still toiled on, hoping to rescue some of her other children. After a while she succeeded in buying Phillip. She paid eight hundred dollars, and came home with the precious document that secured his freedom. The happy mother and son sat together by the old hearthstone that night, telling how proud they were of each other, and how they would prove to the world that they could take care of themselves, as they had long taken care of others. We all concluded by saying, “He that is _willing_ to be a slave, let him be a slave.”",
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      "text": "V. The Trials Of Girlhood.",
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      "bookId": 11030,
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      "text": "During the first years of my service in Dr. Flint’s family, I was accustomed to share some indulgences with the children of my mistress. Though this seemed to me no more than right, I was grateful for it, and tried to merit the kindness by the faithful discharge of my duties. But I now entered on my fifteenth year—a sad epoch in the life of a slave girl. My master began to whisper foul words in my ear. Young as I was, I could not remain ignorant of their import. I tried to treat them with indifference or contempt. The master’s age, my extreme youth, and the fear that his conduct would be reported to my grandmother, made him bear this treatment for many months. He was a crafty man, and resorted to many means to accomplish his purposes. Sometimes he had stormy, terrific ways, that made his victims tremble; sometimes he assumed a gentleness that he thought must surely subdue. Of the two, I preferred his stormy moods, although they left me trembling. He tried his utmost to corrupt the pure principles my grandmother had instilled. He peopled my young mind with unclean images, such as only a vile monster could think of. I turned from him with disgust and hatred. But he was my master. I was compelled to live under the same roof with him—where I saw a man forty years my senior daily violating the most sacred commandments of nature. He told me I was his property; that I must be subject to his will in all things. My soul revolted against the mean tyranny. But where could I turn for protection? No matter whether the slave girl be as black as ebony or as fair as her mistress. In either case, there is no shadow of law to protect her from insult, from violence, or even from death; all these are inflicted by fiends who bear the shape of men. The mistress, who ought to protect the helpless victim, has no other feelings towards her but those of jealousy and rage. The degradation, the wrongs, the vices, that grow out of slavery, are more than I can describe. They are greater than you would willingly believe. Surely, if you credited one half the truths that are told you concerning the helpless millions suffering in this cruel bondage, you at the north would not help to tighten the yoke. You surely would refuse to do for the master, on your own soil, the mean and cruel work which trained bloodhounds and the lowest class of whites do for him at the south.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG11030.B00184",
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      "text": "Every where the years bring to all enough of sin and sorrow; but in slavery the very dawn of life is darkened by these shadows. Even the little child, who is accustomed to wait on her mistress and her children, will learn, before she is twelve years old, why it is that her mistress hates such and such a one among the slaves. Perhaps the child’s own mother is among those hated ones. She listens to violent outbreaks of jealous passion, and cannot help understanding what is the cause. She will become prematurely knowing in evil things. Soon she will learn to tremble when she hears her master’s footfall. She will be compelled to realize that she is no longer a child. If God has bestowed beauty upon her, it will prove her greatest curse. That which commands admiration in the white woman only hastens the degradation of the female slave. I know that some are too much brutalized by slavery to feel the humiliation of their position; but many slaves feel it most acutely, and shrink from the memory of it. I cannot tell how much I suffered in the presence of these wrongs, nor how I am still pained by the retrospect. My master met me at every turn, reminding me that I belonged to him, and swearing by heaven and earth that he would compel me to submit to him. If I went out for a breath of fresh air, after a day of unwearied toil, his footsteps dogged me. If I knelt by my mother’s grave, his dark shadow fell on me even there. The light heart which nature had given me became heavy with sad forebodings. The other slaves in my master’s house noticed the change. Many of them pitied me; but none dared to ask the cause. They had no need to inquire. They knew too well the guilty practices under that roof; and they were aware that to speak of them was an offence that never went unpunished.",
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      "text": "I longed for some one to confide in. I would have given the world to have laid my head on my grandmother’s faithful bosom, and told her all my troubles. But Dr. Flint swore he would kill me, if I was not as silent as the grave. Then, although my grandmother was all in all to me, I feared her as well as loved her. I had been accustomed to look up to her with a respect bordering upon awe. I was very young, and felt shamefaced about telling her such impure things, especially as I knew her to be very strict on such subjects. Moreover, she was a woman of a high spirit. She was usually very quiet in her demeanor; but if her indignation was once roused, it was not very easily quelled. I had been told that she once chased a white gentleman with a loaded pistol, because he insulted one of her daughters. I dreaded the consequences of a violent outbreak; and both pride and fear kept me silent. But though I did not confide in my grandmother, and even evaded her vigilant watchfulness and inquiry, her presence in the neighborhood was some protection to me. Though she had been a slave, Dr. Flint was afraid of her. He dreaded her scorching rebukes. Moreover, she was known and patronized by many people; and he did not wish to have his villany made public. It was lucky for me that I did not live on a distant plantation, but in a town not so large that the inhabitants were ignorant of each other’s affairs. Bad as are the laws and customs in a slaveholding community, the doctor, as a professional man, deemed it prudent to keep up some outward show of decency.",
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      "text": "O, what days and nights of fear and sorrow that man caused me! Reader, it is not to awaken sympathy for myself that I am telling you truthfully what I suffered in slavery. I do it to kindle a flame of compassion in your hearts for my sisters who are still in bondage, suffering as I once suffered.",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00187",
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      "text": "I once saw two beautiful children playing together. One was a fair white child; the other was her slave, and also her sister. When I saw them embracing each other, and heard their joyous laughter, I turned sadly away from the lovely sight. I foresaw the inevitable blight that would fall on the little slave’s heart. I knew how soon her laughter would be changed to sighs. The fair child grew up to be a still fairer woman. From childhood to womanhood her pathway was blooming with flowers, and overarched by a sunny sky. Scarcely one day of her life had been clouded when the sun rose on her happy bridal morning.",
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      "text": "How had those years dealt with her slave sister, the little playmate of her childhood? She, also, was very beautiful; but the flowers and sunshine of love were not for her. She drank the cup of sin, and shame, and misery, whereof her persecuted race are compelled to drink.",
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      "text": "In view of these things, why are ye silent, ye free men and women of the north? Why do your tongues falter in maintenance of the right? Would that I had more ability! But my heart is so full, and my pen is so weak! There are noble men and women who plead for us, striving to help those who cannot help themselves. God bless them! God give them strength and courage to go on! God bless those, every where, who are laboring to advance the cause of humanity!",
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      "text": "VI. The Jealous Mistress.",
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      "text": "I would ten thousand times rather that my children should be the half-starved paupers of Ireland than to be the most pampered among the slaves of America. I would rather drudge out my life on a cotton plantation, till the grave opened to give me rest, than to live with an unprincipled master and a jealous mistress. The felon’s home in a penitentiary is preferable. He may repent, and turn from the error of his ways, and so find peace; but it is not so with a favorite slave. She is not allowed to have any pride of character. It is deemed a crime in her to wish to be virtuous.",
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      "text": "“You deserve to go there,” said he, “and to be under such treatment, that you would forget the meaning of the word _peace_. It would do you good. It would take some of your high notions out of you. But I am not ready to send you there yet, notwithstanding your ingratitude for all my kindness and forbearance. You have been the plague of my life. I have wanted to make you happy, and I have been repaid with the basest ingratitude; but though you have proved yourself incapable of appreciating my kindness, I will be lenient towards you, Linda. I will give you one more chance to redeem your character. If you behave yourself and do as I require, I will forgive you and treat you as I always have done; but if you disobey me, I will punish you as I would the meanest slave on my plantation. Never let me hear that fellow’s name mentioned again. If I ever know of your speaking to him, I will cowhide you both; and if I catch him lurking about my premises, I will shoot him as soon as I would a dog. Do you hear what I say? I’ll teach you a lesson about marriage and free niggers! Now go, and let this be the last time I have occasion to speak to you on this subject.”",
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      "text": "Reader, did you ever hate? I hope not. I never did but once; and I trust I never shall again. Somebody has called it “the atmosphere of hell;” and I believe it is so.",
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      "text": "For a fortnight the doctor did not speak to me. He thought to mortify me; to make me feel that I had disgraced myself by receiving the honorable addresses of a respectable colored man, in preference to the base proposals of a white man. But though his lips disdained to address me, his eyes were very loquacious. No animal ever watched its prey more narrowly than he watched me. He knew that I could write, though he had failed to make me read his letters; and he was now troubled lest I should exchange letters with another man. After a while he became weary of silence; and I was sorry for it. One morning, as he passed through the hall, to leave the house, he contrived to thrust a note into my hand. I thought I had better read it, and spare myself the vexation of having him read it to me. It expressed regret for the blow he had given me, and reminded me that I myself was wholly to blame for it. He hoped I had become convinced of the injury I was doing myself by incurring his displeasure. He wrote that he had made up his mind to go to Louisiana; that he should take several slaves with him, and intended I should be one of the number. My mistress would remain where she was; therefore I should have nothing to fear from that quarter. If I merited kindness from him, he assured me that it would be lavishly bestowed. He begged me to think over the matter, and answer the following day.",
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      "text": "The next morning I was called to carry a pair of scissors to his room. I laid them on the table, with the letter beside them. He thought it was my answer, and did not call me back. I went as usual to attend my young mistress to and from school. He met me in the street, and ordered me to stop at his office on my way back. When I entered, he showed me his letter, and asked me why I had not answered it. I replied, “I am your daughter’s property, and it is in your power to send me, or take me, wherever you please.” He said he was very glad to find me so willing to go, and that we should start early in the autumn. He had a large practice in the town, and I rather thought he had made up the story merely to frighten me. However that might be, I was determined that I would never go to Louisiana with him.",
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      "text": "Summer passed away, and early in the autumn Dr. Flint’s eldest son was sent to Louisiana to examine the country, with a view to emigrating. That news did not disturb me. I knew very well that I should not be sent with _him_. That I had not been taken to the plantation before this time, was owing to the fact that his son was there. He was jealous of his son; and jealousy of the overseer had kept him from punishing me by sending me into the fields to work. Is it strange that I was not proud of these protectors? As for the overseer, he was a man for whom I had less respect than I had for a bloodhound.",
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      "text": "Young Mr. Flint did not bring back a favorable report of Louisiana, and I heard no more of that scheme. Soon after this, my lover met me at the corner of the street, and I stopped to speak to him. Looking up, I saw my master watching us from his window. I hurried home, trembling with fear. I was sent for, immediately, to go to his room. He met me with a blow. “When is mistress to be married?” said he, in a sneering tone. A shower of oaths and imprecations followed. How thankful I was that my lover was a free man! that my tyrant had no power to flog him for speaking to me in the street!",
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      "text": "Again and again I revolved in my mind how all this would end. There was no hope that the doctor would consent to sell me on any terms. He had an iron will, and was determined to keep me, and to conquer me. My lover was an intelligent and religious man. Even if he could have obtained permission to marry me while I was a slave, the marriage would give him no power to protect me from my master. It would have made him miserable to witness the insults I should have been subjected to. And then, if we had children, I knew they must “follow the condition of the mother.” What a terrible blight that would be on the heart of a free, intelligent father! For _his_ sake, I felt that I ought not to link his fate with my own unhappy destiny. He was going to Savannah to see about a little property left him by an uncle; and hard as it was to bring my feelings to it, I earnestly entreated him not to come back. I advised him to go to the Free States, where his tongue would not be tied, and where his intelligence would be of more avail to him. He left me, still hoping the day would come when I could be bought. With me the lamp of hope had gone out. The dream of my girlhood was over. I felt lonely and desolate.",
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      "text": "Still I was not stripped of all. I still had my good grandmother, and my affectionate brother. When he put his arms round my neck, and looked into my eyes, as if to read there the troubles I dared not tell, I felt that I still had something to love. But even that pleasant emotion was chilled by the reflection that he might be torn from me at any moment, by some sudden freak of my master. If he had known how we loved each other, I think he would have exulted in separating us. We often planned together how we could get to the north. But, as William remarked, such things are easier said than done. My movements were very closely watched, and we had no means of getting any money to defray our expenses. As for grandmother, she was strongly opposed to her children’s undertaking any such project. She had not forgotten poor Benjamin’s sufferings, and she was afraid that if another child tried to escape, he would have a similar or a worse fate. To me, nothing seemed more dreadful than my present life. I said to myself, “William _must_ be free. He shall go to the north, and I will follow him.” Many a slave sister has formed the same plans.",
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      "text": "VIII. What Slaves Are Taught To Think Of The North.",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00249",
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      "text": "This whole story was false. I afterwards staid with that friend in New York, and found her in comfortable circumstances. She had never thought of such a thing as wishing to go back to slavery. Many of the slaves believe such stories, and think it is not worth while to exchange slavery for such a hard kind of freedom. It is difficult to persuade such that freedom could make them useful men, and enable them to protect their wives and children. If those heathen in our Christian land had as much teaching as some Hindoos, they would think otherwise. They would know that liberty is more valuable than life. They would begin to understand their own capabilities, and exert themselves to become men and women.",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00250",
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      "text": "But while the Free States sustain a law which hurls fugitives back into slavery, how can the slaves resolve to become men? There are some who strive to protect wives and daughters from the insults of their masters; but those who have such sentiments have had advantages above the general mass of slaves. They have been partially civilized and Christianized by favorable circumstances. Some are bold enough to _utter_ such sentiments to their masters. O, that there were more of them!",
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      "text": "Some poor creatures have been so brutalized by the lash that they will sneak out of the way to give their masters free access to their wives and daughters. Do you think this proves the black man to belong to an inferior order of beings? What would _you_ be, if you had been born and brought up a slave, with generations of slaves for ancestors? I admit that the black man _is_ inferior. But what is it that makes him so? It is the ignorance in which white men compel him to live; it is the torturing whip that lashes manhood out of him; it is the fierce bloodhounds of the South, and the scarcely less cruel human bloodhounds of the north, who enforce the Fugitive Slave Law. _They_ do the work.",
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      "text": "Southern gentlemen indulge in the most contemptuous expressions about the Yankees, while they, on their part, consent to do the vilest work for them, such as the ferocious bloodhounds and the despised negro-hunters are employed to do at home. When southerners go to the north, they are proud to do them honor; but the northern man is not welcome south of Mason and Dixon’s line, unless he suppresses every thought and feeling at variance with their “peculiar institution.” Nor is it enough to be silent. The masters are not pleased, unless they obtain a greater degree of subservience than that; and they are generally accommodated. Do they respect the northerner for this? I trow not. Even the slaves despise “a northern man with southern principles;” and that is the class they generally see. When northerners go to the south to reside, they prove very apt scholars. They soon imbibe the sentiments and disposition of their neighbors, and generally go beyond their teachers. Of the two, they are proverbially the hardest masters.",
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      "text": "They seem to satisfy their consciences with the doctrine that God created the Africans to be slaves. What a libel upon the heavenly Father, who “made of one blood all nations of men!” And then who _are_ Africans? Who can measure the amount of Anglo-Saxon blood coursing in the veins of American slaves?",
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      "text": "There was a planter in the country, not far from us, whom I will call Mr. Litch. He was an ill-bred, uneducated man, but very wealthy. He had six hundred slaves, many of whom he did not know by sight. His extensive plantation was managed by well-paid overseers. There was a jail and a whipping post on his grounds; and whatever cruelties were perpetrated there, they passed without comment. He was so effectually screened by his great wealth that he was called to no account for his crimes, not even for murder.",
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      "text": "Various were the punishments resorted to. A favorite one was to tie a rope round a man’s body, and suspend him from the ground. A fire was kindled over him, from which was suspended a piece of fat pork. As this cooked, the scalding drops of fat continually fell on the bare flesh. On his own plantation, he required very strict obedience to the eighth commandment. But depredations on the neighbors were allowable, provided the culprit managed to evade detection or suspicion. If a neighbor brought a charge of theft against any of his slaves, he was browbeaten by the master, who assured him that his slaves had enough of every thing at home, and had no inducement to steal. No sooner was the neighbor’s back turned, than the accused was sought out, and whipped for his lack of discretion. If a slave stole from him even a pound of meat or a peck of corn, if detection followed, he was put in chains and imprisoned, and so kept till his form was attenuated by hunger and suffering.",
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      "text": "A freshet once bore his wine cellar and meat house miles away from the plantation. Some slaves followed, and secured bits of meat and bottles of wine. Two were detected; a ham and some liquor being found in their huts. They were summoned by their master. No words were used, but a club felled them to the ground. A rough box was their coffin, and their interment was a dog’s burial. Nothing was said.",
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      "text": "Murder was so common on his plantation that he feared to be alone after nightfall. He might have believed in ghosts.",
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      "text": "His brother, if not equal in wealth, was at least equal in cruelty. His bloodhounds were well trained. Their pen was spacious, and a terror to the slaves. They were let loose on a runaway, and, if they tracked him, they literally tore the flesh from his bones. When this slaveholder died, his shrieks and groans were so frightful that they appalled his own friends. His last words were, “I am going to hell; bury my money with me.”",
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      "text": "X. A Perilous Passage In The Slave Girl’s Life.",
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      "text": "After my lover went away, Dr. Flint contrived a new plan. He seemed to have an idea that my fear of my mistress was his greatest obstacle. In the blandest tones, he told me that he was going to build a small house for me, in a secluded place, four miles away from the town. I shuddered; but I was constrained to listen, while he talked of his intention to give me a home of my own, and to make a lady of me. Hitherto, I had escaped my dreaded fate, by being in the midst of people. My grandmother had already had high words with my master about me. She had told him pretty plainly what she thought of his character, and there was considerable gossip in the neighborhood about our affairs, to which the open-mouthed jealousy of Mrs. Flint contributed not a little. When my master said he was going to build a house for me, and that he could do it with little trouble and expense, I was in hopes something would happen to frustrate his scheme; but I soon heard that the house was actually begun. I vowed before my Maker that I would never enter it. I had rather toil on the plantation from dawn till dark; I had rather live and die in jail, than drag on, from day to day, through such a living death. I was determined that the master, whom I so hated and loathed, who had blighted the prospects of my youth, and made my life a desert, should not, after my long struggle with him, succeed at last in trampling his victim under his feet. I would do any thing, every thing, for the sake of defeating him. What _could_ I do? I thought and thought, till I became desperate, and made a plunge into the abyss.",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00283",
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      "text": "And now, reader, I come to a period in my unhappy life, which I would gladly forget if I could. The remembrance fills me with sorrow and shame. It pains me to tell you of it; but I have promised to tell you the truth, and I will do it honestly, let it cost me what it may. I will not try to screen myself behind the plea of compulsion from a master; for it was not so. Neither can I plead ignorance or thoughtlessness. For years, my master had done his utmost to pollute my mind with foul images, and to destroy the pure principles inculcated by my grandmother, and the good mistress of my childhood. The influences of slavery had had the same effect on me that they had on other young girls; they had made me prematurely knowing, concerning the evil ways of the world. I knew what I did, and I did it with deliberate calculation.",
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      "text": "But, O, ye happy women, whose purity has been sheltered from childhood, who have been free to choose the objects of your affection, whose homes are protected by law, do not judge the poor desolate slave girl too severely! If slavery had been abolished, I, also, could have married the man of my choice; I could have had a home shielded by the laws; and I should have been spared the painful task of confessing what I am now about to relate; but all my prospects had been blighted by slavery. I wanted to keep myself pure; and, under the most adverse circumstances, I tried hard to preserve my self-respect; but I was struggling alone in the powerful grasp of the demon Slavery; and the monster proved too strong for me. I felt as if I was forsaken by God and man; as if all my efforts must be frustrated; and I became reckless in my despair.",
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      "text": "I have told you that Dr. Flint’s persecutions and his wife’s jealousy had given rise to some gossip in the neighborhood. Among others, it chanced that a white unmarried gentleman had obtained some knowledge of the circumstances in which I was placed. He knew my grandmother, and often spoke to me in the street. He became interested for me, and asked questions about my master, which I answered in part. He expressed a great deal of sympathy, and a wish to aid me. He constantly sought opportunities to see me, and wrote to me frequently. I was a poor slave girl, only fifteen years old.",
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      "text": "So much attention from a superior person was, of course, flattering; for human nature is the same in all. I also felt grateful for his sympathy, and encouraged by his kind words. It seemed to me a great thing to have such a friend. By degrees, a more tender feeling crept into my heart. He was an educated and eloquent gentleman; too eloquent, alas, for the poor slave girl who trusted in him. Of course I saw whither all this was tending. I knew the impassable gulf between us; but to be an object of interest to a man who is not married, and who is not her master, is agreeable to the pride and feelings of a slave, if her miserable situation has left her any pride or sentiment. It seems less degrading to give one’s self, than to submit to compulsion. There is something akin to freedom in having a lover who has no control over you, except that which he gains by kindness and attachment. A master may treat you as rudely as he pleases, and you dare not speak; moreover, the wrong does not seem so great with an unmarried man, as with one who has a wife to be made unhappy. There may be sophistry in all this; but the condition of a slave confuses all principles of morality, and, in fact, renders the practice of them impossible.",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00287",
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      "text": "When I found that my master had actually begun to build the lonely cottage, other feelings mixed with those I have described. Revenge, and calculations of interest, were added to flattered vanity and sincere gratitude for kindness. I knew nothing would enrage Dr. Flint so much as to know that I favored another; and it was something to triumph over my tyrant even in that small way. I thought he would revenge himself by selling me, and I was sure my friend, Mr. Sands, would buy me. He was a man of more generosity and feeling than my master, and I thought my freedom could be easily obtained from him. The crisis of my fate now came so near that I was desperate. I shuddered to think of being the mother of children that should be owned by my old tyrant. I knew that as soon as a new fancy took him, his victims were sold far off to get rid of them; especially if they had children. I had seen several women sold, with his babies at the breast. He never allowed his offspring by slaves to remain long in sight of himself and his wife. Of a man who was not my master I could ask to have my children well supported; and in this case, I felt confident I should obtain the boon. I also felt quite sure that they would be made free. With all these thoughts revolving in my mind, and seeing no other way of escaping the doom I so much dreaded, I made a headlong plunge. Pity me, and pardon me, O virtuous reader! You never knew what it is to be a slave; to be entirely unprotected by law or custom; to have the laws reduce you to the condition of a chattel, entirely subject to the will of another. You never exhausted your ingenuity in avoiding the snares, and eluding the power of a hated tyrant; you never shuddered at the sound of his footsteps, and trembled within hearing of his voice. I know I did wrong. No one can feel it more sensibly than I do. The painful and humiliating memory will haunt me to my dying day. Still, in looking back, calmly, on the events of my life, I feel that the slave woman ought not to be judged by the same standard as others.",
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      "text": "The months passed on. I had many unhappy hours. I secretly mourned over the sorrow I was bringing on my grandmother, who had so tried to shield me from harm. I knew that I was the greatest comfort of her old age, and that it was a source of pride to her that I had not degraded myself, like most of the slaves. I wanted to confess to her that I was no longer worthy of her love; but I could not utter the dreaded words.",
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      "text": "As for Dr. Flint, I had a feeling of satisfaction and triumph in the thought of telling _him_. From time to time he told me of his intended arrangements, and I was silent. At last, he came and told me the cottage was completed, and ordered me to go to it. I told him I would never enter it. He said, “I have heard enough of such talk as that. You shall go, if you are carried by force; and you shall remain there.”",
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      "text": "I replied, “I will never go there. In a few months I shall be a mother.”",
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      "text": "He stood and looked at me in dumb amazement, and left the house without a word. I thought I should be happy in my triumph over him. But now that the truth was out, and my relatives would hear of it, I felt wretched. Humble as were their circumstances, they had pride in my good character. Now, how could I look them in the face? My self-respect was gone! I had resolved that I would be virtuous, though I was a slave. I had said, “Let the storm beat! I will brave it till I die.” And now, how humiliated I felt!",
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      "text": "I went to my grandmother. My lips moved to make confession, but the words stuck in my throat. I sat down in the shade of a tree at her door and began to sew. I think she saw something unusual was the matter with me. The mother of slaves is very watchful. She knows there is no security for her children. After they have entered their teens she lives in daily expectation of trouble. This leads to many questions. If the girl is of a sensitive nature, timidity keeps her from answering truthfully, and this well-meant course has a tendency to drive her from maternal counsels. Presently, in came my mistress, like a mad woman, and accused me concerning her husband. My grandmother, whose suspicions had been previously awakened, believed what she said. She exclaimed, “O Linda! has it come to this? I had rather see you dead than to see you as you now are. You are a disgrace to your dead mother.” She tore from my fingers my mother’s wedding ring and her silver thimble. “Go away!” she exclaimed, “and never come to my house, again.” Her reproaches fell so hot and heavy, that they left me no chance to answer. Bitter tears, such as the eyes never shed but once, were my only answer. I rose from my seat, but fell back again, sobbing. She did not speak to me; but the tears were running down her furrowed cheeks, and they scorched me like fire. She had always been so kind to me! _So_ kind! How I longed to throw myself at her feet, and tell her all the truth! But she had ordered me to go, and never to come there again. After a few minutes, I mustered strength, and started to obey her. With what feelings did I now close that little gate, which I used to open with such an eager hand in my childhood! It closed upon me with a sound I never heard before.",
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      "text": "My grandmother, emboldened by the presence of our white protector, said, “You may be sure we didn’t pilfer ’em from _your_ houses.”",
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      "text": "“Look here, mammy,” said a grim-looking fellow without any coat, “you seem to feel mighty gran’ ’cause you got all them ’ere fixens. White folks oughter have ’em all.”",
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      "text": "His remarks were interrupted by a chorus of voices shouting, “We’s got ’em! We’s got ’em! Dis ’ere yaller gal’s got letters!”",
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      "text": "There was a general rush for the supposed letter, which, upon examination, proved to be some verses written to me by a friend. In packing away my things, I had overlooked them. When their captain informed them of their contents, they seemed much disappointed. He inquired of me who wrote them. I told him it was one of my friends. “Can you read them?” he asked. When I told him I could, he swore, and raved, and tore the paper into bits. “Bring me all your letters!” said he, in a commanding tone. I told him I had none. “Don’t be afraid,” he continued, in an insinuating way. “Bring them all to me. Nobody shall do you any harm.” Seeing I did not move to obey him, his pleasant tone changed to oaths and threats. “Who writes to you? half free niggers?” inquired he. I replied, “O, no; most of my letters are from white people. Some request me to burn them after they are read, and some I destroy without reading.”",
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      "text": "An exclamation of surprise from some of the company put a stop to our conversation. Some silver spoons which ornamented an old-fashioned buffet had just been discovered. My grandmother was in the habit of preserving fruit for many ladies in the town, and of preparing suppers for parties; consequently she had many jars of preserves. The closet that contained these was next invaded, and the contents tasted. One of them, who was helping himself freely, tapped his neighbor on the shoulder, and said, “Wal done! Don’t wonder de niggers want to kill all de white folks, when dey live on ’sarves” [meaning preserves]. I stretched out my hand to take the jar, saying, “You were not sent here to search for sweetmeats.”",
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      "text": "“And what _were_ we sent for?” said the captain, bristling up to me. I evaded the question.",
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      "text": "I performed to her satisfaction. At the gate I found Peter, a young colored man, waiting for me. I had known him for years. He had been an apprentice to my father, and had always borne a good character. I was not afraid to trust to him. Betty bade me a hurried good by, and we walked off. “Take courage, Linda,” said my friend Peter. “I’ve got a dagger, and no man shall take you from me, unless he passes over my dead body.”",
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      "text": "It was a long time since I had taken a walk out of doors, and the fresh air revived me. It was also pleasant to hear a human voice speaking to me above a whisper. I passed several people whom I knew, but they did not recognize me in my disguise. I prayed internally that, for Peter’s sake, as well as my own, nothing might occur to bring out his dagger. We walked on till we came to the wharf. My aunt Nancy’s husband was a seafaring man, and it had been deemed necessary to let him into our secret. He took me into his boat, rowed out to a vessel not far distant, and hoisted me on board. We three were the only occupants of the vessel. I now ventured to ask what they proposed to do with me. They said I was to remain on board till near dawn, and then they would hide me in Snaky Swamp, till my uncle Phillip had prepared a place of concealment for me. If the vessel had been bound north, it would have been of no avail to me, for it would certainly have been searched. About four o’clock, we were again seated in the boat, and rowed three miles to the swamp. My fear of snakes had been increased by the venomous bite I had received, and I dreaded to enter this hiding-place. But I was in no situation to choose, and I gratefully accepted the best that my poor, persecuted friends could do for me.",
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      "text": "Peter landed first, and with a large knife cut a path through bamboos and briers of all descriptions. He came back, took me in his arms, and carried me to a seat made among the bamboos. Before we reached it, we were covered with hundreds of mosquitos. In an hour’s time they had so poisoned my flesh that I was a pitiful sight to behold. As the light increased, I saw snake after snake crawling round us. I had been accustomed to the sight of snakes all my life, but these were larger than any I had ever seen. To this day I shudder when I remember that morning. As evening approached, the number of snakes increased so much that we were continually obliged to thrash them with sticks to keep them from crawling over us. The bamboos were so high and so thick that it was impossible to see beyond a very short distance. Just before it became dark we procured a seat nearer to the entrance of the swamp, being fearful of losing our way back to the boat. It was not long before we heard the paddle of oars, and the low whistle, which had been agreed upon as a signal. We made haste to enter the boat, and were rowed back to the vessel. I passed a wretched night; for the heat of the swamp, the mosquitos, and the constant terror of snakes, had brought on a burning fever. I had just dropped asleep, when they came and told me it was time to go back to that horrid swamp. I could scarcely summon courage to rise. But even those large, venomous snakes were less dreadful to my imagination than the white men in that community called civilized. This time Peter took a quantity of tobacco to burn, to keep off the mosquitos. It produced the desired effect on them, but gave me nausea and severe headache. At dark we returned to the vessel. I had been so sick during the day, that Peter declared I should go home that night, if the devil himself was on patrol. They told me a place of concealment had been provided for me at my grandmother’s. I could not imagine how it was possible to hide me in her house, every nook and corner of which was known to the Flint family. They told me to wait and see. We were rowed ashore, and went boldly through the streets, to my grandmother’s. I wore my sailor’s clothes, and had blackened my face with charcoal. I passed several people whom I knew. The father of my children came so near that I brushed against his arm; but he had no idea who it was.",
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      "text": "“You must make the most of this walk,” said my friend Peter, “for you may not have another very soon.”",
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      "text": "I thought his voice sounded sad. It was kind of him to conceal from me what a dismal hole was to be my home for a long, long time.",
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      "text": "XXI. The Loophole Of Retreat.",
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      "text": "A small shed had been added to my grandmother’s house years ago. Some boards were laid across the joists at the top, and between these boards and the roof was a very small garret, never occupied by any thing but rats and mice. It was a pent roof, covered with nothing but shingles, according to the southern custom for such buildings. The garret was only nine feet long and seven wide. The highest part was three feet high, and sloped down abruptly to the loose board floor. There was no admission for either light or air. My uncle Phillip, who was a carpenter, had very skilfully made a concealed trap-door, which communicated with the storeroom. He had been doing this while I was waiting in the swamp. The storeroom opened upon a piazza. To this hole I was conveyed as soon as I entered the house. The air was stifling; the darkness total. A bed had been spread on the floor. I could sleep quite comfortably on one side; but the slope was so sudden that I could not turn on the other without hitting the roof. The rats and mice ran over my bed; but I was weary, and I slept such sleep as the wretched may, when a tempest has passed over them. Morning came. I knew it only by the noises I heard; for in my small den day and night were all the same. I suffered for air even more than for light. But I was not comfortless. I heard the voices of my children. There was joy and there was sadness in the sound. It made my tears flow. How I longed to speak to them! I was eager to look on their faces; but there was no hole, no crack, through which I could peep. This continued darkness was oppressive. It seemed horrible to sit or lie in a cramped position day after day, without one gleam of light. Yet I would have chosen this, rather than my lot as a slave, though white people considered it an easy one; and it was so compared with the fate of others. I was never cruelly over-worked; I was never lacerated with the whip from head to foot; I was never so beaten and bruised that I could not turn from one side to the other; I never had my heel-strings cut to prevent my running away; I was never chained to a log and forced to drag it about, while I toiled in the fields from morning till night; I was never branded with hot iron, or torn by bloodhounds. On the contrary, I had always been kindly treated, and tenderly cared for, until I came into the hands of Dr. Flint. I had never wished for freedom till then. But though my life in slavery was comparatively devoid of hardships, God pity the woman who is compelled to lead such a life!",
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      "text": "My food was passed up to me through the trap-door my uncle had contrived; and my grandmother, my uncle Phillip, and aunt Nancy would seize such opportunities as they could, to mount up there and chat with me at the opening. But of course this was not safe in the daytime. It must all be done in darkness. It was impossible for me to move in an erect position, but I crawled about my den for exercise. One day I hit my head against something, and found it was a gimlet. My uncle had left it sticking there when he made the trap-door. I was as rejoiced as Robinson Crusoe could have been at finding such a treasure. It put a lucky thought into my head. I said to myself, “Now I will have some light. Now I will see my children.” I did not dare to begin my work during the daytime, for fear of attracting attention. But I groped round; and having found the side next the street, where I could frequently see my children, I stuck the gimlet in and waited for evening. I bored three rows of holes, one above another; then I bored out the interstices between. I thus succeeded in making one hole about an inch long and an inch broad. I sat by it till late into the night, to enjoy the little whiff of air that floated in. In the morning I watched for my children. The first person I saw in the street was Dr. Flint. I had a shuddering, superstitious feeling that it was a bad omen. Several familiar faces passed by. At last I heard the merry laugh of children, and presently two sweet little faces were looking up at me, as though they knew I was there, and were conscious of the joy they imparted. How I longed to _tell_ them I was there!",
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      "text": "My condition was now a little improved. But for weeks I was tormented by hundreds of little red insects, fine as a needle’s point, that pierced through my skin, and produced an intolerable burning. The good grandmother gave me herb teas and cooling medicines, and finally I got rid of them. The heat of my den was intense, for nothing but thin shingles protected me from the scorching summer’s sun. But I had my consolations. Through my peeping-hole I could watch the children, and when they were near enough, I could hear their talk. Aunt Nancy brought me all the news she could hear at Dr. Flint’s. From her I learned that the doctor had written to New York to a colored woman, who had been born and raised in our neighborhood, and had breathed his contaminating atmosphere. He offered her a reward if she could find out any thing about me. I know not what was the nature of her reply; but he soon after started for New York in haste, saying to his family that he had business of importance to transact. I peeped at him as he passed on his way to the steamboat. It was a satisfaction to have miles of land and water between us, even for a little while; and it was a still greater satisfaction to know that he believed me to be in the Free States. My little den seemed less dreary than it had done. He returned, as he did from his former journey to New York, without obtaining any satisfactory information. When he passed our house next morning, Benny was standing at the gate. He had heard them say that he had gone to find me, and he called out, “Dr. Flint, did you bring my mother home? I want to see her.” The doctor stamped his foot at him in a rage, and exclaimed, “Get out of the way, you little damned rascal! If you don’t, I’ll cut off your head.”",
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      "text": "Benny ran terrified into the house, saying, “You can’t put me in jail again. I don’t belong to you now.” It was well that the wind carried the words away from the doctor’s ear. I told my grandmother of it, when we had our next conference at the trap-door; and begged of her not to allow the children to be impertinent to the irascible old man.",
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      "text": "Autumn came, with a pleasant abatement of heat. My eyes had become accustomed to the dim light, and by holding my book or work in a certain position near the aperture I contrived to read and sew. That was a great relief to the tedious monotony of my life. But when winter came, the cold penetrated through the thin shingle roof, and I was dreadfully chilled. The winters there are not so long, or so severe, as in northern latitudes; but the houses are not built to shelter from cold, and my little den was peculiarly comfortless. The kind grandmother brought me bed-clothes and warm drinks. Often I was obliged to lie in bed all day to keep comfortable; but with all my precautions, my shoulders and feet were frostbitten. O, those long, gloomy days, with no object for my eye to rest upon, and no thoughts to occupy my mind, except the dreary past and the uncertain future! I was thankful when there came a day sufficiently mild for me to wrap myself up and sit at the loophole to watch the passers by. Southerners have the habit of stopping and talking in the streets, and I heard many conversations not intended to meet my ears. I heard slave-hunters planning how to catch some poor fugitive. Several times I heard allusions to Dr. Flint, myself, and the history of my children, who, perhaps, were playing near the gate. One would say, “I wouldn’t move my little finger to catch her, as old Flint’s property.” Another would say, “I’ll catch _any_ nigger for the reward. A man ought to have what belongs to him, if he _is_ a damned brute.” The opinion was often expressed that I was in the Free States. Very rarely did any one suggest that I might be in the vicinity. Had the least suspicion rested on my grandmother’s house, it would have been burned to the ground. But it was the last place they thought of. Yet there was no place, where slavery existed, that could have afforded me so good a place of concealment.",
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      "text": "Dr. Flint and his family repeatedly tried to coax and bribe my children to tell something they had heard said about me. One day the doctor took them into a shop, and offered them some bright little silver pieces and gay handkerchiefs if they would tell where their mother was. Ellen shrank away from him, and would not speak; but Benny spoke up, and said, “Dr. Flint, I don’t know where my mother is. I guess she’s in New York; and when you go there again, I wish you’d ask her to come home, for I want to see her; but if you put her in jail, or tell her you’ll cut her head off, I’ll tell her to go right back.”",
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      "text": "XXII. Christmas Festivities.",
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      "text": "Christmas was approaching. Grandmother brought me materials, and I busied myself making some new garments and little playthings for my children. Were it not that hiring day is near at hand, and many families are fearfully looking forward to the probability of separation in a few days, Christmas might be a happy season for the poor slaves. Even slave mothers try to gladden the hearts of their little ones on that occasion. Benny and Ellen had their Christmas stockings filled. Their imprisoned mother could not have the privilege of witnessing their surprise and joy. But I had the pleasure of peeping at them as they went into the street with their new suits on. I heard Benny ask a little playmate whether Santa Claus brought him any thing. “Yes,” replied the boy; “but Santa Claus ain’t a real man. It’s the children’s mothers that put things into the stockings.” “No, that can’t be,” replied Benny, “for Santa Claus brought Ellen and me these new clothes, and my mother has been gone this long time.”",
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      "text": "How I longed to tell him that his mother made those garments, and that many a tear fell on them while she worked!",
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      "text": "Every child rises early on Christmas morning to see the Johnkannaus. Without them, Christmas would be shorn of its greatest attraction. They consist of companies of slaves from the plantations, generally of the lower class. Two athletic men, in calico wrappers, have a net thrown over them, covered with all manner of bright-colored stripes. Cows’ tails are fastened to their backs, and their heads are decorated with horns. A box, covered with sheepskin, is called the gumbo box. A dozen beat on this, while others strike triangles and jawbones, to which bands of dancers keep time. For a month previous they are composing songs, which are sung on this occasion. These companies, of a hundred each, turn out early in the morning, and are allowed to go round till twelve o’clock, begging for contributions. Not a door is left unvisited where there is the least chance of obtaining a penny or a glass of rum. They do not drink while they are out, but carry the rum home in jugs, to have a carousal. These Christmas donations frequently amount to twenty or thirty dollars. It is seldom that any white man or child refuses to give them a trifle. If he does, they regale his ears with the following song:—",
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      "text": "“Poor massa, so dey say; Down in de heel, so dey say; Got no money, so dey say; Not one shillin, so dey say; God A’mighty bress you, so dey say.”",
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      "text": "I suffered much more during the second winter than I did during the first. My limbs were benumbed by inaction, and the cold filled them with cramp. I had a very painful sensation of coldness in my head; even my face and tongue stiffened, and I lost the power of speech. Of course it was impossible, under the circumstances, to summon any physician. My brother William came and did all he could for me. Uncle Phillip also watched tenderly over me; and poor grandmother crept up and down to inquire whether there were any signs of returning life. I was restored to consciousness by the dashing of cold water in my face, and found myself leaning against my brother’s arm, while he bent over me with streaming eyes. He afterwards told me he thought I was dying, for I had been in an unconscious state sixteen hours. I next became delirious, and was in great danger of betraying myself and my friends. To prevent this, they stupefied me with drugs. I remained in bed six weeks, weary in body and sick at heart. How to get medical advice was the question. William finally went to a Thompsonian doctor, and described himself as having all my pains and aches. He returned with herbs, roots, and ointment. He was especially charged to rub on the ointment by a fire; but how could a fire be made in my little den? Charcoal in a furnace was tried, but there was no outlet for the gas, and it nearly cost me my life. Afterwards coals, already kindled, were brought up in an iron pan, and placed on bricks. I was so weak, and it was so long since I had enjoyed the warmth of a fire, that those few coals actually made me weep. I think the medicines did me some good; but my recovery was very slow. Dark thoughts passed through my mind as I lay there day after day. I tried to be thankful for my little cell, dismal as it was, and even to love it, as part of the price I had paid for the redemption of my children. Sometimes I thought God was a compassionate Father, who would forgive my sins for the sake of my sufferings. At other times, it seemed to me there was no justice or mercy in the divine government. I asked why the curse of slavery was permitted to exist, and why I had been so persecuted and wronged from youth upward. These things took the shape of mystery, which is to this day not so clear to my soul as I trust it will be hereafter.",
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      "text": "In the midst of my illness, grandmother broke down under the weight of anxiety and toil. The idea of losing her, who had always been my best friend and a mother to my children, was the sorest trial I had yet had. O, how earnestly I prayed that she might recover! How hard it seemed, that I could not tend upon her, who had so long and so tenderly watched over me!",
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      "text": "One day the screams of a child nerved me with strength to crawl to my peeping-hole, and I saw my son covered with blood. A fierce dog, usually kept chained, had seized and bitten him. A doctor was sent for, and I heard the groans and screams of my child while the wounds were being sewed up. O, what torture to a mother’s heart, to listen to this and be unable to go to him!",
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      "text": "But childhood is like a day in spring, alternately shower and sunshine. Before night Benny was bright and lively, threatening the destruction of the dog; and great was his delight when the doctor told him the next day that the dog had bitten another boy and been shot. Benny recovered from his wounds; but it was long before he could walk.",
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      "text": "When my grandmother’s illness became known, many ladies, who were her customers, called to bring her some little comforts, and to inquire whether she had every thing she wanted. Aunt Nancy one night asked permission to watch with her sick mother, and Mrs. Flint replied, “I don’t see any need of your going. I can’t spare you.” But when she found other ladies in the neighborhood were so attentive, not wishing to be outdone in Christian charity, she also sallied forth, in magnificent condescension, and stood by the bedside of her who had loved her in her infancy, and who had been repaid by such grievous wrongs. She seemed surprised to find her so ill, and scolded uncle Phillip for not sending for Dr. Flint. She herself sent for him immediately, and he came. Secure as I was in my retreat, I should have been terrified if I had known he was so near me. He pronounced my grandmother in a very critical situation, and said if her attending physician wished it, he would visit her. Nobody wished to have him coming to the house at all hours, and we were not disposed to give him a chance to make out a long bill.",
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      "text": "This was as good as a comedy to me, who had heard it all; but grandmother was frightened and distressed, because the doctor wanted my uncle to go for me.",
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      "text": "The next evening Dr. Flint called to talk the matter over. My uncle told him that from what he had heard of Massachusetts, he judged he should be mobbed if he went there after a runaway slave. “All stuff and nonsense, Phillip!” replied the doctor. “Do you suppose I want you to kick up a row in Boston? The business can all be done quietly. Linda writes that she wants to come back. You are her relative, and she would trust _you_. The case would be different if I went. She might object to coming with _me_; and the damned abolitionists, if they knew I was her master, would not believe me, if I told them she had begged to go back. They would get up a row; and I should not like to see Linda dragged through the streets like a common negro. She has been very ungrateful to me for all my kindness; but I forgive her, and want to act the part of a friend towards her. I have no wish to hold her as my slave. Her friends can buy her as soon as she arrives here.”",
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      "text": "Finding that his arguments failed to convince my uncle, the doctor “let the cat out of the bag,” by saying that he had written to the mayor of Boston, to ascertain whether there was a person of my description at the street and number from which my letter was dated. He had omitted this date in the letter he had made up to read to my grandmother. If I had dated from New York, the old man would probably have made another journey to that city. But even in that dark region, where knowledge is so carefully excluded from the slave, I had heard enough about Massachusetts to come to the conclusion that slaveholders did not consider it a comfortable place to go to in search of a runaway. That was before the Fugitive Slave Law was passed; before Massachusetts had consented to become a “nigger hunter” for the south.",
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      "text": "My grandmother, who had become skittish by seeing her family always in danger, came to me with a very distressed countenance, and said, “What will you do if the mayor of Boston sends him word that you haven’t been there? Then he will suspect the letter was a trick; and maybe he’ll find out something about it, and we shall all get into trouble. O Linda, I wish you had never sent the letters.”",
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      "text": "“Don’t worry yourself, Grandmother,” said I. “The mayor of Boston won’t trouble himself to hunt niggers for Dr. Flint. The letters will do good in the end. I shall get out of this dark hole some time or other.”",
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      "text": "Benny did not hear the answer; but he came home very indignant with the stranger lady, because she had called him a negro. A few days afterwards, Mr. Sands called on my grandmother, and told her he wanted her to take the children to his house. He said he had informed his wife of his relation to them, and told her they were motherless; and she wanted to see them.",
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      "text": "When he had gone, my grandmother came and asked what I would do. The question seemed a mockery. What _could_ I do? They were Mr. Sands’s slaves, and their mother was a slave, whom he had represented to be dead. Perhaps he thought I was. I was too much pained and puzzled to come to any decision; and the children were carried without my knowledge. Mrs. Sands had a sister from Illinois staying with her. This lady, who had no children of her own, was so much pleased with Ellen, that she offered to adopt her, and bring her up as she would a daughter. Mrs. Sands wanted to take Benjamin. When grandmother reported this to me, I was tried almost beyond endurance. Was this all I was to gain by what I had suffered for the sake of having my children free? True, the prospect _seemed_ fair; but I knew too well how lightly slaveholders held such “parental relations.” If pecuniary troubles should come, or if the new wife required more money than could conveniently be spared, my children might be thought of as a convenient means of raising funds. I had no trust in thee, O Slavery! Never should I know peace till my children were emancipated with all due formalities of law.",
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      "text": "I was too proud to ask Mr. Sands to do any thing for my own benefit; but I could bring myself to become a supplicant for my children. I resolved to remind him of the promise he had made me, and to throw myself upon his honor for the performance of it. I persuaded my grandmother to go to him, and tell him I was not dead, and that I earnestly entreated him to keep the promise he had made me; that I had heard of the recent proposals concerning my children, and did not feel easy to accept them; that he had promised to emancipate them, and it was time for him to redeem his pledge. I knew there was some risk in thus betraying that I was in the vicinity; but what will not a mother do for her children? He received the message with surprise, and said, “The children are free. I have never intended to claim them as slaves. Linda may decide their fate. In my opinion, they had better be sent to the north. I don’t think they are quite safe here. Dr. Flint boasts that they are still in his power. He says they were his daughter’s property, and as she was not of age when they were sold, the contract is not legally binding.”",
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      "ref": "PG11030.B00591",
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      "text": "So, then, after all I had endured for their sakes, my poor children were between two fires; between my old master and their new master! And I was powerless. There was no protecting arm of the law for me to invoke. Mr. Sands proposed that Ellen should go, for the present, to some of his relatives, who had removed to Brooklyn, Long Island. It was promised that she should be well taken care of, and sent to school. I consented to it, as the best arrangement I could make for her. My grandmother, of course, negotiated it all; and Mrs. Sands knew of no other person in the transaction. She proposed that they should take Ellen with them to Washington, and keep her till they had a good chance of sending her, with friends, to Brooklyn. She had an infant daughter. I had had a glimpse of it, as the nurse passed with it in her arms. It was not a pleasant thought to me, that the bondwoman’s child should tend her free-born sister; but there was no alternative. Ellen was made ready for the journey. O, how it tried my heart to send her away, so young, alone, among strangers! Without a mother’s love to shelter her from the storms of life; almost without memory of a mother! I doubted whether she and Benny would have for me the natural affection that children feel for a parent. I thought to myself that I might perhaps never see my daughter again, and I had a great desire that she should look upon me, before she went, that she might take my image with her in her memory. It seemed to me cruel to have her brought to my dungeon. It was sorrow enough for her young heart to know that her mother was a victim of slavery, without seeing the wretched hiding-place to which it had driven her. I begged permission to pass the last night in one of the open chambers, with my little girl. They thought I was crazy to think of trusting such a young child with my perilous secret. I told them I had watched her character, and I felt sure she would not betray me; that I was determined to have an interview, and if they would not facilitate it, I would take my own way to obtain it. They remonstrated against the rashness of such a proceeding; but finding they could not change my purpose, they yielded. I slipped through the trap-door into the storeroom, and my uncle kept watch at the gate, while I passed into the piazza and went up stairs, to the room I used to occupy. It was more than five years since I had seen it; and how the memories crowded on me! There I had taken shelter when my mistress drove me from her house; there came my old tyrant, to mock, insult, and curse me; there my children were first laid in my arms; there I had watched over them, each day with a deeper and sadder love; there I had knelt to God, in anguish of heart, to forgive the wrong I had done. How vividly it all came back! And after this long, gloomy interval, I stood there such a wreck!",
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      "text": "In the midst of these meditations, I heard footsteps on the stairs. The door opened, and my uncle Phillip came in, leading Ellen by the hand. I put my arms round her, and said, “Ellen, my dear child, I am your mother.” She drew back a little, and looked at me; then, with sweet confidence, she laid her cheek against mine, and I folded her to the heart that had been so long desolated. She was the first to speak. Raising her head, she said, inquiringly, “You really _are_ my mother?” I told her I really was; that during all the long time she had not seen me, I had loved her most tenderly; and that now she was going away, I wanted to see her and talk with her, that she might remember me. With a sob in her voice, she said, “I’m glad you’ve come to see me; but why didn’t you ever come before? Benny and I have wanted so much to see you! He remembers you, and sometimes he tells me about you. Why didn’t you come home when Dr. Flint went to bring you?”",
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      "text": "The contents of Mr. Thorne’s letter, as nearly as I can remember, were as follows: “I have seen your slave, Linda, and conversed with her. She can be taken very easily, if you manage prudently. There are enough of us here to swear to her identity as your property. I am a patriot, a lover of my country, and I do this as an act of justice to the laws.” He concluded by informing the doctor of the street and number where I lived. The children carried the pieces to Mrs. Hobbs, who immediately went to her brother’s room for an explanation. He was not to be found. The servants said they saw him go out with a letter in his hand, and they supposed he had gone to the post office. The natural inference was, that he had sent to Dr. Flint a copy of those fragments. When he returned, his sister accused him of it, and he did not deny the charge. He went immediately to his room, and the next morning he was missing. He had gone over to New York, before any of the family were astir.",
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      "text": "It was evident that I had no time to lose; and I hastened back to the city with a heavy heart. Again I was to be torn from a comfortable home, and all my plans for the welfare of my children were to be frustrated by that demon Slavery! I now regretted that I never told Mrs. Bruce my story. I had not concealed it merely on account of being a fugitive; that would have made her anxious, but it would have excited sympathy in her kind heart. I valued her good opinion, and I was afraid of losing it, if I told her all the particulars of my sad story. But now I felt that it was necessary for her to know how I was situated. I had once left her abruptly, without explaining the reason, and it would not be proper to do it again. I went home resolved to tell her in the morning. But the sadness of my face attracted her attention, and, in answer to her kind inquiries, I poured out my full heart to her, before bed time. She listened with true womanly sympathy, and told me she would do all she could to protect me. How my heart blessed her!",
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      "text": "Early the next morning, Judge Vanderpool and Lawyer Hopper were consulted. They said I had better leave the city at once, as the risk would be great if the case came to trial. Mrs. Bruce took me in a carriage to the house of one of her friends, where she assured me I should be safe until my brother could arrive, which would be in a few days. In the interval my thoughts were much occupied with Ellen. She was mine by birth, and she was also mine by Southern law, since my grandmother held the bill of sale that made her so. I did not feel that she was safe unless I had her with me. Mrs. Hobbs, who felt badly about her brother’s treachery, yielded to my entreaties, on condition that she should return in ten days. I avoided making any promise. She came to me clad in very thin garments, all outgrown, and with a school satchel on her arm, containing a few articles. It was late in October, and I knew the child must suffer; and not daring to go out in the streets to purchase any thing, I took off my own flannel skirt and converted it into one for her. Kind Mrs. Bruce came to bid me good by, and when she saw that I had taken off my clothing for my child, the tears came to her eyes. She said, “Wait for me, Linda,” and went out. She soon returned with a nice warm shawl and hood for Ellen. Truly, of such souls as hers are the kingdom of heaven.",
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      "text": "My brother reached New York on Wednesday. Lawyer Hopper advised us to go to Boston by the Stonington route, as there was less Southern travel in that direction. Mrs. Bruce directed her servants to tell all inquirers that I formerly lived there, but had gone from the city. We reached the steamboat Rhode Island in safety. That boat employed colored hands, but I knew that colored passengers were not admitted to the cabin. I was very desirous for the seclusion of the cabin, not only on account of exposure to the night air, but also to avoid observation. Lawyer Hopper was waiting on board for us. He spoke to the stewardess, and asked, as a particular favor, that she would treat us well. He said to me, “Go and speak to the captain yourself by and by. Take your little girl with you, and I am sure that he will not let her sleep on deck.” With these kind words and a shake of the hand he departed.",
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      "text": "The boat was soon on her way, bearing me rapidly from the friendly home where I had hoped to find security and rest. My brother had left me to purchase the tickets, thinking that I might have better success than he would. When the stewardess came to me, I paid what she asked, and she gave me three tickets with clipped corners. In the most unsophisticated manner I said, “You have made a mistake; I asked you for cabin tickets. I cannot possibly consent to sleep on deck with my little daughter.” She assured me there was no mistake. She said on some of the routes colored people were allowed to sleep in the cabin, but not on this route, which was much travelled by the wealthy. I asked her to show me to the captain’s office, and she said she would after tea. When the time came, I took Ellen by the hand and went to the captain, politely requesting him to change our tickets, as we should be very uncomfortable on deck. He said it was contrary to their custom, but he would see that we had berths below; he would also try to obtain comfortable seats for us in the cars; of that he was not certain, but he would speak to the conductor about it, when the boat arrived. I thanked him, and returned to the ladies’ cabin. He came afterwards and told me that the conductor of the cars was on board, that he had spoken to him, and he had promised to take care of us. I was very much surprised at receiving so much kindness. I don’t know whether the pleasing face of my little girl had won his heart, or whether the stewardess inferred from Lawyer Hopper’s manner that I was a fugitive, and had pleaded with him in my behalf.",
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      "text": "“‘Come up into my parlor,’ said the spider to the fly; ‘’Tis the prettiest little parlor that ever you did spy.’”",
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      "text": "It was plain that Dr. Flint’s family were apprised of my movements, since they knew of my voyage to Europe. I expected to have further trouble from them; but having eluded them thus far, I hoped to be as successful in future. The money I had earned, I was desirous to devote to the education of my children, and to secure a home for them. It seemed not only hard, but unjust, to pay for myself. I could not possibly regard myself as a piece of property. Moreover, I had worked many years without wages, and during that time had been obliged to depend on my grandmother for many comforts in food and clothing. My children certainly belonged to me; but though Dr. Flint had incurred no expense for their support, he had received a large sum of money for them. I knew the law would decide that I was his property, and would probably still give his daughter a claim to my children; but I regarded such laws as the regulations of robbers, who had no rights that I was bound to respect.",
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      "text": "The Fugitive Slave Law had not then passed. The judges of Massachusetts had not then stooped under chains to enter her courts of justice, so called. I knew my old master was rather skittish of Massachusetts. I relied on her love of freedom, and felt safe on her soil. I am now aware that I honored the old Commonwealth beyond her deserts.",
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      "text": "XXXIX. The Confession.",
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      "text": "For two years my daughter and I supported ourselves comfortably in Boston. At the end of that time, my brother William offered to send Ellen to a boarding school. It required a great effort for me to consent to part with her, for I had few near ties, and it was her presence that made my two little rooms seem home-like. But my judgment prevailed over my selfish feelings. I made preparations for her departure. During the two years we had lived together I had often resolved to tell her something about her father; but I had never been able to muster sufficient courage. I had a shrinking dread of diminishing my child’s love. I knew she must have curiosity on the subject, but she had never asked a question. She was always very careful not to say any thing to remind me of my troubles. Now that she was going from me, I thought if I should die before she returned, she might hear my story from some one who did not understand the palliating circumstances; and that if she were entirely ignorant on the subject, her sensitive nature might receive a rude shock.",
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      "text": "The next morning, she and her uncle started on their journey to the village in New York, where she was to be placed at school. It seemed as if all the sunshine had gone away. My little room was dreadfully lonely. I was thankful when a message came from a lady, accustomed to employ me, requesting me to come and sew in her family for several weeks. On my return, I found a letter from brother William. He thought of opening an anti-slavery reading room in Rochester, and combining with it the sale of some books and stationery; and he wanted me to unite with him. We tried it, but it was not successful. We found warm anti-slavery friends there, but the feeling was not general enough to support such an establishment. I passed nearly a year in the family of Isaac and Amy Post, practical believers in the Christian doctrine of human brotherhood. They measure a man’s worth by his character, not by his complexion. The memory of those beloved and honored friends will remain with me to my latest hour.",
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      "text": "XL. The Fugitive Slave Law.",
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      "text": "My brother, being disappointed in his project, concluded to go to California; and it was agreed that Benjamin should go with him. Ellen liked her school, and was a great favorite there. They did not know her history, and she did not tell it, because she had no desire to make capital out of their sympathy. But when it was accidentally discovered that her mother was a fugitive slave, every method was used to increase her advantages and diminish her expenses.",
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      "text": "I was alone again. It was necessary for me to be earning money, and I preferred that it should be among those who knew me. On my return from Rochester, I called at the house of Mr. Bruce, to see Mary, the darling little babe that had thawed my heart, when it was freezing into a cheerless distrust of all my fellow-beings. She was growing a tall girl now, but I loved her always. Mr. Bruce had married again, and it was proposed that I should become nurse to a new infant. I had but one hesitation, and that was my feeling of insecurity in New York, now greatly increased by the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law. However, I resolved to try the experiment. I was again fortunate in my employer. The new Mrs. Bruce was an American, brought up under aristocratic influences, and still living in the midst of them; but if she had any prejudice against color, I was never made aware of it; and as for the system of slavery, she had a most hearty dislike of it. No sophistry of Southerners could blind her to its enormity. She was a person of excellent principles and a noble heart. To me, from that hour to the present, she has been a true and sympathizing friend. Blessings be with her and hers!",
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      "text": "About the time that I reëntered the Bruce family, an event occurred of disastrous import to the colored people. The slave Hamlin, the first fugitive that came under the new law, was given up by the bloodhounds of the north to the bloodhounds of the south. It was the beginning of a reign of terror to the colored population. The great city rushed on in its whirl of excitement, taking no note of the “short and simple annals of the poor.” But while fashionables were listening to the thrilling voice of Jenny Lind in Metropolitan Hall, the thrilling voices of poor hunted colored people went up, in an agony of supplication, to the Lord, from Zion’s church. Many families, who had lived in the city for twenty years, fled from it now. Many a poor washerwoman, who, by hard labor, had made herself a comfortable home, was obliged to sacrifice her furniture, bid a hurried farewell to friends, and seek her fortune among strangers in Canada. Many a wife discovered a secret she had never known before—that her husband was a fugitive, and must leave her to insure his own safety. Worse still, many a husband discovered that his wife had fled from slavery years ago, and as “the child follows the condition of its mother,” the children of his love were liable to be seized and carried into slavery. Every where, in those humble homes, there was consternation and anguish. But what cared the legislators of the “dominant race” for the blood they were crushing out of trampled hearts?",
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      "text": "When my brother William spent his last evening with me, before he went to California, we talked nearly all the time of the distress brought on our oppressed people by the passage of this iniquitous law; and never had I seen him manifest such bitterness of spirit, such stern hostility to our oppressors. He was himself free from the operation of the law; for he did not run from any Slaveholding State, being brought into the Free States by his master. But I was subject to it; and so were hundreds of intelligent and industrious people all around us. I seldom ventured into the streets; and when it was necessary to do an errand for Mrs. Bruce, or any of the family, I went as much as possible through back streets and by-ways. What a disgrace to a city calling itself free, that inhabitants, guiltless of offence, and seeking to perform their duties conscientiously, should be condemned to live in such incessant fear, and have nowhere to turn for protection! This state of things, of course, gave rise to many impromptu vigilance committees. Every colored person, and every friend of their persecuted race, kept their eyes wide open. Every evening I examined the newspapers carefully, to see what Southerners had put up at the hotels. I did this for my own sake, thinking my young mistress and her husband might be among the list; I wished also to give information to others, if necessary; for if many were “running to and fro,” I resolved that “knowledge should be increased.”",
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      "text": "This brings up one of my Southern reminiscences, which I will here briefly relate. I was somewhat acquainted with a slave named Luke, who belonged to a wealthy man in our vicinity. His master died, leaving a son and daughter heirs to his large fortune. In the division of the slaves, Luke was included in the son’s portion. This young man became a prey to the vices growing out of the “patriarchal institution,” and when he went to the north, to complete his education, he carried his vices with him. He was brought home, deprived of the use of his limbs, by excessive dissipation. Luke was appointed to wait upon his bed-ridden master, whose despotic habits were greatly increased by exasperation at his own helplessness. He kept a cowhide beside him, and, for the most trivial occurrence, he would order his attendant to bare his back, and kneel beside the couch, while he whipped him till his strength was exhausted. Some days he was not allowed to wear any thing but his shirt, in order to be in readiness to be flogged. A day seldom passed without his receiving more or less blows. If the slightest resistance was offered, the town constable was sent for to execute the punishment, and Luke learned from experience how much more the constable’s strong arm was to be dreaded than the comparatively feeble one of his master. The arm of his tyrant grew weaker, and was finally palsied; and then the constable’s services were in constant requisition. The fact that he was entirely dependent on Luke’s care, and was obliged to be tended like an infant, instead of inspiring any gratitude or compassion towards his poor slave, seemed only to increase his irritability and cruelty. As he lay there on his bed, a mere degraded wreck of manhood, he took into his head the strangest freaks of despotism; and if Luke hesitated to submit to his orders, the constable was immediately sent for. Some of these freaks were of a nature too filthy to be repeated. When I fled from the house of bondage, I left poor Luke still chained to the bedside of this cruel and disgusting wretch.",
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      "text": "One day, when I had been requested to do an errand for Mrs. Bruce, I was hurrying through back streets, as usual, when I saw a young man approaching, whose face was familiar to me. As he came nearer, I recognized Luke. I always rejoiced to see or hear of any one who had escaped from the black pit; but, remembering this poor fellow’s extreme hardships, I was peculiarly glad to see him on Northern soil, though I no longer called it _free_ soil. I well remembered what a desolate feeling it was to be alone among strangers, and I went up to him and greeted him cordially. At first, he did not know me; but when I mentioned my name, he remembered all about me. I told him of the Fugitive Slave Law, and asked him if he did not know that New York was a city of kidnappers.",
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      "text": "He replied, “De risk ain’t so bad for me, as ’tis fur you. ’Cause I runned away from de speculator, and you runned away from de massa. Dem speculators vont spen dar money to come here fur a runaway, if dey ain’t sartin sure to put dar hans right on him. An I tell you I’s tuk good car ’bout dat. I had too hard times down dar, to let ’em ketch dis nigger.”",
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      "text": "He then told me of the advice he had received, and the plans he had laid. I asked if he had money enough to take him to Canada. “’Pend upon it, I hab,” he replied. “I tuk car fur dat. I’d bin workin all my days fur dem cussed whites, an got no pay but kicks and cuffs. So I tought dis nigger had a right to money nuff to bring him to de Free States. Massa Henry he lib till ebery body vish him dead; an ven he did die, I knowed de debbil would hab him, an vouldn’t vant him to bring his money ’long too. So I tuk some of his bills, and put ’em in de pocket of his ole trousers. An ven he was buried, dis nigger ask fur dem ole trousers, an dey gub ’em to me.” With a low, chuckling laugh, he added, “You see I didn’t _steal_ it; dey _gub_ it to me. I tell you, I had mighty hard time to keep de speculator from findin it; but he didn’t git it.”",
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      "text": "This is a fair specimen of how the moral sense is educated by slavery. When a man has his wages stolen from him, year after year, and the laws sanction and enforce the theft, how can he be expected to have more regard to honesty than has the man who robs him? I have become somewhat enlightened, but I confess that I agree with poor, ignorant, much-abused Luke, in thinking he had a _right_ to that money, as a portion of his unpaid wages. He went to Canada forthwith, and I have not since heard from him.",
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      "text": "Spring returned, and I received warning from the south that Dr. Flint knew of my return to my old place, and was making preparations to have me caught. I learned afterwards that my dress, and that of Mrs. Bruce’s children, had been described to him by some of the Northern tools, which slaveholders employ for their base purposes, and then indulge in sneers at their cupidity and mean servility.",
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      "text": "I immediately informed Mrs. Bruce of my danger, and she took prompt measures for my safety. My place as nurse could not be supplied immediately, and this generous, sympathizing lady proposed that I should carry her baby away. It was a comfort to me to have the child with me; for the heart is reluctant to be torn away from every object it loves. But how few mothers would have consented to have one of their own babes become a fugitive, for the sake of a poor, hunted nurse, on whom the legislators of the country had let loose the bloodhounds! When I spoke of the sacrifice she was making, in depriving herself of her dear baby, she replied, “It is better for you to have baby with you, Linda; for if they get on your track, they will be obliged to bring the child to me; and then, if there is a possibility of saving you, you shall be saved.”",
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      "text": "This lady had a very wealthy relative, a benevolent gentleman in many respects, but aristocratic and pro-slavery. He remonstrated with her for harboring a fugitive slave; told her she was violating the laws of her country; and asked her if she was aware of the penalty. She replied, “I am very well aware of it. It is imprisonment and one thousand dollars fine. Shame on my country that it _is_ so! I am ready to incur the penalty. I will go to the state’s prison, rather than have any poor victim torn from _my_ house, to be carried back to slavery.”",
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      "text": "The noble heart! The brave heart! The tears are in my eyes while I write of her. May the God of the helpless reward her for her sympathy with my persecuted people!",
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      "text": "I was sent into New England, where I was sheltered by the wife of a senator, whom I shall always hold in grateful remembrance. This honorable gentleman would not have voted for the Fugitive Slave Law, as did the senator in “Uncle Tom’s Cabin;” on the contrary, he was strongly opposed to it; but he was enough under its influence to be afraid of having me remain in his house many hours. So I was sent into the country, where I remained a month with the baby. When it was supposed that Dr. Flint’s emissaries had lost track of me, and given up the pursuit for the present, I returned to New York.",
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      "text": "XLI. Free At Last.",
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      "text": "Mrs. Bruce, and every member of her family, were exceedingly kind to me. I was thankful for the blessings of my lot, yet I could not always wear a cheerful countenance. I was doing harm to no one; on the contrary, I was doing all the good I could in my small way; yet I could never go out to breathe God’s free air without trepidation at my heart. This seemed hard; and I could not think it was a right state of things in any civilized country.",
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      "text": "I had been told that Mr. Dodge said his wife had never signed away her right to my children, and if he could not get me, he would take them. This it was, more than any thing else, that roused such a tempest in my soul. Benjamin was with his uncle William in California, but my innocent young daughter had come to spend a vacation with me. I thought of what I had suffered in slavery at her age, and my heart was like a tiger’s when a hunter tries to seize her young.",
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      "text": "Dear Mrs. Bruce! I seem to see the expression of her face, as she turned away discouraged by my obstinate mood. Finding her expostulations unavailing, she sent Ellen to entreat me. When ten o’clock in the evening arrived and Ellen had not returned, this watchful and unwearied friend became anxious. She came to us in a carriage, bringing a well-filled trunk for my journey—trusting that by this time I would listen to reason. I yielded to her, as I ought to have done before.",
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      "text": "The next day, baby and I set out in a heavy snow storm, bound for New England again. I received letters from the City of Iniquity, addressed to me under an assumed name. In a few days one came from Mrs. Bruce, informing me that my new master was still searching for me, and that she intended to put an end to this persecution by buying my freedom. I felt grateful for the kindness that prompted this offer, but the idea was not so pleasant to me as might have been expected. The more my mind had become enlightened, the more difficult it was for me to consider myself an article of property; and to pay money to those who had so grievously oppressed me seemed like taking from my sufferings the glory of triumph. I wrote to Mrs. Bruce, thanking her, but saying that being sold from one owner to another seemed too much like slavery; that such a great obligation could not be easily cancelled; and that I preferred to go to my brother in California.",
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      "text": "Without my knowledge, Mrs. Bruce employed a gentleman in New York to enter into negotiations with Mr. Dodge. He proposed to pay three hundred dollars down, if Mr. Dodge would sell me, and enter into obligations to relinquish all claim to me or my children forever after. He who called himself my master said he scorned so small an offer for such a valuable servant. The gentleman replied, “You can do as you choose, sir. If you reject this offer you will never get any thing; for the woman has friends who will convey her and her children out of the country.”",
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      "text": "Mr. Dodge concluded that “half a loaf was better than no bread,” and he agreed to the proffered terms. By the next mail I received this brief letter from Mrs. Bruce: “I am rejoiced to tell you that the money for your freedom has been paid to Mr. Dodge. Come home to-morrow. I long to see you and my sweet babe.”",
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      "text": "My brain reeled as I read these lines. A gentleman near me said, “It’s true; I have seen the bill of sale.” “The bill of sale!” Those words struck me like a blow. So I was _sold_ at last! A human being _sold_ in the free city of New York! The bill of sale is on record, and future generations will learn from it that women were articles of traffic in New York, late in the nineteenth century of the Christian religion. It may hereafter prove a useful document to antiquaries, who are seeking to measure the progress of civilization in the United States. I well know the value of that bit of paper; but much as I love freedom, I do not like to look upon it. I am deeply grateful to the generous friend who procured it, but I despise the miscreant who demanded payment for what never rightfully belonged to him or his.",
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      "text": "I had objected to having my freedom bought, yet I must confess that when it was done I felt as if a heavy load had been lifted from my weary shoulders. When I rode home in the cars I was no longer afraid to unveil my face and look at people as they passed. I should have been glad to have met Daniel Dodge himself; to have had him seen me and known me, that he might have mourned over the untoward circumstances which compelled him to sell me for three hundred dollars.",
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      "text": "When I reached home, the arms of my benefactress were thrown round me, and our tears mingled. As soon as she could speak, she said, “O Linda, I’m _so_ glad it’s all over! You wrote to me as if you thought you were going to be transferred from one owner to another. But I did not buy you for your services. I should have done just the same, if you had been going to sail for California to-morrow. I should, at least, have the satisfaction of knowing that you left me a free woman.”",
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      "text": "My heart was exceedingly full. I remembered how my poor father had tried to buy me, when I was a small child, and how he had been disappointed. I hoped his spirit was rejoicing over me now. I remembered how my good old grandmother had laid up her earnings to purchase me in later years, and how often her plans had been frustrated. How that faithful, loving old heart would leap for joy, if she could look on me and my children now that we were free! My relatives had been foiled in all their efforts, but God had raised me up a friend among strangers, who had bestowed on me the precious, long-desired boon. Friend! It is a common word, often lightly used. Like other good and beautiful things, it may be tarnished by careless handling; but when I speak of Mrs. Bruce as my friend, the word is sacred.",
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      "text": "My grandmother lived to rejoice in my freedom; but not long after, a letter came with a black seal. She had gone “where the wicked cease from troubling, and the weary are at rest.”",
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      "text": "Time passed on, and a paper came to me from the south, containing an obituary notice of my uncle Phillip. It was the only case I ever knew of such an honor conferred upon a colored person. It was written by one of his friends, and contained these words: “Now that death has laid him low, they call him a good man and a useful citizen; but what are eulogies to the black man, when the world has faded from his vision? It does not require man’s praise to obtain rest in God’s kingdom.” So they called a colored man a _citizen_! Strange words to be uttered in that region!",
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      "text": "Reader, my story ends with freedom; not in the usual way, with marriage. I and my children are now free! We are as free from the power of slaveholders as are the white people of the north; and though that, according to my ideas, is not saying a great deal, it is a vast improvement in _my_ condition. The dream of my life is not yet realized. I do not sit with my children in a home of my own. I still long for a hearthstone of my own, however humble. I wish it for my children’s sake far more than for my own. But God so orders circumstances as to keep me with my friend Mrs. Bruce. Love, duty, gratitude, also bind me to her side. It is a privilege to serve her who pities my oppressed people, and who has bestowed the inestimable boon of freedom on me and my children.",
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      "text": "It has been painful to me, in many ways, to recall the dreary years I passed in bondage. I would gladly forget them if I could. Yet the retrospection is not altogether without solace; for with those gloomy recollections come tender memories of my good old grandmother, like light, fleecy clouds floating over a dark and troubled sea.",
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      "text": "APPENDIX.",
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      "text": "The following statement is from Amy Post, a member of the Society of Friends in the State of New York, well known and highly respected by friends of the poor and the oppressed. As has been already stated, in the preceding pages, the author of this volume spent some time under her hospitable roof.",
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      "text": "About five years ago I was engaged in preparing a catalogue of the ancient books which belong to Christ’s Hospital. One portion of these books consisted of a collection of ancient mathematical works presented at various times for the use of that part of the school which is known as the Royal Mathematical Foundation of King Charles II. Amongst them were some well known by name to every mathematical student, but which few have ever seen. Perhaps the most interesting of them all was a little volume, printed in London in 1653, containing Gassendi’s _Explanation of the Ptolemaic and Copernican Systems of Astronomy_, as well as that of Tycho Brahe, Galileo’s _Sidereus Nuncius_, and Kepler’s _Dioptrics_. I found Galileo’s account of his astronomical discoveries so interesting, both in matter and in style, that I translated it as a recreation from school-work. I venture to think that others also will be interested in following Galileo through the apprehension of his famous discoveries, and in reading the language in which he announced them.",
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      "text": "INTRODUCTION.",
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      "text": "In 1609, Galileo, then Professor of Mathematics at Padua, in the service of the Venetian Republic, heard from a correspondent at Paris of the invention of a telescope, and set to work to consider how such an instrument could be made. The result was his invention of the telescope known by his name, and identical in principle with the modern opera-glass. In a maritime and warlike State, the advantages to be expected from such an invention were immediately recognised, and Galileo was rewarded with a confirmation of his Professorship for life, and a handsome stipend, in recognition of his invention and construction of the first telescope seen at Venice. In his pamphlet, _The Sidereal Messenger_, here translated, Galileo relates how he came to learn the value of the telescope for astronomical research; and how his observations were rewarded by numerous discoveries in rapid succession, and at length by that of Jupiter’s satellites. Galileo at once saw the value of this discovery as bearing upon the establishment of the Copernican system of astronomy, which had met with slight acceptance, and indeed as yet had hardly any recommendation except that of greater simplicity. Kepler had just published at Prague his work on the planet Mars (_Commentaria de motibus Stellæ Martis_), on which he had been engaged apparently for eight years; there he heard of Galileo’s discoveries, and at length was invited by Galileo himself, through a common friend, Giuliano de’ Medici, ambassador of the Grand-Duke of Tuscany, Cosmo de’ Medici II., to the Emperor Rudolph II., to correspond with Galileo on the subject of these discoveries. The Emperor also requested his opinion, and Kepler accordingly examined Galileo’s _Sidereal Messenger_ in a pamphlet, entitled _A Discussion with the Sidereal Messenger_ (Florence, 1610).",
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      "text": "In this _Discussion_ Kepler gives reasons for accepting Galileo’s observations—although he was not able to verify them from want of a telescope—and entirely supports Galileo’s views and conclusions, adducing his own previous speculations, or pointing out, as in the case of Galileo’s idea of earth-light on the moon, the previous conception of the same explanation of the phenomenon. He rejects, however, Galileo’s explanation of the copper colour of the moon in eclipses. Kepler ends by expressing unbounded enthusiasm at the discovery of Jupiter’s satellites, and the argument it furnishes in support of the Copernican theory.",
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      "text": "Soon after, in 1611, Kepler published another pamphlet, his _Narrative_, giving an account of actual observations made in verification of Galileo’s discoveries by himself and several friends, whose names he gives, with a telescope made by Galileo, and belonging to Ernest, Elector and Archbishop of Cologne. Kepler and his friends saw the lunar mountains and three of the satellites of Jupiter, but failed to make out any signs of the ring of Saturn corresponding to the imperfect description of Galileo.",
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      "text": "Kepler had previously published a treatise on Optics (Frankfort, 1604). He now extended it to the consideration of the theory of the telescope, and explained the principle of Galileo’s telescope; he also showed another combination of lenses which would produce a similar effect. This was the principle of the common astronomical telescope, often called, from this circumstance, Kepler’s telescope, though he did not construct it. The account of Galileo’s later astronomical discoveries of Saturn’s ring and the phases of Venus is taken from the preface of this work.—(Kepler’s _Dioptrics_; Augsburg, 1611.)",
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      "text": "In 1612 Galileo published a series of observations of solar spots, and in 1618 some observations of three comets. There exist also long series of minute observations of Jupiter and his satellites, continued to November 1619.—(Galileo’s _Works_; Florence, 1845.)",
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      "text": "TELESCOPE",
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      "text": "_lately invented by him_,",
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      "text": "_Respecting the Moon’s Surface, an innumerable number of Fixed Stars, the Milky Way, and Nebulous Stars, but especially respecting Four Planets which revolve round the Planet Jupiter at different distances and in different periodic times, with amazing velocity, and which, after remaining unknown to every one up to this day, the Author recently discovered, and determined to name the_",
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      "text": "MEDICEAN STARS.",
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      "text": "Venice 1610.",
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      "text": "Dico animo nostro primum simulacra meandi Accidere, atque animum pulsare.",
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      "text": "But others, having regard for more stable and more lasting monuments, secured the eternity of the fame of great men by placing it under the protection, not of marble or bronze, but of the Muses’ guardianship and the imperishable monuments of literature. But why do I mention these things, as if human wit, content with these regions, did not dare to advance further; whereas, since she well understood that all human monuments do perish at last by violence, by weather, or by age, she took a wider view, and invented more imperishable signs, over which destroying Time and envious Age could claim no rights; so, betaking herself to the sky, she inscribed on the well-known orbs of the brightest stars—those everlasting orbs—the names of those who, for eminent and god-like deeds, were accounted worthy to enjoy an eternity in company with the stars. Wherefore the fame of Jupiter, Mars, Mercury, Hercules, and the rest of the heroes by whose names the stars are called, will not fade until the extinction of the splendour of the constellations themselves.",
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      "text": "But this invention of human shrewdness, so particularly noble and admirable, has gone out of date ages ago, inasmuch as primeval heroes are in possession of those bright abodes, and keep them by a sort of right; into whose company the affection of Augustus in vain attempted to introduce Julius Cæsar; for when he wished that the name of the Julian constellation should be given to a star, which appeared in his time, one of those which the Greeks and the Latins alike name, from their hair-like tails, comets, it vanished in a short time and mocked his too eager hope. But we are able to read the heavens for your highness, most Serene Prince, far more truly and more happily, for scarcely have the immortal graces of your mind begun to shine on earth, when bright stars present themselves in the heavens, like tongues to tell and celebrate your most surpassing virtues to all time. Behold therefore, four stars reserved for your famous name, and those not belonging to the common and less conspicuous multitude of fixed stars, but in the bright ranks of the planets—four stars which, moving differently from each other, round the planet Jupiter, the most glorious of all the planets, as if they were his own children, accomplish the courses of their orbits with marvellous velocity, while all the while with one accord they complete all together mighty revolutions every ten years round the centre of the universe, that is, round the Sun.",
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      "text": "But the Maker of the Stars himself seemed to direct me by clear reasons to assign these new planets to the famous name of your highness in preference to all others. For just as these stars, like children worthy of their sire, never leave the side of Jupiter by any appreciable distance, so who does not know that clemency, kindness of heart, gentleness of manners, splendour of royal blood, nobleness in public functions, wide extent of influence and power over others, all of which have fixed their common abode and seat in your highness,—who, I say, does not know that all these qualities, according to the providence of God, from whom all good things do come, emanate from the benign star of Jupiter? Jupiter, Jupiter, I maintain, at the instant of the birth of your highness having at length emerged from the turbid mists of the horizon, and being in possession of the middle quarter of the heavens, and illuminating the eastern angle, from his own royal house, from that exalted throne, looked out upon your most happy birth, and poured forth into a most pure atmosphere all the brightness of his majesty, in order that your tender body and your mind—though that was already adorned by God with still more splendid graces—might imbibe with your first breath the whole of that influence and power. But why should I use only plausible arguments when I can almost absolutely demonstrate my conclusion? It was the will of Almighty God that I should be judged by your most serene parents not unworthy to be employed in teaching your highness mathematics, which duty I discharged, during the four years just passed, at that time of the year when it is customary to take a relaxation from severer studies. Wherefore, since it evidently fell to my lot by God’s will, to serve your highness, and so to receive the rays of your surpassing clemency and beneficence in a position near your person, what wonder is it if you have so warmed my heart that it thinks about scarcely anything else day and night, but how I, who am indeed your subject not only by inclination, but also by my very birth and lineage, may be known to be most anxious for your glory, and most grateful to you? And so, inasmuch as under your patronage, most serene Cosmo, I have discovered these stars, which were unknown to all astronomers before me, I have, with very good right, determined to designate them with the most august name of your family. And as I was the first to investigate them, who can rightly blame me if I give them a name, and call them _the Medicean Stars_, hoping that as much consideration may accrue to these stars from this title, as other stars have brought to other heroes? For not to speak of your most serene ancestors, to whose everlasting glory the monuments of all history bear witness, your virtue alone, most mighty sire, can confer on those stars an immortal name; for who can doubt that you will not only maintain and preserve the expectations, high though they be, about yourself, which you have aroused by the very happy beginning of your government, but that you will also far surpass them, so that when you have conquered others like yourself, you may still vie with yourself, and become day by day greater than yourself and your greatness?",
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      "text": "Accept, then, most clement Prince, this addition to the glory of your family, reserved by the stars for you; and may you enjoy for many years those good blessings, which are sent to you not so much from the stars as from God, the Maker and Governor of the stars.",
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      "text": "[3] The satellites of Jupiter are here called “_the Cosmian Stars_” in honour of Cosmo de’ Medici, but elsewhere Galileo calls them “_the Medicean Stars_.” Kepler sometimes calls them “_the Medicean Stars_,” but more often “_satellites_.”",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Introduction.]",
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      "text": "IN the present small treatise I set forth some matters of great interest for all observers of natural phenomena to look at and consider. They are of great interest, I think, first, from their intrinsic excellence; secondly, from their absolute novelty; and lastly, also on account of the instrument by the aid of which they have been presented to my apprehension.",
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      "text": "The number of the Fixed Stars which observers have been able to see without artificial powers of sight up to this day can be counted. It is therefore decidedly a great feat to add to their number, and to set distinctly before the eyes other stars in myriads, which have never been seen before, and which surpass the old, previously known, stars in number more than ten times.",
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      "text": "Again, it is a most beautiful and delightful sight to behold the body of the Moon, which is distant from us nearly sixty _semi_-diameters[4] of the Earth, as near as if it was at a distance of only two of the same measures; so that the diameter of this same Moon appears about thirty times larger, its surface about nine hundred times, and its solid mass nearly 27,000 times larger than when it is viewed only with the naked eye; and consequently any one may know with the certainty that is due to the use of our senses, that the Moon certainly does not possess a smooth and polished surface, but one rough and uneven, and, just like the face of the Earth itself, is everywhere full of vast protuberances, deep chasms, and sinuosities.",
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      "text": "[4] Galileo says, “per sex denas fere terrestres _diametros_ a nobis remotum” by mistake for _semi-diametros_, and the same mistake occurs in p. 11.",
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      "text": "Then to have got rid of disputes about the Galaxy or Milky Way, and to have made its nature clear to the very senses, not to say to the understanding, seems by no means a matter which ought to be considered of slight importance. In addition to this, to point out, as with one’s finger, the nature of those stars which every one of the astronomers up to this time has called _nebulous_, and to demonstrate that it is very different from what has hitherto been believed, will be pleasant, and very fine. But that which will excite the greatest astonishment by far, and which indeed especially moved me to call the attention of all astronomers and philosophers, is this, namely, that I have discovered four planets, neither known nor observed by any one of the astronomers before my time, which have their orbits round a certain bright star, one of those previously known, like Venus and Mercury round the Sun, and are sometimes in front of it, sometimes behind it, though they never depart from it beyond certain limits. All which facts were discovered and observed a few days ago by the help of a telescope[5] devised by me, through God’s grace first enlightening my mind.",
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      "text": "[5] The words used by Galileo for “telescope” are _perspicillum_, _specillum instrumentum_, _organum_, and _occhiale_ (Ital.). Kepler uses also _oculare tubus_, _arundo dioptrica_. The word “_telescopium_” is used by Gassendi, 1647.",
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      "text": "Perchance other discoveries still more excellent will be made from time to time by me or by other observers, with the assistance of a similar instrument, so I will first briefly record its shape and preparation, as well as the occasion of its being devised, and then I will give an account of the observations made by me.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Galileo’s account of the invention of his telescope.]",
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      "text": "About ten months ago a report reached my ears that a Dutchman had constructed a telescope, by the aid of which visible objects, although at a great distance from the eye of the observer, were seen distinctly as if near; and some proofs of its most wonderful performances were reported, which some gave credence to, but others contradicted. A few days after, I received confirmation of the report in a letter written from Paris by a noble Frenchman, Jaques Badovere, which finally determined me to give myself up first to inquire into the principle of the telescope, and then to consider the means by which I might compass the invention of a similar instrument, which a little while after I succeeded in doing, through deep study of the theory of Refraction; and I prepared a tube, at first of lead, in the ends of which I fitted two glass lenses, both plane on one side, but on the other side one spherically convex, and the other concave. Then bringing my eye to the concave lens I saw objects satisfactorily large and near, for they appeared one-third of the distance off and nine times larger than when they are seen with the natural eye alone. I shortly afterwards constructed another telescope with more nicety, which magnified objects more than sixty times. At length, by sparing neither labour nor expense, I succeeded in constructing for myself an instrument so superior that objects seen through it appear magnified nearly a thousand times, and more than thirty times nearer than if viewed by the natural powers of sight alone.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Galileo’s first observations with his telescope.]",
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      "text": "It would be altogether a waste of time to enumerate the number and importance of the benefits which this instrument may be expected to confer, when used by land or sea. But without paying attention to its use for terrestrial objects, I betook myself to observations of the heavenly bodies; and first of all, I viewed the Moon as near as if it was scarcely two _semi_-diameters[6] of the Earth distant. After the Moon, I frequently observed other heavenly bodies, both fixed stars and planets, with incredible delight; and, when I saw their very great number, I began to consider about a method by which I might be able to measure their distances apart, and at length I found one. And here it is fitting that all who intend to turn their attention to observations of this kind should receive certain cautions. For, in the first place, it is absolutely necessary for them to prepare a most perfect telescope, one which will show very bright objects distinct and free from any mistiness, and will magnify them at least 400 times, for then it will show them as if only one-twentieth of their distance off. For unless the instrument be of such power, it will be in vain to attempt to view all the things which have been seen by me in the heavens, or which will be enumerated hereafter.",
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      "text": "[6] “Vix per duas Telluris _diametros_,” by mistake for “semi-diametros.”",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Method of determining the magnifying power of the telescope.]",
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      "text": "But in order that any one may be a little more certain about the magnifying power of his instrument, he shall fashion two circles, or two square pieces of paper, one of which is 400 times greater than the other, but that will be when the diameter of the greater is twenty times the length of the diameter of the other. Then he shall view from a distance simultaneously both surfaces, fixed on the same wall, the smaller with one eye applied to the telescope, and the larger with the other eye unassisted; for that may be done without inconvenience at one and the same instant with both eyes open. Then both figures will appear of the same size, if the instrument magnifies objects in the desired proportion.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Method of measuring small angular distances between heavenly bodies by the size of the aperture of the telescope.]",
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      "text": "After such an instrument has been prepared, the method of measuring distances remains for inquiry, and this we shall accomplish by the following contrivance:—",
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      "text": "[Illustration]",
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      "text": "For the sake of being more easily understood, I will suppose a tube A B C D.[7] Let E be the eye of the observer; then, when there are no lenses in the tube rays from the eye to the object F G would be drawn in the straight lines E C F, E D G, but when the lenses have been inserted, let the rays go in the bent lines E C H, E D I,—for they are contracted, and those which originally, when unaffected by the lenses, were directed to the object F G, will include only the part H I. Hence the ratio of the distance E H to the line H I being known, we shall be able to find, by means of a table of sines, the magnitude of the angle subtended at the eye by the object H I, which we shall find to contain only some minutes. But if we fit on the lens C D thin plates of metal, pierced, some with larger, others with smaller apertures, by putting on over the lens sometimes one plate, sometimes another, as may be necessary, we shall construct at our pleasure different subtending angles of more or fewer minutes, by the help of which we shall be able to measure conveniently the intervals between stars separated by an angular distance of some minutes, within an error of one or two minutes. But let it suffice for the present to have thus slightly touched, and as it were just put our lips to these matters, for on some other opportunity I will publish the theory of this instrument in completeness.",
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      "text": "[7] [Illustration]",
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      "text": "The line C H in Galileo’s figure represents the small pencil of rays from H which, after refraction through the telescope, reach the eye E. The enlarged figure shows that if O P be the radius of the aperture employed, the point H of the object would be just outside the field of view. The method, however, is at best only a very rough one, as the boundary of the field of view in this telescope is unavoidably indistinct.",
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      "text": "Now let me review the observations made by me during the two months just past, again inviting the attention of all who are eager for true philosophy to the beginnings which led to the sight of most important phenomena.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: The Moon. Ruggedness of its surface. Existence of lunar mountains and valleys.]",
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      "text": "Let me speak first of the surface of the Moon, which is turned towards us. For the sake of being understood more easily, I distinguish two parts in it, which I call respectively the brighter and the darker. The brighter part seems to surround and pervade the whole hemisphere; but the darker part, like a sort of cloud, discolours the Moon’s surface and makes it appear covered with spots. Now these spots, as they are somewhat dark and of considerable size, are plain to every one, and every age has seen them, wherefore I shall call them _great_ or _ancient_ spots, to distinguish them from other spots, smaller in size, but so thickly scattered that they sprinkle the whole surface of the Moon, but especially the brighter portion of it. These spots have never been observed by any one before me; and from my observations of them, often repeated, I have been led to that opinion which I have expressed, namely, that I feel sure that the surface of the Moon is not perfectly smooth, free from inequalities and exactly spherical, as a large school of philosophers considers with regard to the Moon and the other heavenly bodies, but that, on the contrary, it is full of inequalities, uneven, full of hollows and protuberances, just like the surface of the Earth itself, which is varied everywhere by lofty mountains and deep valleys.",
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      "text": "Sketches by Galileo to shew:—",
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      "text": "[Illustration: the indentation of the terminator and illuminated summits of mountains in the dark part of the moon;]",
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      "text": "[Illustration: the shape of a lunar mountain and of a walled plain. Galileo: ‘Sidereus Nuncius,’ Venice 1610.]",
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      "text": "The appearances from which we may gather these conclusions are of the following nature:—On the fourth or fifth day after new-moon, when the Moon presents itself to us with bright horns, the boundary which divides the part in shadow from the enlightened part does not extend continuously in an ellipse, as would happen in the case of a perfectly spherical body, but it is marked out by an irregular, uneven, and very wavy line, as represented in the figure given, for several bright excrescences, as they may be called, extend beyond the boundary of light and shadow into the dark part, and on the other hand pieces of shadow encroach upon the light:—nay, even a great quantity of small blackish spots, altogether separated from the dark part, sprinkle everywhere almost the whole space which is at the time flooded with the Sun’s light, with the exception of that part alone which is occupied by the great and ancient spots. I have noticed that the small spots just mentioned have this common characteristic always and in every case, that they have the dark part towards the Sun’s position, and on the side away from the Sun they have brighter boundaries, as if they were crowned with shining summits. Now we have an appearance quite similar on the Earth about sunrise, when we behold the valleys, not yet flooded with light, but the mountains surrounding them on the side opposite to the Sun already ablaze with the splendour of his beams; and just as the shadows in the hollows of the Earth diminish in size as the Sun rises higher, so also these spots on the Moon lose their blackness as the illuminated part grows larger and larger. Again, not only are the boundaries of light and shadow in the Moon seen to be uneven and sinuous, but—and this produces still greater astonishment—there appear very many bright points within the darkened portion of the Moon, altogether divided and broken off from the illuminated tract, and separated from it by no inconsiderable interval, which, after a little while, gradually increase in size and brightness, and after an hour or two become joined on to the rest of the bright portion, now become somewhat larger; but in the meantime others, one here and another there, shooting up as if growing, are lighted up within the shaded portion, increase in size, and at last are linked on to the same luminous surface, now still more extended. An example of this is given in the same figure. Now, is it not the case on the Earth before sunrise, that while the level plain is still in shadow, the peaks of the most lofty mountains are illuminated by the Sun’s rays? After a little while does not the light spread further, while the middle and larger parts of those mountains are becoming illuminated; and at length, when the Sun has risen, do not the illuminated parts of the plains and hills join together? The grandeur, however, of such prominences and depressions in the Moon seems to surpass both in magnitude and extent the ruggedness of the Earth’s surface, as I shall hereafter show. And here I cannot refrain from mentioning what a remarkable spectacle I observed while the Moon was rapidly approaching her first quarter, a representation of which is given in the same illustration, placed opposite page 16. A protuberance of the shadow, of great size, indented the illuminated part in the neighbourhood of the lower cusp; and when I had observed this indentation longer, and had seen that it was dark throughout, at length, after about two hours, a bright peak began to arise a little below the middle of the depression; this by degrees increased, and presented a triangular shape, but was as yet quite detached and separated from the illuminated surface. Soon around it three other small points began to shine, until, when the Moon was just about to set, that triangular figure, having now extended and widened, began to be connected with the rest of the illuminated part, and, still girt with the three bright peaks already mentioned, suddenly burst into the indentation of shadow like a vast promontory of light.",
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      "text": "At the ends of the upper and lower cusps also certain bright points, quite away from the rest of the bright part, began to rise out of the shadow, as is seen depicted in the same illustration.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: The lunar spots are suggested to be possibly seas bordered by ranges of mountains.]",
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      "text": "In both horns also, but especially in the lower one, there was a great quantity of dark spots, of which those which are nearer the boundary of light and shadow appear larger and darker, but those which are more remote less dark and more indistinct. In all cases, however, just as I have mentioned before, the dark portion of the spot faces the position of the Sun’s illumination, and a brighter edge surrounds the darkened spot on the side away from the Sun, and towards the region of the Moon in shadow. This part of the surface of the Moon, where it is marked with spots like a peacock’s tail with its azure eyes, is rendered like those glass vases which, through being plunged while still hot from the kiln into cold water, acquire a crackled and wavy surface, from which circumstance they are commonly called _frosted glasses_.[8] Now the great spots of the Moon observed at the same time are not seen to be at all similarly broken, or full of depressions and prominences, but rather to be even and uniform; for only here and there some spaces, rather brighter than the rest, crop up; so that if any one wishes to revive the old opinion of the Pythagoreans, that the Moon is another Earth, so to say, the brighter portion may very fitly represent the surface of the land, and the darker the expanse of water. Indeed, I have never doubted that if the sphere of the Earth were seen from a distance, when flooded with the Sun’s rays, that part of the surface which is land would present itself to view as brighter, and that which is water as darker in comparison. Moreover, the great spots in the Moon are seen to be more depressed than the brighter tracts; for in the Moon, both when crescent and when waning, on the boundary between the light and shadow, which projects in some places round the great spots, the adjacent regions are always brighter, as I have noticed in drawing my illustrations, and the edges of the spots referred to are not only more depressed than the brighter parts, but are more even, and are not broken by ridges or ruggednesses. But the brighter part stands out most near the spots, so that both before the first quarter and about the third quarter also, around a certain spot in the upper part of the figure, that is, occupying the northern region of the Moon, some vast prominences on the upper and lower sides of it rise to an enormous elevation, as the illustrations show. This same spot before the third quarter is seen to be walled round with boundaries of a deeper shade, which just like very lofty mountain summits appear darker on the side away from the Sun, and brighter on the side where they face the Sun; but in the case of the cavities the opposite happens, for the part of them away from the Sun appears brilliant, and that part which lies nearer to the Sun dark and in shadow. After a time, when the enlightened portion of the Moon’s surface has diminished in size, as soon as the whole or nearly so of the spot already mentioned is covered with shadow, the brighter ridges of the mountains mount high above the shade. These two appearances are shown in the illustrations which are given.",
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      "text": "[8] Specimens of _frosted or crackled Venetian glass_ are to be seen in the Slade Collection, British Museum, and fully justify Galileo’s comparison.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Description of a lunar crater, perhaps Tycho.][9]",
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      "text": "[9] Webb, _Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes_, p. 104, suggests this identification.",
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      "text": "There is one other point which I must on no account forget, which I have noticed and rather wondered at. It is this:—The middle of the Moon, as it seems, is occupied by a certain cavity larger than all the rest, and in shape perfectly round. I have looked at this depression near both the first and third quarters, and I have represented it as well as I can in the second illustration already given. It produces the same appearance as to effects of light and shade as a tract like Bohemia would produce on the Earth, if it were shut in on all sides by very lofty mountains arranged on the circumference of a perfect circle; for the tract in the Moon is walled in with peaks of such enormous height that the furthest side adjacent to the dark portion of the Moon is seen bathed in sunlight before the boundary between light and shade reaches half-way across the circular space. But according to the characteristic property of the rest of the spots, the shaded portion of this too faces the Sun, and the bright part is towards the dark side of the Moon, which for the third time I advise to be carefully noticed as a most solid proof of the ruggednesses and unevennesses spread over the whole of the bright region of the Moon. Of these spots, moreover, the darkest are always those which are near to the boundary-line between the light and the shadow, but those further off appear both smaller in size and less decidedly dark; so that at length, when the Moon at opposition becomes full, the darkness of the cavities differs from the brightness of the prominences with a subdued and very slight difference.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Reasons for believing that there is a difference of constitution in various parts of the Moon’s surface.]",
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      "text": "These phenomena which we have reviewed are observed in the bright tracts of the Moon. In the great spots we do not see such differences of depressions and prominences as we are compelled to recognise in the brighter parts, owing to the change of their shapes under different degrees of illumination by the Sun’s rays according to the manifold variety of the Sun’s position with regard to the Moon. Still, in the great spots there do exist some spaces rather less dark than the rest, as I have noted in the illustrations, but these spaces always have the same appearance, and the depth of their shadow is neither intensified nor diminished; they do appear indeed sometimes a little more shaded, sometimes a little less, but the change of colour is very slight, according as the Sun’s rays fall upon them more or less obliquely; and besides, they are joined to the adjacent parts of the spots with a very gradual connection, so that their boundaries mingle and melt into the surrounding region. But it is quite different with the spots which occupy the brighter parts of the Moon’s surface, for, just as if they were precipitous crags with numerous rugged and jagged peaks, they have well-defined boundaries through the sharp contrast of light and shade. Moreover, inside those great spots certain other tracts are seen brighter than the surrounding region, and some of them very bright indeed, but the appearance of these, as well as of the darker parts, is always the same; there is no change of shape or brightness or depth of shadow, so that it becomes a matter of certainty and beyond doubt that their appearance is owing to real dissimilarity of parts, and not to unevennesses only in their configuration, changing in different ways the shadows of the same parts according to the variations of their illumination by the Sun, which really happens in the case of the other smaller spots occupying the brighter portion of the Moon, for day by day they change, increase, decrease, or disappear, inasmuch as they derive their origin only from the shadows of prominences.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Explanation of the evenness of the illuminated part of the circumference of the Moon’s orb by the analogy of terrestrial phenomena, or by a possible lunar atmosphere.]",
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      "text": "But here I feel that some people may be troubled with grave doubt, and perhaps seized with a difficulty so serious as to compel them to feel uncertain about the conclusion just explained and supported by so many phenomena. For if that part of the Moon’s surface which reflects the Sun’s rays most brightly is full of sinuosities, protuberances, and cavities innumerable, why, when the Moon is increasing, does the outer edge which looks toward the west, when the Moon is waning, the other half-circumference towards the east, and at full-moon the whole circle, appear not uneven, rugged, and irregular, but perfectly round and circular, as sharply defined as if marked out with a pair of compasses, and without the indentations of any protuberances or cavities? And most remarkably so, because the whole unbroken edge belongs to that part of the Moon’s surface which possesses the property of appearing brighter than the rest, which I have said to be throughout full of protuberances and cavities. For not one of the Great Spots extends quite to the circumference, but all of them are seen to be together away from the edge. Of this phenomenon, which affords a handle for such serious doubt, I produce two causes, and so two solutions of the difficulty.",
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      "text": "The first solution which I offer is this:—If the protuberances and cavities in the body of the Moon existed only on the edge of the circle that bounds the hemisphere which we see, then the Moon might, or rather must, show itself to us with the appearance of a toothed wheel, being bounded with an irregular and uneven circumference; but if, instead of a single set of prominences arranged along the actual circumference only, very many ranges of mountains with their cavities and ruggednesses are set one behind the other along the extreme edge of the Moon, and that too not only in the hemisphere which we see, but also in that which is turned away from us, but still near the boundary of the hemisphere, then the eye, viewing them afar off, will not at all be able to detect the differences of prominences and cavities, for the intervals between the mountains situated in the same circle, or in the same chain, are hidden by the jutting forward of other prominences situated in other ranges, and especially if the eye of the observer is placed in the same line with the tops of the prominences mentioned. So on the Earth, the summits of a number of mountains close together appear situated in one plane, if the spectator is a long way off and standing at the same elevation. So when the sea is rough, the tops of the waves seem to form one plane, although between the billows there is many a gulf and chasm, so deep that not only the hulls, but even the bulwarks, masts, and sails of stately ships are hidden amongst them. Therefore, as within the Moon, as well as round her circumference, there is a manifold arrangement of prominences and cavities, and the eye, regarding them from a great distance, is placed in nearly the same plane with their summits, no one need think it strange that they present themselves to the visual ray which just grazes them as an unbroken line quite free from unevennesses. To this explanation may be added another, namely, that there is round the body of the Moon, just as round the Earth, an envelope of some substance denser than the rest of the ether, which is sufficient to receive and reflect the Sun’s rays, although it does not possess so much opaqueness as to be able to prevent our seeing through it—especially when it is not illuminated. That envelope, when illuminated by the Sun’s rays, renders the body of the Moon apparently larger than it really is, and would be able to stop our sight from penetrating to the solid body of the Moon, if its thickness were greater; now, it is of greater thickness about the circumference of the Moon, greater, I mean, not in actual thickness, but with reference to our sight-rays, which cut it obliquely; and so it may stop our vision, especially when it is in a state of brightness, and may conceal the true circumference of the Moon on the side towards the Sun.",
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      "text": "[Illustration]",
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      "text": "This may be understood more clearly from the adjoining figure, in which the body of the Moon, A B C, is surrounded by an enveloping atmosphere, D E G. An eye at F penetrates to the middle parts of the Moon, as at A, through a thickness, D A, of the atmosphere; but towards the extreme parts a mass of atmosphere of greater depth, E B, shuts out its boundary from our sight. An argument in favour of this is, that the illuminated portion of the Moon appears of larger circumference than the rest of the orb which is in shadow.",
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      "text": "Perhaps also some will think that this same cause affords a very reasonable explanation why the greater spots on the Moon are not seen to reach to the edge of the circumference on any side, although it might be expected that some would be found about the edge as well as elsewhere; and it seems credible that there are spots there, but that they cannot be seen because they are hidden by a mass of atmosphere too thick and too bright for the sight to penetrate.",
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      "text": "[Illustration]",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Calculation to show that the height of some lunar mountains exceeds four Italian miles[10] (22,000 British feet).]",
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      "text": "[10] In the list of the heights of lunar mountains determined by Beer and Maedler, given in their work _Der Mond_ (Berlin, 1837), there are six which exceed 3000 toises, or 19,000 British feet.",
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      "text": "I think that it has been sufficiently made clear, from the explanation of phenomena which have been given, that the brighter part of the Moon’s surface is dotted everywhere with protuberances and cavities; it only remains for me to speak about their size, and to show that the ruggednesses of the Earth’s surface are far smaller than those of the Moon’s; smaller, I mean, absolutely, so to say, and not only smaller in proportion to the size of the orbs on which they are. And this is plainly shown thus:—As I often observed in various positions of the Moon with reference to the Sun, that some summits within the portion of the Moon in shadow appeared illumined, although at some distance from the boundary of the light (the terminator), by comparing their distance with the complete diameter of the Moon, I learnt that it sometimes exceeded the one-twentieth (1/20th) part of the diameter. Suppose the distance to be exactly 1/20th part of the diameter, and let the diagram represent the Moon’s orb, of which C A F is a great circle, E its centre, and C F a diameter, which consequently bears to the diameter of the Earth the ratio 2:7; and since the diameter of the Earth, according to the most exact observations, contains 7000 Italian miles, C F will be 2000, and C E 1000, and the 1/20th part of the whole, C F, 100 miles. Also let C F be a diameter of the great circle which divides the bright part of the Moon from the dark part (for, owing to the very great distance of the Sun from the Moon this circle does not differ sensibly from a great one), and let the distance of A from the point C be 1/20th part of that diameter; let the radius E A be drawn, and let it be produced to cut the tangent line G C D, which represents the ray that illumines the summit, in the point D. Then the arc C A or the straight line C D will be 100 of such units, as C E contains 1000. The sum of the squares of D C, C E is therefore 1,010,000, and the square of D E is equal to this; therefore the whole E D will be more than 1004; and A D will be more than 4 of such units, as C E contained 1000. Therefore the height of A D in the Moon, which represents a summit reaching up to the Sun’s ray, G C D, and separated from the extremity C by the distance C D, is more than 4 Italian miles; but in the Earth there are no mountains which reach to the perpendicular height even of one mile. We are therefore left to conclude that it is clear that the prominences of the Moon are loftier than those of the Earth.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: The faint illumination of the Moon’s disc about new-moon explained to be due to earth-light.]",
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      "text": "I wish in this place to assign the cause of another lunar phenomenon well worthy of notice, and although this phenomenon was observed by me not lately, but many years ago, and has been pointed out to some of my intimate friends and pupils, explained, and assigned to its true cause, yet as the observation of it is rendered easier and more vivid by the help of a telescope, I have considered that it would not be unsuitably introduced in this place, but I wish to introduce it chiefly in order that the connection and resemblance between the Moon and the Earth may appear more plainly.",
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      "text": "When the Moon, both before and after conjunction, is found not far from the Sun, not only does its orb show itself to our sight on the side where it is furnished with shining horns, but a slight and faint circumference is also seen to mark out the circle of the dark part, that part, namely, which is turned away from the Sun, and to separate it from the darker background of the sky. But if we examine the matter more closely, we shall see that not only is the extreme edge of the part in shadow shining with a faint brightness, but that the entire face of the Moon, that side, that is, which does not feel the Sun’s glare, is illuminated with a pale light of considerable brightness. At the first glance only a fine circumference appears shining, on account of the darker part of the sky adjacent to it; whereas, on the contrary, the rest of the surface appears dark, on account of the contiguity of the shining horns, which destroys the clearness of our sight. But if any one chooses such a position for himself, that by the interposition of a roof, or a chimney, or some other object between his sight and the Moon, but at a considerable distance from his eye, the shining horns are hidden, and the rest of the Moon’s orb is left exposed to his view, then he will find that this tract of the Moon also, although deprived of sunlight, gleams with considerable light, and particularly so if the gloom of the night has already deepened through the absence of the Sun; for with a darker background the same light appears brighter. Moreover, it is found that this secondary brightness of the Moon, as I may call it, is greater in proportion as the Moon is less distant from the Sun; for it abates more and more in proportion to the Moon’s distance from that body, so much so that after the first quarter, and before the end of the second, it is found to be weak and very faint, although it be observed in a darker sky; whereas, at an angular distance of 60° or less, even during twilight, it is wonderfully bright, so bright indeed that, with the help of a good telescope, the great spots may be distinguished in it.",
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      "text": "This strange brightness has afforded no small perplexity to philosophical minds; and some have published one thing, some another, as the cause to be alleged for it. Some have said that it is the inherent and natural brightness of the Moon; some that it is imparted to that body by the planet Venus; or, as others maintain, by all the stars; while some have said that it comes from the Sun, whose rays, they say, find a way through the solid mass of the Moon. But statements of this kind are disproved without much difficulty, and convincingly demonstrated to be false. For if this kind of light were the Moon’s own, or were contributed by the stars, the Moon would retain it, particularly in eclipses, and would show it then, when left in an unusually dark sky, but this is contrary to experience. For the brightness which is seen on the Moon in eclipses is far less intense, being somewhat reddish, and almost copper-coloured, whereas this is brighter and whiter; besides, the brightness seen during an eclipse is changeable and shifting, for it wanders over the face of the Moon, so that that part which is near the circumference of the circle of shadow thrown by the Earth is bright, but the rest of the Moon is always seen to be dark. From which circumstance we understand without hesitation that this brightness is due to the proximity of the Sun’s rays coming into contact with some denser region which surrounds the Moon as an envelope; owing to which contact a sort of dawn-light is diffused over the neighbouring regions of the Moon, just as the twilight spreads in the morning and evening on the Earth:[11] but I will treat more fully of this matter in my book upon the _System of the Universe_.[12]",
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      "text": "[11] The illumination of the Moon in eclipses, noticed by Galileo, is now referred to the refraction of the sunlight by the earth’s atmosphere, and the reddish colour of the light is explained by Herschel (_Outlines of Astronomy_, ch. vii.) to be due to the absorption of the violet and blue rays by the aqueous vapour of the Earth’s atmosphere. The idea of a sensible lunar atmosphere is not in accordance with the observed phenomena of the occultations of stars.",
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      "text": "[12] Galileo’s _Systema Mundi_. Owing to the violent opposition provoked by the discussion of the discoveries of Galileo, and their bearing on the Copernican system of astronomy, Galileo seems to have found it necessary to delay the publication of this work until 1632, when, believing himself safe under the friendship and patronage of Pope Urban VIII. and others in power at Rome, he at length published it. Urban, however, now turned against him, denounced the book and its author, and summoned him to Rome, where the well-known incidents of his trial and condemnation took place.",
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      "text": "Again, to assert that this sort of light is imparted to the Moon by the planet Venus is so childish as to be undeserving of an answer; for who is so ignorant as not to understand that at conjunction and within an angular distance of 60° it is quite impossible for the part of the Moon turned away from the Sun to be seen by the planet Venus?",
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      "ref": "PG46036.B00136",
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      "text": "But that this light is derived from the Sun penetrating with its light the solid mass of the Moon, and rendering it luminous, is equally untenable. For then this light would never lessen, since the hemisphere of the Moon is always illumined by the Sun, except at the moment of a lunar eclipse, yet really it quickly decreases while the Moon is drawing near to the end of her first quarter, and when she has passed her first quarter it becomes quite dull. Since, therefore, this kind of secondary brightness is not inherent and the Moon’s own, nor borrowed from any of the stars, nor from the Sun, and since there now remains in the whole universe no other body whatever except the Earth, what, pray, must we conclude? What must we assert? Shall we assert that the body of the Moon, or some other dark and sunless orb, receives light from the Earth? Why should it not be the Moon? And most certainly it is. The Earth, with fair and grateful exchange, pays back to the Moon an illumination like that which it receives from the Moon nearly the whole time during the darkest gloom of night. Let me explain the matter more clearly. At conjunction, when the Moon occupies a position between the Sun and the Earth, the Moon is illuminated by the Sun’s rays on her half towards the Sun which is turned away from the Earth, and the other half, with which she regards the Earth, is covered with darkness, and so in no degree illumines the Earth’s surface. When the Moon has slightly separated from the Sun, straightway she is partly illumined on the half directed towards us; she turns towards us a slender silvery crescent, and slightly illumines the Earth; the Sun’s illumination increases upon the Moon as she approaches her first quarter, and the reflexion of that light increases on the Earth; the brightness in the Moon next extends beyond the semicircle, and our nights grow brighter; at length the entire face of the Moon looking towards the Earth is irradiated with the most intense brightness by the Sun, which happens when the Sun and Moon are on opposite sides of the Earth; then far and wide the surface of the Earth shines with the flood of moonlight; after this the Moon, now waning, sends out less powerful beams, and the Earth is illumined less powerfully; at length the Moon draws near her first position of conjunction with the Sun, and forthwith black night invades the Earth. In such a cycle the moonlight gives us each month alternations of brighter and fainter illumination. But the benefit of her light to the Earth is balanced and repaid by the benefit of the light of the Earth to her; for while the Moon is found near the Sun about the time of conjunction, she has in front of her the entire surface of that hemisphere of the Earth which is exposed to the Sun, and vividly illumined with his beams, and so receives light reflected from the Earth. Owing to such reflexion, the hemisphere of the Moon nearer to us, though deprived of sunlight, appears of considerable brightness. Again, when removed from the Sun through a quadrant, the Moon sees only one-half of the Earth’s hemisphere illuminated, namely the western half, for the other, the eastern, is covered with the shades of night; the Moon is, therefore, less brightly enlightened by the Earth, and accordingly that secondary light appears fainter to us. But if you imagine the Moon to be set on the opposite side of the Earth to the Sun, she will see the hemisphere of the Earth, now between the Moon and the Sun, quite dark, and steeped in the gloom of night; if, therefore, an eclipse should accompany such a position of the Moon, she will receive no light at all, being deprived of the illumination of the Sun and Earth together. In any other position, with regard to the Earth and the Sun, the Moon receives more or less light by reflexion from the Earth, according as she sees a greater or smaller portion of the hemisphere of the Earth illuminated by the Sun; for such a law is observed between these two orbs, that at whatever times the Earth is most brightly enlightened by the Moon, at those times, on the contrary, the Moon is least enlightened by the Earth; and contrariwise. Let these few words on this subject suffice in this place; for I will consider it more fully in my _System of the Universe_, where, by very many arguments and experimental proofs, there is shown to be a very strong reflexion of the Sun’s light from the Earth, for the benefit of those who urge that the Earth must be separated from the starry host, chiefly for the reason that it has neither motion nor light, for I will prove that the Earth has motion, and surpasses the Moon in brightness, and is not the place where the dull refuse of the universe has settled down; and I will support my demonstration by a thousand arguments taken from natural phenomena.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Stars. Their appearance in the telescope.]",
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      "text": "Hitherto I have spoken of the observations which I have made concerning the Moon’s body; now I will briefly announce the phenomena which have been, as yet, seen by me with reference to the Fixed Stars. And first of all the following fact is worthy of consideration:—The stars, fixed as well as erratic, when seen with a telescope, by no means appear to be increased in magnitude in the same proportion as other objects, and the Moon herself, gain increase of size; but in the case of the stars such increase appears much less, so that you may consider that a telescope, which (for the sake of illustration) is powerful enough to magnify other objects a hundred times, will scarcely render the stars magnified four or five times. But the reason of this is as follows:—When stars are viewed with our natural eyesight they do not present themselves to us of their bare, real size, but beaming with a certain vividness, and fringed with sparkling rays, especially when the night is far advanced; and from this circumstance they appear much larger than they would if they were stripped of those adventitious fringes, for the angle which they subtend at the eye is determined not by the primary disc of the star, but by the brightness which so widely surrounds it. Perhaps you will understand this most clearly from the well-known circumstance that when stars rise just at sunset, in the beginning of twilight, they appear very small, although they may be stars of the first magnitude; and even the planet Venus itself, on any occasion when it may present itself to view in broad daylight, is so small to see that it scarcely seems to equal a star of the last magnitude. It is different in the case of other objects, and even of the Moon, which, whether viewed in the light of midday or in the depth of night, always appears of the same size. We conclude therefore that the stars are seen at midnight in uncurtailed glory, but their fringes are of such a nature that the daylight can cut them off, and not only daylight, but any slight cloud which may be interposed between a star and the eye of the observer. A dark veil or coloured glass has the same effect, for, upon placing them before the eye between it and the stars, all the blaze that surrounds them leaves them at once. A telescope also accomplishes the same result, for it removes from the stars their adventitious and accidental splendours before it enlarges their true discs (if indeed they are of that shape), and so they seem less magnified than other objects, for a star of the fifth or sixth magnitude seen through a telescope is shown as of the first magnitude only.",
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      "ref": "PG46036.B00139",
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      "text": "The difference between the appearance of the planets and the fixed stars seems also deserving of notice. The planets present their discs perfectly round, just as if described with a pair of compasses, and appear as so many little moons, completely illuminated and of a globular shape; but the fixed stars do not look to the naked eye bounded by a circular circumference, but rather like blazes of light, shooting out beams on all sides and very sparkling, and with a telescope they appear of the same shape as when they are viewed by simply looking at them, but so much larger that a star of the fifth or sixth magnitude seems to equal Sirius, the largest of all the fixed stars.[13]",
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      "text": "[13] The immense distance of stars makes it impossible for them to be magnified by any telescope, however powerful; the apparent or spurious disc is an optical effect, which depends on the telescope used, and is smallest with the largest aperture.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: _Orion’s Belt and Sword; 83 Stars_]",
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      "text": "[Illustration: _Pleiades; 36 Stars_",
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      "text": "_Galileo: “Sidereus Nuncius.”_]",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Telescopic Stars: their infinite multitude. As examples, Orion’s Belt and Sword and the Pleiades are described as seen by Galileo.]",
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      "text": "But beyond the stars of the sixth magnitude you will behold through the telescope a host of other stars, which escape the unassisted sight, so numerous as to be almost beyond belief, for you may see more than six other differences of magnitude, and the largest of these, which I may call stars of the seventh magnitude, or of the first magnitude of invisible stars, appear with the aid of the telescope larger and brighter than stars of the second magnitude seen with the unassisted sight. But in order that you may see one or two proofs of the inconceivable manner in which they are crowded together, I have determined to make out a case against two star-clusters, that from them as a specimen you may decide about the rest.",
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      "text": "As my first example I had determined to depict the entire constellation of Orion, but I was overwhelmed by the vast quantity of stars and by want of time, and so I have deferred attempting this to another occasion, for there are adjacent to, or scattered among, the old stars more than five hundred new stars within the limits of one or two degrees. For this reason I have selected the three stars in Orion’s Belt and the six in his Sword, which have been long well-known groups, and I have added eighty other stars recently discovered in their vicinity, and I have preserved as exactly as possible the intervals between them. The well-known or old stars, for the sake of distinction, I have depicted of larger size, and I have outlined them with a double line; the others, invisible to the naked eye, I have marked smaller and with one line only. I have also preserved the differences of magnitude as much as I could.",
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      "text": "As a second example I have depicted the six stars of the constellation Taurus, called the Pleiades (I say _six_ intentionally, since the seventh is scarcely ever visible), a group of stars which is enclosed in the heavens within very narrow precincts. Near these there lie more than forty others invisible to the naked eye, no one of which is much more than half a degree off any of the aforesaid six; of these I have noticed only thirty-six in my diagram. I have preserved their intervals, magnitudes, and the distinction between the old and the new stars, just as in the case of the constellation Orion.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: The Milky Way consists entirely of stars in countless numbers and of various magnitudes.]",
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      "text": "The next object which I have observed is the essence or substance of the Milky Way. By the aid of a telescope any one may behold this in a manner which so distinctly appeals to the senses that all the disputes which have tormented philosophers through so many ages are exploded at once by the irrefragable evidence of our eyes, and we are freed from wordy disputes upon this subject, for the Galaxy is nothing else but a mass of innumerable stars planted together in clusters. Upon whatever part of it you direct the telescope straightway a vast crowd of stars presents itself to view; many of them are tolerably large and extremely bright, but the number of small ones is quite beyond determination.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: _Star-cluster in Orion’s Head_]",
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      "sha256": "c2288b4459cbb7a645cfede36df1a85be413d332913a9451b6f68fee04f74989",
      "text": "[Illustration: _Star-cluster of Praesepe in Cancer_",
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      "text": "_Galileo: “Sidereus Nuncius,” Venice, 1610._]",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Nebulæ resolved into clusters of stars: as examples, the nebulæ in Orion’s Head and Præsepe.]",
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      "text": "And whereas that milky brightness, like the brightness of a white cloud, is not only to be seen in the Milky Way, but several spots of a similar colour shine faintly here and there in the heavens, if you turn the telescope upon any of them you will find a cluster of stars packed close together. Further—and you will be more surprised at this,—the stars which have been called by every one of the astronomers up to this day _nebulous_, are groups of small stars set thick together in a wonderful way, and although each one of them on account of its smallness, or its immense distance from us, escapes our sight, from the commingling of their rays there arises that brightness which has hitherto been believed to be the denser part of the heavens, able to reflect the rays of the stars or the Sun.",
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      "text": "I have observed some of these, and I wish to subjoin the star-clusters of two of these nebulæ. First, you have a diagram of the nebula called that of Orion’s Head, in which I have counted twenty-one stars.",
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      "text": "The second cluster contains the nebula called Præsepe, which is not one star only, but a mass of more than forty small stars. I have noticed thirty-six stars, besides the Aselli, arranged in the order of the accompanying diagram.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Discovery of Jupiter’s satellites, Jan. 7, 1610: record of Galileo’s observations during two months.]",
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      "text": "I have now finished my brief account of the observations which I have thus far made with regard to the Moon, the Fixed Stars, and the Galaxy. There remains the matter, which seems to me to deserve to be considered the most important in this work, namely, that I should disclose and publish to the world the occasion of discovering and observing four PLANETS, never seen from the very beginning of the world up to our own times, their positions, and the observations made during the last two months about their movements and their changes of magnitude; and I summon all astronomers to apply themselves to examine and determine their periodic times, which it has not been permitted me to achieve up to this day, owing to the restriction of my time. I give them warning however again, so that they may not approach such an inquiry to no purpose, that they will want a very accurate telescope, and such as I have described in the beginning of this account.",
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      "text": "On the 7th day of January in the present year, 1610, in the first[14] hour of the following night, when I was viewing the constellations of the heavens through a telescope, the planet Jupiter presented itself to my view, and as I had prepared for myself a very excellent instrument, I noticed a circumstance which I had never been able to notice before, owing to want of power in my other telescope, namely, that three little stars, small but very bright, were near the planet; and although I believed them to belong to the number of the fixed stars, yet they made me somewhat wonder, because they seemed to be arranged exactly in a straight line, parallel to the ecliptic,[15] and to be brighter than the rest of the stars, equal to them in magnitude. The position of them with reference to one another and to Jupiter was as follows (Fig. 1).",
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      "text": "[14] The times of Galileo’s observations are to be understood as reckoned from sunset.",
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      "text": "[15] The satellites of Jupiter revolve in planes very nearly, although not exactly, coincident with that of the equator of the planet, which is inclined 3° 5´ 30´´ to the orbit of the planet, and the plane of the orbit is inclined 1° 18´ 51´´ to the ecliptic.",
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      "text": "On the east side there were two stars, and a single one towards the west. The star which was furthest towards the east, and the western star, appeared rather larger than the third.",
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      "text": "I scarcely troubled at all about the distance between them and Jupiter, for, as I have already said, at first I believed them to be fixed stars; but when on January 8th, led by some fatality, I turned again to look at the same part of the heavens, I found a very different state of things, for there were three little stars all west of Jupiter, and nearer together than on the previous night, and they were separated from one another by equal intervals, as the accompanying illustration (Fig. 2) shows.",
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      "text": "At this point, although I had not turned my thoughts at all upon the approximation of the stars to one another, yet my surprise began to be excited, how Jupiter could one day be found to the east of all the aforesaid fixed stars when the day before it had been west of two of them; and forthwith I became afraid lest the planet might have moved differently from the calculation of astronomers, and so had passed those stars by its own proper motion. I therefore waited for the next night with the most intense longing, but I was disappointed of my hope, for the sky was covered with clouds in every direction.",
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      "text": "But on January 10th the stars appeared in the following position with regard to Jupiter; there were two only, and both on the east side of Jupiter, the third, as I thought, being hidden by the planet (Fig. 3). They were situated just as before, exactly in the same straight line with Jupiter, and along the Zodiac.",
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      "text": "When I had seen these phenomena, as I knew that corresponding changes of position could not by any means belong to Jupiter, and as, moreover, I perceived that the stars which I saw had been always the same, for there were no others either in front or behind, within a great distance, along the Zodiac,—at length, changing from doubt into surprise, I discovered that the interchange of position which I saw belonged not to Jupiter, but to the stars to which my attention had been drawn, and I thought therefore that they ought to be observed henceforward with more attention and precision.",
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      "text": "Accordingly, on January 11th I saw an arrangement of the following kind (Fig. 4), namely, only two stars to the east of Jupiter, the nearer of which was distant from Jupiter three times as far as from the star further to the east; and the star furthest to the east was nearly twice as large as the other one; whereas on the previous night they had appeared nearly of equal magnitude. I therefore concluded, and decided unhesitatingly, that there are three stars in the heavens moving about Jupiter, as Venus and Mercury round the Sun; which at length was established as clear as daylight by numerous other subsequent observations. These observations also established that there are not only three, but four, erratic sidereal bodies performing their revolutions round Jupiter, observations of whose changes of position made with more exactness on succeeding nights the following account will supply. I have measured also the intervals between them with the telescope in the manner already explained. Besides this, I have given the times of observation, especially when several were made in the same night, for the revolutions of these planets are so swift that an observer may generally get differences of position every hour.",
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      "text": "Jan. 12.—At the first hour of the next night I saw these heavenly bodies arranged in this manner (Fig. 5). The satellite[16] furthest to the east was greater than the satellite furthest to the west; but both were very conspicuous and bright; the distance of each one from Jupiter was two minutes. A third satellite, certainly not in view before, began to appear at the third hour; it nearly touched Jupiter on the east side, and was exceedingly small. They were all arranged in the same straight line, along the ecliptic.",
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      "text": "[16] Galileo continues to call these bodies _stars_, perhaps meaning “Medicean stars,” throughout the description of their configurations, but as he had now detected their nature, it is more convenient to call them _satellites_, the term introduced by Kepler.",
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      "text": "Jan. 13.—For the first time four satellites were in view in the following position with regard to Jupiter (Fig. 6).",
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      "text": "There were three to the west, and one to the east; they made a straight line nearly, but the middle satellite of those to the west deviated a little from the straight line towards the north. The satellite furthest to the east was at a distance of 2´ from Jupiter; there were intervals of 1´ only between Jupiter and the nearest satellite, and between the satellites themselves, west of Jupiter. All the satellites appeared of the same size, and though small they were very brilliant, and far outshone the fixed stars of the same magnitude.",
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      "text": "Jan. 14.—The weather was cloudy.",
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      "text": "Jan. 15.—At the third hour of the night the four satellites were in the state depicted in the next diagram (Fig. 7) with reference to Jupiter.",
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      "text": "All were to the west, and arranged nearly in the same straight line; but the satellite which counted third from Jupiter was raised a little to the north. The nearest to Jupiter was the smallest of all; the rest appeared larger and in order of magnitude; the intervals between Jupiter and the three nearest satellites were all equal, and were of the magnitude of 2´ each; but the satellite furthest to the west was distant 4´ from the satellite nearest to it. They were very brilliant, and not at all twinkling, as they have always appeared both before and since. But at the seventh hour there were only three satellites, presenting with Jupiter an appearance of the following kind (Fig. 8). They were, that is to say, in the same straight line to a hair; the nearest to Jupiter was very small, and distant from the planet 3´; the distance of the second from this one was 1´; and of the third from the second 4´ 30´´. But after another hour the two middle satellites were still nearer, for they were only 30´´, or less, apart.",
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      "text": "Jan. 16.—At the first hour of the night I saw three satellites arranged in this order (Fig. 9). Jupiter was between two of them, which were at a distance of 0´ 40´´ from the planet on either side, and the third was west of Jupiter at a distance of 8´. The satellites near to Jupiter appeared brighter than the satellite further off, but not larger.",
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      "text": "Jan. 17, after sunset 0 hours 30 minutes, the configuration was of this kind (Fig. 10). There was one satellite only to the east, at a distance of 3´ from Jupiter; to the west likewise there was only one satellite, distant 11´ from Jupiter. The satellite on the east appeared twice as large as the satellite to the west; and there were no more than these two. But four hours after, that is, nearly at the fifth hour, a third satellite began to emerge on the east side, which, before its appearance, as I think, had been joined with the former of the two other satellites, and the position was of this kind (Fig. 11). The middle satellite was very near indeed to the satellite on the east, and was only 20´´ from it; and was a little towards the south of the straight line drawn through the two extreme satellites and Jupiter.",
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      "text": "Jan. 18, at 0 h. 20 m. after sunset, the appearance was such as this (Fig. 12). The satellite to the east was larger than the western one, and was at a distance from Jupiter of 8´, the western one being at a distance of 10´.",
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      "text": "Jan. 19.—At the second hour of the night the relative position of the satellites was such as this (Fig. 13); that is, there were three satellites exactly in a straight line with Jupiter, one to the east, at a distance of 6´ from Jupiter; between Jupiter and the first satellite to the west in order, there was an interval of 5´; this satellite was 4´ off the other one more to the west. At that time I was doubtful whether or no there was a satellite between the satellite to the east and Jupiter, but so very close to Jupiter as almost to touch the planet; but at the fifth hour I saw this satellite distinctly, by that time occupying exactly the middle position between Jupiter and the eastern satellite, so that the configuration was thus (Fig. 14). Moreover, the satellite which had just come into view was very small; yet at the sixth hour it was nearly as large as the rest.",
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      "text": "Jan. 20: 1 h. 15 m.—A similar arrangement was seen (Fig. 15). There were three satellites, so small as scarcely to be distinguishable; their distances from Jupiter, and from one another, were not more than 1´. I was doubtful whether on the western side there were two satellites or three. About the sixth hour they were grouped in this way (Fig. 16). The eastern satellite was twice as far away from Jupiter as before, that is 2´; on the western side, the satellite in the middle was distant from Jupiter 0´ 40´´, and from the satellite still further to the west 0´ 20´´; at length, at the seventh hour, three satellites were seen on the western side (Fig. 17). The satellite nearest to Jupiter was distant from the planet 0´ 20´´; between this one and the satellite furthest to the west there was an interval of 40´´, but between these another satellite was in view slightly southward of them, and not more than 10´´ off the most westerly satellite.",
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      "text": "Jan. 21: 0 h. 30 m.—There were three satellites on the east side; the satellites and Jupiter were at equal distances apart (Fig. 18). The intervals were by estimation 50´´ each. There was also one satellite on the west, distant 4´ from Jupiter. The satellite on the east side nearest to Jupiter was the least of all.",
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      "text": "Jan. 22: 2 h.—The grouping of the satellites was similar (Fig. 19). There was an interval of 5´ from the satellite on the east to Jupiter; from Jupiter to the satellite furthest to the west 7´. The two interior satellites on the western side were 0´ 40´´ apart, and the satellite nearer to Jupiter was 1´ from the planet. The inner satellites were smaller than the outer ones, but they were situated all in the same straight line, along the ecliptic, except that the middle of the three western satellites was slightly to the south of it, but at the sixth hour of the night they appeared in this position (Fig. 20). The satellite on the east was very small, at a distance from Jupiter of 5´ as before; but the three satellites on the west were separated by equal distances from Jupiter and from each other; and the intervals were nearly 1´ 20´´ each. The satellite nearest Jupiter appeared smaller than the other two on the same side, but they all appeared arranged exactly in the same straight line.",
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      "text": "Jan. 23, at 0 h. 40 m. after sunset, the grouping of the satellites was nearly after this fashion (Fig. 21). There were three satellites with Jupiter in a straight line along the ecliptic, as they always have been; two were on the east of the planet, one on the west; the satellite furthest to the east was 7´ from the next one, and this satellite 2´ 40´´ from Jupiter; Jupiter was 3´ 20´´ from the satellite on the west; and they were all of nearly the same size. But at the fifth hour the two satellites which had been previously near Jupiter were no longer visible, being, as I suppose, hidden behind Jupiter, and the appearance presented was such as this (Fig. 22).",
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      "text": "The fixed star already noticed was at a distance of 8´ from the western satellite, that is, from the perpendicular drawn from that satellite to the straight line drawn through all the system, as shown in the figure given.",
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      "text": "These determinations of the motion of Jupiter and the adjacent planets (his satellites) by reference to a fixed star, I have thought well to present to the notice of astronomers, in order that any one may be able to understand from them that the movements of these planets (Jupiter’s satellites) both in longitude and in latitude agree exactly with the motions [of Jupiter] which are extracted from tables.",
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      "text": "These are my observations upon the four Medicean planets, recently discovered for the first time by me; and although it is not yet permitted me to deduce by calculation from these observations the orbits of these bodies, yet I may be allowed to make some statements, based upon them, well worthy of attention.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Deductions from the previous observations concerning the orbits and periods of Jupiter’s satellites.]",
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      "text": "And, in the first place, since they are sometimes behind, sometimes before Jupiter, at like distances, and withdraw from this planet towards the east and towards the west only within very narrow limits of divergence, and since they accompany this planet alike when its motion is retrograde and direct, it can be a matter of doubt to no one that they perform their revolutions about this planet, while at the same time they all accomplish together orbits of twelve years’ length about the centre of the world. Moreover, they revolve in unequal circles, which is evidently the conclusion to be drawn from the fact that I have never been permitted to see two satellites in conjunction when their distance from Jupiter was great, whereas near Jupiter two, three, and sometimes all (four), have been found closely packed together. Moreover, it may be detected that the revolutions of the satellites which describe the smallest circles round Jupiter are the most rapid, for the satellites nearest to Jupiter are often to be seen in the east, when the day before they have appeared in the west, and contrariwise. Also the satellite moving in the greatest orbit seems to me, after carefully weighing the occasions of its returning to positions previously noticed, to have a periodic time of half a month.[17] Besides, we have a notable and splendid argument to remove the scruples of those who can tolerate the revolution of the planets round the Sun in the Copernican system, yet are so disturbed by the motion of one Moon about the Earth, while both accomplish an orbit of a year’s length about the Sun, that they consider that this theory of the constitution of the universe must be upset as impossible; for now we have not one planet only revolving about another, while both traverse a vast orbit about the Sun, but our sense of sight presents to us four satellites circling about Jupiter, like the Moon about the Earth, while the whole system travels over a mighty orbit about the Sun in the space of twelve years.",
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      "text": "[17] In the edition of Galileo’s works published at Florence, 1854, there are given the tables of the hourly movements of the satellites of Jupiter, from which Galileo determined their periods of revolution. In the beginning of his treatise on floating bodies, _Discorso intorno i Galleggianti_, 1611-12, Galileo gives the times of rotation as approximately, (i.) 1 d. 18-1/2 h.; (ii.) 3 d. 13-1/3 h.; (iii.) 7 d. 4 h.; (iv.) 16 d. 18 h.; he also published configurations of the satellites calculated for March, April, and a part of May 1613. The periodic times of the satellites, as corrected by later observers, are, (i.) 1 d. 18 h. 28 m.; (ii.) 3 d. 13 h. 15 m.; (iii.) 7 d. 3 h. 43 m.; (iv.) 16 d. 16 h. 32 m.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: Explanation of the variations in brightness of Jupiter’s satellites.]",
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      "text": "Lastly, I must not pass over the consideration of the reason why it happens that the Medicean stars, in performing very small revolutions about Jupiter, seem sometimes more than twice as large as at other times. We can by no means look for the explanation in the mists of the Earth’s atmosphere, for they appear increased or diminished, while the discs of Jupiter and neighbouring fixed stars are seen quite unaltered. That they approach and recede from the Earth at the points of their revolutions nearest to and furthest from the Earth to such an extent as to account for so great changes seems altogether untenable, for a strict circular motion can by no means show those phenomena; and an elliptical motion (which in this case would be nearly rectilinear) seems to be both untenable and by no means in harmony with the phenomena observed. But I gladly publish the explanation which has occurred to me upon this subject, and submit it to the judgment and criticism of all true philosophers. It is certain that when atmospheric mists intervene the Sun and Moon appear larger, but the fixed stars and planets less than they really are; hence the former luminaries, when near the horizon, are larger than at other times, but stars appear smaller, and are frequently scarcely visible; also they are still more diminished if those mists are bathed in light; so stars appear very small by day and in the twilight, but the Moon does not appear so, as I have previously remarked. Moreover, it is certain that not only the Earth, but also the Moon, has its own vaporous sphere enveloping it, for the reasons which I have previously mentioned, and especially for those which shall be stated more fully in my _System_; and we may consistently decide that the same is true with regard to the rest of the planets; so that it seems to be by no means an untenable opinion to place round Jupiter also an atmosphere denser than the rest of the ether,[18] about which, like the Moon about the sphere of the elements, the Medicean planets (Jupiter’s satellites) revolve; and that by the intervention of this atmosphere they appear smaller when they are in apogee; but when in perigee, through the absence or attenuation of that atmosphere, they appear larger. Want of time prevents my going further into these matters; my readers may expect further remarks upon these subjects in a short time.",
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      "text": "[18] Modern astronomers agree in assigning an atmosphere to Jupiter, but consider it not extensive enough to affect the brightness of the satellites.—(WEBB, _Celestial Objects for Common Telescopes_.) Their absolute magnitudes are different, and their surfaces have been observed to be obscured by spots, which may account for the variations of their brightness. These spots, like the lunar spots, are probably due to variations of reflective power at different parts of their surfaces, for as they always turn the same face to Jupiter, they present different portions of their surfaces to us periodically, and it has been ascertained by observation that “these fluctuations in their brightness are periodical, depending on their position with respect to the Sun.”—(HERSCHEL, _Outlines of Astronomy_; ARAGO, _Astronomie Populaire_, 1854.)",
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      "text": "_Original Configurations of Jupiter’s Satellites observed by Galileo in the months of January, February, and March 1610, and published with the 1st edition of his book_ Sidereus Nuncius, _Venice, 1610._",
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      "text": "—————————+———————————+———————————————+——————————————— FIG. | DATE. | EAST. | WEST. —————————+———————————+———————————————+——————————————— 1 | Jan. 7 | | | • • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 2 | 8 | | | ◯ • • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 3 | 10 | | | • • ◯ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 4 | 11 | | | • • ◯ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 5 | 12 | | | • •◯ • —————————+———————————+—————————-————————————————————— 6 | 13 | | | • ◯ • ⠁ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 7 | 15 | • | | ◯ • • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 8 | 15 | | | ◯ • • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 9 | 16 | | | • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 10 | 17 | | | • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 11 | Jan. 17 | • • | | • ◯ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 12 | 18 | | | • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 13 | 19 | | | • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 14 | 19 | | | • • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 15 | 20 | | | • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 16 | 20 | | | • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 17 | 20 | • ◯ • • | | • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 18 | 21 | | | • • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 19 | 22 | • ◯• • | | • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 20 | 22 | | | • ◯ • • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 21 | 23 | | | • • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 22 | 23 | | | • ◯ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 23 | 24 | • • ◯ | | • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 24 | 25 | | | • • ◯ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 25 | 26 | | | • • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 26 | 26 | • | | • • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 27 | 27 | | | • ◯ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 28 | 30 | • | | • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 29 | 31 | • | | • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 30 | Jan. 31 | • | | • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 31 | Feb. 1 | | | • • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 32 | 2 | | | • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 33 | 2 | | | • • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 34 | 3 | | | • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 35 | 4 | | | • • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 36 | 4 | | | • • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 37 | 6 | | | • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 38 | 7 | | | • • ◯ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 39 | 8 | | | • • • ◯ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 40 | 9 | | | • • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 41 | 10 | | | • • ◯ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 42 | 11 | | | • • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 43 | 11 | • | | • • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 44 | 11 | | | • • • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 45 | 12 | | | • • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 46 | 13 | | | • • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 47 | 15 | | | • • • ◯ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 48 | 15 | | | • • ◯ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 49 | Feb. 15 | | | • • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 50 | 16 | | | • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 51 | 17 | | | • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 52 | 18 | | | • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 53 | 18 | | | • • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 54 | 19 | | | ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 55 | 21 | | | • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 56 | 25 | | | • • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 57 | 26 | | | • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 58 | 26 | | | • ◯ • • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 59 | 26 | • ◯ • • | | ⨀ Star. —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 60 | 27 | • • ◯ • • | | Star ⨀ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 61 | 28 | • ◯ • | | Star ⨀ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 62 | 28 | | | • • ◯ • —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 63 | Mar. 1 | • | | • • • ◯ | | Star ⨀ —————————+———————————+——————————————————————————————— 64 | 2 | • | | • ◯ • | | Star ⨀ —————————+———————————+———————————————————————————————",
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      "text": "The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861",
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      "text": "Title: The Education of the Negro Prior to 1861",
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      "text": "Author: Carter Godwin Woodson",
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      "text": "Release date: February 1, 2004 [eBook #11089] Most recently updated: October 28, 2024",
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      "text": "Interesting as is this phase of the history of the American Negro, it has as a field of profitable research attracted only M.B. Goodwin, who published in the Special Report of the United States Commissioner of Education of 1871 an exhaustive _History of the Schools for the Colored Population in the District of Columbia_. In that same document was included a survey of the _Legal Status of the Colored Population in Respect to Schools and Education in the Different States_. But although the author of the latter collected a mass of valuable material, his report is neither comprehensive nor thorough. Other publications touching this subject have dealt either with certain localities or special phases.",
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      "text": "Yet evident as may be the failure of scholars to treat this neglected aspect of our history, the author of this dissertation is far from presuming that he has exhausted the subject. With the hope of vitally interesting some young master mind in this large task, the undersigned has endeavored to narrate in brief how benevolent teachers of both races strove to give the ante-bellum Negroes the education through which many of them gained freedom in its highest and best sense.",
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      "text": "The author desires to acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr. J.E. Moorland, International Secretary of the Young Men's Christian Association, for valuable information concerning the Negroes of Ohio.",
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      "text": "Washington, D.C. _June 11, 1919._",
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      "text": "INTRODUCTION",
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      "text": "Brought from the African wilds to constitute the laboring class of a pioneering society in the new world, the heathen slaves had to be trained to meet the needs of their environment. It required little argument to convince intelligent masters that slaves who had some conception of modern civilization and understood the language of their owners would be more valuable than rude men with whom one could not communicate. The questions, however, as to exactly what kind of training these Negroes should have, and how far it should go, were to the white race then as much a matter of perplexity as they are now. Yet, believing that slaves could not be enlightened without developing in them a longing for liberty, not a few masters maintained that the more brutish the bondmen the more pliant they become for purposes of exploitation. It was this class of slaveholders that finally won the majority of southerners to their way of thinking and determined that Negroes should not be educated.",
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      "text": "The history of the education of the ante-bellum Negroes, therefore, falls into two periods. The first extends from the time of the introduction of slavery to the climax of the insurrectionary movement about 1835, when the majority of the people in this country answered in the affirmative the question whether or not it was prudent to educate their slaves. Then followed the second period, when the industrial revolution changed slavery from a patriarchal to an economic institution, and when intelligent Negroes, encouraged by abolitionists, made so many attempts to organize servile insurrections that the pendulum began to swing the other way. By this time most southern white people reached the conclusion that it was impossible to cultivate the minds of Negroes without arousing overmuch self-assertion.",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B00046",
      "bookId": 11089,
      "start": 5804,
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      "text": "The early advocates of the education of Negroes were of three classes: first, masters who desired to increase the economic efficiency of their labor supply; second, sympathetic persons who wished to help the oppressed; and third, zealous missionaries who, believing that the message of divine love came equally to all, taught slaves the English language that they might learn the principles of the Christian religion. Through the kindness of the first class, slaves had their best chance for mental improvement. Each slaveholder dealt with the situation to suit himself, regardless of public opinion. Later, when measures were passed to prohibit the education of slaves, some masters, always a law unto themselves, continued to teach their Negroes in defiance of the hostile legislation. Sympathetic persons were not able to accomplish much because they were usually reformers, who not only did not own slaves, but dwelt in practically free settlements far from the plantations on which the bondmen lived.",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B00047",
      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "The Spanish and French missionaries, the first to face this problem, set an example which influenced the education of the Negroes throughout America. Some of these early heralds of Catholicism manifested more interest in the Indians than in the Negroes, and advocated the enslavement of the Africans rather than that of the Red Men. But being anxious to see the Negroes enlightened and brought into the Church, they courageously directed their attention to the teaching of their slaves, provided for the instruction of the numerous mixed-breed offspring, and granted freedmen the educational privileges of the highest classes. Put to shame by this noble example of the Catholics, the English colonists had to find a way to overcome the objections of those who, granting that the enlightenment of the slaves might not lead to servile insurrection, nevertheless feared that their conversion might work manumission. To meet this exigency the colonists secured, through legislation by their assemblies and formal declarations of the Bishop of London, the abrogation of the law that a Christian could not be held as a slave. Then allowed access to the bondmen, the missionaries of the Church of England, sent out by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Heathen in Foreign Parts, undertook to educate the slaves for the purpose of extensive proselyting.",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B00048",
      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "Contemporaneous with these early workers of the Established Church of England were the liberal Puritans, who directed their attention to the conversion of the slaves long before this sect advocated abolition. Many of this connection justified slavery as established by the precedent of the Hebrews, but they felt that persons held to service should be instructed as were the servants of the household of Abraham. The progress of the cause was impeded, however, by the bigoted class of Puritans, who did not think well of the policy of incorporating undesirable persons into the Church so closely connected then with the state. The first settlers of the American colonies to offer Negroes the same educational and religious privileges they provided for persons of their own race, were the Quakers. Believing in the brotherhood of man and the fatherhood of God, they taught the colored people to read their own \"instruction in the book of the law that they might be wise unto salvation.\"",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B00049",
      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "Encouraging as was the aspect of things after these early efforts, the contemporary complaints about the neglect to instruct the slaves show that the cause lacked something to make the movement general. Then came the days when the struggle for the rights of man was arousing the civilized world. After 1760 the nascent social doctrine found response among the American colonists. They looked with opened eyes at the Negroes. A new day then dawned for the dark-skinned race. Men like Patrick Henry and James Otis, who demanded liberty for themselves, could not but concede that slaves were entitled at least to freedom of body. The frequent acts of manumission and emancipation which followed upon this change in attitude toward persons of color, turned loose upon society a large number of men whose chief needs were education and training in the duties of citizenship. To enlighten these freedmen schools, missions, and churches were established by benevolent and religious workers. These colaborers included at this time the Baptists and Methodists who, thanks to the spirit of toleration incident to the Revolution, were allowed access to Negroes bond and free.",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B00050",
      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "With all of these new opportunities Negroes exhibited a rapid mental development. Intelligent colored men proved to be useful and trustworthy servants; they became much better laborers and artisans, and many of them showed administrative ability adequate to the management of business establishments and large plantations. Moreover, better rudimentary education served many ambitious persons of color as a stepping-stone to higher attainments. Negroes learned to appreciate and write poetry and contributed something to mathematics, science, and philosophy. Furthermore, having disproved the theories of their mental inferiority, some of the race, in conformity with the suggestion of Cotton Mather, were employed to teach white children.",
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      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "Observing these evidences of a general uplift of the Negroes, certain educators advocated the establishment of special colored schools. The founding of these institutions, however, must not be understood as a movement to separate the children of the races on account of caste prejudice. The dual system resulted from an effort to meet the needs peculiar to a people just emerging from bondage. It was easily seen that their education should no longer be dominated by religion. Keeping the past of the Negroes in mind, their friends tried to unite the benefits of practical and cultural education. The teachers of colored schools offered courses in the industries along with advanced work in literature, mathematics, and science. Girls who specialized in sewing took lessons in French.",
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      "text": "So startling were the rapid strides made by the colored people in their mental development after the revolutionary era that certain southerners who had not seriously objected to the enlightenment of the Negroes began to favor the half reactionary policy of educating them only on the condition that they should be colonized. The colonization movement, however, was supported also by some white men who, seeing the educational progress of the colored people during the period of better beginnings, felt that they should be given an opportunity to be transplanted to a free country where they might develop without restriction.",
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      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "Timorous southerners, however, soon had other reasons for their uncharitable attitude. During the first quarter of the nineteenth century two effective forces were rapidly increasing the number of reactionaries who by public opinion gradually prohibited the education of the colored people in all places except certain urban communities where progressive Negroes had been sufficiently enlightened to provide their own school facilities. The first of these forces was the worldwide industrial movement. It so revolutionized spinning and weaving that the resulting increased demand for cotton fiber gave rise to the plantation system of the South, which required a larger number of slaves. Becoming too numerous to be considered as included in the body politic as conceived by Locke, Montesquieu, and Blackstone, the slaves were generally doomed to live without any enlightenment whatever. Thereafter rich planters not only thought it unwise to educate men thus destined to live on a plane with beasts, but considered it more profitable to work a slave to death during seven years and buy another in his stead than to teach and humanize him with a view to increasing his efficiency.",
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      "text": "The other force conducive to reaction was the circulation through intelligent Negroes of antislavery accounts of the wrongs to colored people and the well portrayed exploits of Toussaint L'Ouverture. Furthermore, refugees from Haiti settled in Baltimore, Norfolk, Charleston, and New Orleans, where they gave Negroes a first-hand story of how black men of the West Indies had righted their wrongs. At the same time certain abolitionists and not a few slaveholders were praising, in the presence of slaves, the bloody methods of the French Revolution. When this enlightenment became productive of such disorders that slaveholders lived in eternal dread of servile insurrection, Southern States adopted the thoroughly reactionary policy of making the education of Negroes impossible.",
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      "text": "The prohibitive legislation extended over a period of more than a century, beginning with the act of South Carolina in 1740. But with the exception of the action of this State and that of Georgia the important measures which actually proscribed the teaching of Negroes were enacted during the first four decades of the nineteenth century. The States attacked the problem in various ways. Colored people beyond a certain number were not allowed to assemble for social or religious purposes, unless in the presence of certain \"discreet\" white men; slaves were deprived of the helpful contact of free persons of color by driving them out of some Southern States; masters who had employed their favorite blacks in positions which required a knowledge of bookkeeping, printing, and the like, were commanded by law to discontinue that custom; and private and public teachers were prohibited from assisting Negroes to acquire knowledge in any manner whatever.",
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      "text": "The majority of the people of the South had by this time come to the conclusion that, as intellectual elevation unfits men for servitude and renders it impossible to retain them in this condition, it should be interdicted. In other words, the more you cultivate the minds of slaves, the more unserviceable you make them; you give them a higher relish for those privileges which they cannot attain and turn what you intend for a blessing into a curse. If they are to remain in slavery they should be kept in the lowest state of ignorance and degradation, and the nearer you bring them to the condition of brutes the better chance they have to retain their apathy. It had thus been brought to pass that the measures enacted to prevent the education of Negroes had not only forbidden association with their fellows for mutual help and closed up most colored schools in the South, but had in several States made it a crime for a Negro to teach his own children.",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B00057",
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      "text": "The contrast of conditions at the close of this period with those of former days is striking. Most slaves who were once counted as valuable, on account of their ability to read and write the English language, were thereafter considered unfit for service in the South and branded as objects of suspicion. Moreover, when within a generation or so the Negroes began to retrograde because they had been deprived of every elevating influence, the white people of the South resorted to their old habit of answering their critics with the bold assertion that the effort to enlighten the blacks would prove futile on account of their mental inferiority. The apathy which these bondmen, inured to hardships, consequently developed was referred to as adequate evidence that they were content with their lot, and that any effort to teach them to know their real condition would be productive of mischief both to the slaves and their masters.",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B00058",
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      "text": "The reactionary movement, however, was not confined to the South. The increased migration of fugitives and free Negroes to the asylum of Northern States, caused certain communities of that section to feel that they were about to be overrun by undesirable persons who could not be easily assimilated. The subsequent anti-abolition riots in the North made it difficult for friends of the Negroes to raise funds to educate them. Free persons of color were not allowed to open schools in some places, teachers of Negroes were driven from their stations, and colored schoolhouses were burned.",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B00059",
      "bookId": 11089,
      "start": 18080,
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      "text": "Ashamed to play the role of a Christian clergy guarding silence on the indispensable duty of saving the souls of the colored people, certain of the most influential southern ministers hit upon the scheme of teaching illiterate Negroes the principles of Christianity by memory training or the teaching of religion without letters. This the clergy were wont to call religious instruction. The word instruction, however, as used in various documents, is rather confusing. Before the reactionary period all instruction of the colored people included the teaching of the rudiments of education as a means to convey Christian thought. But with the exception of a few Christians the southerners thereafter used the word instruction to signify the mere memorizing of principles from the most simplified books. The sections of the South in which the word instruction was not used in this restricted sense were mainly the settlements of Quakers and Catholics who, in defiance of the law, persisted in teaching Negroes to read and write. Yet it was not uncommon to find others who, after having unsuccessfully used their influence against the enactment of these reactionary laws, boldly defied them by instructing the Negroes of their communities. Often opponents to this custom winked at it as an indulgence to the clerical profession. Many Scotch-Irish of the Appalachian Mountains and liberal Methodists and Baptists of the Western slave States did not materially change their attitude toward the enlightenment of the colored people during the reactionary period. The Negroes among these people continued to study books and hear religious instruction conveyed to maturing minds.",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B00060",
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      "text": "Yet little as seemed this enlightenment by means of verbal instruction, some slaveholders became sufficiently inhuman to object to it on the grounds that the teaching of religion would lead to the teaching of letters. In fact, by 1835 certain parts of the South reached the third stage in the development of the education of the Negroes. At first they were taught the common branches to enable them to understand the principles of Christianity; next the colored people as an enlightened class became such a menace to southern institutions that it was deemed unwise to allow them any instruction beyond that of memory training; and finally, when it was discovered that many ambitious blacks were still learning to stir up their fellows, it was decreed that they should not receive any instruction at all. Reduced thus to the plane of beasts, where they remained for generations, Negroes developed bad traits which since their emancipation have been removed only with great difficulty.",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B00061",
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      "text": "Dark as the future of the Negro students seemed, all hope was not yet gone. Certain white men in every southern community made it possible for many of them to learn in spite of opposition. Slaveholders were not long in discovering that a thorough execution of the law was impossible when Negroes were following practically all the higher pursuits of labor in the South. Masters who had children known to be teaching slaves protected their benevolent sons and daughters from the rigors of the law. Preachers, on finding out that the effort at verbal education could not convey Christian truths to an undeveloped mind, overcame the opposition in their localities and taught the colored people as before. Negroes themselves, regarding learning as forbidden fruit, stole away to secret places at night to study under the direction of friends. Some learned by intuition without having had the guidance of an instructor. The fact is that these drastic laws were not passed to restrain \"discreet\" southerners from doing whatever they desired for the betterment of their Negroes. The aim was to cut off their communication with northern teachers and abolitionists, whose activity had caused the South to believe that if such precaution were not taken these agents would teach their slaves principles subversive of southern institutions. Thereafter the documents which mention the teaching of Negroes to read and write seldom even state that the southern white teacher was so much as censured for his benevolence. In the rare cases of arrest of such instructors they were usually acquitted after receiving a reprimand.",
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      "text": "With this winking at the teaching of Negroes in defiance of the law a better day for their education brightened certain parts of the South about the middle of the nineteenth century. Believing that an enlightened laboring class might stop the decline of that section, some slaveholders changed their attitude toward the elevation of the colored people. Certain others came to think that the policy of keeping Negroes in ignorance to prevent servile insurrections was unwise. It was observed that the most loyal and subordinate slaves were those who could read the Bible and learn the truth for themselves. Private teachers of colored persons, therefore, were often left undisturbed, little effort was made to break up the Negroes' secret schools in different parts, and many influential white men took it upon themselves to instruct the blacks who were anxious to learn.",
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      "text": "Other Negroes who had no such opportunities were then finding a way of escape through the philanthropy of those abolitionists who colonized some freedmen and fugitives in the Northwest Territory and promoted the migration of others to the East. These Negroes were often fortunate. Many of them settled where they could take up land and had access to schools and churches conducted by the best white people of the country. This migration, however, made matters worse for the Negroes who were left in the South. As only the most enlightened blacks left the slave States, the bondmen and the indigent free persons of color were thereby deprived of helpful contact. The preponderance of intelligent Negroes, therefore, was by 1840 on the side of the North. Thereafter the actual education of the colored people was largely confined to eastern cities and northern communities of transplanted freedmen. The pioneers of these groups organized churches and established and maintained a number of successful elementary schools.",
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      "text": "Seeing that many leading planters had been influenced by those opposed to the enlightenment of Negroes, Bishop Gibson of London issued an appeal in behalf of the bondmen, addressing the clergy and laymen in two letters[1] published in London in 1727. In one he exhorted masters and mistresses of families to encourage and promote the instruction of their Negroes in the Christian faith. In the other epistle he directed the missionaries of the colonies to give to this work whatever assistance they could. Writing to the slaveholders, he took the position that considering the greatness of the profit from the labor of the slaves it might be hoped that all masters, those especially who were possessed of considerable numbers, should be at some expense in providing for the instruction of those poor creatures. He thought that others who did not own so many should share in the expense of maintaining for them a common teacher.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _An Account of the Endeavors Used by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts_, pp. 16, 21, and 32; and Dalcho, _An Historical Account_, etc., pp. 104 et seq.]",
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      "text": "Equally censorious of these neglectful masters was Reverend Thomas Bacon, the rector of the Parish Church in Talbot County, Maryland. In 1749 he set forth his protest in four sermons on \"the great and indispensable duty of all Christian masters to bring up their slaves in the knowledge and fear of God.\"[1] Contending that slaves should enjoy rights like those of servants in the household of the patriarchs, Bacon insisted that next to one's children and brethren by blood, one's servants, and especially one's slaves, stood in the nearest relation to him, and that in return for their drudgery the master owed it to his bondmen to have them enlightened. He believed that the reading and explaining of the Holy Scriptures should be made a stated duty. In the course of time the place of catechist in each family might be supplied out of the intelligent slaves by choosing such among them as were best taught to instruct the rest.[2] He was of the opinion, too, that were some of the slaves taught to read, were they sent to school for that purpose when young, were they given the New Testament and other good books to be read at night to their fellow-servants, such a course would vastly increase their knowledge of God and direct their minds to a serious thought of futurity.[3]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Meade, _Sermons of Thomas Bacon_, pp. 31 et seq.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Meade, _Sermons of Thomas Bacon_, pp. 116 _et seq._]",
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      "text": "CHAPTER IV",
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      "text": "ACTUAL EDUCATION",
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      "text": "Would these professions of interest in the mental development of the blacks be translated into action? What these reformers would do to raise the standard of Negro education above the plane of rudimentary training incidental to religious instruction, was yet to be seen. Would they secure to Negroes the educational privileges guaranteed other elements of society? The answer, if not affirmative, was decidedly encouraging. The idea uppermost in the minds of these workers was that the people of color could and should be educated as other races of men.",
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      "text": "In the lead of this movement were the antislavery agitators. Recognizing the Negroes' need of preparation for citizenship, the abolitionists proclaimed as a common purpose of their organizations the education of the colored people with a view to developing in them self-respect, self-support, and usefulness in the community.[1]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Smyth, _Works of Benjamin Franklin_, vol. x., p. 127; Torrey, _Portraiture of Slavery_, p. 21. See also constitution of almost any antislavery society organized during this period.]",
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      "text": "The proposition to cultivate the minds of the slaves came as a happy solution of what had been a perplexing problem. Many Americans who considered slavery an evil had found no way out of the difficulty when the alternative was to turn loose upon society so many uncivilized men without the ability to discharge the duties of citizenship.[1] Assured then that the efforts at emancipation would be tested by experience, a larger number of men advocated abolition. These leaders recommended gradual emancipation for States having a large slave population, that those designated for freedom might first be instructed in the value and meaning of liberty to render them comfortable in the use of it.[2] The number of slaves in the States adopting the policy of immediate emancipation was not considered a menace to society, for the schools already open to colored people could exert a restraining influence on those lately given the boon of freedom. For these reasons the antislavery societies had in their constitutions a provision for a committee of education to influence Negroes to attend school, superintend their instruction, and emphasize the cultivation of the mind as the necessary preparation for \"that state in society upon which depends our political happiness.\"[3] Much stress was laid upon this point by the American Convention of Abolition Societies in 1794 and 1795 when the organization expressed the hope that freedmen might participate in civil rights as fast as they qualified by education.[4]",
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      "text": "Attention was directed also to the fact that neither literary nor religious education prepared the Negroes for a life of usefulness. Heeding the advice of Kosciuszko, Madison and Jefferson, the advocates of the education of the Negroes endeavored to give them such practical training as their peculiar needs demanded. In the agricultural sections the first duty of the teacher of the blacks was to show them how to get their living from the soil. This was the final test of their preparation for emancipation. Accordingly, on large plantations where much supervision was necessary, trustworthy Negroes were trained as managers. Many of those who showed aptitude were liberated and encouraged to produce for themselves. Slaves designated for freedom were often given small parcels of land for the cultivation of which they were allowed some of their time. An important result of this agricultural training was that many of the slaves thus favored amassed considerable wealth by using their spare time in cultivating crops of their own.[1]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Special Report of the U.S. Com. of Ed._, 1871, p. 196.]",
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      "text": "The advocates of useful education for the degraded race had more to say about training in the mechanic arts. Such instruction, however, was not then a new thing to the blacks of the South, for they had from time immemorial been the trustworthy artisans of that section. The aim then was to give them such education as would make them intelligent workmen and develop in them the power to plan for themselves. In the North, where the Negroes had been largely menial servants, adequate industrial education was deemed necessary for those who were to be liberated.[1] Almost every Northern colored school of any consequence then offered courses in the handicrafts. In 1784 the Quakers of Philadelphia employed Sarah Dwight to teach the colored girls sewing.[2] Anthony Benezet provided in his will that in the school to be established by his benefaction the girls should be taught needlework.[3] The teachers who took upon themselves the improvement of the free people of color of New York City regarded industrial training as one of their important tasks.[4]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: See the _Address of the Am. Conv. of Abolition Societies_, 1794; _ibid._, 1795; _ibid._, 1797 _et passim._]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Wickersham, _History of Ed. in Pa._, p. 249.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: _Special Report of the U.S. Com. of Ed._, 1869, p. 375.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 4: Andrews, _History of the New York African Free Schools_, p. 20.]",
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      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "None urged this duty upon the directors of these schools more persistently than the antislavery organizations. In 1794 the American Convention of Abolition Societies recommended that Negroes be instructed in \"those mechanic arts which will keep them most constantly employed and, of course, which will less subject them to idleness and debauchery, and thus prepare them for becoming good citizens of the United States.\"[1] Speaking repeatedly on this wise the Convention requested the colored people to let it be their special care to have their children not only to work at useful trades but also to till the soil.[2] The early abolitionists believed that this was the only way the freedmen could learn to support themselves.[3] In connection with their schools the antislavery leaders had an Indenturing Committee to find positions for colored students who had the advantages of industrial education.[4] In some communities slaves were prepared for emancipation by binding them out as apprentices to machinists and artisans until they learned a trade.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Proceedings of the American Convention_, 1794, p. 14.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Ibid._, 1795, p. 29; _ibid._, 1797, pp. 12, 13, and 31.]",
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      "text": "With respect to conceding the Negroes' claim to a better education, Thaddeus Kosciuszko, the Polish general, was not unlike Benezet. None of the revolutionary leaders were more moved with compassion for the colored people than this warrior. He saw in education the powerful leverage which would place them in position to enjoy the newly won rights of man. While assisting us in gaining our independence, Kosciuszko acquired here valuable property which he endeavored to devote to the enlightenment of the slaves. He authorized Thomas Jefferson, his executor, to employ the whole thereof in purchasing Negroes and liberating them in the name of Kosciuszko, \"in giving them an education in trades or otherwise, and in having them instructed for their new condition in the duties of morality.\" The instructors were to provide for them such training as would make them \"good neighbors, good mothers or fathers, good husbands or wives, teaching them the duties of citizenship, teaching them to be defenders of their liberty and country, and of the good order of society, and whatsoever might make them useful and happy.\"[1] Clearly as this was set forth the executor failed to discharge this duty enjoined upon him. The heirs of the donor instituted proceedings to obtain possession of the estate, which, so far as the author knows, was never used for the purpose for which it was intended.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _African Repository_, vol. xi., pp. 294-295.]",
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      "text": "In view of these numerous strivings we are compelled to inquire exactly what these educators accomplished. Although it is impossible to measure the results of their early efforts, various records of the eighteenth century prove that there was lessening objection to the instruction of slaves and practically none to the enlightenment of freedmen. Negroes in considerable numbers were becoming well grounded in the rudiments of education. They had reached the point of constituting the majority of the mechanics in slaveholding communities; they were qualified to be tradesmen, trustworthy helpers, and attendants of distinguished men, and a few were serving as clerks, overseers, and managers.[1] Many who were favorably circumstanced learned more than mere reading and writing. In exceptional cases, some were employed not only as teachers and preachers to their people, but as instructors of the white race.[2]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Georgia and South Carolina had to pass laws to prevent Negroes from following these occupations for fear that they might thereby become too well informed. See Brevard, _Digest of Public Statute Laws of S.C._, vol. ii., p. 243; and Marbury and Crawford, _Digest of the Laws of the State of Georgia_, p. 438.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Bassett, _Slavery in North Carolina_, p. 74; manuscripts relating to the condition of the colored people of North Carolina, Ohio, and Tennessee now in the hands of Dr. J.E. Moorland.]",
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      "text": "EDUCATING THE URBAN NEGRO",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B00487",
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      "text": "Such an impetus was given Negro education during the period of better beginnings that some of the colored city schools then established have existed even until to-day. Negroes learned from their white friends to educate themselves. In the Middle and Southern States, however, much of the sentiment in favor of developing the intellect of the Negro passed away during the early part of the nineteenth century. This reform, like many others of that day, suffered when Americans forgot the struggle for the rights of man. Recovering from the social upheaval of the Revolution, caste soon began to claim its own. To discourage the education of the lowest class was natural to the aristocrats who on coming to power established governments based on the representation of interests, restriction of suffrage, and the ineligibility of the poor to office. After this period the work of enlightening the blacks in the southern and border States was largely confined to a few towns and cities where the concentration of the colored population continued.",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B00488",
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      "text": "The rise of the American city made possible the contact of the colored people with the world, affording them a chance to observe what the white man was doing, and to develop the power to care for themselves. The Negroes who had this opportunity to take over the western civilization were servants belonging to the families for which they worked; slaves hired out by their owners to wait upon persons; and watermen, embracing fishermen, boatmen, and sailors. Not a few slaves in cities were mechanics, clerks, and overseers. In most of these employments the rudiments of an education were necessary, and what the master did not seem disposed to teach the slaves so situated, they usually learned by contact with their fellowmen who were better informed. Such persons were the mulattoes resulting from miscegenation, and therefore protected from the rigors of the slave code; house servants, rewarded with unusual privileges for fidelity and for manifesting considerable interest in things contributing to the economic good of their masters; and slaves who were purchasing their freedom.[1] Before the close of the first quarter of the nineteenth century not much was said about what these classes learned or taught. It was then the difference in circumstances, employment, and opportunities for improvement that made the urban Negro more intelligent than those who had to toil in the fields. Yet, the proportion did not differ very much from that of the previous period, as the first Negroes were not chiefly field hands but to a considerable extent house servants, whom masters often taught to read and write.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Jones, _Religious Instruction_, p. 117.]",
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      "text": "Urban Negroes had another important advantage in their opportunity to attend well-regulated Sunday-schools. These were extensively organized in the towns and cities of this country during the first decades of the last century. The \"Sabbath-school\" constituted an important factor in Negro education. Although cloaked with the purpose of bringing the blacks to God by giving them religious instruction the institution permitted its workers to teach them reading and writing when they were not allowed to study such in other institutions.[1] Even the radical slaveholder was slow to object to a policy which was intended to facilitate the conversion of men's souls. All friends especially interested in the mental and spiritual uplift of the race hailed this movement as marking an epoch in the elevation of the colored people.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Proceedings of the American Convention_, etc., 1819, p. 21.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Proceedings of the American Convention_, etc., 1819, p. 22.]",
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      "text": "The concentration of the colored population in cities and towns where they had better educational advantages tended to make colored city schools self-supporting. There developed a class of self-educating Negroes who were able to provide for their own enlightenment. This condition, however, did not obtain throughout the South. Being a proslavery farming section of few large towns and cities, that part of the country did not see much development of the self-sufficient class. What enlightenment most urban blacks of the South experienced resulted mainly from private teaching and religious instruction. There were some notable exceptions, however. A colored \"Santo Dominican\" named Julian Troumontaine taught openly in Savannah up to 1829 when such an act was prohibited by law. He taught clandestinely thereafter, however, until 1844.[1] In New Orleans, where the Creoles and freedmen counted early in the nineteenth century as a substantial element in society, persons of color had secured to themselves better facilities of education. The people of this city did not then regard it as a crime for Negroes to acquire an education, their white instructors felt that they were not condescending in teaching them, and children of Caucasian blood raised no objection to attending special and parochial schools accessible to both races. The educational privileges which the colored people there enjoyed, however, were largely paid for by the progressive freedmen themselves.[2] Some of them educated their children in France.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Wright, _Negro Education in Georgia_, p. 20.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Many of the mixed breeds of New Orleans were leading business men.]",
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      "text": "Charleston, South Carolina, furnished a good example of a center of unusual activity and rapid strides of self-educating urban Negroes. Driven to the point of doing for themselves, the free people of color of this city organized in 1810 the \"Minor Society\" to secure to their orphan children the benefits of education.[1] Bishop Payne, who studied later under Thomas Bonneau, attended the school founded by this organization. Other colored schools were doing successful work. Enjoying these unusual advantages the Negroes of Charleston were early in the nineteenth century ranked by some as economically and intellectually superior to any other such persons in the United States. A large portion of the leading mechanics, fashionable tailors, shoe manufacturers, and mantua-makers were free blacks, who enjoyed \"a consideration in the community far more than that enjoyed by any of the colored population in the Northern cities.\"[2] As such positions required considerable skill and intelligence, these laborers had of necessity acquired a large share of useful knowledge. The favorable circumstances of the Negroes in certain liberal southern cities like Charleston were the cause of their return from the North to the South, where they often had a better opportunity for mental as well as economic improvement.[3] The return of certain Negroes from Philadelphia to Petersburg, Virginia, during the first decade of the nineteenth century, is a case in evidence.[4]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Simmons, _Men of Mark_, p. 1078.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Niles Register_, vol. xlix., p. 40.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 4: _Proceedings of the American Convention_, etc., 1825, p. 13.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 5: _Proceedings of the Am. Convention_, etc., 1830, p.8; and Wickersham, _History of Education in Pennsylvania_, p. 253.]",
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      "text": "The statistics of later years show how successful these early efforts had been. By 1849 the colored schools of Philadelphia had developed to the extent that they seemed like a system. According to the _Statistical Inquiry into the Condition of Colored People in and about Philadelphia_, published that year, there were 1643 children of color attending well-regulated schools. The larger institutions were mainly supported by State and charitable organizations of which the Society of Friends and the Pennsylvania Abolition Society were the most important. Besides supporting these institutions, however, the intelligent colored men of Philadelphia had maintained smaller schools and organized a system of lyceums and debating clubs, one of which had a library of 1400 volumes. Moreover, there were then teaching in the colored families and industrial schools of Philadelphia many men and women of both races.[1] Although these instructors restricted their work to the teaching of the rudiments of education, they did much to help the more advanced schools to enlighten the Negroes who came to that city in large numbers when conditions became intolerable for the free people of color in the slave States. The statistics of the following decade show unusual progress. In the year 1859 there were in the colored public schools of Philadelphia, 1031 pupils; in the charity schools, 748; in the benevolent schools, 211; in private schools, 331; in all, 2321, whereas in 1849 there were only 1643.[2]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: About the middle of the nineteenth century colored schools of various kinds arose in Philadelphia. With a view to giving Negroes industrial training their friends opened \"The School for the Destitute\" at the House of Industry in 1848. Three years later Sarah Luciana was teaching a school of seventy youths at this House of Industry, and the Sheppard School, another industrial institution, was in operation in 1850 in a building bearing the same name. In 1849 arose the \"Corn Street Unclassified School\" of forty-seven children in charge of Sarah L. Peltz. \"The Holmesburg Unclassified School\" was organized in 1854. Other institutions of various purposes were \"The House of Refuge,\" \"The Orphans' Shelter,\" and \"The Home for Colored Children.\" See Bacon, _Statistics of the Colored People of Philadelphia_, 1859.",
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      "text": "Among those then teaching in private schools of Philadelphia were Solomon Clarkson, Robert George, John Marshall, John Ross, Jonathan Tudas, and David Ware. Ann Bishop, Virginia Blake, Amelia Bogle, Anne E. Carey, Sarah Ann Douglass, Rebecca Hailstock, Emma Hall, Emmeline Higgins, Margaret Johnson, Martha Richards, Dinah Smith, Mary Still, and one Peterson were teaching in families. See _Statistical Inquiry_, etc., 1849, p. 19; and Bacon, _Statistics of the Colored People of Philadelphia_, 1859.]",
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      "text": "The reactionary tendency was in no sense confined to the Southern States. Laws were passed in the North to prevent the migration of Negroes to that section. Their education at certain places was discouraged. In fact, in the proportion that the conditions in the South made it necessary for free blacks to flee from oppression, the people of the North grew less tolerant on account of the large number of those who crowded the towns and cities of the free States near the border. The antislavery societies at one time found it necessary to devote their time to the amelioration of the economic condition of the refugees to make them acceptable to the white people rather than to direct their attention to mere education.[1] Not a few northerners, dreading an influx of free Negroes, drove them even from communities to which they had learned to, repair for education.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Proceedings of the American Convention_.]",
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      "text": "The best example of this intolerance was the opposition encountered by Prudence Crandall, a well-educated young Quaker lady, who had established a boarding-school at Canterbury, Connecticut. Trouble arose when Sarah Harris, a colored girl, asked admission to this institution.[1] For many reasons Miss Crandall hesitated to admit her but finally yielded. Only a few days thereafter the parents of the white girls called on Miss Crandall to offer their objections to sending their children to school with a \"nigger.\"[2] Miss Crandall stood firm, the white girls withdrew, and the teacher advertised for young women of color. The determination to continue the school on this basis incited the townsmen to hold an indignation meeting. They passed resolutions to protest through a committee of local officials against the establishment of a school of this kind in that community. At this meeting Andrew T. Judson denounced the policy of Miss Crandall, while the Rev. Samuel J. May ably defended it. Judson was not only opposed to the establishment of such a school in Canterbury but in any part of the State. He believed that colored people, who could never rise from their menial condition in the United States, should not to be encouraged to expect to elevate themselves in Connecticut. He considered them inferior servants who should not be treated as equals of the Caucasians, but should be sent back to Africa to improve themselves and Christianize the natives.[3] On the contrary, Mr. May thought that there would never be fewer colored people in this country than were found here then and that it would be unjust to exile them. He asserted that white people should grant Negroes their rights or lose their own and that since education is the primal, fundamental right of all men, Connecticut was the last place where this should be denied.[4]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Jay, _An Inquiry_, etc., p. 30.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Ibid_., pp. 32 _et seq_.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: Jay, _An Inquiry, etc._, p. 33; and _Special Report of the U.S. Com. of Ed._, pp. 328 _et seq._]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 4: Jay, _An Inquiry_, etc., p. 33.]",
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      "text": "Miss Crandall and her pupils were threatened with violence. Accommodation at the local stores was denied her. The pupils were insulted. The house was besmeared and damaged. An effort was made to invoke the law by which the selectmen might warn any person not an inhabitant of the State to depart under penalty of paying $1.67 for every week he remained after receiving such notice.[1] This failed, but Judson and his followers were still determined that the \"nigger school\" should never be allowed in Canterbury nor any town of the State. They appealed to the legislature. Setting forth in its preamble that the evil to be obviated was the increase of the black population of the commonwealth, that body passed a law providing that no person should establish a school for the instruction of colored people who were not inhabitants of the State of Connecticut, nor should any one harbor or board students brought to the State for this purpose without first obtaining, in writing, the consent of a majority of the civil authority and of the selectmen of the town.[2]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Special Report of the U.S. Com. of Ed_., 1871, p. 331; and May, _Letters to A.T. Judson, Esq., and Others_, p. 5.]",
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      "sha256": "fa9b748643e0af211d3ddaf98f27a06cad3b36c4490ae6a75037e488557c3a9f",
      "text": "CHAPTER IX",
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      "sha256": "02a2b7e2d0faab4ba109d7fc72afa91ce7388d375784fda1596ce4ef801b4152",
      "text": "LEARNING IN SPITE OF OPPOSITION",
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      "text": "Discouraging as these conditions seemed, the situation was not entirely hopeless. The education of the colored people as a public effort had been prohibited south of the border States, but there was still some chance for Negroes of that section to acquire knowledge. Furthermore, the liberal white people of that section considered these enactments, as we have stated above, not applicable to southerners interested in the improvement of their slaves but to mischievous abolitionists. The truth is that thereafter some citizens disregarded the laws of their States and taught worthy slaves whom they desired to reward or use in business requiring an elementary education. As these prohibitions in slave States were not equally stringent, white and colored teachers of free blacks were not always disturbed. In fact, just before the middle of the nineteenth century there was so much winking at the violation of the reactionary laws that it looked as if some Southern States might recede from their radical position and let Negroes be educated as they had been in the eighteenth century.",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B00791",
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      "text": "The ways in which slaves thereafter acquired knowledge are significant. Many picked it up here and there, some followed occupations which were in themselves enlightening, and others learned from slaves whose attainments were unknown to their masters. Often influential white men taught Negroes not only the rudiments of education but almost anything they wanted to learn. Not a few slaves were instructed by the white children whom they accompanied to school. While attending ministers and officials whose work often lay open to their servants, many of the race learned by contact and observation. Shrewd Negroes sometimes slipped stealthily into back streets, where they studied under a private teacher, or attended a school hidden from the zealous execution of the law.",
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      "text": "The instances of Negroes struggling to obtain an education read like the beautiful romances of a people in an heroic age. Sometimes Negroes of the type of Lott Carey[1] educated themselves. James Redpath discovered in Savannah that in spite of the law great numbers of slaves had learned to read well. Many of them had acquired a rudimentary knowledge of arithmetic. \"But,\" said he, \"blazon it to the shame of the South, the knowledge thus acquired has been snatched from the spare records of leisure in spite of their owners' wishes and watchfulness.\"[2] C.G. Parsons was informed that although poor masters did not venture to teach their slaves, occasionally one with a thirst for knowledge secretly learned the rudiments of education without any instruction.[3] While on a tour through parts of Georgia, E.P. Burke observed that, notwithstanding the great precaution which was taken to prevent the mental improvement of the slaves, many of them \"stole knowledge enough to enable them to read and write with ease.\"[4] Robert Smalls[5] of South Carolina and Alfred T. Jones[6] of Kentucky began their education in this manner.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Mott, _Biographical Sketches_, p. 87.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Redpath, _Roving Editor_, etc., p. 161.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: Parsons, _Inside View_, etc., p. 248.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 4: Burke, _Reminiscences of Georgia_, p. 85.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 5: Ibid., p. 368.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 6: This is his own statement.]",
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      "text": "The white parents of Negroes often secured to them the educational facilities then afforded the superior race. The indulgent teacher of J. Morris of North Carolina was his white father, his master.[1] W.J. White acquired his education from his mother, who was a white woman.[2] Martha Martin, a daughter of her master, a Scotch-Irishman of Georgia, was permitted to go to Cincinnati to be educated, while her sister was sent to a southern town to learn the milliner's trade.[3] Then there were cases like that of Josiah Settle's white father. After the passage of the law forbidding free Negroes to remain in the State of Tennessee, he took his children to Hamilton, Ohio, to be educated and there married his actual wife, their colored mother.[4]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: This is based on an account given by his son.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _The Crisis_, vol. v., p. 119.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Bremer, _Homes of the New World_, vol. ii., pp. 488-491.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: _The Richmond Enquirer_, July, 1859; and _Afr. Repository_, vol. xxxv., p. 255.]",
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      "text": "Statistics of this period show that the proportionately largest number of Negroes who learned in spite of opposition were found among the Scotch-Irish of Kentucky and Tennessee. Possessing few slaves, and having no permanent attachment to the institution, those mountaineers did not yield to the reactionaries who were determined to keep the Negroes in heathendom. Kentucky and Tennessee did not expressly forbid the education of the colored people.[1] Conditions were probably better in Kentucky than in Tennessee. Traveling in Kentucky about this time, Abdy was favorably impressed with that class of Negroes who though originally slaves saved sufficient from their earnings to purchase their freedom and provide for the education of their children.[2]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: In 1830 one-twelfth of the population of Lexington consisted of free persons of color, who since 1822 had had a Baptist church served by a member of their own race and a school in which thirty-two of their children were taught by a white man from Tennessee. He had pledged himself to devote the rest of his life to the uplift of his colored brethren. One of these free Negroes in Lexington had accumulated wealth to the amount of $20,000. In Louisville, also a center of free colored population, efforts were being made to educate ambitious Negroes. Travelers noted that colored schools were found there generations before the Civil War and mentioned the intelligent and properly speaking colored preachers, who were bought and supported by their congregations. Charles Dabney, another traveler through this State in 1837, observed that the slaves of this commonwealth were taught to read and believed that they were about as well off as they would have been had they been free. See Dabney, _Journal of a Tour through the U.S. and Canada_, p. 185.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Abdy, _Journal of a Tour_, etc., 1833-1834, pp. 346-348.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Special Report of the U.S. Com. of Ed._, p. 339]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _African Repository_, vol. xxxi., pp. 117-118.]",
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      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "In view of this renewed interest in the education of the Negroes of the South we are anxious to know exactly what proportion of the colored population had risen above the plane of illiteracy. Unfortunately this cannot be accurately determined. In the first place, it was difficult to find out whether or not a slave could read or write when such a disclosure would often cause him to be dreadfully punished or sold to some cruel master of the lower South. Moreover, statistics of this kind are scarce and travelers who undertook to answer this question made conflicting statements. Some persons of that day left records which indicate that only a few slaves succeeded in acquiring an imperfect knowledge of the common branches, whereas others noted a larger number of intelligent servants. Arfwedson remarked that the slaves seldom learned to read; yet elsewhere he stated that he sometimes found some who had that ability.[1] Abolitionists like May, Jay, and Garrison would make it seem that the conditions in the South were such that it was almost impossible for a slave to develop intellectual power.[2] Rev. C.C. Jones[3] believed that only an inconsiderable fraction of the slaves could read. Witnesses to the contrary, however, are numerous. Abdy, Smedes, Andrews, Bremer, and Olmsted found during their stay in the South many slaves who had experienced unusual spiritual and mental development.[4] Nehemiah Adams, giving the southern view of slavery in 1854, said that large numbers of the slaves could read and were furnished with the Scriptures.[5] Amos Dresser, who traveled extensively in the Southwest, believed that one out of every fifty could read and write.[6] C.G. Parsons thought that five thousand out of the four hundred thousand slaves of Georgia had these attainments.[7] These figures, of course, would run much higher were the free people of color included in the estimates. Combining the two it is safe to say that ten per cent. of the adult Negroes had the rudiments of education in 1860, but the proportion was much less than it was near the close of the era of better beginnings about 1825.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Arfwedson, _The United States and Canada_, p. 331.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: See their pamphlets, addresses, and books referred to elsewhere.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 4: Coffin, _Reminiscences_, p. 106.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 5: Birney, _James G. Birney and His Times_, p. 139.]",
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      "text": "The importance of this movement to the student of education lies in the fact that it effected an unequal distribution of intelligent Negroes. The most ambitious and enlightened ones were fleeing to free territory. As late as 1840 there were more intelligent blacks in the South than in the North.[1] The number of southern colored people who could read was then decidedly larger than that of such persons found in the free States. The continued migration of Negroes to the North, despite the operation of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, made this distribution more unequal. While the free colored population of the slave States increased only 23,736 from 1850 to 1860, that of the free States increased 29,839. In the South only Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, and North Carolina showed a noticeable increase in the number of free persons of color during the decade immediately preceding the Civil War. This element of the population had only slightly increased in Alabama, Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, Virginia, Louisiana, South Carolina, and the District of Columbia. The number of free Negroes of Florida remained practically constant. Those of Arkansas, Mississippi, and Texas diminished. In the North, of course, the tendency was in the other direction. With the exception of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York, which had about the same free colored population in 1860 as they had in 1850, there was a general increase in the number of Negroes in the free States. Ohio led in this respect having had during this period an increase of 11,394.[2]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Jones, _Religious Instruction of the Negroes_, p. 115.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: See statistics on pages 237-240.]",
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      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "On comparing the educational statistics of these sections this truth becomes more apparent. In 1850 there were 4,354 colored children attending school in the South, but by 1860 this number had dropped to 3,651. Slight increases were noted only in Alabama, Missouri, Delaware, South Carolina, and the District of Columbia. Georgia and Mississippi had then practically deprived all Negroes of this privilege. The former, which reported one colored child as attending school in 1850, had just seven in 1860; the latter had none in 1850 and only two in 1860. In all other slave States the number of pupils of African blood had materially decreased.[1] In the free States there were 22,107 colored children in school in 1850, and 28,978 in 1860. Most of these were in New Jersey, Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania, which in 1860 had 2,741; 5,671; 5,694; and 7,573, respectively.[2]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: STATISTICS OF THE FREE COLORED POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1850",
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      "text": "ATTENDING ADULTS UNABLE SCHOOL TO READ STATE Population Males Females Total Males Females Total",
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      "text": "See Sixth Census of the United States, 1850.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: See statistics on pages 237-240.]",
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      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "The report on illiteracy shows further the differences resulting from the divergent educational policies of the two sections. In 1850 there were in the slave States 58,444 adult free Negroes who could not read, and in 1860 this number had reached 59,832. In all such commonwealths except Arkansas, Louisiana, Florida, and Mississippi there was an increase in illiteracy among the free blacks. These States, however, were hardly exceptional, because Arkansas and Mississippi had suffered a decrease in their free colored population, that of Florida had remained the same, and the difference in the case of Louisiana was very slight. The statistics of the Northern States indicate just the opposite trend. Notwithstanding the increase of persons of color resulting from the influx of the migrating element, there was in all free States exclusive of California, Illinois, Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, and Pennsylvania a decrease in the illiteracy of Negroes. But these States hardly constitute exceptions; for California, Wisconsin, and Minnesota had very few colored inhabitants in 1850, and the others had during this decade received so many fugitives in the rough that race prejudice and its concomitant drastic legislation impeded the educational progress of their transplanted freedmen.[1] In the Northern States where this condition did not obtain, the benevolent whites had, in coöperation with the Negroes, done much to reduce illiteracy among them during these years.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: STATISTICS OF THE FREE COLORED POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1860",
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      "text": "STATE Population| ATTENDING SCHOOL | ADULTS UNABLE TO READ +----- +----- +------ +-------- +------- +---- -- Males | Males Females | Females Total | Total ---------------- +-------- +----- +------- +------- +------- +------- +------ Alabama 2,690 48 65 114 192 263 455 Arkansas 144 3 2 5 10 13 23 California 4,086 69 84 153 497 207 704 Connecticut 8,627 737 641 1,378 181 164 345 Delaware 19,829 122 128 250 3,056 3,452 6,508 Florida 932 3 6 9 48 72 120 Georgia 3,500 3 4 7 255 318 573 Illinois 7,628 264 347 611 632 695 1,327 Indiana 11,428 570 552 1,122 869 904 1,773 Iowa 1,069 77 61 138 92 77 169 Kansas 625 8 6 14 25 38 63 Kentucky 10,684 102 107 209 1,113 1,350 2,463 Louisiana 18,647 153 122 275 485 717 1,202 Maine 1,327 148 144 292 25 21 46 Maryland 83,942 687 668 1,355 9,904 11,795 21,699 Massachusetts 9,602 800 815 1,615 291 368 659 Michigan 6,797 555 550 1,105 558 486 1,044 Minnesota 259 8 10 18 6 6 12 Mississippi 773 0 2 2 50 60 110 Missouri 3,572 76 79 155 371 514 885 New Hampshire 494 49 31 80 15 19 34 New Jersey 25,318 1,413 1,328 2,741 1,720 2,085 3,805 New York 49,005 2,955 2,739 5,694 2,653 3,260 5,913 North Carolina 30,463 75 58 133 3,067 3,782 6,849 Ohio 36,673 2,857 2,814 5,671 2,995 3,191 6,186 Oregon 128 0 0 2 7 5 12 Pennsylvania 56,949 3,882 3,691 7,573 3,893 5,466 9,359 Rhode Island 3,952 276 256 532 119 141 260 South Carolina 9,914 158 207 365 633 783 1,416 Tennessee 7,300 28 24 52 743 952 1,695 Texas 355 4 7 11 25 37 62 Vermont 709 65 50 115 27 20 47 Virginia 58,042 21 20 41 5,489 6,008 12,397 Wisconsin 1,171 62 50 112 53 45 98",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Howe, _The Refugee from Slavery_, p. 77.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Russell, _The Free Negro in Virginia_ (Johns Hopkins University Studies, series xxxi., No. 3, p. 107).]",
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      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "On perusing this sketch the educator naturally wonders exactly what intellectual progress was made by these groups on free soil. This question cannot be fully answered for the reason that extant records give no detailed account of many colored settlements which underwent upheaval or failed to endure. In some cases we learn simply that a social center flourished and was then destroyed. On \"Black Friday,\" January 1, 1830, eighty Negroes were driven out of Portsmouth, Ohio, at the request of one or two hundred white citizens, set forth in an urgent memorial.[1] After the passage of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 the colored population of Columbia, Pennsylvania, dropped from nine hundred and forty-three to four hundred and eighty-seven.[2] The Negro community in the northwestern part of that State was broken up entirely.[3] The African Methodist and Baptist churches of Buffalo lost many communicants. Out of a membership of one hundred and fourteen, the colored Baptist church of Rochester lost one hundred and twelve, including its pastor. About the same time eighty-four members of the African Baptist church of Detroit crossed into Canada.[4] The break-up of these churches meant the end of the day and Sunday-schools which were maintained in them. Moreover, the migration of these Negroes aroused such bitter feeling against them that their schoolhouses were frequently burned. It often seemed that it was just as unpopular to educate the blacks in the North as in the South. Ohio, Illinois, and Oregon enacted laws to prevent them from coming into those commonwealths.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Evans, _A History of Scioto County, Ohio_, p. 613.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Siebert, _The Underground Railroad_, p. 249.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: _Ibid_., p. 249.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 4: _Ibid_., p. 250.]",
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      "text": "We have, however, sufficient evidence of large undertakings to educate the colored people then finding homes in less turbulent parts beyond the Ohio. In the first place, almost every settlement made by the Quakers was a center to which Negroes repaired for enlightenment. In other groups where there was no such opportunity, they had the coöperation of certain philanthropists in providing facilities for their mental and moral development. As a result, the free blacks had access to schools and churches in Hamilton, Howard, Randolph, Vigo, Gibson, Rush, Tipton, Grant, and Wayne counties, Indiana,[1] and Madison, Monroe, and St. Clair counties, Illinois. There were colored schools and churches in Logan, Clark, Columbiana, Guernsey, Jefferson, Highland, Brown, Darke, Shelby, Green, Miami, Warren, Scioto, Gallia, Ross, and Muskingum counties, Ohio.[2] Augustus Wattles said that with the assistance of abolitionists he organized twenty-five such schools in Ohio counties after 1833.[3] Brown County alone had six. Not many years later a Negro settlement in Gallia County, Ohio, was paying a teacher fifty dollars a quarter.[4]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Wright, \"Negro Rural Communities in Indiana,\" _Southern Workman_, vol. xxxvii., p. 165; Boone, _The History of Education in Indiana_, p. 237; and Simmons, _Men of Mark_, pp. 590 and 948.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Simmons, _Men of Mark_, p. 948; and Hickok, _The Negro in Ohio_, p. 85.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: Howe, _Historical Collections of Ohio_, p. 355.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 4: Hickok, _The Negro in Ohio_, p. 89.]",
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      "text": "Still better colored schools were established in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and in Springfield, Columbus, and Cincinnati, Ohio. While the enlightenment of the few Negroes in Pittsburgh did not require the systematic efforts put forth to elevate the race elsewhere, much was done to provide them educational facilities in that city. Children of color first attended the white schools there just as they did throughout the State of Pennsylvania.[1] But when larger numbers of them collected in this gateway to the Northwest, either race feeling or the pressing needs of the migrating freedmen brought about the establishment of schools especially adapted to their instruction. Such efforts were frequent after 1830.[2] John Thomas Johnson, a teacher of the District of Columbia, moved to Pittsburgh in 1838 and became an instructor in a colored school of that city.[3] Cleveland had an \"African School\" as early as 1832. John Malvin, the moving spirit of the enterprise in that city, organized about that time \"The School Fund Society\" which established other colored schools in Cincinnati, Columbus, and Springfield.[4]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Wickersham, _Education in Pennsylvania_, p. 248.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Life of Martin R. Delaney_, p. 33.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: _Special Report of the U.S. Com. of Ed._, 1871, p. 214.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 4: Hickok, _The Negro in Ohio_, p. 88.]",
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      "text": "The concentration of the freedmen and fugitives at Cincinnati was followed by efforts to train them for higher service. The Negroes themselves endeavored to provide their own educational facilities in opening in 1820 the first colored school in that city. This school did not continue long, but another was established the same year. Thereafter one Mr. Wing, who kept a private institution, admitted persons of color to his evening classes. On account of a lack of means, however, the Negroes of Cincinnati did not receive any systematic instruction before 1834. After that year the tide turned in favor of the free blacks of that section, bringing to their assistance a number of daring abolitionists, who helped them to educate themselves. Friends of the race, consisting largely of the students of Lane Seminary, had then organized colored Sunday and evening schools, and provided for them scientific and literary lectures twice a week. There was a permanent colored school in Cincinnati in 1834. In 1835 the Negroes of that city contributed $150 of the $1000 expended for their education. Four years later, however, they raised $889.03 for this purpose, and thanks to their economic progress, this sacrifice was less taxing than that of 1835.[1] In 1844 Rev. Hiram Gilmore opened there a high school which among other students attracted P.B.S. Pinchback, later Governor of Louisiana. Mary E. Miles, a graduate of the Normal School at Albany, New York, served as an assistant of Gilmore after having worked among her people in Massachusetts and Pennsylvania.[2]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Ibid._, p. 83.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Delany, _The Condition of the Colored People_, etc., 132.]",
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      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "The educational advantages given these people were in no sense despised. Although the Negroes of the Northwest did not always keep pace with their neighbors in things industrial they did not permit the white people to outstrip them much in education. The freedmen so earnestly seized their opportunity to acquire knowledge and accomplished so much in a short period that their educational progress served to disabuse the minds of indifferent whites of the idea that the blacks were not capable of high mental development.[1] The educational work of these centers, too, tended not only to produce men capable of ministering to the needs of their environment, but to serve as a training center for those who would later be leaders of their people. Lewis Woodson owed it to friends in Pittsburgh that he became an influential teacher. Jeremiah H. Brown, T. Morris Chester, James T. Bradford, M.R. Delany, and Bishop Benjamin T. Tanner obtained much of their elementary education in the early colored schools of that city.[2] J.C. Corbin, a prominent educator before and after the Civil War, acquired sufficient knowledge at Chillicothe, Ohio, to qualify in 1848 as an assistant in Rev. Henry Adams's school in Louisville.[3] John M. Langston was for a while one of Corbin's fellow-students at Chillicothe before the former entered Oberlin. United States Senator Hiram Revels of Mississippi spent some time in a Quaker seminary in Union County, Indiana.[4] Rev. J.T. White, one of the leading spirits of Arkansas during the Reconstruction, was born and educated in Clark County in that State.[5] Fannie Richards, still a teacher at Detroit, Michigan, is another example of the professional Negro equipped for service in the Northwest before the Rebellion.[6] From other communities of that section came such useful men as Rev. J.W. Malone, an influential minister of Iowa; Rev. D.R. Roberts, a very successful pastor of Chicago; Bishop C.T. Shaffer of the African Methodist Episcopal Church; Rev. John G. Mitchell, for many years the Dean of the Theological Department of Wilberforce University; and President S.T. Mitchell, once the head of the same institution.[7]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: This statement is based on the accounts of various western freedmen.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Simmons, _Men of Mark_, p. 113.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: Siebert, _The Underground Railroad_, pp. 201 and 233.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 4: _Ibid._, 233.]",
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      "text": "The educational privileges which the refugees hoped to enjoy in Canada, however, were not easily exercised. Under the Canadian law they could send their children to the common schools, or use their proportionate share of the school funds in providing other educational facilities.[1] But conditions there did not at first redound to the education of the colored children.[2] Some were too destitute to avail themselves of these opportunities; others, unaccustomed to this equality of fortune, were timid about having their children mingle with those of the whites, and not a few clad their youths so poorly that they became too unhealthy to attend regularly[3]. Besides, race prejudice was not long in making itself the most disturbing factor. In 1852 Benjamin Drew found the minds of the people of Sandwich much exercised over the question of admitting Negroes into the public schools. The same feeling was then almost as strong in Chatham, Hamilton, and London[4]. Consequently, \"partly owing to this prejudice, and partly to their own preference, the colored people, acting under the provision of the law that allowed them to have separate schools, set up their own schools in Sandwich and in many other parts of Ontario\"[5]. There were separate schools at Colchester, Amherstburg, Sandwich, Dawn, and Buxton[6]. It was doubtless because of the rude behavior of white pupils toward the children of the blacks that their private schools flourished at London, Windsor, and other places[7]. The Negroes, themselves, however, did not object to the coeducation of the races. Where there were a few white children in colored settlements they were admitted to schools maintained especially for pupils of African descent.[8] In Toronto no distinction in educational privileges was made, but in later years there flourished an evening school for adults of color.[9]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Howe, _The Refugees from Slavery_, p. 77.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Drew said: \"The prejudice against the African race is here [Canada] strongly marked. It had not been customary to levy school taxes on the colored people. Some three or four years since a trustee assessed a school tax on some of the wealthy citizens of that class. They sent their children at once into the public school. As these sat down the white children near them deserted the benches: and in a day or two the white children were wholly withdrawn, leaving the schoolhouse to the teacher and his colored pupils. The matter was at last 'compromised': a notice 'Select School' was put on the schoolhouse: the white children were selected _in_ and the black were selected _out_.\" See Drew's. _A North-side View of Slavery_, etc., p. 341.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: Mitchell, _The Underground Railroad_, pp. 140, 164, and 165.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 4: Drew, _A North-side View of Slavery_, pp. 118, 147, 235, and 342.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 5: _Ibid_., p. 341.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 6: Siebert, _The Underground Railroad_, p. 229.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 7: _Ibid_., p. 229.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 8: _First Annual Report of the Anti-slavery Society of Canada_, 1852, Appendix, p. 22.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 9: _Ibid_., p. 15.]",
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      "text": "The most helpful schools, however, were not those maintained by the state. Travelers in Canada found the colored mission schools with a larger attendance and doing better work than those maintained at public expense.[1] The rise of the mission schools was due to the effort to \"furnish the conditions under which whatever appreciation of education there was native in a community of Negroes, or whatever taste for it could be awakened there,\" might be \"free to assert itself unhindered by real or imagined opposition.\"[2] There were no such schools in 1830, but by 1838 philanthropists had established the first mission among the Canadian refugees.[3] The English Colonial Church and School Society organized schools at London, Amherstburg, and Colchester. Certain religious organizations of the United States sent ten or more teachers to these settlements.[4] In 1839 these workers were conducting four schools while Rev. Hiram Wilson, their inspector, probably had several other institutions under his supervision.[5] In 1844 Levi Coffin found a large school at Isaac Rice's mission at Fort Maiden or Amherstburg.[6] Rice had toiled among these people six years, receiving very little financial aid, and suffering unusual hardships.[7] Mr. E. Child, a graduate of Oneida Institute, was later added to the corps of mission teachers.[8] In 1852 Mrs. Laura S. Haviland was secured to teach the school of the colony of \"Refugees' Home,\" where the colored people had built a structure \"for school and meeting purposes.\"[9] On Sundays the schoolhouses and churches were crowded by eager seekers, many of whom lived miles away. Among these earnest students a traveler saw an aged couple more than eighty years old.[10] These elementary schools broke the way for a higher institution at Dawn, known as the Manual Labor Institute.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Drew, _A North-side View of Slavery_, pp. 118, 147, 235, 341, and 342.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Siebert, _The Underground Railroad_, p. 229.]",
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      "text": "The good results of these schools were apparent. In the same degree that the denial to slaves of mental development tended to brutalize them the teaching of science and religion elevated the fugitives in Canada. In fact, the Negroes of these settlements soon had ideals differing widely from those of their brethren less favorably circumstanced. They believed in the establishment of homes, respected the sanctity of marriage, and exhibited in their daily life a moral sense of the highest order. Travelers found the majority of them neat, orderly, and intelligent[1]. Availing themselves of their opportunities, they quickly qualified as workers among their fellows. An observer reported in 1855 that a few were engaged in shop keeping or were employed as clerks, while a still smaller number devoted themselves to teaching and preaching.[2] Before 1860 the culture of these settlements was attracting the colored graduates of northern institutions which had begun to give men of African blood an opportunity to study in their professional schools.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: According to the report of the Freedmen's Inquiry Commission published by S.G. Howe, an unusually large proportion of the colored population believed in education. He says: \"Those from the free States had very little schooling in youth; those from the slave States, none at all. Considering these things it is rather remarkable that so many can now read and write. Moreover, they show their esteem for instruction by their desire to obtain it for their children. They all wish to have their children go to school, and they send them all the time that they can be spared.",
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      "text": "\"Canada West has adopted a good system of public instruction, which is well administered. The common schools, though inferior to those of several of the States of the United States, are good. Colored children are admitted to them in most places; and where a separate school is open for them, it is as well provided by the government with teachers and apparatus as the other schools are. Notwithstanding the growing prejudice against blacks, the authorities evidently mean to deal justly by them in regard to instruction; and even those who advocate separate schools, promise that they shall be equal to white schools.",
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      "text": "\"The colored children in the mixed schools do not differ in their general appearance and behavior from their white comrades. They are usually clean and decently clad. They look quite as the whites; and are perhaps a little more mirthful and roguish. The association is manifestly beneficial to the colored children.\" See Howe, _The Refugees_, etc., p. 77.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Siebert, _The Underground Railroad_, p. 226.]",
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      "text": "In the State of Massachusetts the contest was most ardent. Boston opened its first primary school for colored children in 1820. In other towns like Salem and Nantucket, New Bedford and Lowell, where the colored population was also considerable, the same policy was carried out.[1] Some years later, however, both the Negroes and their friends saw the error of their early advocacy of the establishment of special schools to escape the stigma of receiving charity. After the change in the attitude toward the public free schools and the further development of caste in American education, there arose in Massachusetts a struggle between leaders determined to restrict the Negroes' privileges to the use of poorly equipped separate schools and those contending for equality in education.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Minority Report_, etc., p. 35.]",
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      "text": "Basing their action on the equality of men before the law, the advocates of democratic education held meetings from which went frequent and urgent petitions to school committees until Negroes were accepted in the public schools in all towns in Massachusetts except Boston.[1] Children of African blood were successfully admitted to the New Bedford schools on equality with the white youth in 1838.[2] In 1846 the school committee of that town reported that the colored pupils were regular in their attendance, and as successful in their work as the whites. There were then ninety in all in that system; four in the high school, forty in grammar schools, and the remainder in the primary department, all being scattered in such a way as to have one to four in twenty-one to twenty-eight schools. At Lowell the children of a colored family were not only among the best in the schools but the greatest favorites in the system.[3]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Ibid_., p. 20, and _Niles Register_, vol. lxvi., p. 320.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Minority Report_, etc., p. 23.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: _Minority Report_, etc., p. 25.]",
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      "text": "The consolidation of the colored school of Salem with the others of that city led to no disturbance. Speaking of the democracy of these schools in 1846 Mr. Richard Fletcher said: \"The principle of perfect equality is the vital principle of the system. Here all classes of the community mingle together. The rich and the poor meet on terms of equality and are prepared by the same instruction to discharge the duties of life. It is the principle of equality cherished in the free schools on which our government and free institutions rest. Destroy this principle in the schools and the people would soon cease to be free.\" At Nantucket, however, some trouble was experienced because of the admission of pupils of color in 1843. Certain patrons criticized the action adversely and withdrew fourteen of their children from the South Grammar School. The system, however, prospered thereafter rather than declined.[1] Many had no trouble in making the change.[2]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Ibid_., p. 6.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Ibid_., p. 23.]",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B01248",
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      "text": "These victories having been won in other towns of the State by 1846, it soon became evident that Boston would have to yield. Not only were abolitionists pointing to the ease with which this gain had been made in other towns, but were directing attention to the fact that in these smaller communities Negroes were both learning the fundamentals and advancing through the lower grades into the high school. Boston, which had a larger black population than all other towns in Massachusetts combined, had never seen a colored pupil prepared for a secondary institution in one of its public schools. It was, therefore, evident to fair-minded persons that in cities of separate systems Negroes would derive practically no benefit from the school tax which they paid.",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B01249",
      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "This agitation for the abolition of caste in the public schools assumed its most violent form in Boston during the forties. The abolitionists then organized a more strenuous opposition to the caste system. Why Sarah Redmond and the other children of a family paying tax to support the schools of Boston should be turned away from a public school simply because they were persons of color was a problem too difficult for a fair-minded man.[1] The war of words came, however, when in response to a petition of Edmund Jackson, H.J. Bowditch, and other citizens for the admission of colored people to the public schools in 1844, the majority of the school committee refused the request. Following the opinion of Chandler, their solicitor, they based their action of making distinction in the public schools on the natural distinction of the races, which \"no legislature, no social customs, can efface,\" and which \"renders a promiscuous intermingling in the public schools disadvantageous both to them and to the whites.\"[2] Questioned as to any positive law providing for such discrimination, Chandler gave his opinion that the School Committee of Boston, under the authority perhaps of the City Council, had a legal right to establish and maintain special primary schools for the blacks. He believed, too, that in the exercise of their lawful discretionary power they could exclude white pupils from certain schools and colored pupils from certain other schools when, in their judgment, the best interests of all would thereby be promoted.[3]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Wigham, _The Antislavery Cause in America_, p. 103.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Minority Report_, etc., p. 31.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: _Ibid_., p. 30.]",
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      "text": "Encouraged by the fact that colored children were indiscriminately admitted to the schools of Salem, Nantucket, New Bedford, and Lowell, in fact, of every city in Massachusetts but Boston, the friends of the colored people fearlessly attacked the false legal theories of Solicitor Chandler. The minority of the School Committee argued that schools are the common property of all, and that each and all are legally entitled without \"let or hindrance\" to the equal benefits of all advantages they might confer.[1] Any action, therefore, which tended to restrict to any individual or class the advantages and benefits designed for all, was an illegal use of authority, and an arbitrary act used for pernicious purposes.[2] Their republican system, the minority believed, conferred civil equality and legal rights upon every citizen, knew neither privileged nor degraded classes, made no distinctions, and created no differences between rich and poor, learned and ignorant, or white and black, but extended to all alike its protection and benefits.[3] The minority considered it a merit of the school system that it produced the fusion of all classes, promoted the feeling of brotherhood, and the habits of equality. The power of the School Committee, therefore, was limited and constrained by the general spirit of the civil policy and by the letter and spirit of the laws which regulated the system.[4] It was further maintained that to debar the colored youth from these advantages, even if they were assured the same external results, would be a sore injustice and would serve as the surest means of perpetuating a prejudice which should be deprecated and discountenanced by all intelligent and Christian men.[5]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Ibid_., p. 3.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Minority Report_, etc. pp. 4 and 5.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Thorpe, _Federal and State Constitutions_, vol. vi., p. 3762.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: _Ibid_., vol. iv., p. 2471.]",
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      "text": "The problem of educating the Negroes at public expense was perplexing also to the minds of the people of the West. The question became more and more important in Ohio as the black population in that commonwealth increased. The law of 1825 provided that moneys raised from taxation of half a mill on the dollar should be appropriated to the support of common schools in the respective counties and that these schools should be \"open to the youth of every class and grade without distinction.\"[1] Some interpreted this law to include Negroes. To overcome the objection to the partiality shown by school officials the State passed another law in 1829. It excluded colored people from the benefits of the new system, and returned them the amount accruing from the school tax on their property.[2] Thereafter benevolent societies and private associations maintained colored schools in Cincinnati, Columbus, Cleveland, and the southern counties of Ohio.[3] But no help came from the cities and the State before 1849 when the legislature passed a law authorizing the establishment of schools for children of color at public expense.[4]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Laws of Ohio_, vol. xxiii., pp. 37 _et seq_.]",
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      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Hickok, _The Negro in Ohio_, p. 85.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: Simmons, _Men of Mark_, p. 374.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 4: _Laws of Ohio_, vol. liii., pp. 117-118.]",
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      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "The Negroes of Cincinnati soon discovered that they had not won a great victory. They proceeded at once to elect trustees, organized a system, and employed teachers, relying on the money allotted them by the law on the basis of a per capita division of the school fund received by the Board of Education of Cincinnati. So great was the prejudice that the school officials refused to turn over the required funds on the grounds that the colored trustees were not electors, and therefore could not be office holders qualified to receive and disburse public funds.[1] Under the leadership of John I. Gaines the trustees called indignation meetings, and raised sufficient money to employ Flamen Ball, an attorney, to secure a writ of mandamus. The case was contested by the city officials even in the Supreme Court of the State which decided against the officious whites.[2]",
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    {
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Special Report of the U.S. Com. of Ed_., 1871, pp. 371, 372.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Ibid_., 1871, p. 372.]",
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      "text": "Unfortunately it turned out that this decision did not mean very much to the Negroes. There were not many of them in certain settlements and the per capita division of the fund did not secure to them sufficient means to support schools. Even if the funds had been adequate to pay teachers, they had no schoolhouses. Lawyers of that day contended that the Act of 1849 had nothing to do with the construction of buildings. After a short period of accomplishing practically nothing material, the law was amended so as to transfer the control of such colored schools to the managers of the white system.[1] This was taken as a reflection on the standing of the blacks of the city and tended to make them refuse to coöperate with the white board. On account of the failure of this body to act effectively prior to 1856, the people of color were again given power to elect their own trustees.[2]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: _Laws of the State of Ohio_, vol. liii., p. 118.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Ibid_., p. 118.]",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B01278",
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      "text": "During the contest for the control of the colored schools certain Negroes of Cincinnati were endeavoring to make good their claim that their children had a right to attend any school maintained by the city. Acting upon this contention a colored patron sent his son to a public school, which on account of his presence became the center of unusual excitement.[1] Miss Isabella Newhall, the teacher to whom he went, immediately complained to the Board of Education, requesting that he be expelled on account of his race. After \"due deliberation\" the Board of Education decided by a vote of fifteen to ten that he would have to withdraw from that school. Thereupon two members of that body, residing in the district of the timorous teacher, resigned.[2]",
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      "sha256": "005bfaadd8b56350978372f5a02ce5a98d706da0d8363662b977d093ed2aff5c",
      "text": "[Footnote 1: New York _Tribune_, Feb. 19, 1855.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: New York _Tribune_, Feb. 19, 1855; and Carlier, _L'Esclavage_, etc., p. 339.]",
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      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "Thereafter some progress in the development of separate schools in Cincinnati was noted. By 1855 the Board of Education of that city had established four public schools for the instruction of Negro youths. The colored pupils were showing their appreciation by regular attendance, manly deportment, and rapid progress in the acquisition of knowledge. Speaking of these Negroes in 1855, John P. Foote said that they shared with the white citizens that respect for education, and the diffusion of knowledge, which has ever been one of their \"characteristics,\" and that they had, therefore, been more generally intelligent than free persons of color not only in other States but in all other parts of the world.[1] It was in appreciation of the worth of this class of progressive Negroes that in 1858 Nicholas Longworth built a comfortable school-house for them in Cincinnati, leasing it with the privilege of purchasing it in fourteen years.[2] They met these requirements within the stipulated time, and in 1859 secured through other agencies the construction of another building in the western portion of the city.[3]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG11089.B01282",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Foote, _The Schools of Cincinnati_, p. 92.]",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B01283",
      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Special Report of the U.S. Com. of Ed_., 1871, p. 372.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: _Ibid_., p. 372.]",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B01285",
      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "The agitation for the admission of colored children to the public schools was not confined to Cincinnati alone, but came up throughout the section north of the Ohio River.[1] Where the black population was large enough to form a social center of its own, Negroes and their friends could more easily provide for the education of colored children. In settlements, however, in which just a few of them were found, some liberal-minded man usually asked the question why persons taxed to support a system of free schools should not share its benefits. To strengthen their position these benevolent men referred to the rapid progress of the belated people, many of whom within less than a generation from their emergence from slavery had become intelligent, virtuous, and respectable persons, and in not a few cases had accumulated considerable wealth.[2] Those who insisted that children of African blood should be debarred from the regular public schools had for their defense the so-called inequality of the races. Some went so far as to concede the claims made for the progressive blacks, and even to praise those of their respective communities.[3] But great as their progress had been, the advocates of the restriction of their educational privileges considered it wrong to claim for them equality with the Caucasian race. They believed that society would suffer from an intermingling of the children of the two races.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Hickok, _The Negro in Ohio_, ch. iii.; and Boone, _History of Education in Indiana_, p. 237.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: Foote, _The Schools of Cincinnati_, p. 93.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 3: _Ibid_., p. 92.]",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B01289",
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      "text": "In Indiana the problem of educating Negroes was more difficult. R.G. Boone says that, \"nominally for the first few years of the educational experience of the State, black and white children had equal privileges in the few schools that existed.\"[1] But this could not continue long. Abolitionists were moving the country, and freedmen soon found enemies as well as friends in the Ohio valley. Indiana, which was in 1824 so very \"solicitous for a system of education which would guard against caste distinction,\" provided in 1837 that the white inhabitants alone of each congressional township should constitute the local school corporation.[2] In 1841 a petition was sent to the legislature requesting that a reasonable share of the school fund be appropriated to the education of Negroes, but the committee to which it was referred reported that legislation on that subject was inexpedient.[3] With the exception of prohibiting the immigration of such persons into that State not much account of them was taken until 1853. Then the legislature amended the law authorizing the establishment of schools in townships so as to provide that in all enumerations the children of color should not be taken, that the property of the blacks and mulattoes should not be taxed for school purposes, and that their children should not derive any benefit from the common schools of that State.[4] This provision had really been incorporated into the former law, but was omitted by oversight on the part of the engrossing clerk.[5]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Boone, _History of Ed. in Indiana_, p. 237.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Laws of a General Nature of the State of Indiana_, 1837, p. 15.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 4: _Laws of a General Nature of the State of Indiana_, 1855, p. 161.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 5: Boone, _History of Education in Indiana_, p. 237.]",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B01295",
      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "A resolution of the House instructing the educational committee to report a bill for the establishment of schools for the education of the colored children of the State was overwhelmingly defeated in 1853. Explaining their position the opponents said that it was held \"to be better for the weaker party that no privilege be extended to them,\" as the tendency to such \"might be to induce the vain belief that the prejudice of the dominant race could ever be so mollified as to break down the rugged barriers that must forever exist between their social relations.\" The friends of the blacks believed that by elevating them the sense of their degradation would be keener, and so the greater would be their anxiety to seek another country, where with the spirit of men they \"might breathe fresh air of social as well as political liberty.\"[1] This argument, however, availed little. Before the Civil War the Negroes of Indiana received help in acquiring knowledge from no source but private and mission schools.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Boone, _History of Education in Indiana_, p. 237.]",
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      "text": "In Illinois the situation was better than in Indiana, but far from encouraging. The constitution of 1847 restricted the benefits of the school law to white children, stipulating the word white throughout the act so as to make clear the intention of the legislators.[1] It seemed to some that, in excluding the colored children from the public schools, the law contemplated the establishment of separate schools in that it provided that the amount of school taxes collected from Negroes should be returned. Exactly what should be done with such money, however, was not stated in the act. But even if that were the object in view, the provision was of little help to the people of color for the reason that the clause providing for the return of school taxes was seldom executed. In the few cases in which it was carried out the fund thus raised was not adequate to the support of a special school, and generally there were not sufficient colored children in a community to justify such an outlay. In districts having control of their local affairs, however, the children of Negroes were often given a chance to attend school.",
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: The Constitution of Illinois, in the _Journal of the Constitution of the State of Illinois_, 1847, p. 344.]",
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      "ref": "PG11089.B01299",
      "bookId": 11089,
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      "sha256": "46daef70ffbb67d058d5b0bd8873e528b332c5540a60f4b9708510116187cf36",
      "text": "As this scant consideration given Negroes of Illinois left one-half of the six thousand of their children out of the pale of education, earnest appeals were made that the restrictive word white be stricken from the school law. The friends of the colored people sought to show how inconsistent this system was with the spirit of the constitution of the State, which, interpreted as they saw it, guaranteed all persons equality.[1] They held meetings from which came renewed petitions to their representatives, entreating them to repeal or amend the old school law. It was not so much a question as to whether or not there should be separate schools as it was whether or not the people of color should be educated. The dispersed condition of their children made it impossible for the State to provide for them in special schools the same educational facilities as those furnished the youth of Caucasian blood. Chicago tried the experiment in 1864, but failing to get the desired result, incorporated the colored children into the white schools the following year.[2] The State Legislature had sufficient moral courage to do away with these caste distinctions in 1874.[3]",
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      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "[Footnote 1: Thorpe, _Federal and State Constitutions_, Const. of Illinois.]",
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      "bookId": 11089,
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      "text": "[Footnote 2: _Special Report of U.S. Com. of Ed._, 1871, p. 343.]",
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      "text": "\"In cases where portions of time have been allotted to slaves, as among the Spaniards, with a view to their working out their freedom, it is believed that but few have availed themselves of the opportunity by a voluntary industry; and such a result could be less relied on in a case where each individual would feel that the fruits of his exertions would be shared by others, whether equally or unequally making them, and that the exertions of others would equally avail him, notwithstanding a deficiency in his own. Skilful arrangements might palliate this tendency, but it would be difficult to counteract it effectually.",
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      "text": "\"The examples of the Moravians, the Harmonites, and the Shakers, in which the united labours of many for a common object have been successful, have, no doubt, an imposing character. But it must be recollected that in all these establishments there is a religious impulse in the members, and a religious authority in the head, for which there will be no substitutes of equivalent efficacy in the emancipating establishment. The code of rules by which Mr. Rapp manages his conscientious and devoted flock, and enriches a common treasury, must be little applicable to the dissimilar assemblage in question. His experience may afford valuable aid in its general organization, and in the distribution of details of the work to be performed. But an efficient administration must, as is judiciously proposed, be in hands practically acquainted with the propensities and habits of the members of the new community.\"",
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      "sha256": "c38732161f52987d9653e6f81667b49cedfc16cbd813bc31e8ceca8a71f1bdae",
      "text": "FROM FREDERICK DOUGLASS'S PAPER, 1853: \"LEARN TRADES OR STARVE\"",
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      "text": "These are the obvious alternatives sternly presented to the free colored people of the United States. It is idle, yea even ruinous, to disguise the matter for a single hour longer; every day begins and ends with the impressive lesson that free negroes must learn trades, or die.",
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      "text": "The old avocations, by which colored men obtained a livelihood, are rapidly, unceasingly and inevitably passing into other hands; every hour sees the black man elbowed out of employment by some newly arrived emigrant, whose hunger and whose color are thought to give him a better title to the place; and so we believe it will continue to be until the last prop is levelled beneath us.",
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      "text": "As a black man, we say if we cannot stand up, let us fall down. We desire to be a man among men while we do live; and when we cannot, we wish to die. It is evident, painfully evident to every reflecting mind, that the means of living, for colored men, are becoming more and more precarious and limited. Employments and callings formerly monopolized by us, are so no longer.",
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      "text": "White men are becoming house-servants, cooks and stewards on vessels--at hotels.--They are becoming porters, stevedores, wood-sawers, hod-carriers, brick-makers, white-washers and barbers, so that the blacks can scarcely find the means of subsistence--a few years ago, a _white_ barber would have been a curiosity--now their poles stand on every street. Formerly blacks were almost the exclusive coachmen in wealthy families: this is so no longer; white men are now employed, and for aught we see, they fill their servile station with an obsequiousness as profound as that of the blacks. The readiness and ease with which they adapt themselves to these conditions ought not to be lost sight of by the colored people. The meaning is very important, and we should learn it. We are taught our insecurity by it. Without the means of living, life is a curse, and leaves us at the mercy of the oppressor to become his debased slaves. Now, colored men, what do you mean to do, for you must do something? The American Colonization Society tells you to go to Liberia. Mr. Bibb tells you to go to Canada. Others tell you to go to school. We tell you to go to work; and to work you must go or die. Men are not valued in this country, or in any country, for what they are; they are valued for what they can _do_. It is in vain that we talk of being men, if we do not the work of men. We must become valuable to society in other departments of industry than those servile ones from which we are rapidly being excluded. We must show that we can _do_ as well as be; and to this end we must learn trades. When we can build as well as live in houses; when we can _make_ as well as _wear_ shoes; when we can produce as well as consume wheat, corn and rye--then we shall become valuable to society. Society is a hard-hearted affair.--With it the helpless may expect no higher dignity than that of paupers. The individual must lay society under obligation to him, or society will honor him only as a stranger and sojourner. _How_ shall this be done? In this manner; use every means, strain every nerve to master some important mechanical art. At present, the facilities for doing so are few--institutions of learning are more readily opened to you than the work-shop; but the Lord helps them who will help themselves, and we have no doubt that new facilities will be presented as we press forward.",
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      "text": "If the alternative were presented to us of learning a trade or of getting an education, we would learn the trade, for the reason, that with the trade we could get the education while with the education we could not get the trade. What we, as a people, most need, is the means for our own elevation.--An educated colored man, in the United States, unless he has within him the heart of a hero, and is willing to engage in a lifelong battle for his rights, as a man, finds few inducements to remain in this country. He is isolated in the land of his birth--debarred by his color from congenial association with whites; he is equally cast out by the ignorance of the _blacks_. The remedy for this must comprehend the elevation of the masses; and this can only be done by putting the mechanic arts within the reach of colored men.",
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      "text": "We have now stated pretty strongly the case of our colored countrymen; perhaps some will say, _too_ strongly, but we know whereof we affirm.",
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      "text": "In view of this state of things, we appeal to the abolitionists. What Boss anti-slavery mechanic will take a black boy into his wheelwright's shop, his blacksmith's shop, his joiner's shop, his cabinet shop? Here is something _practical_; where are the whites and where are the blacks that will respond to it? Where are the antislavery milliners and seamstresses that will take colored girls and teach them trades, by which they can obtain an honorable living? The fact that we have made good cooks, good waiters, good barbers, and white-washers, induces the belief that we may excel in higher branches of industry. _One thing is certain; we must find new methods of obtaining a livelihood, for the old ones are failing us very fast_.",
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      "text": "We, therefore, call upon the intelligent and thinking ones amongst us, to urge upon the colored people within their reach, in all seriousness, the duty and the necessity of giving their children useful and lucrative trades, by which they may commence the battle of life with weapons, commensurate with the exigencies of conflict.--_African Repository_, vol. xxix., pp. 136, 137.",
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      "text": "EDUCATION OF COLORED PEOPLE",
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      "text": "(_Written by a highly respectable gentleman of the South in_ 1854)",
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      "text": "Twenty-third printing",
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      "text": "PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA",
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      "text": "Mrs. Dalloway said she would buy the flowers herself.",
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      "text": "For Lucy had her work cut out for her. The doors would be taken off their hinges; Rumpelmayer’s men were coming. And then, thought Clarissa Dalloway, what a morning--fresh as if issued to children on a beach.",
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      "text": "What a lark! What a plunge! For so it had always seemed to her, when, with a little squeak of the hinges, which she could hear now, she had burst open the French windows and plunged at Bourton into the open air. How fresh, how calm, stiller than this of course, the air was in the early morning; like the flap of a wave; the kiss of a wave; chill and sharp and yet (for a girl of eighteen as she then was) solemn, feeling as she did, standing there at the open window, that something awful was about to happen; looking at the flowers, at the trees with the smoke winding off them and the rooks rising, falling; standing and looking until Peter Walsh said, “Musing among the vegetables?”--was that it?--“I prefer men to cauliflowers”--was that it? He must have said it at breakfast one morning when she had gone out on to the terrace--Peter Walsh. He would be back from India one of these days, June or July, she forgot which, for his letters were awfully dull; it was his sayings one remembered; his eyes, his pocket-knife, his smile, his grumpiness and, when millions of things had utterly vanished--how strange it was!--a few sayings like this about cabbages.",
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      "text": "She stiffened a little on the kerb, waiting for Durtnall’s van to pass. A charming woman, Scrope Purvis thought her (knowing her as one does know people who live next door to one in Westminster); a touch of the bird about her, of the jay, blue-green, light, vivacious, though she was over fifty, and grown very white since her illness. There she perched, never seeing him, waiting to cross, very upright.",
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      "text": "For having lived in Westminster--how many years now? over twenty,--one feels even in the midst of the traffic, or waking at night, Clarissa was positive, a particular hush, or solemnity; an indescribable pause; a suspense (but that might be her heart, affected, they said, by influenza) before Big Ben strikes. There! Out it boomed. First a warning, musical; then the hour, irrevocable. The leaden circles dissolved in the air. Such fools we are, she thought, crossing Victoria Street. For Heaven only knows why one loves it so, how one sees it so, making it up, building it round one, tumbling it, creating it every moment afresh; but the veriest frumps, the most dejected of miseries sitting on doorsteps (drink their downfall) do the same; can’t be dealt with, she felt positive, by Acts of Parliament for that very reason: they love life. In people’s eyes, in the swing, tramp, and trudge; in the bellow and the uproar; the carriages, motor cars, omnibuses, vans, sandwich men shuffling and swinging; brass bands; barrel organs; in the triumph and the jingle and the strange high singing of some aeroplane overhead was what she loved; life; London; this moment of June.",
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      "text": "For it was the middle of June. The War was over, except for some one like Mrs. Foxcroft at the Embassy last night eating her heart out because that nice boy was killed and now the old Manor House must go to a cousin; or Lady Bexborough who opened a bazaar, they said, with the telegram in her hand, John, her favourite, killed; but it was over; thank Heaven--over. It was June. The King and Queen were at the Palace. And everywhere, though it was still so early, there was a beating, a stirring of galloping ponies, tapping of cricket bats; Lords, Ascot, Ranelagh and all the rest of it; wrapped in the soft mesh of the grey-blue morning air, which, as the day wore on, would unwind them, and set down on their lawns and pitches the bouncing ponies, whose forefeet just struck the ground and up they sprung, the whirling young men, and laughing girls in their transparent muslins who, even now, after dancing all night, were taking their absurd woolly dogs for a run; and even now, at this hour, discreet old dowagers were shooting out in their motor cars on errands of mystery; and the shopkeepers were fidgeting in their windows with their paste and diamonds, their lovely old sea-green brooches in eighteenth-century settings to tempt Americans (but one must economise, not buy things rashly for Elizabeth), and she, too, loving it as she did with an absurd and faithful passion, being part of it, since her people were courtiers once in the time of the Georges, she, too, was going that very night to kindle and illuminate; to give her party. But how strange, on entering the Park, the silence; the mist; the hum; the slow-swimming happy ducks; the pouched birds waddling; and who should be coming along with his back against the Government buildings, most appropriately, carrying a despatch box stamped with the Royal Arms, who but Hugh Whitbread; her old friend Hugh--the admirable Hugh!",
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      "text": "“Good-morning to you, Clarissa!” said Hugh, rather extravagantly, for they had known each other as children. “Where are you off to?”",
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      "text": "“I love walking in London,” said Mrs. Dalloway. “Really it’s better than walking in the country.”",
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      "text": "They had just come up--unfortunately--to see doctors. Other people came to see pictures; go to the opera; take their daughters out; the Whitbreads came “to see doctors.” Times without number Clarissa had visited Evelyn Whitbread in a nursing home. Was Evelyn ill again? Evelyn was a good deal out of sorts, said Hugh, intimating by a kind of pout or swell of his very well-covered, manly, extremely handsome, perfectly upholstered body (he was almost too well dressed always, but presumably had to be, with his little job at Court) that his wife had some internal ailment, nothing serious, which, as an old friend, Clarissa Dalloway would quite understand without requiring him to specify. Ah yes, she did of course; what a nuisance; and felt very sisterly and oddly conscious at the same time of her hat. Not the right hat for the early morning, was that it? For Hugh always made her feel, as he bustled on, raising his hat rather extravagantly and assuring her that she might be a girl of eighteen, and of course he was coming to her party to-night, Evelyn absolutely insisted, only a little late he might be after the party at the Palace to which he had to take one of Jim’s boys,--she always felt a little skimpy beside Hugh; schoolgirlish; but attached to him, partly from having known him always, but she did think him a good sort in his own way, though Richard was nearly driven mad by him, and as for Peter Walsh, he had never to this day forgiven her for liking him.",
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      "text": "She could remember scene after scene at Bourton--Peter furious; Hugh not, of course, his match in any way, but still not a positive imbecile as Peter made out; not a mere barber’s block. When his old mother wanted him to give up shooting or to take her to Bath he did it, without a word; he was really unselfish, and as for saying, as Peter did, that he had no heart, no brain, nothing but the manners and breeding of an English gentleman, that was only her dear Peter at his worst; and he could be intolerable; he could be impossible; but adorable to walk with on a morning like this.",
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      "text": "(June had drawn out every leaf on the trees. The mothers of Pimlico gave suck to their young. Messages were passing from the Fleet to the Admiralty. Arlington Street and Piccadilly seemed to chafe the very air in the Park and lift its leaves hotly, brilliantly, on waves of that divine vitality which Clarissa loved. To dance, to ride, she had adored all that.)",
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      "text": "For they might be parted for hundreds of years, she and Peter; she never wrote a letter and his were dry sticks; but suddenly it would come over her, If he were with me now what would he say?--some days, some sights bringing him back to her calmly, without the old bitterness; which perhaps was the reward of having cared for people; they came back in the middle of St. James’s Park on a fine morning--indeed they did. But Peter--however beautiful the day might be, and the trees and the grass, and the little girl in pink--Peter never saw a thing of all that. He would put on his spectacles, if she told him to; he would look. It was the state of the world that interested him; Wagner, Pope’s poetry, people’s characters eternally, and the defects of her own soul. How he scolded her! How they argued! She would marry a Prime Minister and stand at the top of a staircase; the perfect hostess he called her (she had cried over it in her bedroom), she had the makings of the perfect hostess, he said.",
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      "text": "So she would still find herself arguing in St. James’s Park, still making out that she had been right--and she had too--not to marry him. For in marriage a little licence, a little independence there must be between people living together day in day out in the same house; which Richard gave her, and she him. (Where was he this morning for instance? Some committee, she never asked what.) But with Peter everything had to be shared; everything gone into. And it was intolerable, and when it came to that scene in the little garden by the fountain, she had to break with him or they would have been destroyed, both of them ruined, she was convinced; though she had borne about with her for years like an arrow sticking in her heart the grief, the anguish; and then the horror of the moment when some one told her at a concert that he had married a woman met on the boat going to India! Never should she forget all that! Cold, heartless, a prude, he called her. Never could she understand how he cared. But those Indian women did presumably--silly, pretty, flimsy nincompoops. And she wasted her pity. For he was quite happy, he assured her--perfectly happy, though he had never done a thing that they talked of; his whole life had been a failure. It made her angry still.",
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      "text": "She had reached the Park gates. She stood for a moment, looking at the omnibuses in Piccadilly.",
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      "text": "She would not say of any one in the world now that they were this or were that. She felt very young; at the same time unspeakably aged. She sliced like a knife through everything; at the same time was outside, looking on. She had a perpetual sense, as she watched the taxi cabs, of being out, out, far out to sea and alone; she always had the feeling that it was very, very dangerous to live even one day. Not that she thought herself clever, or much out of the ordinary. How she had got through life on the few twigs of knowledge Fräulein Daniels gave them she could not think. She knew nothing; no language, no history; she scarcely read a book now, except memoirs in bed; and yet to her it was absolutely absorbing; all this; the cabs passing; and she would not say of Peter, she would not say of herself, I am this, I am that.",
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      "text": "Her only gift was knowing people almost by instinct, she thought, walking on. If you put her in a room with some one, up went her back like a cat’s; or she purred. Devonshire House, Bath House, the house with the china cockatoo, she had seen them all lit up once; and remembered Sylvia, Fred, Sally Seton--such hosts of people; and dancing all night; and the waggons plodding past to market; and driving home across the Park. She remembered once throwing a shilling into the Serpentine. But every one remembered; what she loved was this, here, now, in front of her; the fat lady in the cab. Did it matter then, she asked herself, walking towards Bond Street, did it matter that she must inevitably cease completely; all this must go on without her; did she resent it; or did it not become consoling to believe that death ended absolutely? but that somehow in the streets of London, on the ebb and flow of things, here, there, she survived, Peter survived, lived in each other, she being part, she was positive, of the trees at home; of the house there, ugly, rambling all to bits and pieces as it was; part of people she had never met; being laid out like a mist between the people she knew best, who lifted her on their branches as she had seen the trees lift the mist, but it spread ever so far, her life, herself. But what was she dreaming as she looked into Hatchards’ shop window? What was she trying to recover? What image of white dawn in the country, as she read in the book spread open:",
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      "text": "Fear no more the heat o’ the sun Nor the furious winter’s rages.",
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      "text": "This late age of the world’s experience had bred in them all, all men and women, a well of tears. Tears and sorrows; courage and endurance; a perfectly upright and stoical bearing. Think, for example, of the woman she admired most, Lady Bexborough, opening the bazaar.",
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      "text": "There were Jorrocks’ _Jaunts and Jollities_; there were _Soapy Sponge_ and Mrs. Asquith’s _Memoirs_ and _Big Game Shooting in Nigeria_, all spread open. Ever so many books there were; but none that seemed exactly right to take to Evelyn Whitbread in her nursing home. Nothing that would serve to amuse her and make that indescribably dried-up little woman look, as Clarissa came in, just for a moment cordial; before they settled down for the usual interminable talk of women’s ailments. How much she wanted it--that people should look pleased as she came in, Clarissa thought and turned and walked back towards Bond Street, annoyed, because it was silly to have other reasons for doing things. Much rather would she have been one of those people like Richard who did things for themselves, whereas, she thought, waiting to cross, half the time she did things not simply, not for themselves; but to make people think this or that; perfect idiocy she knew (and now the policeman held up his hand) for no one was ever for a second taken in. Oh if she could have had her life over again! she thought, stepping on to the pavement, could have looked even differently!",
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      "text": "She would have been, in the first place, dark like Lady Bexborough, with a skin of crumpled leather and beautiful eyes. She would have been, like Lady Bexborough, slow and stately; rather large; interested in politics like a man; with a country house; very dignified, very sincere. Instead of which she had a narrow pea-stick figure; a ridiculous little face, beaked like a bird’s. That she held herself well was true; and had nice hands and feet; and dressed well, considering that she spent little. But often now this body she wore (she stopped to look at a Dutch picture), this body, with all its capacities, seemed nothing--nothing at all. She had the oddest sense of being herself invisible; unseen; unknown; there being no more marrying, no more having of children now, but only this astonishing and rather solemn progress with the rest of them, up Bond Street, this being Mrs. Dalloway; not even Clarissa any more; this being Mrs. Richard Dalloway.",
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      "text": "Bond Street fascinated her; Bond Street early in the morning in the season; its flags flying; its shops; no splash; no glitter; one roll of tweed in the shop where her father had bought his suits for fifty years; a few pearls; salmon on an iceblock.",
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      "text": "There were flowers: delphiniums, sweet peas, bunches of lilac; and carnations, masses of carnations. There were roses; there were irises. Ah yes--so she breathed in the earthy garden sweet smell as she stood talking to Miss Pym who owed her help, and thought her kind, for kind she had been years ago; very kind, but she looked older, this year, turning her head from side to side among the irises and roses and nodding tufts of lilac with her eyes half closed, snuffing in, after the street uproar, the delicious scent, the exquisite coolness. And then, opening her eyes, how fresh like frilled linen clean from a laundry laid in wicker trays the roses looked; and dark and prim the red carnations, holding their heads up; and all the sweet peas spreading in their bowls, tinged violet, snow white, pale--as if it were the evening and girls in muslin frocks came out to pick sweet peas and roses after the superb summer’s day, with its almost blue-black sky, its delphiniums, its carnations, its arum lilies was over; and it was the moment between six and seven when every flower--roses, carnations, irises, lilac--glows; white, violet, red, deep orange; every flower seems to burn by itself, softly, purely in the misty beds; and how she loved the grey-white moths spinning in and out, over the cherry pie, over the evening primroses!",
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      "text": "And as she began to go with Miss Pym from jar to jar, choosing, nonsense, nonsense, she said to herself, more and more gently, as if this beauty, this scent, this colour, and Miss Pym liking her, trusting her, were a wave which she let flow over her and surmount that hatred, that monster, surmount it all; and it lifted her up and up when--oh! a pistol shot in the street outside!",
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      "text": "“Dear, those motor cars,” said Miss Pym, going to the window to look, and coming back and smiling apologetically with her hands full of sweet peas, as if those motor cars, those tyres of motor cars, were all _her_ fault.",
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      "text": "* * * * *",
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      "text": "The violent explosion which made Mrs. Dalloway jump and Miss Pym go to the window and apologise came from a motor car which had drawn to the side of the pavement precisely opposite Mulberry’s shop window. Passers-by who, of course, stopped and stared, had just time to see a face of the very greatest importance against the dove-grey upholstery, before a male hand drew the blind and there was nothing to be seen except a square of dove grey.",
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      "text": "Yet rumours were at once in circulation from the middle of Bond Street to Oxford Street on one side, to Atkinson’s scent shop on the other, passing invisibly, inaudibly, like a cloud, swift, veil-like upon hills, falling indeed with something of a cloud’s sudden sobriety and stillness upon faces which a second before had been utterly disorderly. But now mystery had brushed them with her wing; they had heard the voice of authority; the spirit of religion was abroad with her eyes bandaged tight and her lips gaping wide. But nobody knew whose face had been seen. Was it the Prince of Wales’s, the Queen’s, the Prime Minister’s? Whose face was it? Nobody knew.",
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      "text": "Edgar J. Watkiss, with his roll of lead piping round his arm, said audibly, humorously of course: “The Proime Minister’s kyar.”",
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      "text": "Septimus Warren Smith, who found himself unable to pass, heard him.",
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      "text": "Septimus Warren Smith, aged about thirty, pale-faced, beak-nosed, wearing brown shoes and a shabby overcoat, with hazel eyes which had that look of apprehension in them which makes complete strangers apprehensive too. The world has raised its whip; where will it descend?",
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      "text": "Everything had come to a standstill. The throb of the motor engines sounded like a pulse irregularly drumming through an entire body. The sun became extraordinarily hot because the motor car had stopped outside Mulberry’s shop window; old ladies on the tops of omnibuses spread their black parasols; here a green, here a red parasol opened with a little pop. Mrs. Dalloway, coming to the window with her arms full of sweet peas, looked out with her little pink face pursed in enquiry. Every one looked at the motor car. Septimus looked. Boys on bicycles sprang off. Traffic accumulated. And there the motor car stood, with drawn blinds, and upon them a curious pattern like a tree, Septimus thought, and this gradual drawing together of everything to one centre before his eyes, as if some horror had come almost to the surface and was about to burst into flames, terrified him. The world wavered and quivered and threatened to burst into flames. It is I who am blocking the way, he thought. Was he not being looked at and pointed at; was he not weighted there, rooted to the pavement, for a purpose? But for what purpose?",
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      "text": "“Let us go on, Septimus,” said his wife, a little woman, with large eyes in a sallow pointed face; an Italian girl.",
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      "text": "But Lucrezia herself could not help looking at the motor car and the tree pattern on the blinds. Was it the Queen in there--the Queen going shopping?",
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      "text": "The chauffeur, who had been opening something, turning something, shutting something, got on to the box.",
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      "text": "“Come on,” said Lucrezia.",
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      "text": "But her husband, for they had been married four, five years now, jumped, started, and said, “All right!” angrily, as if she had interrupted him.",
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      "text": "People must notice; people must see. People, she thought, looking at the crowd staring at the motor car; the English people, with their children and their horses and their clothes, which she admired in a way; but they were “people” now, because Septimus had said, “I will kill myself”; an awful thing to say. Suppose they had heard him? She looked at the crowd. Help, help! she wanted to cry out to butchers’ boys and women. Help! Only last autumn she and Septimus had stood on the Embankment wrapped in the same cloak and, Septimus reading a paper instead of talking, she had snatched it from him and laughed in the old man’s face who saw them! But failure one conceals. She must take him away into some park.",
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      "text": "“Now we will cross,” she said.",
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      "text": "She had a right to his arm, though it was without feeling. He would give her, who was so simple, so impulsive, only twenty-four, without friends in England, who had left Italy for his sake, a piece of bone.",
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      "text": "The motor car with its blinds drawn and an air of inscrutable reserve proceeded towards Piccadilly, still gazed at, still ruffling the faces on both sides of the street with the same dark breath of veneration whether for Queen, Prince, or Prime Minister nobody knew. The face itself had been seen only once by three people for a few seconds. Even the sex was now in dispute. But there could be no doubt that greatness was seated within; greatness was passing, hidden, down Bond Street, removed only by a hand’s-breadth from ordinary people who might now, for the first and last time, be within speaking distance of the majesty of England, of the enduring symbol of the state which will be known to curious antiquaries, sifting the ruins of time, when London is a grass-grown path and all those hurrying along the pavement this Wednesday morning are but bones with a few wedding rings mixed up in their dust and the gold stoppings of innumerable decayed teeth. The face in the motor car will then be known.",
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      "text": "It is probably the Queen, thought Mrs. Dalloway, coming out of Mulberry’s with her flowers; the Queen. And for a second she wore a look of extreme dignity standing by the flower shop in the sunlight while the car passed at a foot’s pace, with its blinds drawn. The Queen going to some hospital; the Queen opening some bazaar, thought Clarissa.",
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      "text": "The crush was terrific for the time of day. Lords, Ascot, Hurlingham, what was it? she wondered, for the street was blocked. The British middle classes sitting sideways on the tops of omnibuses with parcels and umbrellas, yes, even furs on a day like this, were, she thought, more ridiculous, more unlike anything there has ever been than one could conceive; and the Queen herself held up; the Queen herself unable to pass. Clarissa was suspended on one side of Brook Street; Sir John Buckhurst, the old Judge on the other, with the car between them (Sir John had laid down the law for years and liked a well-dressed woman) when the chauffeur, leaning ever so slightly, said or showed something to the policeman, who saluted and raised his arm and jerked his head and moved the omnibus to the side and the car passed through. Slowly and very silently it took its way.",
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      "text": "Ah, but that aeroplane! Hadn’t Mrs. Dempster always longed to see foreign parts? She had a nephew, a missionary. It soared and shot. She always went on the sea at Margate, not out o’ sight of land, but she had no patience with women who were afraid of water. It swept and fell. Her stomach was in her mouth. Up again. There’s a fine young feller aboard of it, Mrs. Dempster wagered, and away and away it went, fast and fading, away and away the aeroplane shot; soaring over Greenwich and all the masts; over the little island of grey churches, St. Paul’s and the rest till, on either side of London, fields spread out and dark brown woods where adventurous thrushes hopping boldly, glancing quickly, snatched the snail and tapped him on a stone, once, twice, thrice.",
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      "text": "Away and away the aeroplane shot, till it was nothing but a bright spark; an aspiration; a concentration; a symbol (so it seemed to Mr. Bentley, vigorously rolling his strip of turf at Greenwich) of man’s soul; of his determination, thought Mr. Bentley, sweeping round the cedar tree, to get outside his body, beyond his house, by means of thought, Einstein, speculation, mathematics, the Mendelian theory--away the aeroplane shot.",
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      "text": "Then, while a seedy-looking nondescript man carrying a leather bag stood on the steps of St. Paul’s Cathedral, and hesitated, for within was what balm, how great a welcome, how many tombs with banners waving over them, tokens of victories not over armies, but over, he thought, that plaguy spirit of truth seeking which leaves me at present without a situation, and more than that, the cathedral offers company, he thought, invites you to membership of a society; great men belong to it; martyrs have died for it; why not enter in, he thought, put this leather bag stuffed with pamphlets before an altar, a cross, the symbol of something which has soared beyond seeking and questing and knocking of words together and has become all spirit, disembodied, ghostly--why not enter in? he thought and while he hesitated out flew the aeroplane over Ludgate Circus.",
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      "text": "It was strange; it was still. Not a sound was to be heard above the traffic. Unguided it seemed; sped of its own free will. And now, curving up and up, straight up, like something mounting in ecstasy, in pure delight, out from behind poured white smoke looping, writing a T, an O, an F.",
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      "text": "“Heavens, the front-door bell!” exclaimed Clarissa, staying her needle. Roused, she listened.",
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      "text": "“Mrs. Dalloway will see me,” said the elderly man in the hall. “Oh yes, she will see _me_,” he repeated, putting Lucy aside very benevolently, and running upstairs ever so quickly. “Yes, yes, yes,” he muttered as he ran upstairs. “She will see me. After five years in India, Clarissa will see me.”",
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      "text": "“Who can--what can,” asked Mrs. Dalloway (thinking it was outrageous to be interrupted at eleven o’clock on the morning of the day she was giving a party), hearing a step on the stairs. She heard a hand upon the door. She made to hide her dress, like a virgin protecting chastity, respecting privacy. Now the brass knob slipped. Now the door opened, and in came--for a single second she could not remember what he was called! so surprised she was to see him, so glad, so shy, so utterly taken aback to have Peter Walsh come to her unexpectedly in the morning! (She had not read his letter.)",
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      "text": "“And how are you?” said Peter Walsh, positively trembling; taking both her hands; kissing both her hands. She’s grown older, he thought, sitting down. I shan’t tell her anything about it, he thought, for she’s grown older. She’s looking at me, he thought, a sudden embarrassment coming over him, though he had kissed her hands. Putting his hand into his pocket, he took out a large pocket-knife and half opened the blade.",
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      "text": "Exactly the same, thought Clarissa; the same queer look; the same check suit; a little out of the straight his face is, a little thinner, dryer, perhaps, but he looks awfully well, and just the same.",
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      "text": "“But it’s so extraordinary that you should have come this morning!” she cried, putting her hands, one on top of another, down on her dress.",
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      "text": "“Do you remember,” she said, “how the blinds used to flap at Bourton?”",
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      "text": "“They did,” he said; and he remembered breakfasting alone, very awkwardly, with her father; who had died; and he had not written to Clarissa. But he had never got on well with old Parry, that querulous, weak-kneed old man, Clarissa’s father, Justin Parry.",
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      "text": "“I often wish I’d got on better with your father,” he said.",
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      "text": "“But he never liked any one who--our friends,” said Clarissa; and could have bitten her tongue for thus reminding Peter that he had wanted to marry her.",
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      "text": "“Here is my Elizabeth,” said Clarissa, emotionally, histrionically, perhaps.",
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      "text": "“How d’y do?” said Elizabeth coming forward.",
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      "text": "The sound of Big Ben striking the half-hour struck out between them with extraordinary vigour, as if a young man, strong, indifferent, inconsiderate, were swinging dumb-bells this way and that.",
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      "text": "“Hullo, Elizabeth!” cried Peter, stuffing his handkerchief into his pocket, going quickly to her, saying “Good-bye, Clarissa” without looking at her, leaving the room quickly, and running downstairs and opening the hall door.",
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      "text": "“Peter! Peter!” cried Clarissa, following him out on to the landing. “My party to-night! Remember my party to-night!” she cried, having to raise her voice against the roar of the open air, and, overwhelmed by the traffic and the sound of all the clocks striking, her voice crying “Remember my party to-night!” sounded frail and thin and very far away as Peter Walsh shut the door.",
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      "text": "The child ran straight back to its nurse, and Rezia saw her scolded, comforted, taken up by the nurse who put down her knitting, and the kind-looking man gave her his watch to blow open to comfort her--but why should _she_ be exposed? Why not left in Milan? Why tortured? Why?",
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      "text": "Slightly waved by tears the broad path, the nurse, the man in grey, the perambulator, rose and fell before her eyes. To be rocked by this malignant torturer was her lot. But why? She was like a bird sheltering under the thin hollow of a leaf, who blinks at the sun when the leaf moves; starts at the crack of a dry twig. She was exposed; she was surrounded by the enormous trees, vast clouds of an indifferent world, exposed; tortured; and why should she suffer? Why?",
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      "text": "She frowned; she stamped her foot. She must go back again to Septimus since it was almost time for them to be going to Sir William Bradshaw. She must go back and tell him, go back to him sitting there on the green chair under the tree, talking to himself, or to that dead man Evans, whom she had only seen once for a moment in the shop. He had seemed a nice quiet man; a great friend of Septimus’s, and he had been killed in the War. But such things happen to every one. Every one has friends who were killed in the War. Every one gives up something when they marry. She had given up her home. She had come to live here, in this awful city. But Septimus let himself think about horrible things, as she could too, if she tried. He had grown stranger and stranger. He said people were talking behind the bedroom walls. Mrs. Filmer thought it odd. He saw things too--he had seen an old woman’s head in the middle of a fern. Yet he could be happy when he chose. They went to Hampton Court on top of a bus, and they were perfectly happy. All the little red and yellow flowers were out on the grass, like floating lamps he said, and talked and chattered and laughed, making up stories. Suddenly he said, “Now we will kill ourselves,” when they were standing by the river, and he looked at it with a look which she had seen in his eyes when a train went by, or an omnibus--a look as if something fascinated him; and she felt he was going from her and she caught him by the arm. But going home he was perfectly quiet--perfectly reasonable. He would argue with her about killing themselves; and explain how wicked people were; how he could see them making up lies as they passed in the street. He knew all their thoughts, he said; he knew everything. He knew the meaning of the world, he said.",
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      "text": "Then when they got back he could hardly walk. He lay on the sofa and made her hold his hand to prevent him from falling down, down, he cried, into the flames! and saw faces laughing at him, calling him horrible disgusting names, from the walls, and hands pointing round the screen. Yet they were quite alone. But he began to talk aloud, answering people, arguing, laughing, crying, getting very excited and making her write things down. Perfect nonsense it was; about death; about Miss Isabel Pole. She could stand it no longer. She would go back.",
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      "text": "She was close to him now, could see him staring at the sky, muttering, clasping his hands. Yet Dr. Holmes said there was nothing the matter with him. What then had happened--why had he gone, then, why, when she sat by him, did he start, frown at her, move away, and point at her hand, take her hand, look at it terrified?",
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      "text": "Suppose it was a wet night? Suppose one’s father, or somebody who had known one in better days had happened to pass, and saw one standing there in the gutter? And where did she sleep at night?",
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      "text": "Cheerfully, almost gaily, the invincible thread of sound wound up into the air like the smoke from a cottage chimney, winding up clean beech trees and issuing in a tuft of blue smoke among the topmost leaves. “And if some one should see, what matter they?”",
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      "text": "Since she was so unhappy, for weeks and weeks now, Rezia had given meanings to things that happened, almost felt sometimes that she must stop people in the street, if they looked good, kind people, just to say to them “I am unhappy”; and this old woman singing in the street “if some one should see, what matter they?” made her suddenly quite sure that everything was going to be right. They were going to Sir William Bradshaw; she thought his name sounded nice; he would cure Septimus at once. And then there was a brewer’s cart, and the grey horses had upright bristles of straw in their tails; there were newspaper placards. It was a silly, silly dream, being unhappy.",
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      "text": "So they crossed, Mr. and Mrs. Septimus Warren Smith, and was there, after all, anything to draw attention to them, anything to make a passer-by suspect here is a young man who carries in him the greatest message in the world, and is, moreover, the happiest man in the world, and the most miserable? Perhaps they walked more slowly than other people, and there was something hesitating, trailing, in the man’s walk, but what more natural for a clerk, who has not been in the West End on a weekday at this hour for years, than to keep looking at the sky, looking at this, that and the other, as if Portland Place were a room he had come into when the family are away, the chandeliers being hung in holland bags, and the caretaker, as she lets in long shafts of dusty light upon deserted, queer-looking arm-chairs, lifting one corner of the long blinds, explains to the visitors what a wonderful place it is; how wonderful, but at the same time, he thinks, as he looks at chairs and tables, how strange.",
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      "text": "To look at, he might have been a clerk, but of the better sort; for he wore brown boots; his hands were educated; so, too, his profile--his angular, big-nosed, intelligent, sensitive profile; but not his lips altogether, for they were loose; and his eyes (as eyes tend to be), eyes merely; hazel, large; so that he was, on the whole, a border case, neither one thing nor the other, might end with a house at Purley and a motor car, or continue renting apartments in back streets all his life; one of those half-educated, self-educated men whose education is all learnt from books borrowed from public libraries, read in the evening after the day’s work, on the advice of well-known authors consulted by letter.",
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      "text": "Human nature, in short, was on him--the repulsive brute, with the blood-red nostrils. Holmes was on him. Dr. Holmes came quite regularly every day. Once you stumble, Septimus wrote on the back of a postcard, human nature is on you. Holmes is on you. Their only chance was to escape, without letting Holmes know; to Italy--anywhere, anywhere, away from Dr. Holmes.",
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      "text": "But Rezia could not understand him. Dr. Holmes was such a kind man. He was so interested in Septimus. He only wanted to help them, he said. He had four little children and he had asked her to tea, she told Septimus.",
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      "text": "So he was deserted. The whole world was clamouring: Kill yourself, kill yourself, for our sakes. But why should he kill himself for their sakes? Food was pleasant; the sun hot; and this killing oneself, how does one set about it, with a table knife, uglily, with floods of blood,--by sucking a gaspipe? He was too weak; he could scarcely raise his hand. Besides, now that he was quite alone, condemned, deserted, as those who are about to die are alone, there was a luxury in it, an isolation full of sublimity; a freedom which the attached can never know. Holmes had won of course; the brute with the red nostrils had won. But even Holmes himself could not touch this last relic straying on the edge of the world, this outcast, who gazed back at the inhabited regions, who lay, like a drowned sailor, on the shore of the world.",
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      "text": "It was at that moment (Rezia gone shopping) that the great revelation took place. A voice spoke from behind the screen. Evans was speaking. The dead were with him.",
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      "text": "“Evans, Evans!” he cried.",
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      "text": "Mr. Smith was talking aloud to himself, Agnes the servant girl cried to Mrs. Filmer in the kitchen. “Evans, Evans,” he had said as she brought in the tray. She jumped, she did. She scuttled downstairs.",
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      "text": "And Rezia came in, with her flowers, and walked across the room, and put the roses in a vase, upon which the sun struck directly, and it went laughing, leaping round the room.",
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      "text": "She had had to buy the roses, Rezia said, from a poor man in the street. But they were almost dead already, she said, arranging the roses.",
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      "text": "So there was a man outside; Evans presumably; and the roses, which Rezia said were half dead, had been picked by him in the fields of Greece. “Communication is health; communication is happiness, communication--” he muttered.",
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      "text": "“What are you saying, Septimus?” Rezia asked, wild with terror, for he was talking to himself.",
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      "text": "She sent Agnes running for Dr. Holmes. Her husband, she said, was mad. He scarcely knew her.",
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      "text": "“You brute! You brute!” cried Septimus, seeing human nature, that is Dr. Holmes, enter the room.",
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      "text": "“Now what’s all this about?” said Dr. Holmes in the most amiable way in the world. “Talking nonsense to frighten your wife?” But he would give him something to make him sleep. And if they were rich people, said Dr. Holmes, looking ironically round the room, by all means let them go to Harley Street; if they had no confidence in him, said Dr. Holmes, looking not quite so kind.",
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      "text": "It was precisely twelve o’clock; twelve by Big Ben; whose stroke was wafted over the northern part of London; blent with that of other clocks, mixed in a thin ethereal way with the clouds and wisps of smoke, and died up there among the seagulls--twelve o’clock struck as Clarissa Dalloway laid her green dress on her bed, and the Warren Smiths walked down Harley Street. Twelve was the hour of their appointment. Probably, Rezia thought, that was Sir William Bradshaw’s house with the grey motor car in front of it. The leaden circles dissolved in the air.",
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      "text": "Indeed it was--Sir William Bradshaw’s motor car; low, powerful, grey with plain initials interlocked on the panel, as if the pomps of heraldry were incongruous, this man being the ghostly helper, the priest of science; and, as the motor car was grey, so to match its sober suavity, grey furs, silver grey rugs were heaped in it, to keep her ladyship warm while she waited. For often Sir William would travel sixty miles or more down into the country to visit the rich, the afflicted, who could afford the very large fee which Sir William very properly charged for his advice. Her ladyship waited with the rugs about her knees an hour or more, leaning back, thinking sometimes of the patient, sometimes, excusably, of the wall of gold, mounting minute by minute while she waited; the wall of gold that was mounting between them and all shifts and anxieties (she had borne them bravely; they had had their struggles) until she felt wedged on a calm ocean, where only spice winds blow; respected, admired, envied, with scarcely anything left to wish for, though she regretted her stoutness; large dinner-parties every Thursday night to the profession; an occasional bazaar to be opened; Royalty greeted; too little time, alas, with her husband, whose work grew and grew; a boy doing well at Eton; she would have liked a daughter too; interests she had, however, in plenty; child welfare; the after-care of the epileptic, and photography, so that if there was a church building, or a church decaying, she bribed the sexton, got the key and took photographs, which were scarcely to be distinguished from the work of professionals, while she waited.",
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      "text": "“I have--I have,” he began, “committed a crime--”",
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      "text": "“He has done nothing wrong whatever,” Rezia assured the doctor. If Mr. Smith would wait, said Sir William, he would speak to Mrs. Smith in the next room. Her husband was very seriously ill, Sir William said. Did he threaten to kill himself?",
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      "text": "Oh, he did, she cried. But he did not mean it, she said. Of course not. It was merely a question of rest, said Sir William; of rest, rest, rest; a long rest in bed. There was a delightful home down in the country where her husband would be perfectly looked after. Away from her? she asked. Unfortunately, yes; the people we care for most are not good for us when we are ill. But he was not mad, was he? Sir William said he never spoke of “madness”; he called it not having a sense of proportion. But her husband did not like doctors. He would refuse to go there. Shortly and kindly Sir William explained to her the state of the case. He had threatened to kill himself. There was no alternative. It was a question of law. He would lie in bed in a beautiful house in the country. The nurses were admirable. Sir William would visit him once a week. If Mrs. Warren Smith was quite sure she had no more questions to ask--he never hurried his patients--they would return to her husband. She had nothing more to ask--not of Sir William.",
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      "text": "So they returned to the most exalted of mankind; the criminal who faced his judges; the victim exposed on the heights; the fugitive; the drowned sailor; the poet of the immortal ode; the Lord who had gone from life to death; to Septimus Warren Smith, who sat in the arm-chair under the skylight staring at a photograph of Lady Bradshaw in Court dress, muttering messages about beauty.",
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      "text": "“We have had our little talk,” said Sir William.",
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      "text": "“Try to think as little about yourself as possible,” said Sir William kindly. Really, he was not fit to be about.",
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      "text": "Was there anything else they wished to ask him? Sir William would make all arrangements (he murmured to Rezia) and he would let her know between five and six that evening he murmured.",
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      "text": "“Trust everything to me,” he said, and dismissed them.",
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      "text": "Never, never had Rezia felt such agony in her life! She had asked for help and been deserted! He had failed them! Sir William Bradshaw was not a nice man.",
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      "text": "The upkeep of that motor car alone must cost him quite a lot, said Septimus, when they got out into the street.",
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      "text": "She clung to his arm. They had been deserted.",
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      "text": "But what more did she want?",
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      "text": "To his patients he gave three-quarters of an hour; and if in this exacting science which has to do with what, after all, we know nothing about--the nervous system, the human brain--a doctor loses his sense of proportion, as a doctor he fails. Health we must have; and health is proportion; so that when a man comes into your room and says he is Christ (a common delusion), and has a message, as they mostly have, and threatens, as they often do, to kill himself, you invoke proportion; order rest in bed; rest in solitude; silence and rest; rest without friends, without books, without messages; six months’ rest; until a man who went in weighing seven stone six comes out weighing twelve.",
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      "text": "Proportion, divine proportion, Sir William’s goddess, was acquired by Sir William walking hospitals, catching salmon, begetting one son in Harley Street by Lady Bradshaw, who caught salmon herself and took photographs scarcely to be distinguished from the work of professionals. Worshipping proportion, Sir William not only prospered himself but made England prosper, secluded her lunatics, forbade childbirth, penalised despair, made it impossible for the unfit to propagate their views until they, too, shared his sense of proportion--his, if they were men, Lady Bradshaw’s if they were women (she embroidered, knitted, spent four nights out of seven at home with her son), so that not only did his colleagues respect him, his subordinates fear him, but the friends and relations of his patients felt for him the keenest gratitude for insisting that these prophetic Christs and Christesses, who prophesied the end of the world, or the advent of God, should drink milk in bed, as Sir William ordered; Sir William with his thirty years’ experience of these kinds of cases, and his infallible instinct, this is madness, this sense; in fact, his sense of proportion.",
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      "text": "But Proportion has a sister, less smiling, more formidable, a Goddess even now engaged--in the heat and sands of India, the mud and swamp of Africa, the purlieus of London, wherever in short the climate or the devil tempts men to fall from the true belief which is her own--is even now engaged in dashing down shrines, smashing idols, and setting up in their place her own stern countenance. Conversion is her name and she feasts on the wills of the weakly, loving to impress, to impose, adoring her own features stamped on the face of the populace. At Hyde Park Corner on a tub she stands preaching; shrouds herself in white and walks penitentially disguised as brotherly love through factories and parliaments; offers help, but desires power; smites out of her way roughly the dissentient, or dissatisfied; bestows her blessing on those who, looking upward, catch submissively from her eyes the light of their own. This lady too (Rezia Warren Smith divined it) had her dwelling in Sir William’s heart, though concealed, as she mostly is, under some plausible disguise; some venerable name; love, duty, self sacrifice. How he would work--how toil to raise funds, propagate reforms, initiate institutions! But conversion, fastidious Goddess, loves blood better than brick, and feasts most subtly on the human will. For example, Lady Bradshaw. Fifteen years ago she had gone under. It was nothing you could put your finger on; there had been no scene, no snap; only the slow sinking, water-logged, of her will into his. Sweet was her smile, swift her submission; dinner in Harley Street, numbering eight or nine courses, feeding ten or fifteen guests of the professional classes, was smooth and urbane. Only as the evening wore on a very slight dulness, or uneasiness perhaps, a nervous twitch, fumble, stumble and confusion indicated, what it was really painful to believe--that the poor lady lied. Once, long ago, she had caught salmon freely: now, quick to minister to the craving which lit her husband’s eye so oilily for dominion, for power, she cramped, squeezed, pared, pruned, drew back, peeped through; so that without knowing precisely what made the evening disagreeable, and caused this pressure on the top of the head (which might well be imputed to the professional conversation, or the fatigue of a great doctor whose life, Lady Bradshaw said, “is not his own but his patients’”) disagreeable it was: so that guests, when the clock struck ten, breathed in the air of Harley Street even with rapture; which relief, however, was denied to his patients.",
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      "text": "There in the grey room, with the pictures on the wall, and the valuable furniture, under the ground glass skylight, they learnt the extent of their transgressions; huddled up in arm-chairs, they watched him go through, for their benefit, a curious exercise with the arms, which he shot out, brought sharply back to his hip, to prove (if the patient was obstinate) that Sir William was master of his own actions, which the patient was not. There some weakly broke down; sobbed, submitted; others, inspired by Heaven knows what intemperate madness, called Sir William to his face a damnable humbug; questioned, even more impiously, life itself. Why live? they demanded. Sir William replied that life was good. Certainly Lady Bradshaw in ostrich feathers hung over the mantelpiece, and as for his income it was quite twelve thousand a year. But to us, they protested, life has given no such bounty. He acquiesced. They lacked a sense of proportion. And perhaps, after all, there is no God? He shrugged his shoulders. In short, this living or not living is an affair of our own? But there they were mistaken. Sir William had a friend in Surrey where they taught, what Sir William frankly admitted was a difficult art--a sense of proportion. There were, moreover, family affection; honour; courage; and a brilliant career. All of these had in Sir William a resolute champion. If they failed him, he had to support police and the good of society, which, he remarked very quietly, would take care, down in Surrey, that these unsocial impulses, bred more than anything by the lack of good blood, were held in control. And then stole out from her hiding-place and mounted her throne that Goddess whose lust is to override opposition, to stamp indelibly in the sanctuaries of others the image of herself. Naked, defenceless, the exhausted, the friendless received the impress of Sir William’s will. He swooped; he devoured. He shut people up. It was this combination of decision and humanity that endeared Sir William so greatly to the relations of his victims.",
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      "text": "But Rezia Warren Smith cried, walking down Harley Street, that she did not like that man.",
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      "text": "Shredding and slicing, dividing and subdividing, the clocks of Harley Street nibbled at the June day, counselled submission, upheld authority, and pointed out in chorus the supreme advantages of a sense of proportion, until the mound of time was so far diminished that a commercial clock, suspended above a shop in Oxford Street, announced, genially and fraternally, as if it were a pleasure to Messrs. Rigby and Lowndes to give the information gratis, that it was half-past one.",
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      "text": "Looking up, it appeared that each letter of their names stood for one of the hours; subconsciously one was grateful to Rigby and Lowndes for giving one time ratified by Greenwich; and this gratitude (so Hugh Whitbread ruminated, dallying there in front of the shop window), naturally took the form later of buying off Rigby and Lowndes socks or shoes. So he ruminated. It was his habit. He did not go deeply. He brushed surfaces; the dead languages, the living, life in Constantinople, Paris, Rome; riding, shooting, tennis, it had been once. The malicious asserted that he now kept guard at Buckingham Palace, dressed in silk stockings and knee-breeches, over what nobody knew. But he did it extremely efficiently. He had been afloat on the cream of English society for fifty-five years. He had known Prime Ministers. His affections were understood to be deep. And if it were true that he had not taken part in any of the great movements of the time or held important office, one or two humble reforms stood to his credit; an improvement in public shelters was one; the protection of owls in Norfolk another; servant girls had reason to be grateful to him; and his name at the end of letters to the _Times_, asking for funds, appealing to the public to protect, to preserve, to clear up litter, to abate smoke, and stamp out immorality in parks, commanded respect.",
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      "text": "A magnificent figure he cut too, pausing for a moment (as the sound of the half hour died away) to look critically, magisterially, at socks and shoes; impeccable, substantial, as if he beheld the world from a certain eminence, and dressed to match; but realised the obligations which size, wealth, health, entail, and observed punctiliously even when not absolutely necessary, little courtesies, old-fashioned ceremonies which gave a quality to his manner, something to imitate, something to remember him by, for he would never lunch, for example, with Lady Bruton, whom he had known these twenty years, without bringing her in his outstretched hand a bunch of carnations and asking Miss Brush, Lady Bruton’s secretary, after her brother in South Africa, which, for some reason, Miss Brush, deficient though she was in every attribute of female charm, so much resented that she said “Thank you, he’s doing very well in South Africa,” when, for half a dozen years, he had been doing badly in Portsmouth.",
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      "text": "Lady Bruton herself preferred Richard Dalloway, who arrived at the next moment. Indeed they met on the doorstep.",
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      "bookId": 71865,
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      "text": "Lady Bruton preferred Richard Dalloway of course. He was made of much finer material. But she wouldn’t let them run down her poor dear Hugh. She could never forget his kindness--he had been really remarkably kind--she forgot precisely upon what occasion. But he had been--remarkably kind. Anyhow, the difference between one man and another does not amount to much. She had never seen the sense of cutting people up, as Clarissa Dalloway did--cutting them up and sticking them together again; not at any rate when one was sixty-two. She took Hugh’s carnations with her angular grim smile. There was nobody else coming, she said. She had got them there on false pretences, to help her out of a difficulty--",
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      "text": "Hugh could not guarantee that the editor would put it in; but he would be meeting somebody at luncheon.",
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      "bookId": 71865,
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      "text": "Whereupon Lady Bruton, who seldom did a graceful thing, stuffed all Hugh’s carnations into the front of her dress, and flinging her hands out called him “My Prime Minister!” What she would have done without them both she did not know. They rose. And Richard Dalloway strolled off as usual to have a look at the General’s portrait, because he meant, whenever he had a moment of leisure, to write a history of Lady Bruton’s family.",
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      "text": "And Millicent Bruton was very proud of her family. But they could wait, they could wait, she said, looking at the picture; meaning that her family, of military men, administrators, admirals, had been men of action, who had done their duty; and Richard’s first duty was to his country, but it was a fine face, she said; and all the papers were ready for Richard down at Aldmixton whenever the time came; the Labour Government she meant. “Ah, the news from India!” she cried.",
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      "text": "And then, as they stood in the hall taking yellow gloves from the bowl on the malachite table and Hugh was offering Miss Brush with quite unnecessary courtesy some discarded ticket or other compliment, which she loathed from the depths of her heart and blushed brick red, Richard turned to Lady Bruton, with his hat in his hand, and said,",
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      "text": "“We shall see you at our party to-night?” whereupon Lady Bruton resumed the magnificence which letter-writing had shattered. She might come; or she might not come. Clarissa had wonderful energy. Parties terrified Lady Bruton. But then, she was getting old. So she intimated, standing at her doorway; handsome; very erect; while her chow stretched behind her, and Miss Brush disappeared into the background with her hands full of papers.",
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      "text": "And Lady Bruton went ponderously, majestically, up to her room, lay, one arm extended, on the sofa. She sighed, she snored, not that she was asleep, only drowsy and heavy, drowsy and heavy, like a field of clover in the sunshine this hot June day, with the bees going round and about and the yellow butterflies. Always she went back to those fields down in Devonshire, where she had jumped the brooks on Patty, her pony, with Mortimer and Tom, her brothers. And there were the dogs; there were the rats; there were her father and mother on the lawn under the trees, with the tea-things out, and the beds of dahlias, the hollyhocks, the pampas grass; and they, little wretches, always up to some mischief! stealing back through the shrubbery, so as not to be seen, all bedraggled from some roguery. What old nurse used to say about her frocks!",
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      "text": "Ah dear, she remembered--it was Wednesday in Brook Street. Those kind good fellows, Richard Dalloway, Hugh Whitbread, had gone this hot day through the streets whose growl came up to her lying on the sofa. Power was hers, position, income. She had lived in the forefront of her time. She had had good friends; known the ablest men of her day. Murmuring London flowed up to her, and her hand, lying on the sofa back, curled upon some imaginary baton such as her grandfathers might have held, holding which she seemed, drowsy and heavy, to be commanding battalions marching to Canada, and those good fellows walking across London, that territory of theirs, that little bit of carpet, Mayfair.",
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      "text": "How like him! He would go on saying “An hour’s complete rest after luncheon” to the end of time, because a doctor had ordered it once. It was like him to take what doctors said literally; part of his adorable, divine simplicity, which no one had to the same extent; which made him go and do the thing while she and Peter frittered their time away bickering. He was already half-way to the House of Commons, to his Armenians, his Albanians, having settled her on the sofa, looking at his roses. And people would say, “Clarissa Dalloway is spoilt.” She cared much more for her roses than for the Armenians. Hunted out of existence, maimed, frozen, the victims of cruelty and injustice (she had heard Richard say so over and over again)--no, she could feel nothing for the Albanians, or was it the Armenians? but she loved her roses (didn’t that help the Armenians?)--the only flowers she could bear to see cut. But Richard was already at the House of Commons; at his Committee, having settled all her difficulties. But no; alas, that was not true. He did not see the reasons against asking Ellie Henderson. She would do it, of course, as he wished it. Since he had brought the pillows, she would lie down.... But--but--why did she suddenly feel, for no reason that she could discover, desperately unhappy? As a person who has dropped some grain of pearl or diamond into the grass and parts the tall blades very carefully, this way and that, and searches here and there vainly, and at last spies it there at the roots, so she went through one thing and another; no, it was not Sally Seton saying that Richard would never be in the Cabinet because he had a second-class brain (it came back to her); no, she did not mind that; nor was it to do with Elizabeth either and Doris Kilman; those were facts. It was a feeling, some unpleasant feeling, earlier in the day perhaps; something that Peter had said, combined with some depression of her own, in her bedroom, taking off her hat; and what Richard had said had added to it, but what had he said? There were his roses. Her parties! That was it! Her parties! Both of them criticised her very unfairly, laughed at her very unjustly, for her parties. That was it! That was it!",
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      "text": "Well, how was she going to defend herself? Now that she knew what it was, she felt perfectly happy. They thought, or Peter at any rate thought, that she enjoyed imposing herself; liked to have famous people about her; great names; was simply a snob in short. Well, Peter might think so. Richard merely thought it foolish of her to like excitement when she knew it was bad for her heart. It was childish, he thought. And both were quite wrong. What she liked was simply life.",
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      "text": "“That’s what I do it for,” she said, speaking aloud, to life.",
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      "text": "Since she was lying on the sofa, cloistered, exempt, the presence of this thing which she felt to be so obvious became physically existent; with robes of sound from the street, sunny, with hot breath, whispering, blowing out the blinds. But suppose Peter said to her, “Yes, yes, but your parties--what’s the sense of your parties?” all she could say was (and nobody could be expected to understand): They’re an offering; which sounded horribly vague. But who was Peter to make out that life was all plain sailing?--Peter always in love, always in love with the wrong woman? What’s your love? she might say to him. And she knew his answer; how it is the most important thing in the world and no woman possibly understood it. Very well. But could any man understand what she meant either? about life? She could not imagine Peter or Richard taking the trouble to give a party for no reason whatever.",
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      "text": "But to go deeper, beneath what people said (and these judgements, how superficial, how fragmentary they are!) in her own mind now, what did it mean to her, this thing she called life? Oh, it was very queer. Here was So-and-so in South Kensington; some one up in Bayswater; and somebody else, say, in Mayfair. And she felt quite continuously a sense of their existence; and she felt what a waste; and she felt what a pity; and she felt if only they could be brought together; so she did it. And it was an offering; to combine, to create; but to whom?",
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      "text": "An offering for the sake of offering, perhaps. Anyhow, it was her gift. Nothing else had she of the slightest importance; could not think, write, even play the piano. She muddled Armenians and Turks; loved success; hated discomfort; must be liked; talked oceans of nonsense: and to this day, ask her what the Equator was, and she did not know.",
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      "text": "All the same, that one day should follow another; Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday; that one should wake up in the morning; see the sky; walk in the park; meet Hugh Whitbread; then suddenly in came Peter; then these roses; it was enough. After that, how unbelievable death was!--that it must end; and no one in the whole world would know how she had loved it all; how, every instant....",
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      "text": "The door opened. Elizabeth knew that her mother was resting. She came in very quietly. She stood perfectly still. Was it that some Mongol had been wrecked on the coast of Norfolk (as Mrs. Hilbery said), had mixed with the Dalloway ladies, perhaps, a hundred years ago? For the Dalloways, in general, were fair-haired; blue-eyed; Elizabeth, on the contrary, was dark; had Chinese eyes in a pale face; an Oriental mystery; was gentle, considerate, still. As a child, she had had a perfect sense of humour; but now at seventeen, why, Clarissa could not in the least understand, she had become very serious; like a hyacinth, sheathed in glossy green, with buds just tinted, a hyacinth which has had no sun.",
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      "text": "She stood quite still and looked at her mother; but the door was ajar, and outside the door was Miss Kilman, as Clarissa knew; Miss Kilman in her mackintosh, listening to whatever they said.",
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      "text": "Yes, Miss Kilman stood on the landing, and wore a mackintosh; but had her reasons. First, it was cheap; second, she was over forty; and did not, after all, dress to please. She was poor, moreover; degradingly poor. Otherwise she would not be taking jobs from people like the Dalloways; from rich people, who liked to be kind. Mr. Dalloway, to do him justice, had been kind. But Mrs. Dalloway had not. She had been merely condescending. She came from the most worthless of all classes--the rich, with a smattering of culture. They had expensive things everywhere; pictures, carpets, lots of servants. She considered that she had a perfect right to anything that the Dalloways did for her.",
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      "text": "Bitter and burning, Miss Kilman had turned into a church two years three months ago. She had heard the Rev. Edward Whittaker preach; the boys sing; had seen the solemn lights descend, and whether it was the music, or the voices (she herself when alone in the evening found comfort in a violin; but the sound was excruciating; she had no ear), the hot and turbulent feelings which boiled and surged in her had been assuaged as she sat there, and she had wept copiously, and gone to call on Mr. Whittaker at his private house in Kensington. It was the hand of God, he said. The Lord had shown her the way. So now, whenever the hot and painful feelings boiled within her, this hatred of Mrs. Dalloway, this grudge against the world, she thought of God. She thought of Mr. Whittaker. Rage was succeeded by calm. A sweet savour filled her veins, her lips parted, and, standing formidable upon the landing in her mackintosh, she looked with steady and sinister serenity at Mrs. Dalloway, who came out with her daughter.",
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      "text": "Elizabeth said she had forgotten her gloves. That was because Miss Kilman and her mother hated each other. She could not bear to see them together. She ran upstairs to find her gloves.",
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      "text": "But Miss Kilman did not hate Mrs. Dalloway. Turning her large gooseberry-coloured eyes upon Clarissa, observing her small pink face, her delicate body, her air of freshness and fashion, Miss Kilman felt, Fool! Simpleton! You who have known neither sorrow nor pleasure; who have trifled your life away! And there rose in her an overmastering desire to overcome her; to unmask her. If she could have felled her it would have eased her. But it was not the body; it was the soul and its mockery that she wished to subdue; make feel her mastery. If only she could make her weep; could ruin her; humiliate her; bring her to her knees crying, You are right! But this was God’s will, not Miss Kilman’s. It was to be a religious victory. So she glared; so she glowered.",
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      "text": "Clarissa was really shocked. This a Christian--this woman! This woman had taken her daughter from her! She in touch with invisible presences! Heavy, ugly, commonplace, without kindness or grace, she know the meaning of life!",
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      "text": "“You are taking Elizabeth to the Stores?” Mrs. Dalloway said.",
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      "text": "Miss Kilman said she was. They stood there. Miss Kilman was not going to make herself agreeable. She had always earned her living. Her knowledge of modern history was thorough in the extreme. She did out of her meagre income set aside so much for causes she believed in; whereas this woman did nothing, believed nothing; brought up her daughter--but here was Elizabeth, rather out of breath, the beautiful girl.",
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      "text": "So they were going to the Stores. Odd it was, as Miss Kilman stood there (and stand she did, with the power and taciturnity of some prehistoric monster armoured for primeval warfare), how, second by second, the idea of her diminished, how hatred (which was for ideas, not people) crumbled, how she lost her malignity, her size, became second by second merely Miss Kilman, in a mackintosh, whom Heaven knows Clarissa would have liked to help.",
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      "text": "At this dwindling of the monster, Clarissa laughed. Saying good-bye, she laughed.",
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      "text": "Off they went together, Miss Kilman and Elizabeth, downstairs.",
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      "text": "With a sudden impulse, with a violent anguish, for this woman was taking her daughter from her, Clarissa leant over the bannisters and cried out, “Remember the party! Remember our party to-night!”",
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      "text": "But Elizabeth had already opened the front door; there was a van passing; she did not answer.",
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      "text": "Love and religion! thought Clarissa, going back into the drawing-room, tingling all over. How detestable, how detestable they are! For now that the body of Miss Kilman was not before her, it overwhelmed her--the idea. The cruelest things in the world, she thought, seeing them clumsy, hot, domineering, hypocritical, eavesdropping, jealous, infinitely cruel and unscrupulous, dressed in a mackintosh coat, on the landing; love and religion. Had she ever tried to convert any one herself? Did she not wish everybody merely to be themselves? And she watched out of the window the old lady opposite climbing upstairs. Let her climb upstairs if she wanted to; let her stop; then let her, as Clarissa had often seen her, gain her bedroom, part her curtains, and disappear again into the background. Somehow one respected that--that old woman looking out of the window, quite unconscious that she was being watched. There was something solemn in it--but love and religion would destroy that, whatever it was, the privacy of the soul. The odious Kilman would destroy it. Yet it was a sight that made her want to cry.",
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      "text": "Love destroyed too. Everything that was fine, everything that was true went. Take Peter Walsh now. There was a man, charming, clever, with ideas about everything. If you wanted to know about Pope, say, or Addison, or just to talk nonsense, what people were like, what things meant, Peter knew better than any one. It was Peter who had helped her; Peter who had lent her books. But look at the women he loved--vulgar, trivial, commonplace. Think of Peter in love--he came to see her after all these years, and what did he talk about? Himself. Horrible passion! she thought. Degrading passion! she thought, thinking of Kilman and her Elizabeth walking to the Army and Navy Stores.",
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      "text": "Big Ben struck the half-hour.",
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      "text": "How extraordinary it was, strange, yes, touching, to see the old lady (they had been neighbours ever so many years) move away from the window, as if she were attached to that sound, that string. Gigantic as it was, it had something to do with her. Down, down, into the midst of ordinary things the finger fell making the moment solemn. She was forced, so Clarissa imagined, by that sound, to move, to go--but where? Clarissa tried to follow her as she turned and disappeared, and could still just see her white cap moving at the back of the bedroom. She was still there moving about at the other end of the room. Why creeds and prayers and mackintoshes? when, thought Clarissa, that’s the miracle, that’s the mystery; that old lady, she meant, whom she could see going from chest of drawers to dressing-table. She could still see her. And the supreme mystery which Kilman might say she had solved, or Peter might say he had solved, but Clarissa didn’t believe either of them had the ghost of an idea of solving, was simply this: here was one room; there another. Did religion solve that, or love?",
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      "text": "Love--but here the other clock, the clock which always struck two minutes after Big Ben, came shuffling in with its lap full of odds and ends, which it dumped down as if Big Ben were all very well with his majesty laying down the law, so solemn, so just, but she must remember all sorts of little things besides--Mrs. Marsham, Ellie Henderson, glasses for ices--all sorts of little things came flooding and lapping and dancing in on the wake of that solemn stroke which lay flat like a bar of gold on the sea. Mrs. Marsham, Ellie Henderson, glasses for ices. She must telephone now at once.",
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      "text": "Volubly, troublously, the late clock sounded, coming in on the wake of Big Ben, with its lap full of trifles. Beaten up, broken up by the assault of carriages, the brutality of vans, the eager advance of myriads of angular men, of flaunting women, the domes and spires of offices and hospitals, the last relics of this lap full of odds and ends seemed to break, like the spray of an exhausted wave, upon the body of Miss Kilman standing still in the street for a moment to mutter “It is the flesh.”",
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      "text": "But it was later than she thought. Her mother would not like her to be wandering off alone like this. She turned back down the Strand.",
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      "text": "A puff of wind (in spite of the heat, there was quite a wind) blew a thin black veil over the sun and over the Strand. The faces faded; the omnibuses suddenly lost their glow. For although the clouds were of mountainous white so that one could fancy hacking hard chips off with a hatchet, with broad golden slopes, lawns of celestial pleasure gardens, on their flanks, and had all the appearance of settled habitations assembled for the conference of gods above the world, there was a perpetual movement among them. Signs were interchanged, when, as if to fulfil some scheme arranged already, now a summit dwindled, now a whole block of pyramidal size which had kept its station inalterably advanced into the midst or gravely led the procession to fresh anchorage. Fixed though they seemed at their posts, at rest in perfect unanimity, nothing could be fresher, freer, more sensitive superficially than the snow-white or gold-kindled surface; to change, to go, to dismantle the solemn assemblage was immediately possible; and in spite of the grave fixity, the accumulated robustness and solidity, now they struck light to the earth, now darkness.",
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      "text": "Calmly and competently, Elizabeth Dalloway mounted the Westminster omnibus.",
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      "text": "Going and coming, beckoning, signalling, so the light and shadow which now made the wall grey, now the bananas bright yellow, now made the Strand grey, now made the omnibuses bright yellow, seemed to Septimus Warren Smith lying on the sofa in the sitting-room; watching the watery gold glow and fade with the astonishing sensibility of some live creature on the roses, on the wall-paper. Outside the trees dragged their leaves like nets through the depths of the air; the sound of water was in the room and through the waves came the voices of birds singing. Every power poured its treasures on his head, and his hand lay there on the back of the sofa, as he had seen his hand lie when he was bathing, floating, on the top of the waves, while far away on shore he heard dogs barking and barking far away. Fear no more, says the heart in the body; fear no more.",
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      "text": "He was not afraid. At every moment Nature signified by some laughing hint like that gold spot which went round the wall--there, there, there--her determination to show, by brandishing her plumes, shaking her tresses, flinging her mantle this way and that, beautifully, always beautifully, and standing close up to breathe through her hollowed hands Shakespeare’s words, her meaning.",
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      "text": "Rezia, sitting at the table twisting a hat in her hands, watched him; saw him smiling. He was happy then. But she could not bear to see him smiling. It was not marriage; it was not being one’s husband to look strange like that, always to be starting, laughing, sitting hour after hour silent, or clutching her and telling her to write. The table drawer was full of those writings; about war; about Shakespeare; about great discoveries; how there is no death. Lately he had become excited suddenly for no reason (and both Dr. Holmes and Sir William Bradshaw said excitement was the worst thing for him), and waved his hands and cried out that he knew the truth! He knew everything! That man, his friend who was killed, Evans, had come, he said. He was singing behind the screen. She wrote it down just as he spoke it. Some things were very beautiful; others sheer nonsense. And he was always stopping in the middle, changing his mind; wanting to add something; hearing something new; listening with his hand up.",
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      "text": "But she heard nothing.",
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      "text": "And once they found the girl who did the room reading one of these papers in fits of laughter. It was a dreadful pity. For that made Septimus cry out about human cruelty--how they tear each other to pieces. The fallen, he said, they tear to pieces. “Holmes is on us,” he would say, and he would invent stories about Holmes; Holmes eating porridge; Holmes reading Shakespeare--making himself roar with laughter or rage, for Dr. Holmes seemed to stand for something horrible to him. “Human nature,” he called him. Then there were the visions. He was drowned, he used to say, and lying on a cliff with the gulls screaming over him. He would look over the edge of the sofa down into the sea. Or he was hearing music. Really it was only a barrel organ or some man crying in the street. But “Lovely!” he used to cry, and the tears would run down his cheeks, which was to her the most dreadful thing of all, to see a man like Septimus, who had fought, who was brave, crying. And he would lie listening until suddenly he would cry that he was falling down, down into the flames! Actually she would look for flames, it was so vivid. But there was nothing. They were alone in the room. It was a dream, she would tell him and so quiet him at last, but sometimes she was frightened too. She sighed as she sat sewing.",
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      "text": "Her sigh was tender and enchanting, like the wind outside a wood in the evening. Now she put down her scissors; now she turned to take something from the table. A little stir, a little crinkling, a little tapping built up something on the table there, where she sat sewing. Through his eyelashes he could see her blurred outline; her little black body; her face and hands; her turning movements at the table, as she took up a reel, or looked (she was apt to lose things) for her silk. She was making a hat for Mrs. Filmer’s married daughter, whose name was--he had forgotten her name.",
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      "text": "“What is the name of Mrs. Filmer’s married daughter?” he asked.",
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      "text": "“Mrs. Peters,” said Rezia. She was afraid it was too small, she said, holding it before her. Mrs. Peters was a big woman; but she did not like her. It was only because Mrs. Filmer had been so good to them. “She gave me grapes this morning,” she said--that Rezia wanted to do something to show that they were grateful. She had come into the room the other evening and found Mrs. Peters, who thought they were out, playing the gramophone.",
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      "text": "“Was it true?” he asked. She was playing the gramophone? Yes; she had told him about it at the time; she had found Mrs. Peters playing the gramophone.",
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      "text": "He began, very cautiously, to open his eyes, to see whether a gramophone was really there. But real things--real things were too exciting. He must be cautious. He would not go mad. First he looked at the fashion papers on the lower shelf, then, gradually at the gramophone with the green trumpet. Nothing could be more exact. And so, gathering courage, he looked at the sideboard; the plate of bananas; the engraving of Queen Victoria and the Prince Consort; at the mantelpiece, with the jar of roses. None of these things moved. All were still; all were real.",
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      "text": "“She is a woman with a spiteful tongue,” said Rezia.",
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      "text": "“What does Mr. Peters do?” Septimus asked.",
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      "text": "“Ah,” said Rezia, trying to remember. She thought Mrs. Filmer had said that he travelled for some company. “Just now he is in Hull,” she said.",
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      "text": "“Just now!” She said that with her Italian accent. She said that herself. He shaded his eyes so that he might see only a little of her face at a time, first the chin, then the nose, then the forehead, in case it were deformed, or had some terrible mark on it. But no, there she was, perfectly natural, sewing, with the pursed lips that women have, the set, the melancholy expression, when sewing. But there was nothing terrible about it, he assured himself, looking a second time, a third time at her face, her hands, for what was frightening or disgusting in her as she sat there in broad daylight, sewing? Mrs. Peters had a spiteful tongue. Mr. Peters was in Hull. Why then rage and prophesy? Why fly scourged and outcast? Why be made to tremble and sob by the clouds? Why seek truths and deliver messages when Rezia sat sticking pins into the front of her dress, and Mr. Peters was in Hull? Miracles, revelations, agonies, loneliness, falling through the sea, down, down into the flames, all were burnt out, for he had a sense, as he watched Rezia trimming the straw hat for Mrs. Peters, of a coverlet of flowers.",
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      "text": "“It’s too small for Mrs. Peters,” said Septimus.",
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      "text": "For the first time for days he was speaking as he used to do! Of course it was--absurdly small, she said. But Mrs. Peters had chosen it.",
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      "text": "He took it out of her hands. He said it was an organ grinder’s monkey’s hat.",
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      "text": "How it rejoiced her that! Not for weeks had they laughed like this together, poking fun privately like married people. What she meant was that if Mrs. Filmer had come in, or Mrs. Peters or anybody they would not have understood what she and Septimus were laughing at.",
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      "text": "“There,” she said, pinning a rose to one side of the hat. Never had she felt so happy! Never in her life!",
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      "text": "“It is because you talked of killing yourself,” said Rezia. (Mercifully, she could now say anything to Septimus.)",
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      "text": "So he was in their power! Holmes and Bradshaw were on him! The brute with the red nostrils was snuffing into every secret place! “Must” it could say! Where were his papers? the things he had written?",
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      "text": "She brought him his papers, the things he had written, things she had written for him. She tumbled them out on to the sofa. They looked at them together. Diagrams, designs, little men and women brandishing sticks for arms, with wings--were they?--on their backs; circles traced round shillings and sixpences--the suns and stars; zigzagging precipices with mountaineers ascending roped together, exactly like knives and forks; sea pieces with little faces laughing out of what might perhaps be waves: the map of the world. Burn them! he cried. Now for his writings; how the dead sing behind rhododendron bushes; odes to Time; conversations with Shakespeare; Evans, Evans, Evans--his messages from the dead; do not cut down trees; tell the Prime Minister. Universal love: the meaning of the world. Burn them! he cried.",
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      "text": "But Rezia laid her hands on them. Some were very beautiful, she thought. She would tie them up (for she had no envelope) with a piece of silk.",
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      "text": "Even if they took him, she said, she would go with him. They could not separate them against their wills, she said.",
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      "text": "Shuffling the edges straight, she did up the papers, and tied the parcel almost without looking, sitting beside him, he thought, as if all her petals were about her. She was a flowering tree; and through her branches looked out the face of a lawgiver, who had reached a sanctuary where she feared no one; not Holmes; not Bradshaw; a miracle, a triumph, the last and greatest. Staggering he saw her mount the appalling staircase, laden with Holmes and Bradshaw, men who never weighed less than eleven stone six, who sent their wives to Court, men who made ten thousand a year and talked of proportion; who different in their verdicts (for Holmes said one thing, Bradshaw another), yet judges they were; who mixed the vision and the sideboard; saw nothing clear, yet ruled, yet inflicted. “Must” they said. Over them she triumphed.",
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      "text": "“There!” she said. The papers were tied up. No one should get at them. She would put them away.",
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      "text": "And, she said, nothing should separate them. She sat down beside him and called him by the name of that hawk or crow which being malicious and a great destroyer of crops was precisely like him. No one could separate them, she said.",
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      "text": "Then she got up to go into the bedroom to pack their things, but hearing voices downstairs and thinking that Dr. Holmes had perhaps called, ran down to prevent him coming up.",
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      "text": "Septimus could hear her talking to Holmes on the staircase.",
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      "text": "“My dear lady, I have come as a friend,” Holmes was saying.",
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      "text": "“No. I will not allow you to see my husband,” she said.",
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      "text": "He could see her, like a little hen, with her wings spread barring his passage. But Holmes persevered.",
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      "text": "“My dear lady, allow me....” Holmes said, putting her aside (Holmes was a powerfully built man).",
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      "text": "Holmes was coming upstairs. Holmes would burst open the door. Holmes would say “In a funk, eh?” Holmes would get him. But no; not Holmes; not Bradshaw. Getting up rather unsteadily, hopping indeed from foot to foot, he considered Mrs. Filmer’s nice clean bread knife with “Bread” carved on the handle. Ah, but one mustn’t spoil that. The gas fire? But it was too late now. Holmes was coming. Razors he might have got, but Rezia, who always did that sort of thing, had packed them. There remained only the window, the large Bloomsbury-lodging house window, the tiresome, the troublesome, and rather melodramatic business of opening the window and throwing himself out. It was their idea of tragedy, not his or Rezia’s (for she was with him). Holmes and Bradshaw like that sort of thing. (He sat on the sill.) But he would wait till the very last moment. He did not want to die. Life was good. The sun hot. Only human beings--what did _they_ want? Coming down the staircase opposite an old man stopped and stared at him. Holmes was at the door. “I’ll give it you!” he cried, and flung himself vigorously, violently down on to Mrs. Filmer’s area railings.",
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      "text": "“The coward!” cried Dr. Holmes, bursting the door open. Rezia ran to the window, she saw; she understood. Dr. Holmes and Mrs. Filmer collided with each other. Mrs. Filmer flapped her apron and made her hide her eyes in the bedroom. There was a great deal of running up and down stairs. Dr. Holmes came in--white as a sheet, shaking all over, with a glass in his hand. She must be brave and drink something, he said (What was it? Something sweet), for her husband was horribly mangled, would not recover consciousness, she must not see him, must be spared as much as possible, would have the inquest to go through, poor young woman. Who could have foretold it? A sudden impulse, no one was in the least to blame (he told Mrs. Filmer). And why the devil he did it, Dr. Holmes could not conceive.",
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      "text": "It seemed to her as she drank the sweet stuff that she was opening long windows, stepping out into some garden. But where? The clock was striking--one, two, three: how sensible the sound was; compared with all this thumping and whispering; like Septimus himself. She was falling asleep. But the clock went on striking, four, five, six and Mrs. Filmer waving her apron (they wouldn’t bring the body in here, would they?) seemed part of that garden; or a flag. She had once seen a flag slowly rippling out from a mast when she stayed with her aunt at Venice. Men killed in battle were thus saluted, and Septimus had been through the War. Of her memories, most were happy.",
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      "text": "She put on her hat, and ran through cornfields--where could it have been?--on to some hill, somewhere near the sea, for there were ships, gulls, butterflies; they sat on a cliff. In London too, there they sat, and, half dreaming, came to her through the bedroom door, rain falling, whisperings, stirrings among dry corn, the caress of the sea, as it seemed to her, hollowing them in its arched shell and murmuring to her laid on shore, strewn she felt, like flying flowers over some tomb.",
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      "text": "“He is dead,” she said, smiling at the poor old woman who guarded her with her honest light-blue eyes fixed on the door. (They wouldn’t bring him in here, would they?) But Mrs. Filmer pooh-poohed. Oh no, oh no! They were carrying him away now. Ought she not to be told? Married people ought to be together, Mrs. Filmer thought. But they must do as the doctor said.",
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      "text": "“Let her sleep,” said Dr. Holmes, feeling her pulse. She saw the large outline of his body standing dark against the window. So that was Dr. Holmes.",
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      "text": "One of the triumphs of civilisation, Peter Walsh thought. It is one of the triumphs of civilisation, as the light high bell of the ambulance sounded. Swiftly, cleanly the ambulance sped to the hospital, having picked up instantly, humanely, some poor devil; some one hit on the head, struck down by disease, knocked over perhaps a minute or so ago at one of these crossings, as might happen to oneself. That was civilisation. It struck him coming back from the East--the efficiency, the organisation, the communal spirit of London. Every cart or carriage of its own accord drew aside to let the ambulance pass. Perhaps it was morbid; or was it not touching rather, the respect which they showed this ambulance with its victim inside--busy men hurrying home yet instantly bethinking them as it passed of some wife; or presumably how easily it might have been them there, stretched on a shelf with a doctor and a nurse.... Ah, but thinking became morbid, sentimental, directly one began conjuring up doctors, dead bodies; a little glow of pleasure, a sort of lust too over the visual impression warned one not to go on with that sort of thing any more--fatal to art, fatal to friendship. True. And yet, thought Peter Walsh, as the ambulance turned the corner though the light high bell could be heard down the next street and still farther as it crossed the Tottenham Court Road, chiming constantly, it is the privilege of loneliness; in privacy one may do as one chooses. One might weep if no one saw. It had been his undoing--this susceptibility--in Anglo-Indian society; not weeping at the right time, or laughing either. I have that in me, he thought standing by the pillar-box, which could now dissolve in tears. Why, Heaven knows. Beauty of some sort probably, and the weight of the day, which beginning with that visit to Clarissa had exhausted him with its heat, its intensity, and the drip, drip, of one impression after another down into that cellar where they stood, deep, dark, and no one would ever know. Partly for that reason, its secrecy, complete and inviolable, he had found life like an unknown garden, full of turns and corners, surprising, yes; really it took one’s breath away, these moments; there coming to him by the pillar-box opposite the British Museum one of them, a moment, in which things came together; this ambulance; and life and death. It was as if he were sucked up to some very high roof by that rush of emotion and the rest of him, like a white shell-sprinkled beach, left bare. It had been his undoing in Anglo-Indian society--this susceptibility.",
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      "text": "Clarissa once, going on top of an omnibus with him somewhere, Clarissa superficially at least, so easily moved, now in despair, now in the best of spirits, all aquiver in those days and such good company, spotting queer little scenes, names, people from the top of a bus, for they used to explore London and bring back bags full of treasures from the Caledonian market--Clarissa had a theory in those days--they had heaps of theories, always theories, as young people have. It was to explain the feeling they had of dissatisfaction; not knowing people; not being known. For how could they know each other? You met every day; then not for six months, or years. It was unsatisfactory, they agreed, how little one knew people. But she said, sitting on the bus going up Shaftesbury Avenue, she felt herself everywhere; not “here, here, here”; and she tapped the back of the seat; but everywhere. She waved her hand, going up Shaftesbury Avenue. She was all that. So that to know her, or any one, one must seek out the people who completed them; even the places. Odd affinities she had with people she had never spoken to, some woman in the street, some man behind a counter--even trees, or barns. It ended in a transcendental theory which, with her horror of death, allowed her to believe, or say that she believed (for all her scepticism), that since our apparitions, the part of us which appears, are so momentary compared with the other, the unseen part of us, which spreads wide, the unseen might survive, be recovered somehow attached to this person or that, or even haunting certain places after death ... perhaps--perhaps.",
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      "text": "Looking back over that long friendship of almost thirty years her theory worked to this extent. Brief, broken, often painful as their actual meetings had been what with his absences and interruptions (this morning, for instance, in came Elizabeth, like a long-legged colt, handsome, dumb, just as he was beginning to talk to Clarissa) the effect of them on his life was immeasurable. There was a mystery about it. You were given a sharp, acute, uncomfortable grain--the actual meeting; horribly painful as often as not; yet in absence, in the most unlikely places, it would flower out, open, shed its scent, let you touch, taste, look about you, get the whole feel of it and understanding, after years of lying lost. Thus she had come to him; on board ship; in the Himalayas; suggested by the oddest things (so Sally Seton, generous, enthusiastic goose! thought of _him_ when she saw blue hydrangeas). She had influenced him more than any person he had ever known. And always in this way coming before him without his wishing it, cool, lady-like, critical; or ravishing, romantic, recalling some field or English harvest. He saw her most often in the country, not in London. One scene after another at Bourton....",
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      "text": "He had reached his hotel. He crossed the hall, with its mounds of reddish chairs and sofas, its spike-leaved, withered-looking plants. He got his key off the hook. The young lady handed him some letters. He went upstairs--he saw her most often at Bourton, in the late summer, when he stayed there for a week, or fortnight even, as people did in those days. First on top of some hill there she would stand, hands clapped to her hair, her cloak blowing out, pointing, crying to them--she saw the Severn beneath. Or in a wood, making the kettle boil--very ineffective with her fingers; the smoke curtseying, blowing in their faces; her little pink face showing through; begging water from an old woman in a cottage, who came to the door to watch them go. They walked always; the others drove. She was bored driving, disliked all animals, except that dog. They tramped miles along roads. She would break off to get her bearings, pilot him back across country; and all the time they argued, discussed poetry, discussed people, discussed politics (she was a Radical then); never noticing a thing except when she stopped, cried out at a view or a tree, and made him look with her; and so on again, through stubble fields, she walking ahead, with a flower for her aunt, never tired of walking for all her delicacy; to drop down on Bourton in the dusk. Then, after dinner, old Breitkopf would open the piano and sing without any voice, and they would lie sunk in arm-chairs, trying not to laugh, but always breaking down and laughing, laughing--laughing at nothing. Breitkopf was supposed not to see. And then in the morning, flirting up and down like a wagtail in front of the house....",
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      "text": "Oh it was a letter from her! This blue envelope; that was her hand. And he would have to read it. Here was another of those meetings, bound to be painful! To read her letter needed the devil of an effort. “How heavenly it was to see him. She must tell him that.” That was all.",
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      "text": "He had just missed his eleven, said Lady Bradshaw, because of the mumps. His father minded even more than he did, she thought “being,” she said, “nothing but a great boy himself.”",
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      "text": "Clarissa looked at Sir William, talking to Richard. He did not look like a boy--not in the least like a boy. She had once gone with some one to ask his advice. He had been perfectly right; extremely sensible. But Heavens--what a relief to get out to the street again! There was some poor wretch sobbing, she remembered, in the waiting-room. But she did not know what it was--about Sir William; what exactly she disliked. Only Richard agreed with her, “didn’t like his taste, didn’t like his smell.” But he was extraordinarily able. They were talking about this Bill. Some case, Sir William was mentioning, lowering his voice. It had its bearing upon what he was saying about the deferred effects of shell shock. There must be some provision in the Bill.",
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      "text": "Sinking her voice, drawing Mrs. Dalloway into the shelter of a common femininity, a common pride in the illustrious qualities of husbands and their sad tendency to overwork, Lady Bradshaw (poor goose--one didn’t dislike her) murmured how, “just as we were starting, my husband was called up on the telephone, a very sad case. A young man (that is what Sir William is telling Mr. Dalloway) had killed himself. He had been in the army.” Oh! thought Clarissa, in the middle of my party, here’s death, she thought.",
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      "text": "She went on, into the little room where the Prime Minister had gone with Lady Bruton. Perhaps there was somebody there. But there was nobody. The chairs still kept the impress of the Prime Minister and Lady Bruton, she turned deferentially, he sitting four-square, authoritatively. They had been talking about India. There was nobody. The party’s splendour fell to the floor, so strange it was to come in alone in her finery.",
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      "bookId": 71865,
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      "text": "What business had the Bradshaws to talk of death at her party? A young man had killed himself. And they talked of it at her party--the Bradshaws talked of death. He had killed himself--but how? Always her body went through it first, when she was told, suddenly, of an accident; her dress flamed, her body burnt. He had thrown himself from a window. Up had flashed the ground; through him, blundering, bruising, went the rusty spikes. There he lay with a thud, thud, thud in his brain, and then a suffocation of blackness. So she saw it. But why had he done it? And the Bradshaws talked of it at her party!",
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      "text": "She had once thrown a shilling into the Serpentine, never anything more. But he had flung it away. They went on living (she would have to go back; the rooms were still crowded; people kept on coming). They (all day she had been thinking of Bourton, of Peter, of Sally), they would grow old. A thing there was that mattered; a thing, wreathed about with chatter, defaced, obscured in her own life, let drop every day in corruption, lies, chatter. This he had preserved. Death was defiance. Death was an attempt to communicate; people feeling the impossibility of reaching the centre which, mystically, evaded them; closeness drew apart; rapture faded, one was alone. There was an embrace in death.",
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      "text": "But this young man who had killed himself--had he plunged holding his treasure? “If it were now to die, ’twere now to be most happy,” she had said to herself once, coming down in white.",
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      "text": "Or there were the poets and thinkers. Suppose he had had that passion, and had gone to Sir William Bradshaw, a great doctor yet to her obscurely evil, without sex or lust, extremely polite to women, but capable of some indescribable outrage--forcing your soul, that was it--if this young man had gone to him, and Sir William had impressed him, like that, with his power, might he not then have said (indeed she felt it now), Life is made intolerable; they make life intolerable, men like that?",
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      "text": "Then (she had felt it only this morning) there was the terror; the overwhelming incapacity, one’s parents giving it into one’s hands, this life, to be lived to the end, to be walked with serenely; there was in the depths of her heart an awful fear. Even now, quite often if Richard had not been there reading the _Times_, so that she could crouch like a bird and gradually revive, send roaring up that immeasurable delight, rubbing stick to stick, one thing with another, she must have perished. But that young man had killed himself.",
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      "text": "Somehow it was her disaster--her disgrace. It was her punishment to see sink and disappear here a man, there a woman, in this profound darkness, and she forced to stand here in her evening dress. She had schemed; she had pilfered. She was never wholly admirable. She had wanted success. Lady Bexborough and the rest of it. And once she had walked on the terrace at Bourton.",
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      "text": "It was due to Richard; she had never been so happy. Nothing could be slow enough; nothing last too long. No pleasure could equal, she thought, straightening the chairs, pushing in one book on the shelf, this having done with the triumphs of youth, lost herself in the process of living, to find it, with a shock of delight, as the sun rose, as the day sank. Many a time had she gone, at Bourton when they were all talking, to look at the sky; or seen it between people’s shoulders at dinner; seen it in London when she could not sleep. She walked to the window.",
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      "bookId": 71865,
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      "text": "It held, foolish as the idea was, something of her own in it, this country sky, this sky above Westminster. She parted the curtains; she looked. Oh, but how surprising!--in the room opposite the old lady stared straight at her! She was going to bed. And the sky. It will be a solemn sky, she had thought, it will be a dusky sky, turning away its cheek in beauty. But there it was--ashen pale, raced over quickly by tapering vast clouds. It was new to her. The wind must have risen. She was going to bed, in the room opposite. It was fascinating to watch her, moving about, that old lady, crossing the room, coming to the window. Could she see her? It was fascinating, with people still laughing and shouting in the drawing-room, to watch that old woman, quite quietly, going to bed. She pulled the blind now. The clock began striking. The young man had killed himself; but she did not pity him; with the clock striking the hour, one, two, three, she did not pity him, with all this going on. There! the old lady had put out her light! the whole house was dark now with this going on, she repeated, and the words came to her, Fear no more the heat of the sun. She must go back to them. But what an extraordinary night! She felt somehow very like him--the young man who had killed himself. She felt glad that he had done it; thrown it away. The clock was striking. The leaden circles dissolved in the air. He made her feel the beauty; made her feel the fun. But she must go back. She must assemble. She must find Sally and Peter. And she came in from the little room.",
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      "text": "“But where is Clarissa?” said Peter. He was sitting on the sofa with Sally. (After all these years he really could not call her “Lady Rosseter.”) “Where’s the woman gone to?” he asked. “Where’s Clarissa?”",
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      "text": "Sally supposed, and so did Peter for the matter of that, that there were people of importance, politicians, whom neither of them knew unless by sight in the picture papers, whom Clarissa had to be nice to, had to talk to. She was with them. Yet there was Richard Dalloway not in the Cabinet. He hadn’t been a success, Sally supposed? For herself, she scarcely ever read the papers. She sometimes saw his name mentioned. But then--well, she lived a very solitary life, in the wilds, Clarissa would say, among great merchants, great manufacturers, men, after all, who did things. She had done things too!",
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      "text": "(She was like a poplar, she was like a river, she was like a hyacinth, Willie Titcomb was thinking. Oh how much nicer to be in the country and do what she liked! She could hear her poor dog howling, Elizabeth was certain.) She was not a bit like Clarissa, Peter Walsh said.",
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      "text": "“Oh, Clarissa!” said Sally.",
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      "text": "What Sally felt was simply this. She had owed Clarissa an enormous amount. They had been friends, not acquaintances, friends, and she still saw Clarissa all in white going about the house with her hands full of flowers--to this day tobacco plants made her think of Bourton. But--did Peter understand?--she lacked something. Lacked what was it? She had charm; she had extraordinary charm. But to be frank (and she felt that Peter was an old friend, a real friend--did absence matter? did distance matter? She had often wanted to write to him, but torn it up, yet felt he understood, for people understand without things being said, as one realises growing old, and old she was, had been that afternoon to see her sons at Eton, where they had the mumps), to be quite frank then, how could Clarissa have done it?--married Richard Dalloway? a sportsman, a man who cared only for dogs. Literally, when he came into the room he smelt of the stables. And then all this? She waved her hand.",
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      "text": "Hugh Whitbread it was, strolling past in his white waistcoat, dim, fat, blind, past everything he looked, except self-esteem and comfort.",
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      "text": "“He’s not going to recognise _us_,” said Sally, and really she hadn’t the courage--so that was Hugh! the admirable Hugh!",
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      "text": "(And so she would go on, Peter felt, hour after hour; the miner’s son; people thought she had married beneath her; her five sons; and what was the other thing--plants, hydrangeas, syringas, very, very rare hibiscus lilies that never grow north of the Suez Canal, but she, with one gardener in a suburb near Manchester, had beds of them, positively beds! Now all that Clarissa had escaped, unmaternal as she was.)",
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      "text": "A snob was she? Yes, in many ways. Where was she, all this time? It was getting late.",
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      "text": "“Yet,” said Sally, “when I heard Clarissa was giving a party, I felt I couldn’t _not_ come--must see her again (and I’m staying in Victoria Street, practically next door). So I just came without an invitation. But,” she whispered, “tell me, do. Who is this?”",
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      "text": "It was Mrs. Hilbery, looking for the door. For how late it was getting! And, she murmured, as the night grew later, as people went, one found old friends; quiet nooks and corners; and the loveliest views. Did they know, she asked, that they were surrounded by an enchanted garden? Lights and trees and wonderful gleaming lakes and the sky. Just a few fairy lamps, Clarissa Dalloway had said, in the back garden! But she was a magician! It was a park.... And she didn’t know their names, but friends she knew they were, friends without names, songs without words, always the best. But there were so many doors, such unexpected places, she could not find her way.",
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      "text": "“Old Mrs. Hilbery,” said Peter; but who was that? that lady standing by the curtain all the evening, without speaking? He knew her face; connected her with Bourton. Surely she used to cut up underclothes at the large table in the window? Davidson, was that her name?",
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      "text": "“Oh, that is Ellie Henderson,” said Sally. Clarissa was really very hard on her. She was a cousin, very poor. Clarissa _was_ hard on people.",
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    {
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      "text": "She was rather, said Peter. Yet, said Sally, in her emotional way, with a rush of that enthusiasm which Peter used to love her for, yet dreaded a little now, so effusive she might become--how generous to her friends Clarissa was! and what a rare quality one found it, and how sometimes at night or on Christmas Day, when she counted up her blessings, she put that friendship first. They were young; that was it. Clarissa was pure-hearted; that was it. Peter would think her sentimental. So she was. For she had come to feel that it was the only thing worth saying--what one felt. Cleverness was silly. One must say simply what one felt.",
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      "text": "“But I do not know,” said Peter Walsh, “what I feel.”",
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      "text": "Poor Peter, thought Sally. Why did not Clarissa come and talk to them? That was what he was longing for. She knew it. All the time he was thinking only of Clarissa, and was fidgeting with his knife.",
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      "text": "He had not found life simple, Peter said. His relations with Clarissa had not been simple. It had spoilt his life, he said. (They had been so intimate--he and Sally Seton, it was absurd not to say it.) One could not be in love twice, he said. And what could she say? Still, it is better to have loved (but he would think her sentimental--he used to be so sharp). He must come and stay with them in Manchester. That is all very true, he said. All very true. He would love to come and stay with them, directly he had done what he had to do in London.",
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      "text": "And Clarissa had cared for him more than she had ever cared for Richard. Sally was positive of that.",
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      "text": "“No, no, no!” said Peter (Sally should not have said that--she went too far). That good fellow--there he was at the end of the room, holding forth, the same as ever, dear old Richard. Who was he talking to? Sally asked, that very distinguished-looking man? Living in the wilds as she did, she had an insatiable curiosity to know who people were. But Peter did not know. He did not like his looks, he said, probably a Cabinet Minister. Of them all, Richard seemed to him the best, he said--the most disinterested.",
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      "text": "“But what has he done?” Sally asked. Public work, she supposed. And were they happy together? Sally asked (she herself was extremely happy); for, she admitted, she knew nothing about them, only jumped to conclusions, as one does, for what can one know even of the people one lives with every day? she asked. Are we not all prisoners? She had read a wonderful play about a man who scratched on the wall of his cell, and she had felt that was true of life--one scratched on the wall. Despairing of human relationships (people were so difficult), she often went into her garden and got from her flowers a peace which men and women never gave her. But no; he did not like cabbages; he preferred human beings, Peter said. Indeed, the young are beautiful, Sally said, watching Elizabeth cross the room. How unlike Clarissa at her age! Could he make anything of her? She would not open her lips. Not much, not yet, Peter admitted. She was like a lily, Sally said, a lily by the side of a pool. But Peter did not agree that we know nothing. We know everything, he said; at least he did.",
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      "text": "[Illustration:",
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      "text": "FIG. 1.--Oyster Bank in South Carolina. Showing colonies of “coon” oysters growing in area between tides. Consult Möbius, Dean, and Grave for the ecological conditions of the animals on oyster banks. This is a representative animal community. Photo. by B. Dean, loaned by U. S. Bureau of Fisheries. ]",
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      "text": "Norwood Press J. S. Cushing Co.--Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.",
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      "text": "During the past ten years the writer has been trying to find some consistent and satisfactory working plan for handling the almost bewildering number of facts, of ecological significance, which have been accumulating in the literature of zoölogy, biology, and the allied sciences. This book is the outgrowth of the effort as it has developed in the study and teaching of animal ecology. I have not attempted to make this an exhaustive treatment of the subject, but rather to indicate briefly some of its general bearings and a method of approach. I have tried to keep in mind the needs of the beginner in ecology.",
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      "text": "An ecological point of view is described more fully than the other subjects discussed, so that the student may see the need of familiarity with those tests or criteria by means of which he may be able to determine for himself ecological relations and the validity of ecological studies. The other phases are treated less fully in the discussions and with more detail bibliographically so that this may be a useful source book. The geographical (in the ordinary sense of the word) aspect has been deliberately omitted. The references should be looked upon from the standpoint presented in the general portions of this book, and if the facts and inferences aid in the interpretation of the relations which exist between animals and the sum total of their environments, one may fairly consider that they are of ecological worth.",
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      "text": "In the arrangement of the references I have tried to group related papers, but many defy any single system. Some of the publications deserve to be in several lists, but little duplication has been made, as this would unduly prolong the lists. The annotations will supplement the titles and their grouping in indicating the contents and importance of the papers for our purpose. It has often been difficult to select from several almost equally valuable and useful papers. Others with different interests, aims, and experience would doubtless make a different choice. It will therefore be a favor, if those who use this handbook and feel that important papers have been excluded, will communicate this fact to the author.",
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      "text": "This book is not intended as a treatise on the science of ecology; its aim is primarily educational. This is the justification, if any were necessary, for placing emphasis upon the point of view and the importance of an understanding of explanatory processes and of the methods of scientific investigation. Any adequate treatment of this subject would exceed the space of this volume and it is reserved for future elaboration.",
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      "text": "At present ecology is a science with its facts out of all proportion to their organization or integration. There is thus an immediate need of integration, and this above all requires a clear conception of the scientific method as a tool, and independent thinking as well. The fact that scientific work progresses more rapidly when consciously pursued than otherwise should serve as ample justification for this emphasis.",
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      "text": "A word of explanation is desirable to explain certain features of this volume. It is the outcome of coöperative work on the part of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History and certain members of the Ecological Survey Committee of the Illinois Academy of Science, Professors E. N. Transeau and T. L. Hankinson. A local ecological study was made, as a piece of coöperative work, and directions for study were to be an introductory section of my part of this report. But as this part grew on my hands, with the permission of Professor S. A. Forbes, Director of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, I decided to publish it separately. This part was written two years and a half ago, and when separate publication was decided upon, additional references to the literature were added to bring it to date. These circumstances explain the emphasis placed upon ecological surveying and also the brevity of treatment of other aspects.",
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      "text": "VI. REFERENCES TO IMPORTANT SOURCES OF INFORMATION ON THE LIFE HISTORIES AND HABITS OF INSECTS AND ALLIED INVERTEBRATES 70",
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      "text": "VII. THE LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, OR THE “ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF EXTERNAL NATURE.”(THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT) 79",
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      "text": "VIII. THE LAWS OF ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF METABOLISM, GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT, PHYSIOLOGICAL CONDITIONS, AND BEHAVIOR, OR “THE LIVING ORGANISM AND THE CHANGES WHICH TAKE PLACE IN IT.” (THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ANIMAL) 92",
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      "text": "IX. THE CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF ADJUSTMENT BETWEEN THE ENVIRONMENT AND THE ANIMAL, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO OTHER ORGANISMS. (THE DYNAMIC OR PROCESS RELATIONS OF ANIMAL ASSOCIATIONS AND AGGREGATIONS) 122",
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      "text": "_b._ Subterranean and Cave Associations 143",
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      "text": "“I shall try to show that life is response to the order of nature.... But if it be admitted, it follows that biology is the study of response, and that the study of that order of nature to which response is made is as well within its province as the study of the living organism which responds, for all the knowledge we can get of both these aspects of nature is needed as a preparation for the study of that relation between them which constitutes life.”",
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      "text": "“To study life we must consider three things:",
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      "text": "_first_, the orderly sequence of external nature;",
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      "text": "_second_, the living organism and the changes which take place in it; and,",
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      "text": "_third_, that continuous adjustment between the two sets of phenomena which constitutes life.”",
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      "text": "“The physical sciences deal with the external world, and in the laboratory we study the structure and activities of organisms by very similar methods; but if we stop there, neglecting the relation of the living being to its environment, our study is not biology or the science of life.”",
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      "text": "W. K. BROOKS.",
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      "text": "ANIMAL ECOLOGY",
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      "text": "I. AIM, CONTENT, AND POINT OF VIEW",
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      "text": "Ecology has no aim, but ecologists have. The problems of the ecologist are not fundamentally different from those of any other kind of naturalist. The superficial differences in aim are due to the different points of view, or methods of approach, rather than to any essential difference in the character of the problems.",
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      "text": "The essentially biological core of ecology may be best shown by considering the relation which this science bears to other branches of biology, a relation which has been admirably expressed by the eminent physiologist, Burdon-Sanderson (’94, pp. 438-439), as follows:",
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      "text": "“Now the first thing that strikes us in beginning to think about the activities of an organism is that they are naturally distinguishable into two kinds, according as we consider the action of the whole organism in its relation to the external world or to other organisms, or the action of the parts or organs in their relation to each other. The distinction to which we are thus led between the _internal_ and _external_ relation of plants and animals has of course always existed, but has only lately come into such prominence that it divides biologists more or less completely into two camps--on the one hand those who make it their aim to investigate the actions of the organism and its parts by the accepted methods of physics and chemistry, carrying this investigation as far as the conditions under which each process manifests itself will permit; on the other, those who interest themselves rather in considering the place which each organism occupies, and the part which it plays in the economy of nature. It is apparent that the two lines of inquiry, although they equally relate to what the organism _does_, rather than to what it is, and therefore both have equal right to be included in the one great science of life, or biology, yet lead in directions which are scarcely even parallel. So marked, indeed, is the distinction, that Professor Haeckel some twenty years ago proposed to separate the study of organisms with reference to their place in nature under the designation of ‘œcology,’ defining it as comprising ‘the relations of the animal to its organic as well as to its inorganic environment, particularly its friendly or hostile relations to those animals or plants with which it comes into direct contact.’[1] Whether this term expresses it or not, the distinction is a fundamental one. Whether with the œcologist we regard the organism in relation to the world, or with the physiologist as a wonderful complex of vital energies, the two branches have this in common, that both studies fix their attention, not on stuffed animals, butterflies in cases, or even microscopical sections of the animal or plant body--all of which relate to the framework of life--but on life itself.”",
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      "text": "[1] These he identifies with “those complicated mutual relations which Darwin designates as conditions of the struggle for existence.” Along with chorology--the distribution of animals--œcology constitutes what he calls _Relations-physiologie_. Haeckel, “Entwickelungsgang u. Aufgaben der Zoologie,” Jenaische Zeitschr., 1869, Vol. V, p. 353.",
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      "text": "The quotations from Brooks, on a preceding page, show even more explicitly the intimate relation which exists between biology and ecology. At first glance they may seem to prove almost too much--that biology and ecology are synonymous. They show at least that ecology is concerned with fundamental biological problems--the responses of organisms to their complete environments.",
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      "text": "The relations which different branches of ecology bear to one another may be discussed under three headings, individual, aggregate, and associational ecology. These phases are superficially so distinct that students of one branch may be almost unaware of the existence of the coördinate branches and may not realize that each is a part of the larger unit.",
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      "text": "_Individual Ecology._--The study of individual ecology is the investigation of the development (_process_ of formation) of the structure, function, and behavior of a given individual or kind of animal from the standpoint of its relations and responses to the complete environment. All ecologically significant facts should be considered. Such a study may be devoted to an animal, as, for example, a bumblebee, a crawfish, or a garter snake, and may be limited to a single habitat or locality, or extended throughout the entire geographic range of an animal. From this standpoint the individual studied becomes the hub of the microcosm, from which all relations and responses radiate. Most of the physiological studies of ecological bearing and many investigations of animal behavior have been made from this viewpoint. The organism is thus considered as an agent which, transforming and utilizing substance and energy, produces a varied number of physiological conditions and forms of activity, which in turn furnish the basis for the constant process of response between the organism and its environment.",
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      "text": "_Aggregate Ecology._--The study of aggregate ecology is the investigation of the ecological development, relations, and responses of animals based upon hereditary or taxonomic units, as in a family community, or in genera, families, orders, etc. These groups or aggregates are made the basis for the ecologic study, as a hive of bees, birds, dragon flies (Odonata), the genus _Bombus_. From this approach the activities and responses of the group are traced throughout all environments and associations within the area studied, or throughout the world, and its responses and adjustments to the whole environment receive primary attention. The hereditary or taxonomic unit is here the hub of the microcosm. Perhaps most of the contributions to ecology by the taxonomists are made from this standpoint. Here also the aggregate is considered as an agent or entity which produces many kinds of activities and adjustments to the environment.",
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      "text": "_Associational Ecology._--Associational ecology is devoted to the investigation of the development, interrelations, and responses of animals which are grouped or associated in the same habitats and environments. In this case the associates in a given association and habitat are considered as a unit, whose activities and interrelations and responses are investigated in the same manner as if it were a single animal. The interactions among members of an association are to be compared to the similar relations existing between the different cells, organs, or activities of a single individual. Such groupings have a composition which has developed into an arrangement, or “spacing,” of individuals within it, and which produces a particular plan or pattern, as a result of the innumerable responsive activities on the part of the individuals which live together. For example, when the animals living in a small brook, the littoral zone of a lake, in a colony of breeding gulls, or on the floor of a forest, are treated as a unit, the entire history of the animals in the habitat is considered as a response to the conditions of life.",
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      "text": "In this form of study the association becomes the center of all radiating relations and responses. Such an association is an agent which transforms substance and energy, producing varied physiological conditions and responses in the continuous process of adjustment “which constitutes life.” The physiological needs and states of an association have as real existence in individual animals as have similar needs in the cell or cells which compose the animal body. The mere statement of the facts of such relations is enough to make valid such a comparison.",
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      "text": "For the associational aspect of ecology the German naturalist, Möbius, proposed in 1877 the term “biocœnosis.” The meaning of this he expressed very clearly and concisely, and on account of its relatively obscure publication, in a paper devoted to oyster culture, it has not gained the circulation among zoölogists which its importance merits. His statement (Möbius, ’83, p. 723) is as follows:",
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      "text": "“Every oyster-bed is thus, to a certain degree, a community of living beings, a collection of species, and a massing of individuals, which find here everything necessary for their growth and continuance, such as suitable soil, sufficient food, the requisite percentage of salt, and a temperature favorable to their development. Each species which lives here is represented by the greatest number of individuals which can grow to maturity subject to the conditions which surround them, for among all species the number of individuals which arrive at maturity at each breeding period is much smaller than the number of germs produced at that time. The total number of mature individuals of all the species living together in any region is the sum of the survivors of all the germs which have been produced at all past breeding or brood periods; and this sum of matured germs represents a certain quantum of life which enters into a certain number of individuals, and which, as does all life, gains permanence by means of transmission. Science possesses, as yet, no word by which such a community of living beings may be designated; no word for a community where the sum of species and individuals, beings mutually limited and selected under the average external conditions of life, have, by means of transmission, continued in possession of a certain definite territory. I propose the word _Biocænosis_[2] for such a community. Any change in any of the relative factors of a biocönose produces changes in other factors of the same. If, at any time, one of the external conditions of life should deviate for a long time from its ordinary mean, the entire biocönose, or community, would be transformed. It would also be transformed, if the number of individuals of a particular species increased or diminished through the instrumentality of man, or if one species entirely disappeared from, or a new species entered into, the community.” (See Figure 1).",
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      "text": "[2] From βίος, life, and κοινόειν, to have something in common.",
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      "text": "[Illustration:",
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      "text": "FIG. 2.--Struggle for Existence on a Clam Flat. Showing the overcrowded condition of a colony of Soft Clams (_Mya arenaria_) on Rowley Reef, Massachusetts. The pits mark the position of the living clams. Photo. by Belding, loaned by Mass. Comms. Fisheries and Game. ]",
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      "text": "The three methods of approach to ecological study are not so distinct as they appear at first thought. With perfecting knowledge the network of interrelations increases and the paths converge. Then also the study of the individual behavior of “social” animals, as ants, white ants, bees, or birds which live and breed in colonies, shows transitional stages from the individual unit to that of the family, the colony, and on to the association. Yet the advantage of each point of view should be recognized as an aid in the analysis and synthesis of any problem.",
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      "text": "Some students feel that the study of individual ecology should precede that of the associational. Within certain limits this is true, but if our general knowledge of biology had waited for the perfection of our knowledge of the individual cells of animals, the results would have been disastrous to all concerned. Even now our knowledge of these subjects is very incomplete. For similar reasons there should be no delay in studying animal aggregates and associations.",
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      "text": "A combination of ecological and taxonomic study generally appeals most strongly to those students who have made a specialty of some group of animals. They are familiar with certain forms, have some confidence in taxonomic methods, and frequently have given some attention to habits, life histories, and to collecting. To those who like the descriptive aspect of taxonomy, ecological studies also offer a new field for further description and classification. At present perhaps the majority of ecological students have entered the subject through taxonomy. It is the almost universal verdict of such students that it has required much effort on their part to make the change in the point of view. Such a change cannot be made by a simple resolve, but requires a modification of the habits of the mind, which will be attended by a distinct consciousness of effort. As in other habits, reversion to the older attitude of mind is very easy. This change in point of view is a problem in habit formation, a study of the mental behavior of the ecologist, which is in reality the main topic thus far discussed. One may attempt to make such a change and find that he does not have sufficient modifiability to make it permanent, so that it is only for the moment, during actual collision with some stubborn fact, that he is able to realize ecological relations and an ecological point of view.",
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      "text": "[Illustration:",
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      "text": "FIG. 3.--Struggle for Existence on a Clam Flat. Showing the destruction of a colony of Soft Clams by Horse-shoe Crabs (_Limulus_) and Cockles (_Lunatia_), Rowley Reef, Massachusetts. Photo. by Belding, loaned by Mass. Comms. Fisheries and Game. ]",
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      "text": "To the physiologist, however, individual ecology tends to appeal most strongly, and he, perhaps on account of the preponderance of analytical methods in his work, feels that this is the safest and most important aspect. This statement is perhaps also true of most students of animal behavior. This is largely due to the great present need of analytical methods in these lines, and perhaps indicates a stage in the development of their science rather than a permanent condition. Later a synthetic development will probably become more prominent, and with it will come a change in estimating relative values. Generally physiologists allow for a greater influence of the environment than do many other students. They are impressed with the dependence of organisms upon their environment, and the study of their reactions only reinforces this conception.",
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      "text": "The ecologist who studies the responses of animals cannot help being impressed with the processes of adjustment, and with adaptation as a _process_. It is adaptation as a process, rather than as a product, which perhaps interests him most, and emphasis needs to be placed upon this distinction. The problem of adaptation as a process may be a different and separate one from that of evolution, but individual animals must have shown adjustive adaptation, or there could have been no perpetuation to continue the struggle of adjustment. Ecological problems are likely to raise a question as to the relative importance of adaptation and evolution--if they are separate problems. The present generation has perhaps been more deeply impressed by evolution as a process, than by adaptation as a process.",
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      "text": "The ecology of living animals is only the latest chapter in the volume on this subject; the preceding chapters will contain a history of the indefinitely long series of ecological responses which have taken place in the geologic past. Here is where the ecologist and paleontologist and geologist find common ground. The ecology of living animals must furnish us with whatever firm basis we have for the interpretation of the conditions of life in the past, upon which the paleontologist, stratigrapher, or paleogeographer must depend, at least in part, for his interpretations.",
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      "text": "With still another training and interest, as in the case of those especially interested in human affairs, such as the sociologist, the physician, the sanitary expert, and the agriculturist, we may ultimately expect a greater appreciation for the associational aspect because of the social or associational character of human society. The associational is the phase of animal activity which may be considered as the form of animal behavior which has developed into the human social relations. It is a response to the complete organic and inorganic environment.",
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      "text": "It is rather natural that in a relatively newly recognized subject like ecology this human aspect has not been very fully discussed. For practical reasons the ecology of man has been developed largely independent of that of animals; just as human physiology and psychology have been developed relatively independent of comparative or general physiological psychology. To the mutual advantage of these subjects they are now rapidly converging, and we may anticipate a similar relation between general animal ecology and the ecology of man. In a general treatise on animal ecology the human phase should not receive undue emphasis any more than it should in a general physiology of animals or in a comparative psychology. But, nevertheless, the relationships of man and his animal associates (slaves, domestic animals, rats, mice, parasites, etc.) form as truly an animal association as do those of the animals which live associated in some forest glade; and in all probability, before any approximately complete understanding can be had of the human associations, their roots and principles of activity must be known and understood in the less aristocratic portion of his animal relatives.",
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      "text": "The recognition of the associational aspect of ecology, as well as that human ecology is a part of general animal ecology, is of recent origin. This is very well shown in the following quotation from Huxley (1854. On the Educational Value of the Natural History Sciences):",
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      "text": "“Biology deals only with living beings as isolated things--treats only of the life of the individual: but there is a higher division of science still, which considers living beings as aggregates--which deals with the relation of living beings one to another--the science which _observes_ men--whose _experiments_ are made by nations one upon another, in battlefields--whose _general propositions_ are embodied in history, morality, and religion--whose _deductions_ lead to our happiness or our misery--and whose _verifications_ so often come too late, and serve only",
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      "text": "‘To point a moral, or adorn a tale’--",
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      "text": "I mean the science of Society or _Sociology_.”",
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      "text": "At a later date (1876. On the Study of Biology) Huxley says: “For whatever view we may entertain about the nature of man, one thing is perfectly certain, that he is a living creature. Hence, if our definition is to be interpreted strictly, we must include man and all his ways and works under the head of Biology; in which case, we should find that psychology, politics, and political economy would be absorbed into the province of Biology. In strict logic no one can object to this course.... The real fact is that we biologists are a self-sacrificing people ... [so that] we feel that we have more than sufficient territory.... But I should like you to recollect that that is a sacrifice, and that you should not be surprised if it occasionally happens that you see a biologist apparently trespassing in the region of philosophy or politics; or meddling with human education; because, after all, that is a part of his kingdom which he has only voluntarily forsaken.”",
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      "text": "Whether sociology is regarded as a response of man to his fellows or to the whole of his environment is inconsequential in its bearing upon whether or not it is ecological. The response of man, as an animal, to a part or the whole of his environment is strictly ecological. Huxley recognized one relation very clearly, and that is that the ecological relations of _individuals_ do not currently include the higher synthesis which deals with them as associations, or “aggregates” as he terms them. So far as known to the writer, human activities in general have never been fully and comprehensively oriented from the ecological standpoint, even by the humanitarians themselves, although some important preliminary steps have been taken. It looks as if such a viewpoint might give a new unity to all studies of human relations.",
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      "text": "There is still another class of persons, particularly teachers and isolated students, who desire first of all to understand and interpret their own vicinity, and who will inquire which of the three plans their work best fits. If such a one begins with the detailed study of each species, the general survey will not be completed during his lifetime. If he uses the larger taxonomic units, he may survey the field by going over the same ground again and again, with each of the different groups successively in mind, until the entire field has been surveyed. Or, lastly, he may divide the area into associations and study the animals which are found living together, and by studying one association after another he may cover the entire field. A teacher will find certain important advantages in this plan, and certain disadvantages. One of the most important considerations in its favor is that such a study results in a familiarity with the kinds of animals one actually finds in natural groups, as when his class is on an excursion. The natural history which a farmer, a fisherman, a summer vacationist, or a sportsman acquires is grouped in this same manner. Thus to a large number of people this is the natural method of approach, and is generally of most permanent value, except possibly to some professional teachers or zoölogists. One of its greatest disadvantages is that in most of the literature which one must use, the animals are not grouped in this way, but taxinomically.",
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      "text": "The individual, aggregate, and associational methods of study are in themselves subject to diverse angles of approach, and each has its particular advantages and disadvantages. Of the methods of approach mention will be made of three only, the descriptive, the comparative, and the genetic or method of processes. The descriptive method must develop to some degree before the genetic problems can be adequately stated, and the mature development of the genetic may, and generally does, lag far behind that of the descriptive. The reason for this is simple, for it is evident that it is much easier to describe what we see than it is to explain how it originated or its process of development. At present biology as a science is mainly in the descriptive stage, though it is slowly but surely becoming explanatory and genetic. The developmental or explanatory method is so difficult that every possible expedient--observation, comparison, reflection, experiment, etc.--must be used to secure the proper development of the main phases of ecology. There is a marked tendency in the naturalist to master one system of work, as observation or experiment, and to use it as a tool almost exclusively, turning from one phase of the subject to another, and continuing the use of the same method. This way of working is favorable to a good technique, but its weakness is that it often tends to give its user a feeling of the great superiority and reliability of the result reached by his method, and a correspondingly less appreciative recognition of results secured by other methods. To observe, to experiment, to reflect, to dissect, to stain, and to collect are only partial methods of investigation, and this fact should be realized and be kept in mind when estimating values and planning work.",
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      "text": "The aim of the ecologist is professedly genetic or explanatory because it is the study of _responses_ to all conditions of the complete environment. But these responses must be described, and the conditions influencing them as well, so that a descriptive aspect is an essential part in all phases of ecology. In the study of the responses of an individual, an order, or an association, pure description of the responses is necessary; but a description which will at once describe and show the working of the processes by which the results were produced, is of quite a different order. This phase of explanation has been most concisely expressed and applied by the students of the physical sciences, and biologists may profit much from a study of their methods.",
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      "text": "When, however, we turn to the viewpoint of the development of the science of ecology as a whole, a symmetrical development of the subject is most desirable. The preponderating influence of any special point of view tends, like dominance in general, to smother or suppress other germinating and competing ideas. The different special interests each have their advantages and disadvantages, as does a general interest. Diversity in students leads to diversity in the development of the subject, and a variety of emotional appeals to the student has its advantages. And just as the special student should devote some attention to the general bearing of his work, so also should the student of the general aspects cultivate some special field of interest.",
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      "text": "The preceding discussion of the aims and methods in ecological study has been intended to indicate some of its general bearings, and to give the student some idea of the tests or criteria which may be used to aid in steering his course through the maze of observations which he may make and the opinions which he encounters. It is of equal importance for the student to be able to perceive ecological relations as recorded by others, because one person’s experience is so limited compared with the general body of recorded fact and inference. Furthermore, there are also so many degrees and kinds of work that go by the name ecological, which may or may not be, and so many also which are truly ecological but which do not pass under that name, that it is necessary that the student shall be able to see through its diverse guises and recognize its essential character. Whenever the question arises as to the ecological character of a fact, inference, or conclusion, its ecological validity may be tested in the following way:",
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      "text": "Do the facts, inferences, or conclusions show a _response_ to the inorganic or organic environment:",
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      "text": "1. As an individual of a species or kind of animal?",
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      "text": "2. As a group of taxonomically related animals?",
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      "text": "3. As an association of interacting animals?",
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      "text": "REFERENCES ON THE ECOLOGICAL STANDPOINT",
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      "text": "In this I have listed only those papers which have seemed to me particularly significant because of their point of view, regardless of whether or not they are primarily zoölogical or specifically mention ecology.",
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      "sha256": "ee08f67300c92863371516b3b9b963eb795849c4898be98667297ff96a5ac4c0",
      "text": "BROOKS, W. K.",
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      "sha256": "4a441c70c545ac200f916fc3c7d983965587690b99d5e32d8a1f5b7ed7a0ceed",
      "text": "1899. The Foundations of Zoölogy. pp. 339. New York.",
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      "text": "Introductory, pp. 1-29; Huxley, and the Problem of the Naturalist, pp. 33-46; Nature and Nurture, pp. 49-79.",
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      "text": "1906. Heredity and Variation; Logical and Biological. Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc., Vol. XLV, pp. 70-76.",
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      "text": "ADAMS, CHAS. C.",
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      "text": "1906. Introductory Note. An Ecological Survey in Northern Michigan. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1905, pp. 11-12.",
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      "text": "1909. The Ecological Succession of Birds. Ann. Rep. Mich. Geol. Surv. for 1908, pp. 121-154.",
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      "text": "SHELFORD, V. E.",
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      "text": "1912. Ecological Succession. V. Aspects of Physiological Classification. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 331-370.",
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      "text": "The standpoint of this paper is very much in harmony with that advanced in this book.",
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      "text": "CASE, E. C.",
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      "text": "II. THE VALUE AND METHOD OF ECOLOGICAL SURVEYS",
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      "text": "“I cannot too strongly emphasize the fact ... that a comprehensive survey of our entire natural history is absolutely essential to a good _working knowledge_ of those parts of it which chiefly attract popular attention,--that is, its edible fishes, its injurious and beneficial insects, and its parasitic plants. Such a survey, however, should not stop with a study of the dead forms of nature, ending in mere lists and descriptions. To have an _applicable_ value, it must treat the life of the region as an organic unit, must study it _in action_, and direct principal attention to the laws of its activity.”--S. A. FORBES. 1883.",
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      "text": "Natural history surveys have come down to us from the early days of zoölogy. These surveys have been of many kinds and have ranged from the adventurous accounts of early and daring explorers to those of such naturalists as Belt, Bates, Wallace, and Darwin, onward to the voluminous accounts of the “Biologia Centrali-Americana,” and in the _Challenger_ reports. These surveys have contributed greatly to our knowledge of the fundamental facts of zoölogy and to the training of naturalists.",
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      "text": "The most frequent form of survey is that carried on along the lines which most nearly approach individual and aggregate ecology. Most of such surveys give only slight attention to the _responsive relation_, or only to its most general aspects. Surveys of the usual character are of great importance, and with students of taxonomic training and interests only, this form of survey occurs very naturally. Most of the governmental and state surveys and museum expeditions are developed along these lines. The frequency with which such methods are used in surveys, which are expected to produce economic results, indicates that these methods are generally considered the most satisfactory. The exceptions to this rule are mainly surveys of fresh and salt waters, and are related in some way to aquatic resources. Except when detailed individual studies of certain species or some special subject has been made, the usual form of the reports of such surveys is the annotated list. It is rarely that even brief chapters discuss the groupings of the animals as they are found associated in nature. These statements show that, judging from the past, the methods currently used cannot be depended upon for a rapid and symmetrical development of ecology, or for the best development of ecological surveys. These must be developed in a more direct and deliberate manner, by carefully planned and executed ecological investigations. It is desirable also that ecological surveys should be conducted along some one of the three main avenues of approach, individual, aggregate, and associational, in order that the science may develop symmetrically. The following are some of the reasons which may be mentioned in favor of such surveys:",
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      "text": "As a record of the associations, their interrelations and responses to their environment--before they have become too much changed or exterminated. This is a duty to future naturalists and to future science. The animal remains in themselves are only a very incomplete record; their activities and environments are an essential part of the animals and should also be preserved.",
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      "text": "The study of original conditions is a simpler problem than after interference by man, but excessive modifications result in the simplicity due to annihilation and a corresponding imperfection of knowledge. The value of a knowledge of original conditions tends to increase with time, and will aid much in future interpretations when there is still more disturbance. Thus an important perspective may be developed which will aid in estimating relative values. At the present time the loss of records of original conditions is only beginning to be felt. The possibility of making certain records will vanish with each generation. It is not even desirable to _preserve all_, but it is evident that many ecological records should be preserved.",
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      "text": "As the importance of ecological studies, in natural environments, comes to be more generally recognized the serious encroachments of civilization upon habitats and associations is enforced upon us. Not only are the descriptions of these associations very few in number, but the interrelations of the animals in them are even less known, and the chances of preserving adequate records before their complete extinction are becoming fewer every year. Without the least disparagement of other lines of work, one can but wonder if the naturalists of the future will commend our foresight in studying with such great diligence certain aspects of biology which might be very well delayed, while ephemeral and vanishing records are allowed to be obliterated without the least concern. These changes are generally greatest where civilized man is most dominant, and in progressive attenuations, zones, or strips, the degree of change produced by him radiates. Ecology has developed only at a late stage in civilization, after much of the environment has undergone great changes, so that in order to study the original conditions, which are of such great historic and genetic significance, he must make long journeys, or invade the swamps or sterile uplands which man has not yet been able to reduce to the average conditions best suited to his needs. This state of affairs is one which, at times, makes him thankful that there are conditions which, for the present at least, man cannot cultivate and utterly change and mutilate. Some appear to think that an interest in such original conditions is of no particular scientific value, or is largely one of sentiment; still others, that such studies have no practical value. But if we come to consider that the original primeval conditions give us our best conception of the _normal processes of nature_ and are comparable to the normal health of an organism, it puts the subject in another light. A pathological condition is, of course, a state in a natural process, as is also any disturbance of the normal order of nature by man, and each should be studied scientifically. But the science of pathology has developed best as a study of the disturbances of normal processes and is interpreted primarily in terms of the normal; and the artificial should be similarly interpreted--the natural being the basis to which all standards must be referred. A comparison may also profitably be made between natural conditions and the physiological and vital optima of organisms and to the responses which are made with departures from such conditions. Similar comparisons should be made in the study of the responses of aggregations and associations in natural environments and departures from them. No matter how much we learn, the normal must remain as the ideal, and all departures from and disturbances of such conditions must be interpreted in terms of this fundamental unit.",
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      "text": "To study disturbed, artificial, and “pathological” conditions, without an adequate knowledge of the normal and original conditions of both the organisms and the environment, is an attempt to interpret the abnormal and artificial in terms of itself, rather than in terms of the normal. If, however, the normal is no longer preserved, then its nearest approach should be studied, but with all the more care and caution. With a proper understanding of the normal, the disturbances made by man will be capable of _interpretation in an orderly sequence strictly comparable to that found in the original and natural conditions_. The cutting down and washing of the lands, the draining and filling of depressions, the flooding of the lands, the destruction (or succession) of plant and animal associations (including crop rotation), are processes brought about or practiced by other organisms or animal agencies. An ecological standpoint gives us a consistent, comprehensive orientation of all these natural and “artificial” activities and processes, and shows the unity in all organic responses to the environment. Man’s influence in the main consists of hastening or retarding “natural processes.”",
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      "text": "Naturalists have for a long time spoken of the “balance of nature” and of the all-pervading influence of any serious disturbance of it. This balance is, of course, only a relative condition, and not absolutely fixed. It swings from one side, then back, sometimes showing considerable amplitude in its swing, then again its moves are very slight, mere tremblings, as it were. But now and then some local catastrophic event occurs which overturns everything, as when a volcano becomes active, or some dominant association takes possession of the field,--as in the case of man,--and a new order is initiated and a new balance is developed. The mongoose in Jamaica, our English sparrow, and rabbits in Australia are the classic examples of the overturning of the local order of nature by the agency of other organisms. Obviously this balance is not a condition limited to any particular locality or group of organisms. Balance is very generally conceded to be of fundamental importance in the study of any species or group of organisms, if its place in the economy of nature is understood. A vast number of the problems of the economic zoölogist are thus problems, not so much of individual or aggregate ecology, but ones in which the balance of the whole local biotic _association_ is concerned.",
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      "text": "This was the fact pointed out by Möbius when he studied the oyster and came to see that it must be studied not in isolation but as a member of a community, association of animals, or a biocœnosis, as he called these interrelated organisms. These facts are mentioned, as examples from a vast number that are recorded, to show that our applied or economic zoölogy and entomology are _fundamentally more closely related to associational ecology_ than to any other phase of zoölogy, and to suggest that it would be to the great advantage of the students of such problems if they clearly understood this relation. This is also an argument for the ecological organization of a vast number of natural history surveys, because the associational grouping of observations and responses gives the most intimate knowledge of the life of animals in the network of their environmental relations.",
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      "text": "In addition to the balance of nature which is found within the small associational units there are the larger ones of considerable geographic extent, which the students of faunal or floral problems frequently call zones or distinct regions. Some of these are distinct ecological units, whose _dynamic status_ should be determined, so that we may know and understand whether it is in a condition of stress, a process of adjustment, or one of relative equilibrium or balance. Under present conditions in what direction does it tend to move? At what rate? The non-ecological surveys have not put these questions or worked deliberately toward a goal which will answer them. For any comprehensive study of this character we need to have determined what may be considered as a _biotic base_, optimum, or balance, toward which relations under given conditions tend, and at which an equilibrium will become established (The Auk, 1908, Vol. XXV, p. 125). Such facts underlie all of the problems involved in the interpretation of climax biotic associations, and their application by man. Cook (1909, Bull. 145, Bur. Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, pp. 7, 8) has expressed similar relations as follows: “Unless we can form a definite idea of the original conditions we cannot expect to judge of their influence on primitive man, nor can we determine what effects man has had upon the vegetation and other natural conditions. We need what might be called a bionomic base line, an idea of the conditions which existed before man came upon the scene, the conditions which would again supervene if the human inhabitants were withdrawn.”",
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      "text": "It is perhaps significant that the genetic or successional relations of habitats and associations, as contrasted with their descriptive classification, both in plants and animals, have in the past been developed, not by the ecological students who live and work among conditions greatly modified by man, as in parts of Europe, but in the newer, less modified America. In this respect a parallel exists to the development of our knowledge and the process and genetic interpretation of topography, which has also developed more rapidly in America than elsewhere. The process and genetic method which has developed in this physical science has now spread to the biological sciences and has found a fertile soil there for development on account of the _relatively_ undisturbed biotic conditions which still persist in certain areas.",
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      "text": "In this connection it may be worth while to indicate some of the ecological disadvantages under which the non-ecological surveys are carried on. As a rule, such surveys feel no strong obligation to record fully the conditions of the environment, or its developmental processes. The environment is considered as static, and not as a changing medium; it has no past or future, it has merely horizontal extension. The problem as to its _dynamic status_, whether in a condition of stress, in the process of adjustment, or in relative equilibrium, is not raised, or if it should be, it could not be handled. The student eager for new and little-known species is not the one to study such relations, at least, as a rule, this has not been his practice. So long as the success of a day’s work is measured by the length of the list of novelties secured, rather than by the quality and quantity of ecological relations discovered, such students and surveys will not contribute greatly to our knowledge of the economy of nature in the regions surveyed.",
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      "text": "At the present time it is very difficult to secure trained men to do ecological surveying. Even a superficial examination of this paper should show that familiarity with ecologic methods and results is not one to be acquired offhand, but a knowledge which requires considerable special training; not only as much as is usually required for other kinds of zoölogical work, but generally more, because of its synthetic relational tendency which requires a broad knowledge as well as some special knowledge in several lines of biology and the allied sciences. Conventionally considered, a properly equipped physiologist must have a working knowledge of certain phases of modern physics and chemistry in addition to his grounding in biology. A properly trained anatomist should have a knowledge of physiological and developmental processes, or his anatomy is purely descriptive and static. A student of general zoölogy should be grounded not only in physiological and developmental processes, but also in the relations of the organisms to their complete environment. The ecologist requires also the grounding in physiological, developmental, and ecological processes of adjustment, but as well he must understand the processes by which the vegetation and the physical environment have been and are being developed and their method of mutual interrelations and adjustment. It is difficult for some students to develop the ecological phases in the field. There are many disadvantages to be overcome. The difficulties are similar, in some respects, to those of the ethnologist who is sent on some museum expedition. The wealthy donor of the funds may wish to see a room filled with specimens on the return of the ethnologist, so that materials which have bulk and make a showing take precedence over detailed studies of the habits, traditions, languages, and descriptions of the people, because such studies require appreciation rather than inspection for evaluation. The zoölogical student may meet with just the same kind of difficulty. His institutional authorities often judge values by the cubic foot and pound, rather than by the quality of relations discovered. The student himself who has had an extensive collecting experience, in which quantity and variety have been the ideal, finds it difficult to return from a day’s work with only a few pages of notes on the responses of the animals, and with perhaps only a few specimens.",
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      "text": "With such an understanding of the general rules of the game we may turn to the application or art of ecology, to indicate its relation to general problems. With a grounding in the general principles of organic response to the total environment, one is able to see that the disturbances due to man are a problem in the adjustment of the highest type of animal, as a member of an animal association, to its complete environment. The “control of nature” for which men strive is the process of making the environments and associations _to order_. The disturbances in the natural order may be looked upon as so many huge experiments or trial activities in this process of adjustment.",
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      "text": "If natural preserves are not made, how will the next generation be best grounded in the general principles of the science? Are these complex modified conditions the natural place to start the student, or should such problems be reserved for the maturely trained one? These disturbed fragmentary conditions may be likened to fragmentary fossils whose interpretation is attempted. A paleontologist whose only knowledge of animals was derived from such fragments, and who had never known a perfect living animal, would certainly be at a great disadvantage in such an investigation. The natural starting point therefore seems to be in as nearly natural normal environments and associations as is possible, and with such experience one is prepared for the more complex problems resulting from man’s activity.",
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      "text": "“Is not the biological laboratory which leaves out the ocean and the mountains and meadows a monstrous absurdity? Was not the greatest scientific generalization of your times reached independently by two men who were eminent in their familiarity with living things in their homes?”--BROOKS, 1899, p. 41.",
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      "text": "In taking up field work, or any other kind of complex study, a definite working plan is of much value. For this reason this subject deserves more than a mere mention. Such a plan greatly aids in keeping in mind the general aim of the study, and particularly the lesser aims which develop with the analysis of the subject. It further aids in the proper orientation and subordination of allied subjects which crowd in from all directions.",
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      "text": "For many students it is a good plan to make out a general outline of any proposed study as soon as possible after the work has been started. In the beginning it is difficult to realize the radiating relations of a subject, and the attempt at such plans aids in the perception of these relationships and becomes an important guide. Such an outline will need several revisions, but these changes will come with a broadening and deepening grasp of the subject. Perhaps the greatest value of such a plan is that it facilitates the conscious effort to seek a definite goal by maintaining a standard of measurement.",
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      "text": "In addition to a comprehensive analytical plan others are useful. Particularly is this true when several lines of work are being done simultaneously or when the work must be interrupted frequently. Under such circumstances even a daily program may aid in utilizing many of the fragments of time which are so easily lost. In this way incomplete observations, verifications, and similar small items which are time-consuming may be made. These plans apply with particular force to field study when several lines of observation are being driven abreast. I have found it profitable to keep memoranda on note slips which will recall items needing further attention, at certain places in the field or on certain subjects. Thus, for example, if plans are suddenly changed and another locality is visited, the proper note slips indicating the points for special study at such a place are quickly secured, and one can hasten to the field prepared for the work of the day. Of course, similar plans are applicable to many kinds of work.",
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      "text": "To learn how to study in the field, and not simply to collect, is one of the most important habits which a field naturalist and the ecologist has to acquire. This is one which he must, to a large degree, master alone, without the ready access to assistance, as is usually the case in the laboratory study. It is also a subject about which it is difficult to give useful suggestions, other than those of the most general nature. Directions for collecting are, on the other hand, simpler and more accessible in the form of numerous manuals filled with practical suggestions.",
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      "text": "Field study is not confined to observations alone, but to the securing of all kinds of evidence from the field which will aid in the interpretation of the field relations of animals. Thorough intimacy with the animals can only be acquired through repeated and prolonged excursions in the field. This may mean excursions at any hour of the day or night. Part of this familiarity is best acquired by an intensive study of some limited area or association, and by thus establishing a unit for comparison so that the differences in other places are more readily perceived and described.",
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      "text": "Before selecting a limited area for study one should make a general examination of a much larger tract, so that one may be sure that the area selected is a fair sample and worthy of the special study. There are also many advantages in selecting areas little modified by man. Such modified areas may, to better advantage, be considered later; just as pathology should be studied after one is grounded in normal histology. Undoubtedly the normal, or its approximation, is the best foundation upon which to build, and here we have the educational argument for natural preserves for animals and their superiority over highly modified “parks” for the same purpose.",
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      "text": "Having selected a locality, repeated and prolonged visits, careful observation, and description of the place and animals will enable one to acquire the desired familiarity. For the study of the behavior of the animals concerned many observations can be made by remaining quiet, carefully concealed, and recording all observations. This method is particularly applicable to animals which live in exposed places, such as many insects, birds, and mammals. For other kinds, only indirect methods of observation are possible, or only when under controlled conditions. For the indirect methods of observation many forms of traps have been devised, traps not intended merely to receive the dead animal, but those also which will secure the animal and reveal something of its behavior. For the study of the habits and behavior of such animals as live in the soil or under bark, etc., both extensive collecting and examination of the animals in vivaria will also be necessary.",
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      "text": "Fortunately for the student of mammals, birds, and fishes we have excellent guides for the technique of study and photographing of individual and associated kinds in the works of Kearton (1907), Chapman (1900), Herrick (1905), and Reighard (1908). It is very desirable that these methods be applied to the interrelations among the animals of an association. The student of behavior in nature has much to learn from many excellent studies of animal behavior which have been carried on in recent years by laboratory students. Fortunately the line between these two methods of study is breaking down to the mutual advantage of each. The border line between these two methods will give excellent returns to any student well prepared in each line of work.",
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      "text": "Another essential for good field work is a clear understanding of what ecological studies attempt to do. This implies some general conception of what is worth while ecologically; it assumes a point of view or other criterion which may be applied to test the trueness of one’s aim. The ecologist will meet with much more than ecological facts, but it is to these that he should give primary attention. These accessory facts, no matter how interesting in themselves, should not divert him from the main course. The ecologist must select from this mass of experience those facts, inferences, and conclusions which help in the _interpretation_ of the responses of animals to their complete environment. It is thus evident why the ecologist must have a clearly defined aim, with criteria for estimating values, or he will be at the risk of dissipating his energies. This phase of our problem as applied to the studies of a geologist, but applying with equal force to the ecologist, has been concisely expressed by Van Hise (1904, pp. 611-612) as follows: “I have heard a man say: ‘I observe the facts as I find them, unprejudiced by any theory.’ I regard this statement as not only condemning the work of the man, but the position is an impossible one. No man has ever stated more than a small part of the facts with reference to any area. The geologist must select the facts which he regards of sufficient note to record and describe. But such selection implies theories of their importance and significance. In a given case the problem is therefore reduced to selecting the facts for record, with a broad and deep comprehension of the principles involved, a definite understanding of the rules of the game, an appreciation of what is probable and what is not probable; or else making mere random observations. All agree that the latter alternative is worse than useless, and therefore the only training which can make a geologist safe, even in his observations, is to equip him with such a knowledge of the principles concerned as will make his observations of value.”",
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      "text": "Early in field work one should learn that the collection of specimens is not the primary aim of excursions, that specimens are only _one_ kind of facts, but that field study should be devoted to the accumulation of specimens, and to observations on the habits, activities, interrelations, and responses of animals, as well as to all facts, inferences, and suggestions which are likely to be of use in the interpretation of the problems studied.",
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      "text": "We sometimes hear that reflections upon the work should be reserved for the return to the laboratory or study. This advice seems to be based upon the assumption that study in the field is not particularly stimulating and suggestive. On the other hand deliberating interpretatively in the midst of the problems under consideration is one of the most favorable conditions possible for the improvement of the quality and quantity of one’s work. It should be recalled in this connection that Darwin and Wallace’s evolutionary theory did not _originate_ in the laboratory, but while in the field in the midst of their studies, while working reflectively upon their observations and collections, as Brooks indicates in the quotation at the beginning of this chapter. The classic case of Bates discovering mimicry in his London study instead of in the forests of Brazil is to some minds not an argument for laboratory study, but one for field study. There are but few subjects which have suffered more from the preponderating influence of the laboratory.",
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      "text": "To be sure, it may require more time to study in the field than if one collects specimens only, but it is economical in the long run. There are, of course, certain phases of more indirect observation which can be done best in the study or laboratory, but at present, field study, as contrasted with collecting, is a phase of effort urgently needing emphasis.",
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      "text": "The processes of observation and field study and note taking are so intimately related that taking notes becomes one of the essential parts of careful observation. This is also one of the most difficult habits to acquire. The beginner is inclined to write them up, especially field notes, in the evening after his return from the field. Such notes are generally brief, lack details, and are usually of little value. Therefore the safest course to pursue is to describe fully whatever seems of value, then to go over these facts again and by further observations increase the number of items noted several times. These observations should be recorded _as soon as made_, for generally the lack of notes means a lack of detailed observation. Some observations can be made only at long intervals, even of many years, others only with the return of another cycle of behavior, or of another season, and still others cannot be repeated. It is such considerations as these which emphasize the need of pursuing the safest course and recording _instantly_ and fully all observations when made. An excess of notes is of very rare occurrence. In the effort to write carefully worded notes one has a very important check upon the tendency toward hasty observation, because such a description requires one to think over the observation before it can be expressed. This deliberation is thus made at the time when reobservation can be made to the best advantage, and calls attention to the weak points to which special consideration may perhaps be given a moment later, and thus affords a chance to complete the observation. Comstock (Insect Life, 1897, p. 323) has well summed up the taking of notes as follows: “Fill your notebook with descriptions, but digest them carefully, sifting out for publication only those that exhaustive study and repeated observation prove to be valuable. In making observations _be sure_ you are right and then look again.” And again as Van Hise (Science, N. S., Vol. XVI, p. 326) has said, “The difference between _bad_ observation and _good_ observation is that the former is _erroneous_; the latter is _incomplete_.”",
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      "text": "Notes are generally taken in one of two forms, in a book or on loose slips of paper or cards (Hopkins, 1893; Sanderson, 1904). It seems to be very generally agreed that if a book is used it should be of small size, of about 4 × 6 inches, so that it may be conveniently carried in the pocket. For a permanent record such books are a great convenience when once indexed. But when using such notes, while preparing a report, they are not so convenient as the note slips, unless one limits such a report to the form of a narrative. About ten years ago the writer began using a form of notebook in which an aluminum cover held the loose note slips. Thus while in the field one has the advantage of a book with a firm writing surface, and also that of the loose-leaf plan. This form of cover is now used by a number of field naturalists. The disadvantage of the slips not being bound might be remedied in part by using some form of punched slips which are convenient for binding.",
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      "text": "Each one must decide for himself which form of recording notes answers his needs most satisfactorily. There are advantages in uniformity, but with the variable nature of work, it is sometimes very convenient to use both methods of recording.",
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      "text": "Some students have no method of recording their observations or reflections upon their lines of interest. This seems to be unwise and suggests a method of business without bookkeeping. The efficiency of some students is greater than that of others, not so much because they possess superior mental ability, but because they have superior methods of preserving whatever useful ideas occur to them, while the others, from their lack of records, have no cumulative store upon which to draw. This is an important form of capital. Note keeping is readily seen to consist not only of observations, but also of suggestions, inferences, conclusions, and reflections of any kind which will facilitate methods of work and the interpretation of the facts.",
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      "text": "In describing environments, it is desirable to use the same general method for different localities so that the descriptions may be comparable and show some degree of standardization. This method has been found very useful in taxonomic studies and has similar advantages here. A brief general statement of the most conspicuous features may precede, and be followed by detailed descriptions. The order may well vary with individual workers, but a uniform method is desirable throughout any single piece of work and has obvious advantages. Thus one practical plan applied to a forest habitat is, to describe the substratum, the soil, rock, etc., then the forest litter of organic débris, then the boles of the trees and the forest crown and its character, and finally the operation of those agencies which are causing changes in the forest and which will perpetuate or change it in the future. No practical forester would be content to shut his eyes to the future crop of wood, and in the study of animal habitats we must not be content to rest below such a commercial standard. To some this seems very theoretical, and yet a farmer who counts upon a crop in five months, or a forester, in fifty years, is not so branded, and the ecologist need have no fear in using such practical methods. In other words, we should consider the future stages of the developing habitat and learn to perceive the evidences which show in which direction development or change is taking place; or to determine the “orderly sequence of external nature.” Not only should the future be considered, but we should strive also to read the record backward and interpret the past in terms of processes now in operation. In this respect the point of view of the geologist who interprets the past in terms of present processes may well merit our attention. To understand our habitats they must be studied not only in their length and breadth, but also in depth--past and future--as they have all three dimensions.",
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      "text": "The preceding remarks bear equally well upon observations of the activities of animals in nature, on account of the absence of controlled conditions, for these methods have almost as much significance as the study of the environments themselves; and equally careful observations and descriptions are essential, if the detailed processes of animal activities and their transformations are to be recorded.",
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      "text": "An experienced naturalist finds that from year to year the amount of notes which he takes increases rapidly, and in a very direct ratio to the progress which he makes in his study. Good note taking is not a passive process, but one which calls for an alert mind. The prolonged interest which is necessary to secure detailed observations implies such a frame of mind. Every one soon tires of any subject unless new features are constantly being discovered.",
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      "text": "In the description of the associations in any given habitat, the problem is much simplified if one has a clear idea of dominance, knows how to recognize it, and understands some of its main implications. The dominant forms are the most common and powerful individuals in the association. They may or may not be the most conspicuous, from a superficial view. Conspicuousness may depend upon size, but dominance refers to large absolute numbers and to influence exerted. We may profitably compare an association of animals in a given habitat to a play upon the stage. The environment corresponds to the stage. The dominant members of the association correspond to the leading characters, the secondary species, always present, to the essential but subordinate characters. The individual animals adjust themselves to one another, especially to the dominant forms, and to the environment, as the personalities in the play adjust themselves to the dominant characters, to one another, and to the environment. In both groups some individuals are dominant, some used and useful, some are tolerated, others pick up the crumbs, still others are predatory or parasitic, and all must be mutually adjusted to one another and to the environment.",
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      "text": "The number of dominant species within an association is relatively limited, a fact which holds for both plants and animals. A knowledge of perhaps 200 or 300 species of animals (and 150 plants) will enable one to work advantageously in many localities (as in the state of Illinois). Of this number perhaps not more than about one half or one third can be considered dominant. Every one who has tried to make extensive local lists of species knows that it requires many years of collecting to secure a large number of species. These rare species are generally of quite minor importance ecologically. Considerations of this character should be encouraging to those who may be intimidated by the idea of large numbers of species. Then, of course, it should be remembered that there are many aspects of ecological work which do not meet with this variety of animals.",
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      "sha256": "aadd3bfebc21ea8dde30a5a2fe67c03f3006ead4a898e78793b31f8edf9bfb47",
      "text": "IV. THE COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND DETERMINATION OF SPECIMENS",
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      "text": "Ecological study does not end with collecting specimens, and it may not begin there. The importance of collecting and preserving specimens will vary with the phase of ecological study considered. In the field study of behavior of a single species there may be almost no collecting of animals but much collecting of notes; but if one is devoted primarily to the recognition and study of the composition of associations and their interrelations, much collecting will have to be done. Also, when studying the ecological relations of some taxonomic unit, as in aggregate ecology, the number of associates is so large that one must do rather extensive collecting. But even the exhaustive study of the behavior of any single species will necessitate considerable collecting. The necessity for this has been shown by Forbes (1880, The Food of Fishes, p. 20) as follows: “If one wishes to become acquainted with the black bass, for example, he will learn but little if he limits himself to that species. He must evidently study also the species upon which it depends for its existence, and the various conditions upon which _these_ depend. He must likewise study the species with which it comes in competition, and the entire system of conditions affecting their prosperity. Leaving out any of these, he is like one who undertakes to make out the construction of a watch, but overlooks one wheel; and by the time he has studied all these sufficiently, he will find that he has run through the whole complicated mechanism of the aquatic life of the locality, both animal and vegetable, of which his species forms but a single element.”",
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      "text": "Collecting is an important means of ecological study. This is particularly true in the early stages of such study, but as the student becomes familiar with species and comes to know many of them at sight, less collecting will be necessary, except in the case of very small species and in those studies which depend upon the total catch as a means of securing data, as, for example, the case of plankton organisms. On account of the large number of species, very few students will be able to determine them at sight, but this does not disqualify a student for beginning ecological study. The greatest aid in handling such a varied population is a numbering of the individuals, or lots of specimens, consecutively and recording the full data for them in the notebook. The question arises at once as to how many specimens are to be assigned to _one_ number. No rigid rule can be followed, but in general it is safe to assign a single number to all specimens which agree in _all the fundamental data_, as date, place of capture, and exact habitat. And for my own part I number all individuals taken, upon which any special observations are made, as when a Phymatid is taken with a dying or dead honeybee, or a dragon fly is taken from the web of an _Argiope_. In this way the confusion which is particularly liable to creep into one’s work, where he deals with a large number of species, and before familiarity with them is acquired, may be reduced to the minimum. For small animals I have found useful a very liberal use of vials, into which field numbers, corresponding to numbers in the field notes, are placed _immediately upon capture_ of the specimens, and not minutes or hours later when the vials have become mixed, and recollection is less sharp. Specimens which have been thoroughly numbered may thus be sent to specialists for determination. This method uses up many numbers, but, fortunately, the supply is unlimited, and it gives greater precision to one’s notes, and encourages detailed observations on individual animals.",
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      "text": "In the eyes of many the determination of specimens is such a formidable task that they are at once repelled from any subject which involves numerous species. But as we have previously remarked, there are phases of ecological study which involve only a minimum amount of such work. On the other hand, one may readily have an undue fear of numerous species, but no one can doubt that the smaller number of species found upon mountains or in the far north gives to a beginner certain advantages for study. But if one’s studies are confined to the more restricted habitats, the number of species involved is comparable to the more favored localities mentioned.",
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      "text": "An accurately determined series of specimens, conveniently arranged, will be an important aid in one’s studies. Two forms of arrangement of such determined series are very helpful; one being synoptic or systematically arranged, and the other ecologically, by associations or by a topical arrangement in harmony with the subjects being investigated. With the use of such series and proper caution, aided by the best keys in the literature, one may hope to make many of his own determinations and thus economize his time.",
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      "text": "4. U. S. National Museum. List of publications. Washington, D.C.",
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      "text": "5. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries (formerly U. S. Fish Commission). List of publications. Washington, D.C.",
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      "text": "6. For list of dealers in second-hand books see Banks’ Bull. 81, U. S. National Museum, pp. 117-118. This is one of the best methods of securing many publications which are out of print.",
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      "text": "_3. The Preparation of Papers for Publication and on Proof Reading_",
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      "text": "The preparation of papers for publication is a practical phase of study and an art, or form of technique, about which the zoölogical student is liable to hear but little. There may be a great economy of effort, and much time saved, if early in his work the student realizes the need of cultivating the _habit_ of preparing all manuscripts in a form suitable for publication. While there is much variation in details, yet within certain limits there is a certain amount of standardization which should become _habitual_. Departures from such a standard necessitate much loss of time which must be devoted to revisions and corrections. One may work for years and fail to realize this fact, until he attempts to adjust his habits of writing to the requirements of the editors of scientific publications. The following references are intended to cover the main aspects of the preparation of manuscripts and the reading of proof.",
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      "text": "LEWES, GEORGE HENRY (Edited by F. N. Scott).",
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      "text": "1891. The Principles of Success in Literature, pp. 163. Boston. Allyn and Bacon.",
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      "text": "A very sane little book on writing, a subject on which it is difficult to receive and apply advice.",
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      "text": "1899. English Composition. pp. 316. New York.",
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      "text": "VII. THE LAWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE, OR THE “ORDERLY SEQUENCE OF EXTERNAL NATURE”",
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      "text": "THE DYNAMIC AND PROCESS RELATIONS OF THE ENVIRONMENT",
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      "text": "“Of all the truths relating to phenomena, the most valuable to us are those which relate to the order of succession. On a knowledge of these is founded every reasonable anticipation of future facts, and whatever power we possess of influencing those facts to our advantage.”--JOHN STUART MILL.",
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      "text": "“To study life we must consider three things: first, the orderly sequence of external nature; second, the living organism and the changes which take place in it; and, third, the continuous adjustment between the two sets of phenomena which constitutes life.”--W. K. BROOKS.",
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      "text": "“The truth, indeed, is, that in physical inquiries, the work of theory and observation must go hand in hand, and ought to be carried on at the same time, more especially if the matter is very complicated, for there the clue of theory is necessary to direct the observer. Though a man may begin to observe without any hypothesis, he cannot continue long without seeing some general conclusion arise; and to this nascent theory it is his business to attend, because, by seeking either to verify or to disprove it, he is led to new experiments, or new observations. He is led also to the very experiments and observations that are of the greatest importance, namely to those _instantiæ crucis_, which are the criteria that naturally present themselves for the trial of every hypothesis. He is conducted to the places where the transitions of nature are most perceptible, and where the absence of former, or the presence of new circumstances, excludes the action of imaginary causes. By this correction of his first opinion, a new approximation is made to the truth; and by the repetition of the same process, certainty is finally obtained. Thus theory and observation mutually assist one another; and the spirit of system, against which there are so many and such just complaints, appears, nevertheless, as the animating principle of inductive investigation. The business of sound philosophy is not to extinguish this spirit, but to restrain and direct its efforts.”",
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      "text": "--J. PLAYFAIR, “Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth,” Edinburgh, 1802, pp. 524-525.",
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      "text": "The facts and ideas with which the animal ecologist needs to become acquainted are so widely scattered that a large amount of selective reading is necessary. The ecologist must read, select, and become an organizing center of things ecological. All of the facts and conceptions which he needs are not even confined to zoölogical or biological literature. In seeking an understanding of any problem, conventional groupings of the sciences and their arbitrary boundaries must not bar one from fertile fields. Many of the conceptions of the physical sciences, due to their more advanced stage of development, anticipate the future development of biology. This is particularly true of their dynamic conceptions. For this reason we should not hesitate to utilize and deliberately strive to secure development along similar lines in animal ecology. Elsewhere I have stated (An Ecological Survey in Northern Michigan, 1906, pp. 11, 12) that: “It is thus very apparent that as soon as ecological phenomena are investigated dynamically and expressed in terms of processes, this science will of necessity become more closely correlated with those allied sciences which have already availed themselves of such methods.... It seems a very simple matter to give assent to the idea of the law of change, yet in its practical application this simplicity often vanishes at once when it is seen that it involves the relation of cause and effect.... As this method of thinking is not generally understood, it is occasionally applied in such a crude and general sense that its bearing cannot be grasped when applied to special or concrete problems. There can be no question as to the general validity of this method, but what is now needed is to know how these processes are combined and related to produce particular environmental conditions or situations. That these difficulties are not confined to the ecologist alone, but are obstacles which arise in any attempt at scientific interpretation, is worthy of special notice. We are thus able to see why certain naturalists, apparently not recognizing or understanding the developmental processes which scientific ideas undergo, nor being acquainted with the tendencies of interpretation, dynamically considered, now making such rapid headway in ecological botany, geography, physiography, geology, and psychology, are inclined to look upon such attempts in biology as merely a fad or personal peculiarity of the student, and not of any particular consequence. Such ideas confuse the incidental with the essential and suggest a complete failure to grasp the situation or to realize the fundamental importance of stating explanations in terms of processes. Furthermore, in several of the allied sciences, the methods of dynamical interpretation have already made considerable advance. Here, then, is a resource, at present largely unworked by many biologists, where a wealth of ideas and explanations lies strewn over the surface and only need to be picked up in order to be utilized by those acquainted with this method of interpretation.... If the signs of the times are now read correctly, the most striking advance in scientific methods of thinking during the present century will be in the direction of interpretation from the standpoint of processes--dynamically.”",
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      "text": "For these reasons I have begun the list of literature with certain references which deal with the dynamic relations of the environment. These publications are particularly valuable not only for this method of treatment, but also for their content. These papers clearly emphasize the “orderly sequence of external nature,” a conception which must be grasped much more than superficially, if one is to interpret the development or evolution of environments. Although this is an essential part of our problem, as has been so well expressed by Brooks, yet this phase is probably one of the least understood by zoölogists. And as long as zoölogical students lack the proper training this condition will continue. To neglect this aspect in the training of an ecologist is like neglect of chemical training in a physiologist or of a physiological training in a psychologist. For one who is ignorant of the principles of “orderly sequence,” or successions of changes occurring in the physical, vegetational, and animal environments, it is manifestly impossible to realize their development; and the application of such principles to the interpretation of practical problems is utterly beyond his grasp. We are thus able to see that although the phrase “orderly sequence of external nature” is fundamentally a simple conception, it is not grasped without effort, training, and careful investigation.",
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      "text": "Obviously it is impossible to arrange the series of references with perfect satisfaction. The arrangement which will serve one purpose will not another, and for this reason it has been necessary to arrange the lists in more than one order. Certain general references, or some intended to facilitate the acquirement of the general _point of view_, are given first, and others are arranged alphabetically. For example, the papers listed on the processes of change in the physical and vegetational environment are approximately in an order in which they may profitably be studied to make the view as concrete as possible. It is primarily not the abstract idea of the principle of change, which is relatively easy to grasp, but to be able to apply it to any condition or location and to make it a guiding principle is very difficult. And judging from my own observation upon others and my own experience this method is very rarely mastered, if at all, unless it is actually worked out in some concrete case, and later expanded to its logical consequences.",
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      "text": "Only a few references are given on general physiology, metabolism, and allied subjects, but those given furnish a valuable index to further literature. Only the most arbitrary line can be drawn between papers dealing with habits, behavior, and individual ecology, and for this reason most of the references selected are arranged alphabetically.",
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      "text": "Particular attention should be called to the fact that it is not to be assumed that the various authors strive to make the points to which attention is here called; they may or may not do so. My aim is to call attention to the _utility_ of the publications from the _standpoint_ advocated throughout the book.",
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      "text": "From this point onward in this book the references form its main feature. For this reason it is important that one should not get an exaggerated idea of the value of the literature. It is perhaps true that a large part of the best ecological work has been done with little knowledge of other ecological writings. This was of course particularly true of the early workers, and the best work of to-day does not come from the largest library centers. A student looking over these lists, and finding that he has access to relatively few papers, may conclude that all effort is of no avail. The greatest need is not all or even a majority of the publications on the _general field_, but the relatively limited number which bear directly upon the problem at hand and enough of the general papers to aid him in a general orientation. It may be of some comfort to the isolated student, with his small shelf of books, to realize that there are perhaps not a half-dozen libraries in America which contain _all_ the references given in this book. The nearer one reaches the boundaries of our knowledge, the smaller the amount, and often the smaller the value of the literature, and the greater the value of a proper orientation, which comes only with a grasp of general principles.",
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      "text": "* * * * *",
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      "text": "(The laws of physical and vegetational changes and their influence upon animals. The dynamic or process relation of the environment.)",
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      "text": "1. General Physiology and Development. 2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers. 3. Animal Behavior as a Process. 4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies. 5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and Behavior.",
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      "text": "“Seeing, then, that in all cases we may consider the external phenomena as simply in relation, and the internal phenomena also as simply in relation; the broadest and most complete definition of Life will be--The continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations.”--HERBERT SPENCER.",
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      "text": "“It is of the utmost importance, if we are to understand the behavior of organisms, that we think of them as dynamic--as processes, rather than as structures. The animal is something happening.”--H. S. JENNINGS (1907).",
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      "text": "Not only is the environment subject to an orderly sequence of changes, but this same law applies with equal thoroughness to the living animal itself. The animal is an agent which transforms, in “an orderly sequence,” by its processes of metabolism, both energy and substance, resulting in growth, differentiation, multiplication, and behavior. These activities take place in an orderly manner and are dependent upon both energy and substance derived from the environment. For these reasons the processes or changes in metabolism, growth, development, and behavior, _in so far as they are responses to the orderly sequence of environmental changes, are ecological problems_. The changes in behavior during the life of the animal or the development of its behavior give one of the main clues to the physiological conditions which determine some of the most characteristic forms of responses, and finally as a result of all these activities and processes of adjustment to the conditions of life, a relatively mature and adjusted condition of the struggle for existence in animals and associations may be reached, the culmination of animal harmonies. For this reason studies in modifications of behavior are of fundamental ecological importance, because they consider behavior not only as ready-made, but also in the process of making. Such considerations as these make it desirable to include some of the most valuable and suggestive books and papers which deal with those general physiological processes influencing growth, development, multiplication, and behavior, and _particularly those which aid one in realizing their order or successive changes, or “orderly sequence.”_",
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      "text": "In studying the activities of the individual animal, the normal environment to which it is _attuned_ forms the natural unit or basis for study. All processes which modify or change such an optimum will stimulate the animal, cause responses and adjustments. There are many degrees or stages in the development of these optima which change with the functional rhythms and with the development of the animal. There are those conditions which influence the activity of certain functions or organs; those which influence the general vital processes in general, the vital optimum; those which appear to condition the best development of certain families, genera, etc.; and finally those of animal associations. Of course these grade imperceptibly into one another, and a single animal may in its development, traverse all of these stages in the development of its associational optimum. Optima thus have histories, and their development and laws of transformation are of the most fundamental ecological importance (Adams, 1904, 1909; Blackman, 1905, 1906; Shelford, 1911, 1912).",
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      "text": "In the selection of these papers I have been guided by several considerations. Studies of common animals are given preference, also those papers which by their method of treatment and point of view are especially suggestive and may act as models for further study, and particularly those papers which treat of the activities from the standpoint of their changes, cycles, modifiability, and development. It is to such papers that we must look for suggestions regarding the methods or processes of adjustment between the animal and the environment. All of these papers are not equally ecological, but all will be of much utility in ecological work.",
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      "text": "(General works are listed first, followed by special papers arranged alphabetically.)",
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      "text": "_1. General Physiology and Development_",
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      "text": "VERWORN, M.",
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      "text": "_3. Animal Behavior as a Process_",
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      "text": "“The actual method of work is to first watch the organism under its natural environment, until one finds out all things it does. Then the environment is changed a little, to see what difference this makes in the behavior. We thus try all sorts of different ways of getting the animal to change its behavior,--including the application of definite chemical and physical reagents of most varied character.... We thus try to find the organism’s system of behavior and the things that influence it,--becoming acquainted with the creature as we might get acquainted with a person with whom we are thrown much in contact.”--H. S. JENNINGS (1910).",
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      "text": "“My object being the study of the correlative instincts of the young and adult in relation to all that could be learned about them in a natural environment, I have followed my usual custom of going out to the birds, instead of taking them into the laboratory. The facts which the laboratory can be made to yield are invaluable, but they belong to a different class from those for which we are now mainly in search, behavior under the usual or normal conditions.”--F. H. HERRICK (1910).",
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      "text": "“As will be seen, these studies include both field and laboratory work, especially of the American species, and I have made the field work emphatic wherever at all practicable. I have elsewhere (1909, p. 157) [Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VII] emphasized the crying need for larger attention to this phase of experimental work, believing that in many cases it is all but impossible to secure trustworthy results as to behavior of animals where the work has been done under such unusual, unnatural and artificial conditions as most laboratory provisions afford. What right has one to assume that the actions of an animal taken rudely from its natural habitat and as rudely imprisoned in some improvised cage are in any scientific sense an expression of its normal behavior, either physical or psychical? Is it within the range of the calculus of probability that conclusions drawn from observations made upon an animal in the shallow confines of a finger-bowl, but whose habitat has been the open sea, are wholly trustworthy? It is no part of my purpose to discredit the laboratory or laboratory appliances as related to such investigations. They are indispensable. But at the same time let it be recognized that they are at best but artificial make-shifts whose values, unless checked up by constant appeal to nature, must be taken at something of discount.... It seems to the writer that until one has been able to place his specimens under conditions approximating the natural, or has at least brought them to a state of semi-domestication, where in food-taking, evidence of health, etc., they are at ease, he has small right to dogmatize as to conclusions, or presume to make such conclusions the basis of so-called laws of behavior. Not a little of recent investigation along the lines of behavior has been vitiated at just this point, and must be repeated to be made trustworthy. The amazing mass of contradictory results which has loaded the literature of recent years is attributable to some extent to this misfortune.”--C. W. HARGITT (1912).",
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      "text": "“We are apt to contrast the extremes of instinct and intelligence, to emphasize the blindness and inflexibility of the one and the consciousness and freedom of the other. It is like contrasting the extremes of light and dark and forgetting all the transitional degrees of twilight.... Instinct is blind; so is the highest human wisdom blind. The distinction is one of degree. There is no absolute blindness on the one side, and no absolute wisdom on the other.”--C. O. WHITMAN (1899).",
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      "text": "The precedence here given to _changes in behavior_ is in harmony with the emphasis which is put upon _processes_ and genetic phases or sequences throughout this book. As Holmes (1905, p. 108) has well pointed out, behavior consists of relatively fixed and relatively changeable responses, with intergradations. There are thus two avenues of approach which he sums up as follows (p. 112): “In the trial and error method the random character of the movement impresses us most; in the tropisms, the element of direct determination by the environment. Both of these factors run through the behavior of all animals, but they are mingled in various proportions in different forms. In the lives of most, if not all animals both are essential elements in the adjustment of the organism to its conditions of existence.” And in regard to those responses which do not change in form with experience, he says (p. 106): “The element of spontaneous undirected activity is one of vast if not essential importance in the life of nearly all animals. The simpler animals profit by their varied experience, although they may not learn, and thus secure some of the advantages which it is generally considered the special function of intelligence to confer.” Thus to the ecologist studying the sequences of changes in the environment, and changes in the organism, it is but natural and consistent for him to apply the same methods to behavior, in order to facilitate their mutual relations and aid in their interpretation. In a study of the environment we also have the relatively stable elements and the relatively rapidly changing ones, and any adequate understanding of animals must correlate these four variables: two relatively changing, one in the organism and one in the environment; and two others relatively stable, one in the organism and the other in the environment.",
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      "text": "JENNINGS, H. S.",
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      "text": "1905. The Method of Regulation in Behavior and in Other Fields. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. II, pp. 473-494.",
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      "text": "HOLMES, S. J.",
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      "text": "1905. The Selection of Random Movements as a Factor in Phototaxis. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XV, pp. 98-112.",
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      "text": "The observer of Men and Manners stands as much in need of intellectual preparation as any other student. This is not, indeed, generally supposed, and a multitude of travellers act as if it were not true. Of the large number of tourists who annually sail from our ports, there is probably not one who would dream of pretending to make observations on any subject of physical inquiry, of which he did not understand even the principles. If, on his return from the Mediterranean, the unprepared traveller was questioned about the geology of Corsica, or the public buildings of Palermo, he would reply, \"Oh, I can tell you nothing about that--I never studied geology; I know nothing about architecture.\" But few, or none, make the same avowal about the morals and manners of a nation. Every man seems to imagine that he can understand men at a glance; he supposes that it is enough to be among them to know what they are doing; he thinks that eyes, ears, and memory are enough for morals, though they would not qualify him for botanical or statistical observation; he pronounces confidently upon the merits and social condition of the nations among whom he has travelled; no misgiving ever prompts him to say, \"I can give you little general information about the people I have been seeing; I have not studied the principles of morals; I am no judge of national manners.\"",
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      "text": "There would be nothing to be ashamed of in such an avowal. No wise man blushes at being ignorant of any science which it has not suited his purposes to study, or which it has not been in his power to attain. No linguist wrings his hands when astronomical discoveries are talked of in his presence; no political economist covers his face when shown a shell or a plant which he cannot class; still less should the artist, the natural philosopher, the commercial traveller, or the classical scholar, be ashamed to own himself unacquainted with the science which, of all the sciences which have yet opened upon men, is, perhaps, the least cultivated, the least definite, the least ascertained in itself, and the most difficult in its application.",
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      "text": "In this last characteristic of the science of Morals lies the excuse of as many travellers as may decline pronouncing on the social condition of any people. Even if the generality of travellers were as enlightened as they are at present ignorant about the principles of Morals, the difficulty of putting those principles to interpretative uses would deter the wise from making the hasty decisions, and uttering the large judgments, in which travellers have hitherto been wont to indulge. In proportion as men become sensible how infinite are the diversities in man, how incalculable the varieties and influences of circumstances, rashness of pretension and decision will abate, and the great work of classifying the moral manifestations of society will be confided to the philosophers, who bear the same relation to the science of society as Herschel does to astronomy, and Beaufort to hydrography.",
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      "text": "Of all the tourists who utter their decisions upon foreigners, how many have begun their researches at home? Which of them would venture upon giving an account of the morals and manners of London, though he may have lived in it all his life? Would any one of them escape errors as gross as those of the Frenchman who published it as a general fact that people in London always have, at dinner parties, soup on each side, and fish at four corners? Which of us would undertake to classify the morals and manners of any hamlet in England, after spending the summer in it? What sensible man seriously generalizes upon the manners of a street, even though it be Houndsditch or Cranbourn-Alley? Who pretends to explain all the proceedings of his next-door neighbour? Who is able to account for all that is said and done by the dweller in the same house,--by parent, child, brother, or domestic? If such judgments were attempted, would they not be as various as those who make them? And would they not, after all, if closely looked into, reveal more of the mind of the observer than of the observed?",
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      "text": "If it be thus with us at home, amidst all the general resemblances, the prevalent influences which furnish an interpretation to a large number of facts, what hope of a trustworthy judgment remains for the foreign tourist, however good may be his method of travelling, and however long his absence from home? He looks at all the people along his line of road, and converses with a few individuals from among them. If he diverges, from time to time, from the high road,--if he winds about among villages, and crosses mountains, to dip into the hamlets of the valleys,--he still pursues only a line, and does not command the expanse; he is furnished, at best, with no more than a sample of the people; and whether they be indeed a sample, must remain a conjecture which he has no means of verifying. He converses, more or less, with, perhaps, one man in ten thousand of those he sees; and of the few with whom he converses, no two are alike in powers and in training, or perfectly agree in their views on any one of the great subjects which the traveller professes to observe; the information afforded by one is contradicted by another; the fact of one day is proved error by the next; the wearied mind soon finds itself overwhelmed by the multitude of unconnected or contradictory particulars, and lies passive to be run over by the crowd. The tourist is no more likely to learn, in this way, the social state of a nation, than his valet would be qualified to speak of the meteorology of the country from the number of times the umbrellas were wanted in the course of two months. His children might as well undertake to exhibit the geological formation of the country from the pebbles they picked up in a day's ride.",
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      "text": "I remember some striking words addressed to me, before I set out on my travels, by a wise man, since dead. \"You are going to spend two years in the United States,\" said he. \"Now just tell me,--do you expect to understand the Americans by the time you come back? You do not: that is well. I lived five-and-twenty years in Scotland, and I fancied I understood the Scotch; then I came to England, and supposed I should soon understand the English. I have now lived five-and-twenty years here, and I begin to think I understand neither the Scotch nor the English.\"",
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      "text": "What is to be done? Let us first settle what is not to be done.",
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      "text": "The traveller must deny himself all indulgence of peremptory decision, not only in public on his return, but in his journal, and in his most superficial thoughts. The experienced and conscientious traveller would word the condition differently. Finding peremptory decision more trying to his conscience than agreeable to his laziness, he would call it not indulgence, but anxiety; he enjoys the employment of collecting materials, but would shrink from the responsibility of judging a community.",
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      "text": "The traveller must not generalize on the spot, however true may be his apprehension--however firm his grasp, of one or more facts. A raw English traveller in China was entertained by a host who was intoxicated, and a hostess who was red-haired; he immediately made a note of the fact that all the men in China were drunkards, and all the women red-haired. A raw Chinese traveller in England was landed by a Thames waterman who had a wooden leg. The stranger saw that the wooden leg was used to stand in the water with, while the other was high and dry. The apparent economy of the fact struck the Chinese; he saw in it strong evidence of design, and wrote home that in England one-legged men are kept for watermen, to the saving of all injury to health, shoe, and stocking, from standing in the river. These anecdotes exhibit but a slight exaggeration of the generalizing tendencies of many modern travellers. They are not so much worse than some recent tourists' tales, as they are better than the old narratives of \"men whose heads do grow beneath their shoulders.\"",
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      "text": "Natural philosophers do not dream of generalizing with any such speed as that used by the observers of men; yet they might do it with more safety, at the risk of an incalculably smaller mischief. The geologist and the chemist make a large collection of particular appearances, before they commit themselves to propound a principle drawn from them, though their subject matter is far less diversified than the human subject, and nothing of so much importance as human emotions,--love and dislike, reverence and contempt, depends upon their judgment. If a student in natural philosophy is in too great haste to classify and interpret, he misleads, for a while, his fellow-students (not a very large class); he vitiates the observations of a few successors; his error is discovered and exposed; he is mortified, and his too docile followers are ridiculed, and there is an end; but if a traveller gives any quality which he may have observed in a few individuals as a characteristic of a nation, the evil is not speedily or easily remediable. Abject thinkers, passive readers, adopt his words; parents repeat them to their children; and townspeople spread the judgment into the villages and hamlets--the strongholds of prejudice; future travellers see according to the prepossessions given them, and add their testimony to the error, till it becomes the work of a century to reverse a hasty generalization. It was a great mistake of a geologist to assign a wrong level to the Caspian Sea; and it is vexatious that much time and energy should have been devoted to account for an appearance which, after all, does not exist. It is provoking to geologists that they should have wasted a great deal of ingenuity in finding reasons for these waters being at a different level from what it is now found that they have; but the evil is over; the \"pish!\" and the \"pshaw!\" are said; the explanatory and apologetical notes are duly inserted in new editions of geological works, and nothing more can come of the mistake. But it is difficult to foresee when the British public will believe that the Americans are a mirthful nation, or even that the French are not almost all cooks or dancing-masters. A century hence, probably, the Americans will continue to believe that all the English make a regular study of the art of conversation; and the lower orders of French will be still telling their children that half the people in England hang or drown themselves every November. As long as travellers generalize on morals and manners as hastily as they do, it will probably be impossible to establish a general conviction that no civilized nation is ascertainably better or worse than any other on this side barbarism, the whole field of morals being taken into the view. As long as travellers continue to neglect the safe means of generalization which are within the reach of all, and build theories upon the manifestations of individual minds, there is little hope of inspiring men with that spirit of impartiality, mutual deference, and love, which are the best enlighteners of the eyes and rectifiers of the understanding.",
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      "text": "Above all things, the traveller must not despair of good results from his observations. Because he cannot establish true conclusions by imperfect means, he is not to desist from doing anything at all. Because he cannot safely generalize in one way, it does not follow that there is no other way. There are methods of safe generalization of which I shall speak by-and-by. But, if there were not such within his reach, if his only materials were the discourse, the opinions, the feelings, the way of life, the looks, dress, and manners of individuals, he might still afford important contributions to science by his observations on as wide a variety of these as he can bring within his mental grasp. The experience of a large number of observers would in time yield materials from which a cautious philosopher might draw conclusions. It is a safe rule, in morals as in physics, that no fact is without its use. Every observer and recorder is fulfilling a function; and no one observer or recorder ought to feel discouragement, as long as he desires to be useful rather than shining; to be the servant rather than the lord of science, and a friend to the home-stayers rather than their dictator.",
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      "text": "One of the wisest men living writes to me, \"No books are so little to be trusted as travels. All travellers do and must generalize too rapidly. Most, if not all, take a fact for a principle, or the exception for the rule, more or less; and the quickest minds, which love to reason and explain more than to observe with patience, go most astray. My faith in travels received a mortal wound when I travelled. I read, as I went along, the books of those who had preceded me, and found that we did not see with the same eyes. Even descriptions of nature proved false. The traveller had viewed the prospect at a different season, or in a different light, and substituted the transient for the fixed. Still I think travels useful. Different accounts give means of approximation to truth; and by-and-by what is fixed and essential in a people will be brought out.\"",
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      "text": "It ought to be an animating thought to a traveller that, even if it be not in his power to settle any one point respecting the morals and manners of an empire, he can infallibly aid in supplying means of approximation to truth, and of bringing out \"what is fixed and essential in a people.\" This should be sufficient to stimulate his exertions and satisfy his ambition.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER I.",
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      "text": "There are two parties to the work of observation on Morals and Manners--the observer and the observed. This is an important fact which the traveller seldom dwells upon as he ought; yet a moment's consideration shows that the mind of the observer--the instrument by which the work is done, is as essential as the material to be wrought. If the instrument be in bad order, it will furnish a bad product, be the material what it may. In this chapter I shall point out what requisites the traveller ought to make sure that he is possessed of before he undertakes to offer observations on the Morals and Manners of a people.",
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      "text": "SECTION I.",
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      "text": "He must have made up his mind as to what it is that he wants to know. In physical science, great results may be obtained by hap-hazard experiments; but this is not the case in Morals. A chemist can hardly fail of learning something by putting any substances together, under new circumstances, and seeing what will arise out of the combination; and some striking discoveries happened in this way, in the infancy of the science; though no one doubts that more knowledge may be gained by the chemist who has an aim in his mind, and who conducts his experiment on some principle. In Morals, the latter method is the only one which promises any useful results. In the workings of the social system, all the agents are known in the gross--all are determined. It is not their nature, but the proportions in which they are combined, which have to be ascertained.",
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      "text": "What does the traveller want to know? He is aware that, wherever he goes, he will find men, women, and children; strong men and weak men; just men and selfish men. He knows that he will everywhere find a necessity for food, clothing, and shelter; and everywhere some mode of general agreement how to live together. He knows that he will everywhere find birth, marriage, and death; and therefore domestic affections. What results from all these elements of social life does he mean to look for?",
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      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "For want of settling this question, one traveller sees nothing truly, because the state of things is not consistent with his speculations as to how human beings ought to live together; another views the whole with prejudice, because it is not like what he has been accustomed to see at home; yet each of these would shrink from the recognition of his folly, if it were fully placed before him. The first would be ashamed of having tried any existing community by an arbitrary standard of his own--an act much like going forth into the wilderness to see kings' houses full of men in soft raiment; and the other would perceive that different nations may go on judging one another by themselves till doomsday, without in any way improving the chance of self-advancement and mutual understanding. Going out with the disadvantage of a habit of mind uncounteracted by an intellectual aim, will never do. The traveller may as well stay at home, for anything he will gain in the way of social knowledge.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00063",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "The two considerations just mentioned must be subordinated to the grand one,--the only general one,--of the relative amount of human happiness. Every element of social life derives its importance from this great consideration. The external conveniences of men, their internal emotions and affections, their social arrangements, graduate in importance precisely in proportion as they affect the general happiness of the section of the race among whom they exist. Here then is the wise traveller's aim,--to be kept in view to the exclusion of prejudice, both philosophical and national. He must not allow himself to be perplexed or disgusted by seeing the great ends of human association pursued by means which he could never have devised, and to the practice of which he could not reconcile himself. He is not to conclude unfavourably about the diet of the multitude because he sees them swallowing blubber, or scooping out water-melons, instead of regaling themselves with beef and beer. He is not to suppose their social meetings a failure because they eat with their fingers instead of with silver forks, or touch foreheads instead of making a bow. He is not to conclude against domestic morals, on account of a diversity of methods of entering upon marriage. He might as well judge of the minute transactions of manners all over the world by what he sees in his native village. There, to leave the door open or to shut it bears no relation to morals, and but little to manners; whereas, to shut the door is as cruel an act in a Hindoo hut as to leave it open in a Greenland cabin. In short, he is to prepare himself to bring whatever he may observe to the test of some high and broad principle, and not to that of a low comparative practice. To test one people by another, is to argue within a very small segment of a circle; and the observer can only pass backwards and forwards at an equal distance from the point of truth. To test the morals and manners of a nation by a reference to the essentials of human happiness, is to strike at once to the centre, and to see things as they are.",
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      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "SECTION II.",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00065",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 26298,
      "end": 27587,
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      "text": "Being provided with a conviction of what it is that he wants to know, the traveller must be furthermore furnished with the means of gaining the knowledge he wants. When he was a child, he was probably taught that eyes, ears, and understanding are all-sufficient to gain for him as much knowledge as he will have time to acquire; but his self-education has been a poor one, if he has not become convinced that something more is needful--the enlightenment and discipline of the understanding, as well as its immediate use. It is not enough for a traveller to have an active understanding, equal to an accurate perception of individual facts in themselves; he must also be in possession of principles which may serve as a rallying point for his observations, and without which he cannot determine their bearings, or be secure of putting a right interpretation upon them. A traveller may do better without eyes, or without ears, than without such principles, as there is evidence to prove. Holman, the blind traveller, gains a wonderful amount of information, though he is shut out from the evidence yielded by the human countenance, by way-side groups, by the aspect of cities, and the varying phenomena of country regions. In his motto, he indicates something of his method.",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00066",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 27595,
      "end": 27795,
      "sha256": "e2654974932c3de517cb6930e7ac7a2e1a5b6d84baaa9999a1b2019bea786e91",
      "text": "\"Sightless to see, and judge thro' judgment's eyes, To make four senses do the work of five, To arm the mind for hopeful enterprise, Are lights to him who doth in darkness live.\"",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00067",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 27799,
      "end": 28973,
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      "text": "In order to \"judge through judgment's eyes,\" those eyes must be made strong and clear; and a traveller may gain more without the bodily organ than with an untrained understanding. The case of the Deaf Traveller[A] leads us to say the same about the other great avenue of knowledge. His writings prove, to all who are acquainted with them, that, though to a great degree deprived of that inestimable commentary upon perceived facts--human discourse--the Deaf Traveller is able to furnish us with more knowledge of foreign people than Fine-Ear himself could have done without the accompaniments of analytical power and concentrative thought. All senses, and intellectual powers, and good habits, may be considered essential to a perfect observation of morals and manners; but almost any one might be better spared than a provision of principles which may serve as a rallying point and a test of facts. The blind and the deaf travellers must suffer under a deprivation or deficiency of certain classes of facts. The condition of the unphilosophical traveller is much worse. It is a chance whether he puts a right interpretation on any of the facts he perceives.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00068",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "Many may object that I am making much too serious a matter of the department of the business of travelling under present notice. They do not pretend to be moral philosophers;--they do not desire to be oracles;--they attempt nothing more than to give a simple report of what has come under their notice. But what work on earth is more serious than this of giving an account of the most grave and important things which are transacted on this globe? Every true report is a great good; every untrue report is a great mischief. Therefore, let there be none given but by persons in some good degree qualified. Such travellers as will not take pains to provide themselves with the requisite thought and study should abstain from reporting at all.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00069",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "end": 30058,
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      "text": "It is a mistake, however, to suppose that the study shown to be requisite is vast and deep. Some knowledge of the principles of Morals and the rule of Manners is required, as in the case of other sciences to be brought into use on a similar occasion; but the principles are few and simple, and the rule easy of application.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00070",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "The universal summary notions of Morals may serve a common traveller in his judgments as to whether he would like to live in any foreign country, and as to whether the people there are as agreeable to him as his own nation. For such an one it may be sufficient to bear about the general notions that lying, thieving, idleness, and licentiousness are bad; and that truth, honesty, industry, and sobriety are good; and for common purposes, such an one may be trusted to pronounce what is industry and what idleness; what is licentiousness and what sobriety. But vague notions, home prepossessions, even on these great points of morals, are not sufficient, in the eyes of an enlightened traveller, to warrant decisions on the moral state of nations who are reared under a wide diversity of circumstances. The true liberality which alone is worthy to contemplate all the nations of the earth, does not draw a broad line through the midst of human conduct, declaring all that falls on the one side vice, and all on the other virtue; such a liberality knows that actions and habits do not always carry their moral impress visibly to all eyes, and that the character of very many must be determined by a cautious application of a few deep principles. Is the Shaker of New England a good judge of the morals and manners of the Arab of the Desert? What sort of a verdict would the shrewdest gipsy pass upon the monk of La Trappe? What would the Scotch peasant think of the magical practices of Egypt? or the Russian soldier of a meeting of electors in the United States? The ideas of right and wrong in the minds of these people are not of the enlarged kind which would enable them to judge persons in situations the most opposite to their own. The true philosopher, the worthy observer, first contemplates in imagination the area of humanity, and then ascertains what principles of morals are applicable to them all, and judges by these.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00071",
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      "text": "The enlightened traveller, if he explore only one country, carries in his mind the image of all; for, only in its relation to the whole of the race can any one people be judged. Almost without exaggeration, he may be said to see what the rhapsodist in Volney saw.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00072",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "sha256": "0b6cf6736fd4807968108bc6e5bf4041a2a5c6afb2f9577864f062455d075eb3",
      "text": "\"There, from above the atmosphere, looking down upon the earth I had quitted, I beheld a scene entirely new. Under my feet, floating in empty space, a globe similar to that of the moon, but less luminous, presented to me one of its faces.... 'What!' exclaimed I, 'is that the earth which is inhabited by human beings?'\"[B]",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00075",
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      "sha256": "b6f5d02729776785456640617a570b50f1c6eeb2644a0dd0e383163610dc8459",
      "text": "SECTION III.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00076",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "As an instance of the advantage which a philosophical traveller has over an unprepared one, look at the difference which will enter into a man's judgment of nations, according as he carries about with him the vague popular notion of a Moral Sense, or has investigated the laws under which feelings of right and wrong grow up in all men. It is worth while to dwell a little on this important point.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00077",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 38259,
      "end": 40329,
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      "text": "Most persons who take no great pains to think for themselves, have a notion that every human being has feelings, or a conscience, born with him, by which he knows, if he will only attend to it, exactly what is right and wrong; and that, as right and wrong are fixed and immutable, all ought to agree as to what is sin and virtue in every case. Now, mankind are, and always have been, so far from agreeing as to right and wrong, that it is necessary to account in some manner for the wide differences in various ages, and among various nations. A great diversity of doctrines has been put forth for the purpose of lessening the difficulty; but they all leave certain portions of the race under the condemnation or compassion of the rest for their error, blindness, or sin. Moreover, no doctrines yet invented have accounted for some total revolutions in the ideas of right and wrong, which have occurred in the course of ages. A person who takes for granted that there is an universal Moral Sense among men, as unchanging as he who bestowed it, cannot reasonably explain how it was that those men were once esteemed the most virtuous who killed the most enemies in battle, while now it is considered far more noble to save life than to destroy it. They cannot but wonder how it was that it was once thought a great shame to live in misery, and an honour to commit suicide; while now the wisest and best men think exactly the reverse. And, with regard to the present age, it must puzzle men who suppose that all ought to think alike on moral subjects, that there are parts of the world where mothers believe it a duty to drown their children, and that eastern potentates openly deride the king of England for having only one wife instead of one hundred. There is no avoiding illiberality, under this belief,--as the philosopher understands illiberality. There is no avoiding the conclusion that the people who practice infanticide and polygamy are desperately wicked; and that minor differences of conduct are, abroad as at home, so many sins.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00078",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 40333,
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      "text": "The observer who sets out with a more philosophical belief, not only escapes the affliction of seeing sin wherever he sees difference, and avoids the suffering of contempt and alienation from his species, but, by being prepared for what he witnesses, and aware of the causes, is free from the agitation of being shocked and alarmed, preserves his calmness, his hope, his sympathy; and is thus far better fitted to perceive, understand, and report upon the morals and manners of the people he visits. His more philosophical belief, derived from all fair evidence and just reflexion, is, that every man's feelings of right and wrong, instead of being born with him, grow up in him from the influences to which he is subjected. We see that in other cases,--with regard to science, to art, and to the appearances of nature,--feelings grow out of knowledge and experience; and there is every evidence that it is so with regard to morals. The feelings begin very early; and this is the reason why they are supposed to be born with men; but they are few and imperfect in childhood, and, in the case of those who are strongly exercised in morals, they go on enlarging and strengthening and refining through life. See the effect upon the traveller's observations of his holding this belief about conscience! Knowing that some influences act upon the minds of all people in all countries, he looks everywhere for certain feelings of right and wrong which are as sure to be in all men's minds as if they were born with them. For instance, to torment another without any reason, real or imaginary, is considered wrong all over the world. In the same manner, to make others happy is universally considered right. At the same time, the traveller is prepared to find an infinite variety of differences in smaller matters, and is relieved from the necessity of pronouncing each to be a vice in one party or another. His own moral education having been a more elevated and advanced one than that of some of the people he contemplates, he cannot but feel sorrow and disgust at various things that he witnesses; but it is ignorance and barbarism that he mourns, and not vice. When he sees the Arab or American Indian offer daughter or wife to the stranger, as a part of the hospitality which is, in the host's mind, the first of duties, the observer regards the fact as he regards the mode of education in old Sparta, where physical hardihood and moral slavery constituted a man most honourable. If he sees an American student spend the whole of his small fortune, on leaving college, in travelling in Europe, he will not blame him as he would blame a young Englishman for doing the same thing. The Englishman would be a spendthrift; the American is wise: and the reason is, that their circumstances, prospects, and therefore their views of duty, are different. The American, being sure of obtaining an independent maintenance, may make the enlargement of his mind, and the cultivation of his tastes by travel, his first object; while the conscientious Englishman must fulfil the hard conditions of independence before he can travel. Capital is to him one of the chief requisites of honest independence; while to the American it is in the outset no requisite at all. To go without clothing was, till lately, perfectly innocent in the South Sea Islands; but now that civilization has been fairly established by the missionaries, it has become a sin. To let an enemy escape with his life is a disgrace in some countries of the world; while in others it is held more honourable to forgive than to punish him. Instances of such varieties and oppositions of conscience might be multiplied till they filled a volume, to the perplexity and grief of the unphilosophical, and the serene instruction of the philosophical observer.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00079",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "The general influences under which universal ideas and feelings of right and wrong are formed, are dispensed by the Providence under which all are educated. That man should be happy is so evidently the intention of his Creator, the contrivances to that end are so multitudinous and so striking, that the perception of the aim may be called universal. Whatever tends to make men happy, becomes a fulfilment of the will of God. Whatever tends to make them miserable, becomes opposition to his will. There are, and must be, a host of obstacles to the express recognition of, and practical obedience to, these great principles; but they may be discovered as the root of religion and morals in all countries. There are impediments from ignorance, and consequent error, selfishness, and passion: the most infantile men mistake the means of human happiness, and the wisest have but a dim and fluctuating perception of them: but yet all men entertain one common conviction, that what makes people happy is good and right, and that what makes them miserable is evil and wrong. This conviction is at the bottom of practices which seem the most inconsistent with it. When the Ashantee offers a human sacrifice, it is in order to secure blessings from his gods. When the Hindoo exposes his sick parent in the Ganges, he thinks he is putting him out of pain by a charmed death. When Sand stabbed Kotzebue, he believed he was punishing and getting rid of an enemy and an obstacle to the welfare of his nation. When the Georgian planter buys and sells slaves, he goes on the supposition that he is preserving the order and due subordination of society. All these notions are shown by philosophy to be narrow, superficial, and mistaken. They have been outgrown by many, and are doubtless destined to be outgrown by all; but, acted upon by the ignorant and deluded, they are very different from the wickedness which is perpetrated against better knowledge. But these things would be wickedness, perpetrated against better knowledge, if the supposition of a universal, infallible Moral Sense were true. The traveller who should consistently adhere to the notion of a Moral Sense, must pronounce the Ashantee worshipper as guilty as Greenacre: the Hindoo son a parricide, not only in fact, but in the most revolting sense of the term: Sand, a Thurtell: and the Georgian planter such a monster of tyranny as a Sussex farmer would be if he set up a whipping-post for his labourers, and sold their little ones to gipsies. Such judgments would be cruelly illiberal. The traveller who is furnished with the more accurate philosophy of Conscience would arrive at conclusions, not only more correct, but far less painful; and, without any laxity of principle, far more charitable.",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00080",
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      "text": "So much for one instance of the advantage to the traveller of being provided with definite principles, to be used as a rallying point and test of his observations, instead of mere vague moral notions and general prepossessions, which can serve only as a false medium, by which much that he sees must necessarily be perverted or obscured.",
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      "text": "SECTION IV.",
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      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 47352,
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      "text": "The traveller having satisfied himself that there are some universal feelings about right and wrong, and that in consequence some parts of human conduct are guided by general rules, must next give his attention to modes of conduct, which seem to him good or bad, prevalent in a nation, or district, or society of smaller limits. His first general principle is, that the law of nature is the only one by which mankind at large can be judged. His second must be, that every prevalent virtue or vice is the result of the particular circumstances amidst which the society exists.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00083",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "The circumstances in which a prevalent virtue or vice originates, may or may not be traceable by a traveller. If traceable, he should spare no pains to make himself acquainted with the whole case. If obscure, he must beware of imputing disgraces to individuals, as if those individuals were living under the influences which have made himself what he is. He will not blame a deficiency of moral independence in a citizen of Philadelphia so severely as in a citizen of London; seeing, as he must do, that the want of moral independence is a prevalent fault in the United States, and that there must be some reason for it. Again, he will not look to the Polish peasant for the political intelligence, activity, and principle which delight him in the log-house of the American farmer. He sees that Polish peasants are generally supine, and American farmers usually interested about politics; and that there must be reasons for the difference.",
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      "text": "In a majority of cases such reasons are, to a great extent, ascertainable. In Spain, for instance, there is a large class of wretched and irretrievable beggars; and their idleness, dirt, and lying trouble the very soul of the traveller. What is the reason of the prevalence of this degraded class and of its vices? A Court Lady[C] wrote, in ancient days, piteous complaints of the poverty of the sovereign, the nobility, the army, and the destitute ladies who waited upon the queen. The sovereign could not give his attendants their dinners; the nobility melted down their plate and sold their jewels; the soldiers were famishing in garrison, so that the young deserted, and the aged and invalids wasted away, actually starved to death. The lady mentions with surprise, that a particularly large amount of gold and silver had arrived from the foreign possessions of Spain that year, and tries to account for the universal misery by saying that a great proportion of these riches was appropriated by merchants who supplied the Spaniards with the necessaries of life from abroad; and she speaks of this as an evil. She is an example of an unphilosophical observer,--one who could not be trusted to report--much less to account for--the morals and manners of the people before her eyes. What says a philosophical observer?[D] \"Spain and Portugal, the countries which possess the mines, are, after Poland, perhaps the two most beggarly countries in Europe.\"--\"Their trade to their colonies is carried on in their own ships, and is much greater\" (than their foreign commerce,) \"on account of the great riches and extent of those colonies. But it has never introduced any considerable manufactures for distant sale into either of those countries, and the greater part of both remains uncultivated.\"--\"The proportion of gold and silver to the annual produce of the land and labour of Spain is said to be very considerable, and that you frequently find there a profusion of plate in houses where there is nothing else which would in other countries be thought suitable or correspondent to this sort of magnificence. The cheapness of gold and silver, or, what is the same thing, the dearness of all commodities, which is the necessary effect of this redundance of the precious metals, discourages both the agriculture and manufactures of Spain and Portugal, and enables foreign nations to supply them with many sorts of rude, and with almost all sorts of manufactured produce, for a smaller quantity of gold and silver than what they themselves can either raise or make them for at home.\"--When it is considered that in Spain gold and silver are called wealth, and that there is little other; that manufactures and commerce scarcely exist; that agriculture is discouraged, and that therefore there is a lack of occupation for the lower classes, it may be fairly concluded that the idle upper orders will be found lazy, proud, and poor; the idle lower classes in a state of beggary; and that the most virtuous and happy part of the population will be those who are engaged in tilling the soil, and in the occupations which are absolutely necessary in towns. One may see with the mind's eye the groups of intriguing grandees, who have no business on their estates to occupy their time and thoughts; or the crowd of hungry beggars, thronging round the door of a convent, to receive the daily alms; or the hospitable and courteous peasants, of whom a traveller[E] says, \"There is a civility to strangers, and an easy style of behaviour familiar to this class of Spanish society, which is very remote from the churlish and awkward manners of the English and German peasantry. Their sobriety and endurance of fatigue are very remarkable; and there is a constant cheerfulness in their demeanour which strongly prepossesses a stranger in their favour.\"--\"I should be glad if I could, with justice, give as favourable a picture of the higher orders of society in this country; but, perhaps, when we consider their wretched education, and their early habits of indolence and dissipation, we ought not to wonder at the state of contempt and degradation to which they are reduced. I am not speaking the language of prejudice, but the result of the observations I have made, in which every accurate observer among our countrymen has concurred with me, in saying that the figures and countenances of the higher orders are as much inferior to those of the peasants, as their moral qualities are in the view I have given of them.\"--All this might be foreseen to be unavoidable in a country where the means of living are passively derived from abroad, and where the honour and rewards of successful industry are confined to a class of the community. The mines should bear the blame of the prevalent faults of the saucy beggars and beggarly grandees of Spain.",
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      "text": "To any one who has at all considered at home the bearings of a social system which is grounded upon physical force, or those of the opposite arrangements which rely upon moral power, it can be no mystery abroad that there should be prevalent moral characteristics among the subjects of such systems; and the vices which exist under them will be, however mourned, leniently judged. Take the Feudal System as an instance, first, and then its opposite. A little thought makes it clear what virtues and vices will be almost certain to subsist under the influences of each.",
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      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "4thly. And with a settled conviction that prevalent virtues and vices are the result of gigantic general influences,--is yet not fitted for his object if certain moral requisites be wanting in him.",
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      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "An observer, to be perfectly accurate, should be himself perfect. Every prejudice, every moral perversion, dims or distorts whatever the eye looks upon. But as we do not wait to be perfect before we travel, we must content ourselves with discovering, in order to avoidance, what would make our task hopeless, and how we may put ourselves in a state to learn at least something truly. We cannot suddenly make ourselves a great deal better than we have been, for such an object as observing Morals and Manners; but, by clearly ascertaining what it is that the most commonly, or the most grossly, vitiates foreign observation, we may put a check upon our spirit of prejudice, and carry with us restoratives of temper and spirits which may be of essential service to us in our task.",
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      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "The observer must have sympathy; and his sympathy must be untrammelled and unreserved. If a traveller be a geological inquirer, he may have a heart as hard as the rocks he shivers, and yet succeed in his immediate objects: if he be a student of the fine arts, he may be as silent as a picture, and yet gain his ends: if he be a statistical investigator, he may be as abstract as a column of figures, and yet learn what he wants to know: but an observer of morals and manners will be liable to deception at every turn, if he does not find his way to hearts and minds. Nothing was ever more true than that \"as face answers to face in water, so is the heart of man.\" To the traveller there are two meanings in this wise saying, both worthy of his best attention. It means that the action of the heart will meet a corresponding action, and that the nature of the heart will meet a corresponding nature. Openness and warmth of heart will be greeted with openness and warmth:--this is one truth. Hearts, generous or selfish, pure or gross, gay or sad, will understand, and therefore be likely to report of, only their like:--this is another truth.",
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      "text": "There is the same human heart everywhere,--the universal growth of mind and life,--ready to open to the sunshine of sympathy, flourishing in the enclosures of cities, and blossoming wherever dropped in the wilderness; but folding up when touched by chill, and drooping in gloom. As well might the Erl-king go and play the florist in the groves and plains of the tropics, as an unsympathizing man render an account of society. It will all turn to stubble and sapless rigidity before his eyes.",
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      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "There is the same human heart everywhere; and, if the traveller has a good one himself, he will presently find this out, whatever may have been his fears at home of checks to his sympathy from difference of education, objects in life, &c. There is no place where people do not suffer and enjoy; where love is not the high festival of life; where birth and death are not occasions of emotion; where parents are not proud of their boy-children; where thoughtful minds do not speculate upon the two eternities; where, in short, there is not broad ground on which any two human beings may meet and clasp hands, if they have but unsophisticated hearts. If a man have not sympathy, there is no point of the universe--none so wide even as the Mahomedan bridge over the bottomless pit--where he can meet with his fellow. Such an one is indeed floundering in the bottomless pit, with only the shadows of men ever flitting about him.",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00112",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "I have mentioned elsewhere, what will well bear repetition,--that an American merchant, who had made several voyages to China, dropped a remark by his own fire-side on the narrowness which causes us to conclude, avowedly or silently, that, however well men may use the light they have, they cannot be more than nominally our brethren, unless they have our religion, our philosophy, and our methods of attaining both. He said he often recurred, with delight, to the conversations he had enjoyed with his Chinese friends on some of the highest speculative, and some of the deepest and widest practical subjects, which his fellow-citizens of New England were apt to think could be the business only of Protestant Christians. This American merchant's observations on oriental morals and manners had an incalculable weight after he had said this; for it was known that he had seen into hearts, as well as met faces, and discovered what people's minds were busy about, as their hands were pursuing the universal employment of earning their subsistence.",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00113",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "Unless a traveller interprets by his sympathies what he sees, he cannot but misunderstand the greater part of that which comes under his observation. He will not be admitted with freedom into the retirements of domestic life; the instructive commentary on all the facts of life,--discourse,--will be of a slight and superficial character. People will talk to him of the things they care least about, instead of seeking his sympathy about the affairs which are deepest in their hearts. He will be amused with public spectacles, and informed of historical and chronological facts; but he will not be invited to weddings and christenings; he will hear no love-tales; domestic sorrows will be kept as secrets from him; the old folks will not pour out their stories to him, nor the children bring him their prattle. Such a traveller will be no more fitted to report on morals and manners than he would be to give an account of the silver mines of Siberia by walking over the surface, and seeing the entrance and the product.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00114",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "\"Human conduct,\" says a philosopher, \"is guided by rules.\" Without these rules, men could not live together, and they are also necessary to the repose of individual minds. Robinson Crusoe could not have endured his life for a month without rules to live by. A life without purpose is uncomfortable enough; but a life without rules would be a wretchedness which, happily, man is not constituted to bear. The rules by which men live are chiefly drawn from the universal convictions about right and wrong which I have mentioned as being formed everywhere, under strong general influences. When sentiment is connected with these rules, they become religion; and this religion is the animating spirit of all that is said and done. If the stranger cannot sympathize in the sentiment, he cannot understand the religion; and without understanding the religion, he cannot appreciate the spirit of words and acts. A stranger who has never felt any strong political interest, and cannot sympathize with American sentiment about the majesty of social equality, and the beauty of mutual government, can never understand the political religion of the United States; and the sayings of the citizens by their own fire-sides, the perorations of orators in town-halls, the installations of public servants, and the process of election, will all be empty sound and grimace to him. He will be tempted to laugh,--to call the world about him mad,--like one who, without hearing the music, sees a room-full of people begin to dance. The case is the same with certain Americans who have no antiquarian sympathies, and who think our sovereigns mad for riding to St. Stephen's in the royal state-coach, with eight horses covered with trappings, and a tribe of grotesque footmen. I have found it an effort of condescension to inform such observers that we should not think of inventing such a coach and appurtenances at the present day, any more than we should the dress of the Christ-Hospital boys. If an unsympathizing stranger is so perplexed by a mere matter of external arrangement,--a royal procession, or a popular election,--what can he be expected to make of that which is far more important, more intricate, more mysterious,--neighbourly and domestic life? If he knows and feels nothing of the religion of these, he could learn but little about them, even if the roofs of all the houses of a city were made transparent to him, and he could watch all that is done in every parlour, kitchen, and nursery in a circuit of five miles.",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00115",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "What strange scenes and transactions must such an one think that there are in the world! What would he have thought of the spectacle one day seen in Hayti, when Toussaint L'Ouverture ranged his negro forces before him, called out thirteen men from the ranks by name, and ordered them to repair to a certain spot to be immediately shot? What would he have thought of these thirteen men for crossing their arms upon their breasts, bowing their heads submissively, and yielding instant obedience? He might have pronounced Toussaint a ferocious despot, and the thirteen so many craven fools: while the facts wear a very different aspect to one who knows the minds of the men. It was necessary to the good-will of a society but lately organized out of chaos, to make no distinction between negro and other insurgents; and these thirteen men were ringleaders in a revolt, Toussaint's nephew being one of them. This accounts for the general's share in the transaction. As for the negroes, the General was also the Deliverer,--an object of worship to people of his colour. Obedience to him was a rule, exalted by every sentiment of gratitude, awe, admiration, pride, and love, into a religion; and a Haytian of that day would no more have thought of resisting a command of Toussaint, than of disputing a thunder-stroke or an earthquake.--What would an unsympathizing observer make of the Paschal supper, as celebrated in the houses of Hebrews throughout the world,--of the care not to break a bone of the lamb,--of the company all standing, the men girded and shod as for a journey, and the youngest child of the household invariably asking what this is all for? What would the observer call it but mummery, if he had no feeling for the awful traditional and religious emotion involved in the symbol?--What would such an one think of the terrified flight of two Spanish nobles from the wrath of their sovereign, incurred by their having saved his beloved queen from being killed by a fall from her horse? What a puzzle is here,--even when all the facts of the case are known;--that the king was looking from a balcony to see his queen mount her Andalusian horse: that the horse reared, plunged, and bolted, throwing the queen, whose foot was entangled in the stirrup: that she was surrounded with gentlemen who stood aloof, because by the law of Spain it was death to any but her little pages to touch the person, and especially the foot of the queen, and her pages were too young to rescue her; that these two gentlemen devoted themselves to save her; and having caught the horse, and extricated the royal foot, fled for their lives from the legal wrath of the king! Whence such a law? From the rule that the queen of Spain has no legs. Whence such a rule? From the meaning that the queen of Spain is a being too lofty to touch the earth. Here we come at last to the sentiment of loyal admiration and veneration which sanctifies the law and the rule, and interprets the incident. To a heartless stranger the whole appears a mere solemn absurdity, fit only to be set aside, as it was apparently by pardon from the king being obtained by the instant intercession of the queen. But in the eyes of every Spaniard the transaction was, in all its parts, as far from absurdity as the danger of the two nobles was real and pressing.--Again, what can a heartless observer understand by the practice, almost universal in the world, of celebrating the naming of children? The Christian parent employs a form by which the infant is admitted as a lamb of Christ's flock: the Chinese father calls his kindred together to witness the conferring first of the surname, and then of \"the milk-name,\"--some endearing diminutive, to cease with infancy: the Moslem consults an astrologer before giving a name to his child: and the savage selects a name-sake for his infant from among the beasts or birds, with whose characteristic quality he would fain endow his offspring. What a general rule is here, exalted by a universal sentiment into an act of religion! The ceremonial observed in each case is widely different in its aspect to one who sees in it merely a cumbrous way of transacting a matter of convenience, and to another who perceives in it the initiation of a new member into the family of mankind, and a looking forward to,--an attempt to make provision for, the future destiny of an unconscious and helpless being.",
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      "text": "Thus it will be through the whole range of the traveller's observation. If he be full of sympathy, every thing he sees will be instructive, and the most important matters will be the most clearly revealed. If he be unsympathizing, the most important things will be hidden from him, and symbols (in which every society abounds) will be only absurd or trivial forms. The stranger will be wise to conclude, when he sees anything seriously done which appears to him insignificant or ludicrous, that there is more in it than he perceives, from some deficiency of knowledge or feeling of his own.",
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      "text": "The other way in which heart is found to answer to heart is too obvious to require to be long dwelt upon. Men not only see according to the light they shed from their own breasts,--whether it be the sunshine of generosity or the hell-flames of bad passions,--but they attract to themselves spirits like their own. The very same persons appear very differently to a traveller who calls into exercise all their best qualities, and to one who has an affinity with their worst: but it is a yet more important consideration that actually different elements of society will range themselves round the observer according to the scepticism or faith of his temper, the purity or depravity of his tastes, and the elevation or insignificance of his objects. The Americans, somewhat nettled with the injustice of English travellers' reports of their country, have jokingly proposed to take lodgings in Wapping for some thorough-bred American vixen, of low tastes and coarse manners, and employ her to write an account of English morals and manners from what she might see in a year's abode in the choice locality selected for her. This would be no great exaggeration of the process of observation of foreigners which is perpetually going on.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER III.",
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      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "MECHANICAL REQUISITES.",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00121",
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      "text": "\"He travels and expatiates, as the bee From flower to flower, so he from land to land: The manners, customs, policy, of all Pay contribution to the stores he gleans.\"--_The Task._",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00122",
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      "text": "\"Thy speaking of my tongue, and I thine, most truly falsely, must needs be granted to be much at one.\"--_King Henry V._",
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      "text": "No philosophical or moral fitness will qualify a traveller to observe a people if he does not select a mode of travelling which will enable him to see and converse with a great number and variety of persons. An ambassador has no chance of learning much of the people he visits anywhere but in a new country like America. While he is _en route_, he is too stately in appearance to allow of any familiarity on the part of the people by the road-side. His carriages might almost as well roll through a city of the dead, for anything he will learn from intercourse with the living. The case is not much better when a family or a party of friends travel together on the Continent, committing the business of the expedition to servants, and shrinking from intercourse, on all social occasions, with English shyness or pride.",
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      "text": "The behaviour of the English on the Continent has become a matter of very serious consequence to the best informed and best mannered of their countrymen, as it has long been to the natives into whose society they may happen to fall. I have heard gentlemen say that they lose half their pleasure in going abroad, from the coldness and shyness with which the English are treated; a coldness and shyness which they think fully warranted by the conduct of their predecessors in travel. I have heard ladies say that they find great difficulty in becoming acquainted with their neighbours at the tables-d'hôte; and that, when they have succeeded, an apology for the reluctance to converse has been offered, in the form of explanation that English travellers generally \"appear to dislike being spoken to\" so much as to render it a matter of civility to leave them alone. The travelling arrangements of the English seem designed to cut them off from companionship with the people they go to see; and they preclude the possibility of studying morals and manners in a way which is perfectly ludicrous to persons of a more social temperament and habits.",
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    {
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      "text": "A good deal may be learned on board steam-boats, and in such vehicles as the American stages; and when accommodations of the kind become common, it will be difficult for the sulkiest Englishman to avoid admitting some ideas into his mind from the conversation and actions of the groups around him. When steam-boats ply familiarly on the Indus, and we have the rail-road to Calcutta which people are joking about, and another across the Pampas,--when we make trips to New Zealand, and think little of a run down the west coast of Africa,--places where we shall go for fashion's sake, and cannot go boxed up in a carriage of Long Acre origin,--our countrymen will, perforce, exchange conversation with the persons they meet, and may chance to get rid of the unsociability for which they are notorious, and by which they cast a veil over hearts and faces, and a shadow over their own path, wherever they go.",
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      "text": "Meantime, the wisest and happiest traveller is the pedestrian. If gentlemen and ladies want to see pictures, let them post to Florence, and be satisfied with learning what they can from the windows by the way. But if they want to see either scenery or people, let all who have strength and courage go on foot. I prefer this even to horseback. A horse is an anxiety and a trouble. Something is sure to ail it; and one is more anxious about its accommodation than about one's own. The pedestrian traveller is wholly free from care. There is no such freeman on earth as he is for the time. His amount of toil is usually within his own choice,--in any civilized region. He can go on and stop when he likes: if a fit of indolence overtakes him, he can linger for a day or a week in any spot that pleases him. He is not whirled past a beautiful view almost before he has seen it. He is not tantalized by the idea that from this or that point he could see something still finer, if he could but reach it. He can reach almost every point his wishes wander to. The pleasure is indescribable of saying to one's self, \"I will go there,\"--\"I will rest yonder,\"--and forthwith accomplishing it. He can sit on a rock in the midst of a rushing stream as often in a day as he likes. He can hunt a waterfall by its sound; a sound which the carriage-wheels prevent other travellers from hearing. He can follow out any tempting glade in any wood. There is no cushion of moss at the foot of an old tree that he may not sit down on if he pleases. He can read for an hour without fear of passing by something unnoticed while his eyes are fixed upon his book. His food is welcome, be its quality what it may, while he eats it under the alders in some recess of a brook. He is secure of his sleep, be his chamber ever so sordid; and when his waking eyes rest upon his knapsack, his heart leaps with pleasure as he remembers where he is, and what a day is before him. Even the weather seems to be of less consequence to the pedestrian than to other travellers. A pedestrian journey presupposes abundance of time, so that the traveller can rest in villages on rainy days, and in the shade of a wood during the hours when the sun is too powerful. And if he prefers not waiting for the rain, it is not the evil to him that it would be in cities and in the pursuit of business. The only evil of rain that I know of, to healthy persons in exercise, is that it spoils the clothes; and the clothes of a pedestrian traveller are not usually of a spoilable quality. Rain does not deform the face of things everywhere as it does in a city. It adds a new aspect of beauty occasionally to a wood, to mountains, to lake and ocean scenery. I remember a hale, cheerful pedestrian tourist whom we met frequently among the White Mountains of New Hampshire, and whom we remarked as being always the briskest of the company at the hotel table in the evening, and the merriest at breakfast. He had the best of it one day, when we passed him in Franconia Defile, after a heavy rain had set in. We were packed in a waggon which seemed likely to fill with water before we got to our destination; and miserable enough we looked, drenched and cold. The traveller was marching on over the rocky road, his book safe in its oil-skin cover, and his clothes-bag similarly protected; his face bright and glowing with exercise, and his summer jacket of linen feeling, as he told us, all the pleasanter for being wet through. As he passed each recess of the defile, he looked up perpetually to see the rain come smoking out of the fissures of the rocks; and when he reached the opening by which he was to descend to the plain, he stood still, to watch the bar of dewy yellow light which lay along the western sky where the sun had just set. He looked just as happy on other days. Sometimes we passed him lying along on a hill side; sometimes talking with a family at the door of a log-house; sometimes reading as he walked under the shade of the forest. I, for one, often longed to dismiss our waggon or barouche, and to follow his example.",
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      "text": "One peculiar advantage of pedestrian travelling is the pleasure of a gradual approach to celebrated or beautiful places. Every turn of the road gains in interest; every object that meets the eye seems to have some initiative meaning; and when the object itself at last appears, nothing can surpass the delight of flinging one's self on the ground to rest upon the first impression, and to interpose a delicious pause before the final attainment. It is not the same thing to desire your driver to stop when you come to the point of view. The first time that I felt this was on a pedestrian tour in Scotland, when I was at length to see mountains. The imagination of myself and my companion had fixed strongly on Dunkeld, as being a scene of great beauty, and our first resting-place among the mountains. The sensation had been growing all the morning. Men, houses, and trees had seemed to be growing diminutive,--an irresistible impression to the novice in mountain scenery: the road began to follow the windings of the Tay, a sign that the plain was contracting into a pass. Beside a cistern, on a green bank of this pass, we had dined; a tract of heath next lay before us, and we traversed it so freshly and merrily as to be quite unaware that we were getting towards the end of our seventeen miles, though still conscious that the spirit of the mountains was upon us. We were deeply engaged in talk, when a winding of the road brought us in full view of the lovely scene which is known to all who have approached Dunkeld by the Perth road. We could scarcely believe that this was _it_, so soon. We turned to our map and guide-book, and found that we were standing on the site of Birnam wood; that Dunsinane hill was in sight, and that it was indeed the old cathedral tower of Dunkeld that rose so grandly among the beeches behind the bridge. We took such a long and fond gaze as I never enjoyed from a carriage window. If it was thus with an object of no more importance or difficulty of attainment than Dunkeld, what must it be to catch the first view of the mysterious temples that",
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      "text": "\"Stand between the mountains and the sea; Awful memorials, but of whom we know not!\"",
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      "text": "or to survey from a height, at sunrise, the brook Kedron and the valley of Jehoshaphat!",
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      "sha256": "1f1fb02ae92f2396a1b6d1e85ed77e4081e1fc553c1d6fc9c1610a82f7a06209",
      "text": "PART II.",
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      "start": 102478,
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      "text": "WHAT TO OBSERVE.",
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      "text": "\"Nous nous en tiendrons aux moeurs, aux habitudes extérieures dont se forme, pour les differentes classes de la société, une sorte de physionomie morale, où se retracent les moeurs privées.\" DE JOUY.",
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      "text": "It is a perpetual wonder to an inexperienced person that the students of particular classes of facts can learn so much as they do from a single branch of inquiry. Tell an uninformed man of the daily results of the study of Fossil Remains, and he will ask how the student can possibly know what was done in the world ages before man was created. It will astonish a thoughtless man to hear the statements about the condition of the English nation which are warranted by the single study of the administration of the Poor Laws, since their origin. Some physiognomists fix their attention on a single feature of the human face, and can pretty accurately interpret the general character of the mind from it: and I believe every portrait painter trusts mainly to one feature for the fidelity of his likenesses, and bestows more study and care on that one than on any other.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00139",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "A good many features compose the physiognomy of a nation; and scarcely any traveller is qualified to study them all. The same man is rarely enlightened enough to make investigation at once into the religion of a people, into its general moral notions, its domestic and economical state, its political condition, and the facts of its progress;--all which are necessary to a full understanding of its morals and manners. Few have even attempted an inquiry of this extent. The worst of it is that few dream of undertaking the study of any one feature of society at all. We should by this time have been rich in the knowledge of nations if each intelligent traveller had endeavoured to report of any one department of moral inquiry, however narrow; but, instead of this, the observations offered to us are almost purely desultory. The traveller hears and notes what this and that and the other person says. If three or four agree in their statements on any point, he remains unaware of a doubt, and the matter is settled. If they differ, he is perplexed, does not know whom to believe, and decides, probably, in accordance with prepossessions of his own. The case is almost equally bad, either way. He will hear only one side of every question if he sees only one class of persons,--like the English in America, for instance, who go commonly with letters of introduction from merchants at home to merchants in the maritime cities, and hear nothing but federal politics, and see nothing but aristocratic manners. They come home with notions which they suppose to be indisputable about the great Bank question, the state of parties, and the relations of the General and State governments; and with words in their mouths of whose objectionable character they are unaware,--about the common people, mob government, the encroachment of the poor upon the rich, and so on. Such partial intercourse is fatal to the observations of a traveller; but it is less perplexing and painful at the time than the better process of going from one set of people to another, and hearing what all have to say. No traveller in the United States can learn much of the country without conversing equally with farmers and merchants, with artizans and statesmen, with villagers and planters; but, while discharging this duty, he will be so bewildered with the contrariety of statements and convictions, that he will often shut his note-book in a state of scepticism as to whether there be any truth at all shining steadily behind all this tempest of opinions. Thus it is with the stranger who traverses the streets of Warsaw, and is trusted with the groans of some of the outraged mourners who linger in its dwellings; and then goes to St. Petersburg, and is presented with evidences of the enlightenment of the Czar, of his humanity, his paternal affection for his subjects, and his general superiority to his age. At Warsaw the traveller called him a miscreant; at Petersburg he is required to pronounce him a philanthropist. Such must be the uncertainty of judgment when it is based upon the testimony of individuals. To arrive at the facts of the condition of a people through the discourse of individuals, is a hopeless enterprise. The plain truth is--it is beginning at the wrong end.",
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      "text": "The grand secret of wise inquiry into Morals and Manners is to begin with the study of THINGS, using the DISCOURSE OF PERSONS as a commentary upon them.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00141",
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      "text": "Though the facts sought by travellers relate to Persons, they may most readily be learned from Things. The eloquence of Institutions and Records, in which the action of the nation is embodied and perpetuated, is more comprehensive and more faithful than that of any variety of individual voices. The voice of a whole people goes up in the silent workings of an institution; the condition of the masses is reflected from the surface of a record. The Institutions of a nation,--political, religious, or social,--put evidence into the observer's hands as to its capabilities and wants which the study of individuals could not yield in the course of a lifetime. The Records of any society, be they what they may, whether architectural remains, epitaphs, civic registers, national music, or any other of the thousand manifestations of the common mind which may be found among every people, afford more information on Morals in a day than converse with individuals in a year. Thus also must Manners be judged of, since there never was a society yet, not even a nunnery or a Moravian settlement, which did not include a variety of manners. General indications must be looked for, instead of generalizations being framed from the manners of individuals. In cities, do social meetings abound? and what are their purposes and character? Are they most religious, political, or festive? If religious, have they more the character of Passion Week at Rome, or of a camp-meeting in Ohio? If political, do the people meet on wide plains to worship the Sun of the Celestial Empire, as in China; or in town-halls, to remonstrate with their representatives, as in England; or in secret places, to spring mines under the thrones of their rulers, as in Spain? If festive, are they most like an Italian carnival, where everybody laughs; or an Egyptian holiday, when all eyes are solemnly fixed on the whirling Dervishes? Are women there? In what proportions, and under what law of liberty? What are the public amusements? There is an intelligible difference between the opera at Milan, and the theatre at Paris, and a bull-fight at Madrid, and a fair at Leipzig, and a review at St. Petersburg.--In country towns, how is the imitation of the metropolis carried on? Do the provincials emulate most in show, in science, or in the fine arts?--In the villages, what are the popular amusements? Do the people meet to drink or to read, to discuss, or play games, or dance? What are the public houses like? Do the people eat fruit and tell stories? or drink ale and talk politics or call for tea and saunter about? or coffee and play dominoes? or lemonade and laugh at Punch? Do they crowd within four walls, or gather under the elm, or spread themselves abroad over the cricket-field or the yellow sands?--There is as wide a difference among the humbler classes of various countries as among their superiors in rank. A Scotch burial is wholly unlike the ceremonies of the funeral pile among the Cingalese; and an interment in the Greek church little resembles either. A conclave of White Boys in Mayo, assembled in a mud hovel on a heath, to pledge one another to their dreadful oath, is widely different from a similar conclave of Swiss insurgents, met in a pine wood on a steep, on the same kind of errand: and both are as little like as may be to the heroes of the last revolution in Paris, or to the companies of Covenanters that were wont to meet, under a similar pressure of circumstances, in the defiles of the Scottish mountains.--In the manners of all classes, from the highest to the lowest, are forms of manners enforced in action, or dismissed in words? Is there barbarous freedom in the lower, while there is formality in the higher ranks, as in newly settled countries? or have all grown up together to that period of refined civilization when ease has superseded alike the freedom of the Australian peasantry, and the etiquette of the court of Ava?--What are the manners of professional men of the society, from the eminent lawyer or physician of the metropolis down to the village barber? The manners of the great body of the professional men must indicate much of the requisitions of the society they serve.--So, also, must every circumstance connected with the service of society: its character, whether slavish or free, abject or prosperous, comprehensive or narrow in its uses, must testify to the desires and habits, and therefore to the manners of a community, better than the conversation or deportment of any individual in the society can do. A traveller who bears all this in mind can hardly go wrong. Every thing that he looks upon will instruct him, from an aqueduct to a punch-bowl, from a penitentiary to an aviary, from the apparatus of a university to the furniture of an alehouse or a nursery. When it was found that the chiefs of the Red men could not be impressed with any notion of the civilization of the Whites by all that many white men could say, they were brought into the cities of the Whites. The exhibition of a ship was enough for some. The warriors of the prairies were too proud to utter their astonishment,--too noble to hint, even to one another, their fear; but the perspiration stood on their brows as they dumbly gazed, and no word of war passed their lips from that hour. Another, who could listen with calmness to the tales of boastful traders in the wilderness, was moved from his apathy by seeing a workman in a glasshouse put a handle upon a pitcher. He was transported out of his silence and reserve: he seized and grasped the hand of the workman, crying out that it was now plain that he had had intercourse with the Great Spirit. By the evidence of things these Indians had learned more of the manners of the Whites than had ever been taught them by speech.--Which of us would not learn more of the manners of the Pompeians by a morning's walk among the relics of their abodes and public halls than by many a nightly conference with certain of their ghosts?",
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      "text": "The usual scholastic division of Morals is into personal, domestic, and social or political morals. The three kinds are, however, so apt to run into one another,--so practically inseparable,--that the traveller will find the distinction less useful to him than some others which he can either originate or adopt.",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00143",
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      "text": "It appears to me that the Morals and Manners of a nation may be included in the following departments of inquiry--the Religion of the people; their prevalent Moral Notions; their Domestic State; their Idea of Liberty; and their Progress, actual or in prospect.",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00144",
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      "text": "CHAPTER I.",
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      "text": "RELIGION.",
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      "text": "\"He that questioneth much shall learn much, and content much; but especially if he apply his questions to the skill of the persons whom he asketh; for he shall give them occasion to please themselves in speaking, and himself shall continually gather knowledge.\" _Bacon._",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00366",
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      "text": "The Discourse of individuals is an indispensable commentary upon the classes of national facts which the traveller has observed. To begin the work of observation with registering this private discourse, is, as has been said, useless, from the diversity that there is in men's minds, and from the narrowness of the mental vision of each as he stands in a crowd. The testimony of no two would be found to agree; and, if the traveller depended upon them for his general facts, he could never furnish a record which could be trusted. But, the facts being once obtained by stronger evidence than individual testimony,--certain fixed points being provided round which testimony may gather,--the discourse of individuals assumes its proper value, and becomes illustrative where before it would have been only bewildering. The traveller must obtain all that he can of it. He must seek intercourse with all classes of the society he visits,--not only the rich and the poor, but those who may be classed by profession, pursuit, habits of mind, and turn of manners. He must converse with young men and maidens, old men and children, beggars and savans, postillions and potentates. He must study little ones at their mothers' knees, and flirtations in ball-rooms, and dealings in the market-place. He must overhear the mirth of revellers, and the grief of mourners. Wherever there is speech, he must devote himself to hear.",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00367",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "One way in which discourse serves as a commentary upon the things he has observed is in the exhibition of certain general characters of its own, which are accordant with the general facts he has registered. The conversation of almost every nation has its characteristics, like that of smaller societies. The style of discourse in an English village is unlike that of a populous town; and the people of a town which is no thoroughfare talk differently from the inhabitants of one which is. In the same way is the general discourse of a whole people modified. In one country less regard is paid to truth in particulars, to circumstantial accuracy, than in another. One nation has more sincerity; another more kindliness in speech. One proses; another is light and sportive. One is frank; another reserved. One flatters the stranger; another is careless of him: and the discourse of the one is designed to produce a certain effect upon him; while that of the other flows out spontaneously, or is restrained, according to the traveller's own apparent humour. Such characteristics of the general discourse may be noted as a corroboration of suppositions drawn from other facts. They may be taken as evidence of the respective societies being catholic or puritanic in spirit; crude or accomplished; free and simple, or restrained and cautious; self-satisfied, or deficient in self-respect. The observer must be very careful not to generalize too hastily upon the discourse addressed to him; but there are everywhere large conclusions which he cannot help making. However wide the variety of individuals with whom he may converse, it is scarcely likely that he will meet in Spain with any number who will prose like the Americans; or in Germany with many who will treat him with the light jests of the French. Such general tendencies of any society as he may have been informed of by the study of things, he will find evidenced also by the general character of its discourse.",
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      "text": "Another way in which discourse serves as a commentary, is by showing what interests the people most. If the observer goes with a free mind and an open heart, not full of notions and feelings of his own, but ready to resign himself to those of the people he visits,--if he commits himself to his sympathies, and makes himself one with those about him, he cannot but presently discover and appreciate what interests them most.",
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      "text": "A high Tory in America will be more misled than enlightened by what is said to him, and so will a bigoted Republican in England. A prim Quaker will not understand the French from half a year of Parisian conversation, any more than a mere dandy would feel at home at Jena or Heidelberg. But a traveller free from gross prejudice and selfishness can hardly be many days in a new society without learning what are its chief interests. Even savages would speak to him of the figure-head of their canoe; and others would go through, in time, each its own range of topics, till the German had poured out to him his philosophical views, and the Frenchman his solicitudes for the amelioration of society, and the American his patriotic aspirations, and the Swiss his domestic sentiment. Whatever may be the restrictions imposed by rulers upon discourse, whatever may be the penalties imposed upon particular kinds of communication, all are unavailing in the presence of sympathy. At its touch the abundance of the heart will gush out at the lips. Men are so made that they cannot but speak of what interests them most to those who most share the interest. This is a decree of nature by which the decrees of despots are annulled. The power of a ruler may avail to keep an observer on his own side the frontier; but, if he has once passed it, it is his own fault if he does not become as well acquainted with the prevailing sentiment of the inhabitants, amidst the deadest public silence, as if it were shouted out to the four winds. If he carries a simple mind and an open heart, there is no mine in Siberia so deep but the voice of complaint will come up to him from it, and no home so watched by priests but that he will know what is concealed from the confessor. All this would do little more than mislead him by means of his sympathies, if such confidence were his only means of knowledge; but, coming in corroboration of what he has learned in the large elsewhere, it becomes unquestionable evidence of what it is that interests the people most.",
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      "text": "He must bear in mind that there are a few universal interests which everywhere stand first, and that it is the modification of these by local influences which he has to observe; and also what comes next in order to these. For instance, the domestic are the primary interests among all human beings. It is so where the New England father dismisses his sons to the West,--and where the Hindoo mother deserts her infants to seek the shade of her husband through the fire,--and where the Spanish parent consigns her youngest to the convent,--as truly as where the Norwegian peasant enlarges his roof to admit another and another family of his descendants. It is for the traveller to trust the words and tones of parental love which meet his ear in every home of every land; and to mark by what it is that this prime and universal interest is modified, so as to produce such sacrifice of itself. Taking the affection for granted, which the private discourse of parents and children compels him to do, what light does he find cast upon the influence of the priests here, and pride of territory there;--upon the superstition which is the weakness of one people, and the social ambition in the midst of poverty which is the curse of another!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00371",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "He must also find out from the conversation of the people he visits what is their particular interest, from observing what ranks next to those which are universal. In one country, parents love their families first, and wealth next; in another, their families first, and glory next; in a third, their families first, and liberty next; and so on, through the whole range of objects of human desire. Once having discerned the mode, he will find it easy to take the suffrage without much danger of mistake.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00372",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 373171,
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      "text": "The chief reason why the discourse of individuals, apart from the observation of classes of facts, is almost purely deceptive as to morals, is that the traveller can see no more than one in fifty thousand of the people, and has no security that those he meets are a sample of the whole. This difficulty does not interfere with one very important advantage which he may obtain from conversation,--knowledge of and light upon particular questions. A stranger might wish to learn the state of Christianity in England. If he came to London, and began with conversation, he might meet a Church-of-England-man one day, a Catholic the next, a Presbyterian the third, a Quaker the fourth, a Methodist the fifth, and so on, till the result was pure bewilderment. But if he conversed with intelligent persons, he would find that questions were pending respecting the church and dissent,--involving the very principles of the administration of religion. The opinions he hears upon these questions may be as various as the persons he converses with. He may be unable to learn the true characters of the statesmen and religious leaders concerned in their management: but he gains something of more value. Light is thrown upon the state of things from which alone these questions could have arisen. From free newspapers he might have learned the nature of the controversy; but in social intercourse much more is presented to him. He sees the array of opinions marshalled on each side, or on all the sides of the question; and receives an infinite number of suggestions and illustrations which could never have reached him but from the conflict of intellects, and the diversity of views and statements with which he is entertained in discourse. The traveller in every country should thus welcome the discussion of questions in which the inhabitants are interested, taking strenuous care to hear the statements of every party. From the intimate connexion of certain modes of opinion with all great questions, he will gain light upon the whole condition of opinion from its exhibition in one case. New subjects of research will be brought within his reach; new paths of inquiry will be opened; new trains of ideas will be awakened, and fresh minds brought into communication with his own. If he can secure the good fortune of conversing with the leaders on both sides of great questions,--with the men who have made it a pursuit to collect all the facts of the case, and to follow out its principles,--there is no estimating his advantage. There is, perhaps, scarcely one great subject of national controversy which, thus opened to him, would not afford him glimpses into all the other general affairs of the day; and each time that his mind grasps a definite opposition of popular opinion, he has accomplished a stage in his pilgrimage of inquiry into the tendencies of a national mind. He will therefore be anxious to engage all he meets in full and free conversation on prevailing topics, leaving it to them to open their minds in their own way, and only taking care of his own,--that he preserves his impartiality, and does no injustice to question or persons by bias of his own.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00373",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "In arranging his plans for conversing with all kinds of people, the observer will not omit to cultivate especially the acquaintance of persons who themselves see the most of society. The value of their testimony on particular points must depend much on that of their minds and characters; but, from the very fact of their having transactions with a large portion of society, they cannot avoid affording many lights to a stranger which he could obtain by no other means. The conversation of lawyers in a free country, of physicians, of merchants and manufacturers in central trading situations, of innkeepers and of barbers everywhere, must yield him much which he could not have collected for himself. The minds of a great variety of people are daily acting upon the thoughts of such, and the facts of a great variety of lives upon their experience; and whether they be more or less wise in the use of their opportunities, they must be unlike what they would have been in a state of seclusion. If the stranger listens to what they are most willing to tell, he may learn much of popular modes of thinking and feeling, of modes of living, acting, and transacting, which will confirm and illustrate impressions and ideas which he had previously gained from other sources.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00374",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "The result of the whole of what he hears will probably be to the traveller of the same kind with that which the journey of life yields to the wisest of its pilgrims. As he proceeds, he will learn to condemn less, and to admire, not less, but differently. He will find no intellect infallible, no judgment free from prejudice, and therefore no affections without their bias; but, on the other hand, he will find no error which does not branch out of some truth; no wrath which has not some reason in it; nothing wrong which is not the perversion of something right; no wickedness that is not weakness. If he is compelled to give up the adoration of individuals, the man-worship which is the religion of young days, he surrenders with it the spirit of contempt which ought also to be proper to youth. To a healthy mind it is impossible to mix largely with men, under a variety of circumstances, and wholly to despise either societies or individuals; so magnificent is the intellect of men in combination, so universal are their most privately nourished affections. He must deny himself the repose of implicit faith in the intellect of any one; but he cannot refuse the luxury of trust in the moral power of the whole. Instead of the complete set of dogmas with which he was perhaps once furnished, on the authority of a few individuals, he brings home a store of learning on the great subject of human prejudices: but he cannot have watched the vast effects of a community of sentiment,--he cannot have observed multitudes tranquillized into social order, stimulated to social duty, and even impelled to philanthropic self-sacrifice, without being convinced that men were made to live in a bond of brotherhood. He cannot have sat in conversation under the village elm, or in sunny vineyards, or by the embers of the midnight fire, without knowing how spirit is formed to unfold itself to spirit; and how, when the solitary is set in families, his sympathies bind him to them by such a chain as selfish interest never yet wove. He cannot have travelled wisely and well without being convinced that moral power is the force which lifts man to be not only lord of the earth, but scarcely below the angels; and that the higher species of moral power, which are likely to come more and more into use, clothe him in a kind of divinity to which angels themselves might bow.--No one will doubt this who has been admitted into that range of sanctuaries, the homes of nations; and who has witnessed the godlike achievements of the servants, sages, and martyrs, who have existed wherever man has been.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00375",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 380311,
      "end": 380320,
      "sha256": "6526012c7d7ce206384b143e5d28855b683a3ebed5dd0642cac40e11cb04b446",
      "text": "PART III.",
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      "ref": "PG33944.B00376",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 380324,
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      "sha256": "b6e71e6d56c605dc4bbb6b17efd247b528cc9e856cdd2cabbfe3a5df69f327a2",
      "text": "MECHANICAL METHODS.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00377",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 380351,
      "end": 380524,
      "sha256": "c7d15b75cc22795c405535db4bbea5a7f7b99b0833ce981ada44cb1bd6c18627",
      "text": "\"In sea-voyages, where there is nothing to be seen but sky and sea, men make diaries; but in land-travel, wherein so much is to be observed, they omit it.\"--BACON.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00378",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 380532,
      "end": 380621,
      "sha256": "780d83b729b16152d67c550f815b3c6297442a519408d04e7a8b9aac2a52c10c",
      "text": "\"Stick to your journal course; the breach of custom Is breach of all.\"--_Cymbeline._",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00379",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 380627,
      "end": 381425,
      "sha256": "0eec3b6ce7ffda24619483079513805b583d6ae49112f09d165089fb99c324b1",
      "text": "Travellers cannot be always on the alert, any more than other men. Their hours of weariness and of capricious idleness come, as at home; and there is no security against their occurring at inconvenient times,--just when some characteristic spectacle is to be witnessed, or some long-desired information is in waiting. By a little forethought, the observer may guard against some of the effects of seizures of apathy. If he would rather sleep in the carriage than get out to see a waterfall, he can only feel ashamed, and rouse himself to do his duty: but, by precaution, he may guard himself from passing by some things less beautiful than waterfalls, and to have seen which is less necessary to his reputation as a traveller; but which yet he will be more sorry eventually to have lost.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00380",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 381429,
      "end": 383022,
      "sha256": "a5f5d18fd6e22945afb4870e017e36e239be704a92771e64aa7e308ed43a1265",
      "text": "To keep himself up to his business, and stimulate his flagging attention, he should provide himself, before setting out, with a set of queries, so prepared as to include every great class of facts connected with the condition of a people, and so divided and arranged as that he can turn to the right set at the fitting moment.--These queries are not designed to be thrust into the hand of any one who may have information to give. They should not even be allowed to catch his eye. The traveller who has the air of taking notes in the midst of conversation, is in danger of bringing away information imperfect as far as it goes, and much restricted in quantity in comparison with what it would be if he allowed it to be forgotten that he was a foreigner seeking information. If he permits the conversation to flow on naturally, without checking it by the production of the pencil and tablets, he will, even if his memory be not of the best, have more to set down at night than if he noted on the spot, as evidence, what a companion might be saying to him. But a glance in the morning at his list of queries may suggest inquiries which he might not otherwise remember to make; and they will help him afterwards to arrange the knowledge he has gained. He can be constantly adding to them as he goes along, and as new subjects arise, till he is in possession of a catechism on the facts which indicate morals and manners; which must prevent his researches being so capricious, and his information so vague as his moods and his idleness would otherwise occasionally make them.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00381",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 383026,
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      "sha256": "7075e6318f01ee71cbbfe4f16f53c13b099fe3b8fa15ac700d8c33102d27058b",
      "text": "The character of these queries must, of course, depend much on where the traveller means to go. A set which would suit one nation would not completely apply to any other. The observer will do wisely to employ his utmost skill in framing them. His cares will be better bestowed on this than even on his travelling appointments, important as these are to his comfort. When he has done his best in the preparation of his lists, he must still keep on the watch to enlarge them, as occasion arises.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00382",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "Some travellers unite in one the functions of the query list and the journal: having the diary headed and arranged for the reception of classified information. But this seems to be debasing the function of a journal, whose object ought to be to reflect the mind of a traveller, and give back to him hereafter the image of what he thought and felt day by day. This is its primary function;--a most useful one, as every traveller knows who has kept one during a year's wandering in a foreign country. On his return, he laughs at the crudity of the information, and the childishness of the impressions, set down in the opening pages; and traces, with as much wonder as interest, the gradual expansion of his knowledge, education of his perceptions, and maturing of his judgments as to what is before him, as week succeeds to week, and each month mellows the experience of the last.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00383",
      "bookId": 33944,
      "start": 384423,
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      "sha256": "7c55ea1cf0396db49d947c0c820f26e6ee79b2fec9e18017b52acec310f9f3db",
      "text": "The subordinate purpose of the journal is to record facts; and the way in which this is done ought not to depend on the stationer's rule, but on the nature of the traveller's mind. No man can write down daily all that he learns in a day's travel. It ought to be a matter of serious consideration with him what he will insert, and what trust to his memory. The simplest method seems to be to set down what is most likely to be let slip, and to trust to the memory what the affections and tastes of the traveller will not allow him to forget. One who especially enjoys intimate domestic intercourse will write, not fireside conversations, but the opinions of statesmen, and the doctrine of parties on great social questions. One whose tastes are religious will note less on the subject of public worship and private religious discourse, than dates, numbers, and facts on subjects of subordinate interest. All should record anecdotes and sayings which illustrate character. These are disjointed, and will escape almost any memory, if not secured in writing. Those who do not draw should also note scenery. A very few descriptive touches will bring back a landscape, with all its human interest, after a lapse of years: while perhaps there is no memory in the world which will present unaided the distinctive character of a succession of scenes. The returned traveller is ashamed to see the extent of his record of his personal feelings. His changes of mood, his sufferings from heat or cold, from hunger or weariness, are the most interesting things to him at the moment; and down they go, in the place of things much better worth recording, and he pays the penalty in many a blush hereafter. His best method will be to record as little as possible about himself; and, of other things, most of what he is pretty sure to forget, and least of what he can hardly help remembering.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00384",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "Generally speaking, he will find it desirable to defer the work of generalization till he gets home. In the earlier stages of his journey, at least, he will restrict his pen to the record of facts and impressions; or, if his mind should have an unconquerable theorizing tendency, he will be so far cautious as to put down his inferences conjecturally. It is easy to do this; and it may make an eternal difference to the observer's love of truth, and attainment of it, whether he preserves his philosophic thoughts in the form of dogmas or of queries.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00385",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "Though it is commonly spoken of as a settled thing that the journal should be written at night, there are many who do not agree to this. There are some whose memory fails when the body is tired, and who find themselves clear-headed about many things in the morning which were but imperfectly remembered before they had the refreshment of sleep. The early morning is probably the best time for the greater number; but it is a safe general rule that the journal should be written in the interval when the task is pleasantest. Whether the regularity be pleasant or not, (and to the most conscientious travellers it is the most agreeable,) the entries ought to be made daily, if possible. The loss incurred by delay is manifest to any one who has tried. The shortest entries are always those which have been deferred. The delay of a single day is found to reduce the matter unaccountably. In the midst of his weariness and unwillingness to take out his pen, the traveller may comfort himself by remembering that he will reap the reward of diligence in satisfaction when he gets home. He may assure himself that no lines that he can write can ever be more valuable than those in which he hives his treasures of travel. If he turns away from the task, he will have uneasy feelings connected with his journey as often as he looks back upon it;--feelings of remorse for his idleness, and of regret for irretrievable loss. If, on the other hand, he perseveres in the daily duty, he will go forward each morning with a disburthened mind, and will find, in future years, that he loves the very blots and weather-stains on the pages which are so many remembrancers of his satisfactory labours and profitable pleasures.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG33944.B00386",
      "bookId": 33944,
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      "text": "Besides the journal, the traveller should have a note-book,--always at hand,--not to be pulled out before people's eyes, for the entry of facts related, but to be used for securing the transient appearances which, though revealing so much to an observing mind, cannot be recalled with entire precision. In all the countries of the world, groups by the wayside are the most eloquent of pictures. The traveller who lets himself be whirled past them, unobservant or unrecording, loses more than any devices of inquiry at his inn can repair. If he can sketch, he should rarely allow a characteristic group of persons, or nook of scenery, to escape his pencil. If he cannot use the pencil, a few written words will do. Two lines may preserve for him an exemplification which may be of great future value.--The farmers' wives of New England, talking over the snake-fence at sunset, are in themselves an illustration of many things: so is the stern Indian in his blanket-cloak, standing on a mound on the prairie; so is the chamois hunter on his pinnacle, and the pedestrian student in the valleys of the Hartz, and the pine-cutters on the steeps of Norway, and the travelling merchant on the dyke in Holland, and the vine-dressers in Alsace, and the beggars in the streets of Spanish cities, and all the children of all countries at their play. The traveller does not dream of passing unnoticed the cross in the wilderness, beneath which some brother pilgrim lies murdered; or the group of brigands seen in the shadow of the wood; or a company of Sisters of Charity, going forth to their deeds of mercy; or a pair of inquisitors, busy on the errands of the Holy Office; or anything else which strongly appeals to his imagination or his personal feelings. These pictures, thus engraved in his memory, he may safely leave to be entered in his journal, night or morning: but groups and scenes which ought to be quite as interesting, because they reveal the thoughts and ways of men, (the more familiarly the more faithfully,) should be as earnestly observed; and, to give them a chance of equal preservation, they should be noted on the instant. If a foreigner opens his eyes after a nap in travelling an Irish road, would it not be wise to note at once what he sees that he could not see elsewhere? He perceives that the green lanes which branch off from the road are more crowded with foliage, and less definite in their windings, than any other green lanes he has seen near high roads. The road itself is _sui generis_, with its border of rank grass, with tufts of straggling briers, and its rough stone walls, fringed with weeds, and gay with wild flowers. A beggarly wretch is astride on the top, singing the Doxology to the tune of Paudeen O'Rafferty, and keeping time with his heels: and, some way off, an old man crouches in the grass, playing cards,--the right hand against the left,--reviling the winner, and tenderly consoling the loser. Presently the stranger passes a roofless hut, where he sees, either a party of boys and girls throwing turf for a handful of meal, or a beggar-woman and her children resting in the shade of the walls to eat their cold potatoes. Such scenes could be beheld nowhere but in Ireland: but there is no country in the world where groups and pictures as characteristic do not present themselves to the observing eye, and in such quick succession that they are liable to be confused and lost, if not secured at the moment by brief touches of pencil or pen. The note-book should be the repository of such.",
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      "text": "Mechanical methods are nothing but in proportion to the power which uses them; as the intellectual accomplishments of the traveller avail him little, and may even bring him back less wise than he went out,--a wanderer from truth, as well as from home,--unless he sees by a light from his heart shining through the eyes of his mind. He may see, and hear, and record, and infer, and conclude for ever; and he will still not understand if his heart be idle,--if he have not sympathy. Sympathy by itself may do much: with fit intellectual and mechanical aids, it cannot but make the traveller a wise man. His journey may be but for a brief year, or even month; but if, by his own sympathy, he grasps and brings home to himself the life of a fresh portion of his race, he gains a wisdom for which he will be the better for ever.",
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      "text": "FOOTNOTES:",
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      "text": "[A] Penny Magazine, vol. ii. p. 309.",
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      "text": "It has often been contended that the collapse of cholera cannot be the mere result of the purging and vomiting, because, in some of the most rapid and malignant cases, the amount of the stools and vomited fluid is less than in milder and more protracted ones, or even in some cases in which the patients recover. But, in the most rapid and malignant cases, there is sufficient loss of aqueous fluid by the alimentary canal to alter the blood into the thick tenacious state peculiar to this disease; and the fact of more purging occurring in other cases which are more protracted, only proves that, in these latter, absorption from the stomach and intestines has not been altogether arrested, or that the stools have been diluted with fluids drank by the patient. The loss of fluid in every case of fully developed cholera must be sufficient to cause the thickened state of the blood, which is the cause of the algide symptoms; and the amount of malignancy of the case must depend chiefly on the extent to which the function of absorption is impaired.",
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      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "If absorption were altogether arrested in every case of cholera from the beginning, the amount of discharge from the alimentary canal would not equal that of a fatal hæmorrhage, for the thickened blood which remains is certainly not able to maintain life so well as the same quantity of healthy blood. Indeed, it is easy to calculate the amount of fluid separated from the blood, by means of the analyses previously quoted, and others which have been made of the cholera stools. In some analyses of these evacuations made by Dr. Parkes,[4] the average composition in 1,000 parts was found to be 982.4 water and 17.6 solids; consequently, the problem is merely to find how much of such a fluid requires to be subtracted from blood consisting of water 785 and solids 215, in 1000 parts, in order to reduce it to blood consisting of water 733 and solids 267. The answer to this problem is that 208.5 parts would require to be subtracted from 1000 parts of blood. M. Valentin has estimated the average amount of blood in the human adult at thirty pounds; and, therefore, the whole quantity of fluid that requires to be effused into the stomach and bowels, in order to reduce the blood of a healthy adult individual to the condition in which it is met with in the collapse of cholera is, on the average, 100 ounces, or five imperial pints. This calculation may be useful as indicating the amount of fluid which ought not to be exceeded in the injection of the blood vessels.",
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      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "Diseases which are communicated from person to person are caused by some material which passes from the sick to the healthy, and which has the property of increasing and multiplying in the systems of the persons it attacks. In syphilis, small-pox, and vaccinia, we have physical proof of the increase of the morbid material, and in other communicable diseases the evidence of this increase, derived from the fact of their extension, is equally conclusive. As cholera commences with an affection of the alimentary canal, and as we have seen that the blood is not under the influence of any poison in the early stages of this disease,[5] it follows that the morbid material producing cholera must be introduced into the alimentary canal—must, in fact, be swallowed accidentally, for persons would not take it intentionally; and the increase of the morbid material, or cholera poison, must take place in the interior of the stomach and bowels. It would seem that the cholera poison, when reproduced in sufficient quantity, acts as an irritant on the surface of the stomach and intestines, or, what is still more probable, it withdraws fluid from the blood circulating in the capillaries, by a power analogous to that by which the epithelial cells of the various organs abstract the different secretions in the healthy body. For the morbid matter of cholera having the property of reproducing its own kind, must necessarily have some sort of structure, most likely that of a cell. It is no objection to this view that the structure of the cholera poison cannot be recognised by the microscope, for the matter of small-pox and of chancre can only be recognised by their effects, and not by their physical properties.",
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      "text": "The period which intervenes between the time when a morbid poison enters the system, and the commencement of the illness which follows, is called the period of incubation. It is, in reality, a period of reproduction, as regards the morbid matter; and the disease is due to the crop or progeny resulting from the small quantity of poison first introduced. In cholera, this period of incubation or reproduction is much shorter than in most other epidemic or communicable diseases. From the cases previously detailed, it is shown to be in general only from twenty-four to forty-eight hours. It is owing to this shortness of the period of incubation, and to the quantity of the morbid poison thrown off in the evacuations, that cholera sometimes spreads with a rapidity unknown in other diseases.",
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      "text": "The mode of communication of cholera might have been the same as it is, even if it had been a disease of the blood; for there is a good deal of evidence to show that plague, typhoid fever, and yellow fever, diseases in which the blood is affected, are propagated in the same way as cholera. There is sufficient evidence also, I believe, in the following pages, to prove the mode of communication of cholera here explained, independently of the pathology of the disease; but it was from considerations of its pathology that the mode of communication was first explained, and, if the views here propounded are correct, we had a knowledge of cholera, before it had been twenty years in Europe, more correct than that of most of the older epidemics; a knowledge which, indeed, promises to throw much light on the mode of propagation of many diseases which have been present here for centuries.",
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      "ref": "PG72894.B00132",
      "bookId": 72894,
      "start": 39055,
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      "text": "The instances in which minute quantities of the ejections and dejections of cholera patients must be swallowed are sufficiently numerous to account for the spread of the disease; and on examination it is found to spread most where the facilities for this mode of communication are greatest. Nothing has been found to favour the extension of cholera more than want of personal cleanliness, whether arising from habit or scarcity of water, although the circumstance till lately remained unexplained. The bed linen nearly always becomes wetted by the cholera evacuations, and as these are devoid of the usual colour and odour, the hands of persons waiting on the patient become soiled without their knowing it; and unless these persons are scrupulously cleanly in their habits, and wash their hands before taking food, they must accidentally swallow some of the excretion, and leave some on the food they handle or prepare, which has to be eaten by the rest of the family, who, amongst the working classes, often have to take their meals in the sick room: hence the thousands of instances in which, amongst this class of the population, a case of cholera in one member of the family is followed by other cases; whilst medical men and others, who merely visit the patients, generally escape. The _post mortem_ inspection of the bodies of cholera patients has hardly ever been followed by the disease that I am aware, this being a duty that is necessarily followed by careful washing of the hands; and it is not the habit of medical men to be taking food on such an occasion. On the other hand, the duties performed about the body, such as laying it out, when done by women of the working class, who make the occasion one of eating and drinking, are often followed by an attack of cholera; and persons who merely attend the funeral, and have no connexion with the body, frequently contract the disease, in consequence, apparently, of partaking of food which has been prepared or handled by those having duties about the cholera patient, or his linen and bedding.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: PREVALENCE OF CHOLERA IN THE MINING DISTRICTS.]",
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      "text": "Deficiency of light is a great obstacle to cleanliness, as it prevents dirt from being seen, and it must aid very much the contamination of the food with the cholera evacuations. Now the want of light, in some of the dwellings of the poor, in large towns, is one of the circumstances that has often been commented on as increasing the prevalence of cholera.",
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      "text": "The involuntary passage of the evacuations in most bad cases of cholera, must also aid in spreading the disease. Mr. Baker, of Staines, who attended two hundred and sixty cases of cholera and diarrhœa in 1849, chiefly among the poor, informed me, in a letter with which he favoured me in December of that year, that “when the patients passed their stools involuntarily the disease evidently spread.” It is amongst the poor, where a whole family live, sleep, cook, eat, and wash in a single room, that cholera has been found to spread when once introduced, and still more in those places termed common lodging-houses, in which several families were crowded into a single room. It was amongst the vagrant class, who lived in this crowded state, that cholera was most fatal in 1832; but the Act of Parliament for the regulation of common lodging-houses, has caused the disease to be much less fatal amongst these people in the late epidemics. When, on the other hand, cholera is introduced into the better kind of houses, as it often is, by means that will be afterwards pointed out, it hardly ever spreads from one member of the family to another. The constant use of the hand-basin and towel, and the fact of the apartments for cooking and eating being distinct from the sick room, are the cause of this.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: THE CHOLERA NEAR GOLDEN SQUARE.]",
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      "text": "The most terrible outbreak of cholera which ever occurred in this kingdom, is probably that which took place in Broad Street, Golden Square, and the adjoining streets, a few weeks ago. Within two hundred and fifty yards of the spot where Cambridge Street joins Broad Street, there were upwards of five hundred fatal attacks of cholera in ten days. The mortality in this limited area probably equals any that was ever caused in this country, even by the plague; and it was much more sudden, as the greater number of cases terminated in a few hours. The mortality would undoubtedly have been much greater had it not been for the flight of the population. Persons in furnished lodgings left first, then other lodgers went away, leaving their furniture to be sent for when they could meet with a place to put it in. Many houses were closed altogether, owing to the death of the proprietors; and, in a great number of instances, the tradesmen who remained had sent away their families: so that in less than six days from the commencement of the outbreak, the most afflicted streets were deserted by more than three-quarters of their inhabitants.",
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      "text": "There were a few cases of cholera in the neighbourhood of Broad Street, Golden Square, in the latter part of August; and the so-called outbreak, which commenced in the night between the 31st August and the 1st September, was, as in all similar instances, only a violent increase of the malady. As soon as I became acquainted with the situation and extent of this irruption of cholera, I suspected some contamination of the water of the much-frequented street pump in Broad Street, near the end of Cambridge Street; but on examining the water, on the evening of the 3rd September, I found so little impurity in it of an organic nature, that I hesitated to come to a conclusion. Further inquiry, however, showed me that there was no other circumstance or agent common to the circumscribed locality in which this sudden increase of cholera occurred, and not extending beyond it, except the water of the above mentioned pump. I found, moreover, that the water varied, during the next two days, in the amount of organic impurity, visible to the naked eye, on close inspection, in the form of small white, flocculent particles; and I concluded that, at the commencement of the outbreak, it might possibly have been still more impure. I requested permission, therefore, to take a list, at the General Register Office, of the deaths from cholera, registered during the week ending 2nd September, in the sub-districts of Golden Square, Berwick Street, and St. Ann’s, Soho, which was kindly granted. Eighty-nine deaths from cholera were registered, during the week, in the three sub-districts. Of these, only six occurred in the four first days of the week; four occurred on Thursday, the 31st August; and the remaining seventy-nine on Friday and Saturday. I considered, therefore, that the outbreak commenced on the Thursday; and I made inquiry, in detail, respecting the eighty-three deaths registered as having taken place during the last three days of the week.",
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      "text": "On proceeding to the spot, I found that nearly all the deaths had taken place within a short distance of the pump. There were only ten deaths in houses situated decidedly nearer to another street pump. In five of these cases the families of the deceased persons informed me that they always sent to the pump in Broad Street, as they preferred the water to that of the pump which was nearer. In three other cases, the deceased were children who went to school near the pump in Broad Street. Two of them were known to drink the water; and the parents of the third think it probable that it did so. The other two deaths, beyond the district which this pump supplies, represent only the amount of mortality from cholera that was occurring before the irruption took place.",
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      "text": "With regard to the deaths occurring in the locality belonging to the pump, there were sixty-one instances in which I was informed that the deceased persons used to drink the pump-water from Broad Street, either constantly or occasionally. In six instances I could get no information, owing to the death or departure of every one connected with the deceased individuals; and in six cases I was informed that the deceased persons did not drink the pump-water before their illness.",
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      "text": "The result of the inquiry then was, that there had been no particular outbreak or increase of cholera, in this part of London, except among the persons who were in the habit of drinking the water of the above-mentioned pump-well.",
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      "text": "I had an interview with the Board of Guardians of St. James’s parish, on the evening of Thursday, 7th September, and represented the above circumstances to them. In consequence of what I said, the handle of the pump was removed on the following day.",
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      "text": "Besides the eighty-three deaths mentioned above as occurring on the three last days of the week ending September 2nd, and being registered during that week in the sub-districts in which the attacks occurred, a number of persons died in Middlesex and other hospitals, and a great number of deaths which took place in the locality during the last two days of the week, were not registered till the week following. The deaths altogether, on the 1st and 2nd of September, which have been ascertained to belong to this outbreak of cholera, were one hundred and ninety-seven; and many persons who were attacked about the same time as these, died afterwards. I should have been glad to inquire respecting the use of the water from Broad Street pump in all these instances, but was engaged at the time in an inquiry in the south districts of London, which will be alluded to afterwards; and when I began to make fresh inquiries in the neighbourhood of Golden Square, after two or three weeks had elapsed, I found that there had been such a distribution of the remaining population that it would be impossible to arrive at a complete account of the circumstances. There is no reason to suppose, however, that a more extended inquiry would have yielded a different result from that which was obtained respecting the eighty-three deaths which happened to be registered within the district of the outbreak before the end of the week in which it occurred.",
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      "text": "The additional facts that I have been able to ascertain are in accordance with those above related; and as regards the small number of those attacked, who were believed not to have drank the water from Broad Street pump, it must be obvious that there are various ways in which the deceased persons may have taken it without the knowledge of their friends. The water was used for mixing with spirits in all the public houses around. It was used likewise at dining-rooms and coffee-shops. The keeper of a coffee-shop in the neighbourhood, which was frequented by mechanics, and where the pump-water was supplied at dinner time, informed me (on 6th September) that she was already aware of nine of her customers who were dead. The pump-water was also sold in various little shops, with a teaspoonful of effervescing powder in it, under the name of sherbet; and it may have been distributed in various other ways with which I am unacquainted. The pump was frequented much more than is usual, even for a London pump in a populous neighbourhood.",
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      "text": "There are certain circumstances bearing on the subject of this outbreak of cholera which require to be mentioned. The Workhouse in Poland Street is more than three-fourths surrounded by houses in which deaths from cholera occurred, yet out of five hundred and thirty-five inmates only five died of cholera, the other deaths which took place being those of persons admitted after they were attacked. The workhouse has a pump-well on the premises, in addition to the supply from the Grand Junction Water Works, and the inmates never sent to Broad Street for water. If the mortality in the workhouse had been equal to that in the streets immediately surrounding it on three sides, upwards of one hundred persons would have died.",
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      "text": "There is a Brewery in Broad Street, near to the pump, and on perceiving that no brewer’s men were registered as having died of cholera, I called on Mr. Huggins, the proprietor. He informed me that there were above seventy workmen employed in the brewery, and that none of them had suffered from cholera,—at least in a severe form,—only two having been indisposed, and that not seriously, at the time the disease prevailed. The men are allowed a certain quantity of malt liquor, and Mr. Huggins believes they do not drink water at all; and he is quite certain that the workmen never obtained water from the pump in the street. There is a deep well in the brewery, in addition to the New River water.",
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      "text": "At the percussion-cap manufactory, 37 Broad Street, where, I understand, about two hundred workpeople were employed, two tubs were kept on the premises always supplied with water from the pump in the street, for those to drink who wished; and eighteen of these workpeople died of cholera at their own homes, sixteen men and two women.",
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      "text": "Mr. Marshall, surgeon, of Greek Street, was kind enough to inquire respecting seven workmen who had been employed in the manufactory of dentists’ materials, at Nos. 8 and 9 Broad Street, and who died at their own homes. He learned that they were all in the habit of drinking water from the pump, generally drinking about half-a-pint once or twice a day; while two persons who reside constantly on the premises, but do not drink the pump-water, only had diarrhœa. Mr. Marshall also informed me of the case of an officer in the army, who lived at St. John’s Wood, but came to dine in Wardour Street, where he drank the water from Broad Street pump at his dinner. He was attacked with cholera, and died in a few hours.",
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      "text": "I am indebted to Mr. Marshall for the following cases, which are interesting as showing the period of incubation, which in these three cases was from thirty-six to forty-eight hours. Mrs. ——, of 13 Bentinck Street, Berwick Street, aged 28, in the eighth month of pregnancy, went herself (although they were not usually water drinkers), on Sunday, 3rd September, to Broad Street pump for water. The family removed to Gravesend on the following day; and she was attacked with cholera on Tuesday morning at seven o’clock, and died of consecutive fever on 15th September, having been delivered. Two of her children drank also of the water, and were attacked on the same day as the mother, but recovered.",
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      "text": "I was informed by this lady’s son that she had not been in the neighbourhood of Broad Street for many months. A cart went from Broad Street to West End every day, and it was the custom to take out a large bottle of the water from the pump in Broad Street, as she preferred it. The water was taken on Thursday, 31st August, and she drank of it in the evening, and also on Friday. She was seized with cholera on the evening of the latter day, and died on Saturday, as the above quotation from the register shows. A niece, who was on a visit to this lady, also drank of the water; she returned to her residence, in a high and healthy part of Islington, was attacked with cholera, and died also. There was no cholera at the time, either at West End or in the neighbourhood where the niece died. Besides these two persons, only one servant partook of the water at Hampstead West End, and she did not suffer, or, at least, not severely. There were many persons who drank the water from Broad Street pump about the time of the outbreak, without being attacked with cholera; but this does not diminish the evidence respecting the influence of the water, for reasons that will be fully stated in another part of this work.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: _MAP 1._]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00196",
      "bookId": 72894,
      "start": 92748,
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      "text": "The deaths which occurred during this fatal outbreak of cholera are indicated in the accompanying map, as far as I could ascertain them. There are necessarily some deficiencies, for in a few of the instances of persons who died in the hospitals after their removal from the neighbourhood of Broad Street, the number of the house from which they had been removed was not registered. The address of those who died after their removal to St. James’s Workhouse was not registered; and I was only able to obtain it, in a part of the cases, on application at the Master’s Office, for many of the persons were too ill, when admitted, to give any account of themselves. In the case also of some of the workpeople and others who contracted the cholera in this neighbourhood, and died in different parts of London, the precise house from which they had removed is not stated in the return of deaths. I have heard of some persons who died in the country shortly after removing from the neighbourhood of Broad Street; and there must, no doubt, be several cases of this kind that I have not heard of. Indeed, the full extent of the calamity will probably never be known. The deficiencies I have mentioned, however, probably do not detract from the correctness of the map as a diagram of the topography of the outbreak; for, if the locality of the few additional cases could be ascertained, they would probably be distributed over the district of the outbreak in the same proportion as the large number which are known.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00197",
      "bookId": 72894,
      "start": 94282,
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      "text": "The dotted line on the map surrounds the sub-districts of Golden Square, St. James’s, and Berwick Street, St. James’s, together with the adjoining portion of the sub-district of St. Anne, Soho, extending from Wardour Street to Dean Street, and a small part of the sub-district of St. James’s Square enclosed by Marylebone Street, Titchfield Street, Great Windmill Street, and Brewer Street. All the deaths from cholera which were registered in the six weeks from 19th August to 30th September within this locality, as well as those of persons removed into Middlesex Hospital, are shown in the map[10] by a black line in the situation of the house in which it occurred, or in which the fatal attack was contracted.",
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      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "In addition to these the deaths of persons removed to University College Hospital, to Charing Cross Hospital, and to various parts of London, are indicated in the map, where the exact address was given in the “Weekly Return of Deaths,” or, when I could learn it by private inquiry.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00205",
      "bookId": 72894,
      "start": 102545,
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      "text": "The deaths in the above table are compiled from the sources mentioned above in describing the map; but some deaths which were omitted from the map on account of the number of the house not being known, are included in the table. As regards the date of attack, I was able to obtain it with great precision, through the kindness of Mr. Sibley, in upwards of eighty deaths which occurred in Middlesex Hospital; for the hour of admission was entered in the hospital books, as well as the previous duration of the illness. In a few other cases also I had exact information of the hour of attack, and in the remainder I have calculated it by subtracting the duration of the illness from the date of death. Where the illness did not exceed twelve hours, the attack was considered to have commenced the same day; where the illness exceeded twelve, and did not exceed thirty-six hours, the attack was put down to the previous day, and so on. Where the illness exceeded forty-eight hours, its duration is generally given in days, which were subtracted from the date of the attack. Although this plan does not always give the precise date of attack, it reaches within a few hours of it, and is as valuable perhaps as if the exact day were given, unless the hour as well as the day could be introduced into the table. Where premonitory diarrhœa is stated to have existed, the period of its duration is deducted from the date of death, and, in fact, the time of attack is fixed at the first commencement of indisposition, except in two or three instances in which the patient was labouring under another disease, as phthisis or typhus fever. There are forty-five cases in which the duration of the illness was not certified, or entered in the books of the registrars, and the time of attack in these cases is consequently unknown. These persons nearly all died in the first days of September, in the height of the calamity, and it is almost certain that they were cut off very quickly, like the others who died at this time.",
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    {
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      "text": "It is pretty certain that very few of the fifty-six attacks placed in the table to the 31st August occurred till late in the evening of that day. The irruption was extremely sudden, as I learn from the medical men living in the midst of the district, and commenced in the night between the 31st August and 1st September. There was hardly any premonitory diarrhœa in the cases which occurred during the first three days of the outbreak; and I have been informed by several medical men, that very few of the cases which they attended on those days ended in recovery.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00207",
      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "The greatest number of attacks in any one day occurred on the 1st of September, immediately after the outbreak commenced. The following day the attacks fell from one hundred and forty-three to one hundred and sixteen, and the day afterwards to fifty-four. A glance at the above table will show that the fresh attacks continued to become less numerous every day. On September the 8th—the day when the handle of the pump was removed—there were twelve attacks; on the 9th, eleven; on the 10th, five; on the 11th, five; on the 12th, only one; and after this time, there were never more than four attacks on one day. During the decline of the epidemic the deaths were more numerous than the attacks, owing to the decease of many persons who had lingered for several days in consecutive fever.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: THE PUMP-WELL IN BROAD STREET, GOLDEN SQUARE.]",
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      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "There is no doubt that the mortality was much diminished, as I said before, by the flight of the population, which commenced soon after the outbreak; but the attacks had so far diminished before the use of the water was stopped, that it is impossible to decide whether the well still contained the cholera poison in an active state, or whether, from some cause, the water had become free from it. The pump-well has been opened, and I was informed by Mr. Farrell, the superintendent of the works, that there was no hole or crevice in the brickwork of the well, by which any impurity might enter; consequently in this respect the contamination of the water is not made out by the kind of physical evidence detailed in some of the instances previously related. I understand that the well is from twenty-eight to thirty feet in depth, and goes through the gravel to the surface of the clay beneath. The sewer, which passes within a few yards of the well, is twenty-two feet below the surface. The water at the time of the cholera contained impurities of an organic nature, in the form of minute whitish flocculi, visible on close inspection to the naked eye, as I before stated. Dr. Hassall, who was good enough to examine some of this water with the microscope, informed me that these particles had no organised structure, and that he thought they probably resulted from decomposition of other matter. He found a great number of very minute oval animalcules in the water, which are of no importance, except as an additional proof that the water contained organic matter on which they lived. The water also contained a large quantity of chlorides, indicating, no doubt, the impure sources from which the spring is supplied. Mr. Eley, the percussion-cap manufacturer of 37 Broad Street, informed me that he had long noticed that the water became offensive, both to the smell and taste, after it had been kept about two days. This, as I noticed before, is a character of water contaminated with sewage. Another person had noticed for months that a film formed on the surface of the water when it had been kept a few hours.",
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      "ref": "PG72894.B00210",
      "bookId": 72894,
      "start": 108182,
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      "text": "I inquired of many persons whether they had observed any change in the character of the water, about the time of the outbreak of cholera, and was answered in the negative. I afterwards, however, met with the following important information on this point. Mr. Gould, the eminent ornithologist, lives near the pump in Broad Street, and was in the habit of drinking the water. He was out of town at the commencement of the outbreak of cholera, but came home on Saturday morning, 2nd September, and sent for some of the water almost immediately, when he was much surprised to find that it had an offensive smell, although perfectly transparent and fresh from the pump. He did not drink any of it. Mr. Gould’s assistant, Mr. Prince, had his attention drawn to the water, and perceived its offensive smell. A servant of Mr. Gould who drank the pump-water daily, and drank a good deal of it on August 31st, was seized with cholera at an early hour on September 1st. She ultimately recovered.",
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      "ref": "PG72894.B00211",
      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "Whether the impurities of the water were derived from the sewers, the drains, or the cesspools, of which latter there are a number in the neighbourhood, I cannot tell. I have been informed by an eminent engineer, that whilst a cesspool in a clay soil requires to be emptied every six or eight months, one sunk in the gravel will often go for twenty years without being emptied, owing to the soluble matters passing away into the land-springs by percolation. As there had been deaths from cholera just before the great outbreak not far from this pump-well, and in a situation elevated a few feet above it, the evacuations from the patients might of course be amongst the impurities finding their way into the water, and judging the matter by the light derived from other facts and considerations previously detailed, we must conclude that such was the case. A very important point in respect to this pump-well is that the water passed with almost everybody as being perfectly pure, and it did in fact contain a less quantity of impurity than the water of some other pumps in the same parish, which had no share in the propagation of cholera. We must conclude from this outbreak that the quantity of morbid matter which is sufficient to produce cholera is inconceivably small, and that the shallow pump-wells in a town cannot be looked on with too much suspicion, whatever their local reputation may be.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: PUMP-WELL, BROAD ST., GOLDEN SQ.]",
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      "ref": "PG72894.B00213",
      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "Whilst the presumed contamination of the water of the Broad Street pump with the evacuations of cholera patients, affords an exact explanation of the fearful outbreak of cholera in St. James’s parish, there is no other circumstance which offers any explanation at all, whatever hypothesis of the nature and cause of the malady be adopted. Many persons were inclined to attribute the severity of the malady in this locality to the very circumstance to which some people attribute the comparative immunity of the city of London from the same disease, viz., to the drains in the neighbourhood having been disturbed and put in order about half a year previously. Mr. Bazelgette, however, pointed out, in a report to the commissioners, that the streets in which the new sewers had been made suffered less than the others; and a reference to the map will show that this is correct, for I recollect that the streets in which the sewers were repaired about February last, were Brewer Street, Little Pulteney Street, and Dean Street, Soho. Many of the non-medical public were disposed to attribute the outbreak of cholera to the supposed existence of a pit in which persons dying of the plague had been buried about two centuries ago; and, if the alleged plague-pit had been nearer to Broad Street, they would no doubt still cling to the idea. The situation of the supposed pit is, however, said to be Little Marlborough Street, just out of the area in which the chief mortality occurred. With regard to effluvia from the sewers passing into the streets and houses, that is a fault common to most parts of London and other towns. There is nothing peculiar in the sewers or drainage of the limited spot in which this outbreak occurred; and Saffron Hill and other localities, which suffer much more from ill odours, have been very lightly visited by cholera.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: MAP 2.]",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: THE NEW WATER SUPPLY OF THE LAMBETH COMPANY.]",
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      "ref": "PG72894.B00264",
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      "text": "Although the facts shown in the above table afford very strong evidence of the powerful influence which the drinking of water containing the sewage of a town exerts over the spread of cholera, when that disease is present, yet the question does not end here; for the intermixing of the water supply of the Southwark and Vauxhall Company with that of the Lambeth Company, over an extensive part of London, admitted of the subject being sifted in such a way as to yield the most incontrovertible proof on one side or the other. In the sub-districts enumerated in the above table as being supplied by both Companies, the mixing of the supply is of the most intimate kind. The pipes of each Company go down all the streets, and into nearly all the courts and alleys. A few houses are supplied by one Company and a few by the other, according to the decision of the owner or occupier at that time when the Water Companies were in active competition. In many cases a single house has a supply different from that on either side. Each Company supplies both rich and poor, both large houses and small; there is no difference either in the condition or occupation of the persons receiving the water of the different Companies. Now it must be evident that, if the diminution of cholera, in the districts partly supplied with the improved water, depended on this supply, the houses receiving it would be the houses enjoying the whole benefit of the diminution of the malady, whilst the houses supplied with the water from Battersea Fields would suffer the same mortality as they would if the improved supply did not exist at all. As there is no difference whatever, either in the houses or the people receiving the supply of the two Water Companies, or in any of the physical conditions with which they are surrounded, it is obvious that no experiment could have been devised which would more thoroughly test the effect of water supply on the progress of cholera than this, which circumstances placed ready made before the observer.",
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      "text": "The experiment, too, was on the grandest scale. No fewer than three hundred thousand people of both sexes, of every age and occupation, and of every rank and station, from gentlefolks down to the very poor, were divided into two groups without their choice, and, in most cases, without their knowledge; one group being supplied with water containing the sewage of London, and, amongst it, whatever might have come from the cholera patients, the other group having water quite free from such impurity.",
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      "text": "[Sidenote: EPIDEMIC OF 1854, IN THE SOUTH DISTRICTS OF LONDON.]",
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      "text": "To turn this grand experiment to account, all that was required was to learn the supply of water to each individual house where a fatal attack of cholera might occur. I regret that, in the short days at the latter part of last year, I could not spare the time to make the inquiry; and, indeed, I was not fully aware, at that time, of the very intimate mixture of the supply of the two Water Companies, and the consequently important nature of the desired inquiry.",
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      "text": "When the cholera returned to London in July of the present year, however, I resolved to spare no exertion which might be necessary to ascertain the exact effect of the water supply on the progress of the epidemic, in the places where all the circumstances were so happily adapted for the inquiry. I was desirous of making the investigation myself, in order that I might have the most satisfactory proof of the truth or fallacy of the doctrine which I had been advocating for five years. I had no reason to doubt the correctness of the conclusions I had drawn from the great number of facts already in my possession, but I felt that the circumstance of the cholera poison passing down the sewers into a great river, and being distributed through miles of pipes, and yet producing its specific effects, was a fact of so startling a nature, and of so vast importance to the community, that it could not be too rigidly examined, or established on too firm a basis.",
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      "text": "I accordingly asked permission at the General Register Office to be supplied with the addresses of persons dying of cholera, in those districts where the supply of the two Companies is intermingled in the manner I have stated above. Some of these addresses were published in the “Weekly Returns,” and I was kindly permitted to take a copy of others. I commenced my inquiry about the middle of August with two sub-districts of Lambeth, called Kennington, first part, and Kennington, second part. There were forty-four deaths in these sub-districts down to 12th August, and I found that thirty-eight of the houses in which these deaths occurred were supplied with water by the Southwark and Vauxhall Company, four houses were supplied by the Lambeth Company, and two had pump-wells on the premises and no supply from either of the Companies.",
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      "text": "As soon as I had ascertained these particulars I communicated them to Dr. Farr, who was much struck with the result, and at his suggestion the Registrars of all the south districts of London were requested to make a return of the water supply of the house in which the attack took place, in all cases of death from cholera. This order was to take place after the 26th August, and I resolved to carry my inquiry down to that date, so that the facts might be ascertained for the whole course of the epidemic. I pursued my inquiry over the various other sub-districts of Lambeth, Southwark, and Newington, where the supply of the two Water Companies is intermixed, with a result very similar to that already given, as will be seen further on. In cases where persons had been removed to a workhouse or any other place, after the attack of cholera had commenced, I inquired the water supply of the house where the individuals were living when the attack took place.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00271",
      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "The inquiry was necessarily attended with a good deal of trouble. There were very few instances in which I could at once get the information I required. Even when the water-rates are paid by the residents, they can seldom remember the name of the Water Company till they have looked for the receipt. In the case of working people who pay weekly rents, the rates are invariably paid by the landlord or his agent, who often lives at a distance, and the residents know nothing about the matter. It would, indeed, have been almost impossible for me to complete the inquiry, if I had not found that I could distinguish the water of the two companies with perfect certainty by a chemical test. The test I employed was founded on the great difference in the quantity of chloride of sodium contained in the two kinds of water, at the time I made the inquiry. On adding solution of nitrate of silver to a gallon of the water of the Lambeth Company, obtained at Thames Ditton, beyond the reach of the sewage of London, only 2·28 grains of chloride of silver were obtained, indicating the presence of ·95 grains of chloride of sodium in the water. On treating the water of the Southwark and Vauxhall Company in the same manner, 91 grains of chloride of silver were obtained, showing the presence of 37·9 grains of common salt per gallon. Indeed, the difference in appearance on adding nitrate of silver to the two kinds of water was so great, that they could be at once distinguished without any further trouble. Therefore when the resident could not give clear and conclusive evidence about the Water Company, I obtained some of the water in a small phial, and wrote the address on the cover, when I could examine it after coming home. The mere appearance of the water generally afforded a very good indication of its source, especially if it was observed as it came in, before it had entered the water-butt or cistern; and the time of its coming in also afforded some evidence of the kind of water, after I had ascertained the hours when the turncocks of both Companies visited any street. These points were, however, not relied on, except as corroborating more decisive proof, such as the chemical test, or the Company’s receipt for the rates.",
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      "ref": "PG72894.B00272",
      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "A return had been made to Parliament of the entire number of houses supplied with water by each of the Water Companies, but as the number of houses which they supplied in particular districts was not stated, I found that it would be necessary to carry my inquiry into all the districts to which the supply of either Company extends, in order to show the full bearing of the facts brought out in those districts where the supply is intermingled. I inquired myself respecting every death from cholera in the districts to which the supply of the Lambeth Company extends, and I was fortunate enough to obtain the assistance of a medical man, Mr. John Joseph Whiting, L.A.C., to make inquiry in Bermondsey, Rotherhithe, Wandsworth, and certain other districts, which are supplied only by the Southwark and Vauxhall Company. Mr. Whiting took great pains with his part of the inquiry, which was to ascertain whether the houses in which the fatal attacks took place were supplied with the Company’s water, or from a pump-well, or some other source.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00273",
      "bookId": 72894,
      "start": 179884,
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      "text": "Mr. Whiting’s part of the investigation extended over the first four weeks of the epidemic, from 8th July to 5th August; and as inquiry was made respecting every death from cholera during this part of the epidemic, in all the districts to which the supply of either of the Water Companies extends, it may be well to consider this period first. There were three hundred and thirty-four deaths from cholera in these four weeks, in the districts to which the water supply of the Southwark and Vauxhall and the Lambeth Company extends. Of these it was ascertained, that in two hundred and eighty-six cases the house where the fatal attack of cholera took place was supplied with water by the Southwark and Vauxhall Company, and in only fourteen cases was the house supplied with the Lambeth Company’s water; in twenty-two cases the water was obtained by dipping a pail directly into the Thames, in four instances it was obtained from pump-wells, in four instances from ditches, and in four cases the source of supply was not ascertained, owing to the person being taken ill whilst travelling, or from some similar cause. The particulars of all the deaths which were caused by cholera in the first four weeks of the late epidemic, were published by the Registrar-General in the “Weekly Returns of Births and Deaths in London,” and I have had the three hundred and thirty-four above enumerated reprinted in an appendix to this edition, as a guarantee that the water supply was inquired into, and to afford any person who wishes it an opportunity of verifying the result. Any one who should make the inquiry must be careful to find the house where the attack took place, for in many streets there are several houses having the same number.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00274",
      "bookId": 72894,
      "start": 181652,
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      "text": "According to a return which was made to Parliament, the Southwark and Vauxhall Company supplied 40,046 houses from January 1st to December 31st, 1853, and the Lambeth Company supplied 26,107 houses during the same period; consequently, as 286 fatal attacks of cholera took place, in the first four weeks of the epidemic, in houses supplied by the former Company, and only 14 in houses supplied by the latter, the proportion of fatal attacks to each 10,000 houses was as follows. Southwark and Vauxhall 71. Lambeth 5. The cholera was therefore fourteen times as fatal at this period, amongst persons having the impure water of the Southwark and Vauxhall Company, as amongst those having the purer water from Thames Ditton.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "It is extremely worthy of remark, that whilst only five hundred and sixty-three deaths from cholera occurred in the whole of the metropolis, in the four weeks ending 5th August, more than one half of them took place amongst the customers of the Southwark and Vauxhall Company, and a great portion of the remaining deaths were those of mariners and persons employed amongst the shipping in the Thames, who almost invariably draw their drinking water direct from the river.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00281",
      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "As the epidemic advanced, the disproportion between the number of cases in houses supplied by the Southwark and Vauxhall Company and those supplied by the Lambeth Company, became not quite so great, although it continued very striking. In the beginning of the epidemic the cases appear to have been almost altogether produced through the agency of the Thames water obtained amongst the sewers; and the small number of cases occurring in houses not so supplied, might be accounted for by the fact of persons not keeping always at home and taking all their meals in the houses in which they live; but as the epidemic advanced it would necessarily spread amongst the customers of the Lambeth Company, as in parts of London where the water was not in fault, by all the usual means of its communication. The two subjoined tables, VII and VIII, show the number of fatal attacks in houses supplied respectively by the two Companies, in all the sub-districts to which their water extends. The cases in table VII, are again included in the larger number which appear in the next table. The sub-districts are arranged in three groups, as they were in table VI, illustrating the epidemic of 1853.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00282",
      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "In table VIII, showing the mortality in the first seven weeks of the epidemic, the water supply is the result of my own personal inquiry, in every case, in all the sub-districts to which the supply of the Lambeth Company extends; but in some of the sub-districts supplied only by the Southwark and Vauxhall Company, the inquiry of Mr. Whiting having extended only to 5th August, the water supply of the last three weeks is calculated to have been in the same proportion by the Company, or by pump wells, etc., as in the first four weeks,—a calculation which is perfectly fair, and must be very near the truth. The sub-districts in which the supply is partly founded on computation, are marked with an asterisk.",
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    {
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      "text": "The numbers in table VIII differ a very little from those of the table I communicated to the _Medical Times and Gazette_ of 7th October, on account of the water supply having since been ascertained in some cases in which I did not then know it. The small number of instances in which the water supply remains unascertained are chiefly those of persons taken into a workhouse without their address being known.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00284",
      "bookId": 72894,
      "start": 187901,
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      "text": "=TABLE VII.=",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00285",
      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "The mortality from Cholera in the four weeks ending 5th August.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00347",
      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "September 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 DEATHS 38 59 90 106 114 103 103 111 85 68 82 60.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00348",
      "bookId": 72894,
      "start": 258922,
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      "text": "The late General Board of Health directed one of their medical inspectors, Dr. Waller Lewis, to make minute inquiry as to the relative effects produced by the use of pure spring water, and that of the Water Company, during the epidemic of cholera in Newcastle; and it is much to be regretted that the inquiry was not carried out. To have conducted the inquiry through the whole of Newcastle and Gateshead would not have entailed a quarter as much labour as my investigations in Lambeth, Newington, and the Borough. Dr. Lewis called on Mr. Main, the secretary of the Water Company, and they made an inquiry in certain houses, taken at random, through three streets, and also in Greenhow Terrace, where a severe outbreak of cholera had occurred, although it was not supplied by the Company, but had what was reported to be good spring water. Dr. Lewis gave up the inquiry because he could not find two places exactly alike in all their physical conditions,—one place supplied with spring water, the other by the Company. He made no report of what he had done; but Mr. Main sent a paper on the subject of this commenced inquiry to the Pathological Society of Newcastle, an abstract of which appeared in the “Medical Times and Gazette”.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00349",
      "bookId": 72894,
      "start": 260181,
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      "text": "By adding Greenhow Terrace to the streets partly supplied by the Company, and by including cases of cholera, fatal or otherwise, with those of mere diarrhœa, Mr. Main was able to show a result apparently in favour of the Company’s water. He was good enough, however, to send me a copy of his paper, which contains the details of the inquiry as far as it extended; and I found, on perusing it, that, leaving out Greenhow Terrace, which is not supplied by the Company at all, there was no case of cholera, either fatal or otherwise, and no case, even of approaching cholera, in any house which was not supplied with the Company’s water. All the deaths and all the cholera occurred in the houses having this water, whilst in the houses having only pump-water, there was simply diarrhœa. In the workhouse, supplied by the Water Company, and having five hundred and forty inmates, there were twelve cases of cholera, or approaching cholera, and seven deaths; whilst in the military barracks, supplied from wells on the premises, and having five hundred and nineteen inmates, although there was a good deal of harmless diarrhæa, there was no cholera, nor any case of approaching cholera.",
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    {
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      "text": "[Sidenote: CHOLERA AT MOSCOW.]",
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      "ref": "PG72894.B00351",
      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "The communication of cholera by means of the water is well illustrated by the instance of Moscow, which was severely visited by that disease in 1830; but much less severely in the second epidemic. Subsequently to 1830 the greater part of the town, which is situated to the north of the Moscow river, obtained a supply of excellent water, conducted in pipes from springs at a distance; and the cholera in 1847 was chiefly confined to those parts of the town which lie to the south of the river, to which the new supply of water did not extend, and where the people had still only impure river water to drink.[25]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00355",
      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "In my inquiries in the south districts of London I met with several instances in which persons, especially maidservants and young men, died of cholera within a few days after coming from the country to a house supplied with water by the Southwark and Vauxhall Company. The Registrar of Waterloo Road (2nd) remarked as follows on this point, on 26th August last:—“This is the third successive case of fatal cholera, where the patients have recently come from the country. Similar instances have frequently attracted the Registrar’s notice.” I found that the houses in which these cases occurred were supplied by the above-named Company. The outbreak of cholera in the Baltic fleet, related at page 36, occurred within forty-eight hours after the polluted water had been taken on board. And lastly, if the contaminated water merely acted by predisposing or preparing the system to be affected by some other cause, it would be impossible to explain why nearly all the persons drinking it should be attacked together, in cases where a pump-well or some other limited supply is polluted, while the population around experience no increase of the malady.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "All the evidence proving the communication of cholera through the medium of water, confirms that with which I set out, of its communication in the crowded habitations of the poor, in coal-mines and other places, by the hands getting soiled with the evacuations of the patients, and by small quantities of these evacuations being swallowed with the food, as paint is swallowed by house painters of uncleanly habits, who contract lead-colic in this way.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG72894.B00357",
      "bookId": 72894,
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      "text": "There are one or two objections to the mode of communication of cholera which I am endeavouring to establish, that deserve to be noticed. Messrs. Pearse and Marston state, in their account of the cases of cholera treated at the Newcastle Dispensary in 1853, that one of the dispensers drank by mistake some rice-water evacuation without any effect whatever.[28] In rejoinder to this negative incident, it may be remarked, that several conditions may be requisite to the communication of cholera with which we are as yet unacquainted. Certain conditions we know to be requisite to the communication of other diseases. Syphilis we know is only communicable in its primary stage, and vaccine lymph must be removed at a particular time to produce its proper effects. In the incident above mentioned, the large quantity of the evacuation taken might even prevent its action. It must be remembered that the effects of a morbid poison are never due to what first enters the system, but to the crop or progeny produced from this during a period of reproduction, termed the period of incubation; and if a whole sack of grain, or seed of any kind, were put into a hole in the ground, it is very doubtful whether any crop whatever would be produced.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 72894,
      "start": 267028,
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      "sha256": "a2859cb84a91d5bf4ab473dd83e2e45d94f2907ec59fbecc48c95032af7833b4",
      "text": "[Sidenote: EXPERIMENTS OF DR. THIERSCH ANSWERS TO CERTAIN OBJECTIONS.]",
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    {
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      "sha256": "b1eb27697ac1b42c97b22ce0a21fae7545a70addfbec49e41d81c897dc206858",
      "text": "Dr. Thiersch is of opinion, as appears by a discussion which has recently taken place at Munich, that the cholera evacuations are not at first capable of generating the disease; but that a decomposition takes place in them, and that in from six to nine days they become in a state to induce cholera. He founds this opinion on experiments which he performed by giving small quantities of the cholera evacuations to white mice. Although it is not contrary to all analogy that some change or development should take place in the cholera poison in the interval between its leaving one person and entering another, it is most probable that the fatal bowel complaint produced in white mice by Dr. Thiersch was not a specific disease, but the ordinary effect of putrifying ingesta. Many of the best attested instances of the communication of cholera are those, such as were related at the commencement of this work, where the patient is attacked in from twenty-four to forty-eight hours after first being near another patient, and although an interval of a week or so, often elapses between one case of the disease and those which follow, it is extremely probable that, in these instances, the evacuations remain the greater part of this time in a dry state on the soiled linen, without undergoing any change.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00083",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 18250,
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      "text": "Suppose we wish to define the sum of two numbers. Taking any number [image: ] , we define [image: ] as [image: ] , and [image: ] as the successor of [image: ] . In virtue of (5) this gives a definition of the sum of [image: ] and [image: ] , whatever number [image: ] may be. Similarly we can define the product of any two numbers. The reader can easily convince himself that any ordinary elementary proposition of arithmetic can be proved by means of our five premisses, and if he has any difficulty he can find the proof in Peano.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00084",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 18810,
      "end": 19396,
      "sha256": "8f4be0320ef07e3cc3c8c146f159c260e682da266940e4f2780b8ee298fd7184",
      "text": "It is time now to turn to the considerations which make it necessary to advance beyond the standpoint of Peano, who [Pg 6] represents the last perfection of the \"arithmetisation\" of mathematics, to that of Frege, who first succeeded in \"logicising\" mathematics, i.e. in reducing to logic the arithmetical notions which his predecessors had shown to be sufficient for mathematics. We shall not, in this chapter, actually give Frege's definition of number and of particular numbers, but we shall give some of the reasons why Peano's treatment is less final than it appears to be.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00085",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "sha256": "333a868f6a3a4e9828a3a6b5c9815e57517ea8913582565d077d2c748057a939",
      "text": "In the first place, Peano's three primitive ideas—namely, \"0,\" \"number,\" and \"successor\"—are capable of an infinite number of different interpretations, all of which will satisfy the five primitive propositions. We will give some examples.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
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      "text": "(1) Let \"0\" be taken to mean 100, and let \"number\" be taken to mean the numbers from 100 onward in the series of natural numbers. Then all our primitive propositions are satisfied, even the fourth, for, though 100 is the successor of 99, 99 is not a \"number\" in the sense which we are now giving to the word \"number.\" It is obvious that any number may be substituted for 100 in this example.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00087",
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      "text": "(2) Let \"0\" have its usual meaning, but let \"number\" mean what we usually call \"even numbers,\" and let the \"successor\" of a number be what results from adding two to it. Then \"1\" will stand for the number two, \"2\" will stand for the number four, and so on; the series of \"numbers\" now will be [image: ] All Peano's five premisses are satisfied still.",
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      "text": "(3) Let \"0\" mean the number one, let \"number\" mean the set [image: ] and let \"successor\" mean \"half.\" Then all Peano's five axioms will be true of this set.",
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      "ref": "PG41654.B00089",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "It is clear that such examples might be multiplied indefinitely. In fact, given any series [image: ] [Pg 7] which is endless, contains no repetitions, has a beginning, and has no terms that cannot be reached from the beginning in a finite number of steps, we have a set of terms verifying Peano's axioms. This is easily seen, though the formal proof is somewhat long. Let \"0\" mean [image: ] , let \"number\" mean the whole set of terms, and let the \"successor\" of [image: ] mean [image: ] . Then",
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      "text": "(1) \"0 is a number,\" i.e. [image: ] is a member of the set.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "(2) \"The successor of any number is a number,\" i.e. taking any term [image: ] in the set, [image: ] is also in the set.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00094",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "sha256": "48813c137c6f9a2b2d29caab4e1cee7e5ca17b9d50e60e0d015e06b998fb1391",
      "text": "(5) This becomes: Any property which belongs to [image: ] , and belongs to [image: ] provided it belongs to [image: ] , belongs to all the [image: ] 's.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00095",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "This follows from the corresponding property for numbers.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00096",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "A series of the form [image: ] in which there is a first term, a successor to each term (so that there is no last term), no repetitions, and every term can be reached from the start in a finite number of steps, is called a progression. Progressions are of great importance in the principles of mathematics. As we have just seen, every progression verifies Peano's five axioms. It can be proved, conversely, that every series which verifies Peano's five axioms is a progression. Hence these five axioms may be used to define the class of progressions: \"progressions\" are \"those series which verify these five axioms.\" Any progression may be taken as the basis of pure mathematics: we may give the name \"0\" to its first term, the name \"number\" to the whole set of its terms, and the name \"successor\" to the next in the progression. The progression need not be composed of numbers: it may be [Pg 8] composed of points in space, or moments of time, or any other terms of which there is an infinite supply. Each different progression will give rise to a different interpretation of all the propositions of traditional pure mathematics; all these possible interpretations will be equally true.",
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    {
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      "text": "In Peano's system there is nothing to enable us to distinguish between these different interpretations of his primitive ideas. It is assumed that we know what is meant by \"0,\" and that we shall not suppose that this symbol means 100 or Cleopatra's Needle or any of the other things that it might mean.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00098",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "This point, that \"0\" and \"number\" and \"successor\" cannot be defined by means of Peano's five axioms, but must be independently understood, is important. We want our numbers not merely to verify mathematical formulæ, but to apply in the right way to common objects. We want to have ten fingers and two eyes and one nose. A system in which \"1\" meant 100, and \"2\" meant 101, and so on, might be all right for pure mathematics, but would not suit daily life. We want \"0\" and \"number\" and \"successor\" to have meanings which will give us the right allowance of fingers and eyes and noses. We have already some knowledge (though not sufficiently articulate or analytic) of what we mean by \"1\" and \"2\" and so on, and our use of numbers in arithmetic must conform to this knowledge. We cannot secure that this shall be the case by Peano's method; all that we can do, if we adopt his method, is to say \"we know what we mean by '0' and 'number' and 'successor,' though we cannot explain what we mean in terms of other simpler concepts.\" It is quite legitimate to say this when we must, and at some point we all must; but it is the object of mathematical philosophy to put off saying it as long as possible. By the logical theory of arithmetic we are able to put it off for a very long time.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00099",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "It might be suggested that, instead of setting up \"0\" and \"number\" and \"successor\" as terms of which we know the meaning although we cannot define them, we might let them [Pg 9] stand for any three terms that verify Peano's five axioms. They will then no longer be terms which have a meaning that is definite though undefined: they will be \"variables,\" terms concerning which we make certain hypotheses, namely, those stated in the five axioms, but which are otherwise undetermined. If we adopt this plan, our theorems will not be proved concerning an ascertained set of terms called \"the natural numbers,\" but concerning all sets of terms having certain properties. Such a procedure is not fallacious; indeed for certain purposes it represents a valuable generalisation. But from two points of view it fails to give an adequate basis for arithmetic. In the first place, it does not enable us to know whether there are any sets of terms verifying Peano's axioms; it does not even give the faintest suggestion of any way of discovering whether there are such sets. In the second place, as already observed, we want our numbers to be such as can be used for counting common objects, and this requires that our numbers should have a definite meaning, not merely that they should have certain formal properties. This definite meaning is defined by the logical theory of arithmetic. [Pg 10]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00100",
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      "sha256": "5e3969b3a1a5487e39f49c890b68174390d08c9fa8da2bd9289255e4bd0ae952",
      "text": "CHAPTER II",
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    {
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      "sha256": "724861fb3be47107d060b587eb993f2b5a648362e0b785e35854d9736319ecad",
      "text": "DEFINITION OF NUMBER",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00102",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "THE question \"What is a number?\" is one which has been often asked, but has only been correctly answered in our own time. The answer was given by Frege in 1884, in his Grundlagen der Arithmetik.[3] Although this book is quite short, not difficult, and of the very highest importance, it attracted almost no attention, and the definition of number which it contains remained practically unknown until it was rediscovered by the present author in 1901.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00103",
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      "text": "[3]The same answer is given more fully and with more development in his Grundgesetze der Arithmetik, vol. I., 1893.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00104",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "In seeking a definition of number, the first thing to be clear about is what we may call the grammar of our inquiry. Many philosophers, when attempting to define number, are really setting to work to define plurality, which is quite a different thing. Number is what is characteristic of numbers, as man is what is characteristic of men. A plurality is not an instance of number, but of some particular number. A trio of men, for example, is an instance of the number 3, and the number 3 is an instance of number; but the trio is not an instance of number. This point may seem elementary and scarcely worth mentioning; yet it has proved too subtle for the philosophers, with few exceptions.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00105",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 27523,
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      "text": "A particular number is not identical with any collection of terms having that number: the number 3 is not identical with [Pg 11] the trio consisting of Brown, Jones, and Robinson. The number 3 is something which all trios have in common, and which distinguishes them from other collections. A number is something that characterises certain collections, namely, those that have that number.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00106",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 27927,
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      "text": "Instead of speaking of a \"collection,\" we shall as a rule speak of a \"class,\" or sometimes a \"set.\" Other words used in mathematics for the same thing are \"aggregate\" and \"manifold.\" We shall have much to say later on about classes. For the present, we will say as little as possible. But there are some remarks that must be made immediately.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00107",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 28282,
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      "text": "A class or collection may be defined in two ways that at first sight seem quite distinct. We may enumerate its members, as when we say, \"The collection I mean is Brown, Jones, and Robinson.\" Or we may mention a defining property, as when we speak of \"mankind\" or \"the inhabitants of London.\" The definition which enumerates is called a definition by \"extension,\" and the one which mentions a defining property is called a definition by \"intension.\" Of these two kinds of definition, the one by intension is logically more fundamental. This is shown by two considerations: (1) that the extensional definition can always be reduced to an intensional one; (2) that the intensional one often cannot even theoretically be reduced to the extensional one. Each of these points needs a word of explanation.",
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    {
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      "text": "(1) Brown, Jones, and Robinson all of them possess a certain property which is possessed by nothing else in the whole universe, namely, the property of being either Brown or Jones or Robinson. This property can be used to give a definition by intension of the class consisting of Brown and Jones and Robinson. Consider such a formula as \" [image: ] is Brown or [image: ] is Jones or [image: ] is Robinson.\" This formula will be true for just three [image: ] 's, namely, Brown and Jones and Robinson. In this respect it resembles a cubic equation with its three roots. It may be taken as assigning a property common to the members of the class consisting of these three [Pg 12] men, and peculiar to them. A similar treatment can obviously be applied to any other class given in extension.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "(2) It is obvious that in practice we can often know a great deal about a class without being able to enumerate its members. No one man could actually enumerate all men, or even all the inhabitants of London, yet a great deal is known about each of these classes. This is enough to show that definition by extension is not necessary to knowledge about a class. But when we come to consider infinite classes, we find that enumeration is not even theoretically possible for beings who only live for a finite time. We cannot enumerate all the natural numbers: they are 0, 1, 2, 3, and so on. At some point we must content ourselves with \"and so on.\" We cannot enumerate all fractions or all irrational numbers, or all of any other infinite collection. Thus our knowledge in regard to all such collections can only be derived from a definition by intension.",
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      "text": "These remarks are relevant, when we are seeking the definition of number, in three different ways. In the first place, numbers themselves form an infinite collection, and cannot therefore be defined by enumeration. In the second place, the collections having a given number of terms themselves presumably form an infinite collection: it is to be presumed, for example, that there are an infinite collection of trios in the world, for if this were not the case the total number of things in the world would be finite, which, though possible, seems unlikely. In the third place, we wish to define \"number\" in such a way that infinite numbers may be possible; thus we must be able to speak of the number of terms in an infinite collection, and such a collection must be defined by intension, i.e. by a property common to all its members and peculiar to them.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00111",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "For many purposes, a class and a defining characteristic of it are practically interchangeable. The vital difference between the two consists in the fact that there is only one class having a given set of members, whereas there are always many different characteristics by which a given class may be defined. Men [Pg 13] may be defined as featherless bipeds, or as rational animals, or (more correctly) by the traits by which Swift delineates the Yahoos. It is this fact that a defining characteristic is never unique which makes classes useful; otherwise we could be content with the properties common and peculiar to their members.[4] Any one of these properties can be used in place of the class whenever uniqueness is not important.",
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      "text": "[4]As will be explained later, classes may be regarded as logical fictions, manufactured out of defining characteristics. But for the present it will simplify our exposition to treat classes as if they were real.",
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      "ref": "PG41654.B00113",
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      "text": "Returning now to the definition of number, it is clear that number is a way of bringing together certain collections, namely, those that have a given number of terms. We can suppose all couples in one bundle, all trios in another, and so on. In this way we obtain various bundles of collections, each bundle consisting of all the collections that have a certain number of terms. Each bundle is a class whose members are collections, i.e. classes; thus each is a class of classes. The bundle consisting of all couples, for example, is a class of classes: each couple is a class with two members, and the whole bundle of couples is a class with an infinite number of members, each of which is a class of two members.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00114",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "How shall we decide whether two collections are to belong to the same bundle? The answer that suggests itself is: \"Find out how many members each has, and put them in the same bundle if they have the same number of members.\" But this presupposes that we have defined numbers, and that we know how to discover how many terms a collection has. We are so used to the operation of counting that such a presupposition might easily pass unnoticed. In fact, however, counting, though familiar, is logically a very complex operation; moreover it is only available, as a means of discovering how many terms a collection has, when the collection is finite. Our definition of number must not assume in advance that all numbers are finite; and we cannot in any case, without a vicious circle, [Pg 14] use counting to define numbers, because numbers are used in counting. We need, therefore, some other method of deciding when two collections have the same number of terms.",
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      "text": "In actual fact, it is simpler logically to find out whether two collections have the same number of terms than it is to define what that number is. An illustration will make this clear. If there were no polygamy or polyandry anywhere in the world, it is clear that the number of husbands living at any moment would be exactly the same as the number of wives. We do not need a census to assure us of this, nor do we need to know what is the actual number of husbands and of wives. We know the number must be the same in both collections, because each husband has one wife and each wife has one husband. The relation of husband and wife is what is called \"one-one.\"",
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      "text": "A relation is said to be \"one-one\" when, if [image: ] has the relation in question to [image: ] , no other term [image: ] ' has the same relation to [image: ] , and [image: ] does not have the same relation to any term [image: ] ' other than [image: ] . When only the first of these two conditions is fulfilled, the relation is called \"one-many\"; when only the second is fulfilled, it is called \"many-one.\" It should be observed that the number 1 is not used in these definitions.",
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      "text": "In Christian countries, the relation of husband to wife is one-one; in Mahometan countries it is one-many; in Tibet it is many-one. The relation of father to son is one-many; that of son to father is many-one, but that of eldest son to father is one-one. If [image: ] is any number, the relation of [image: ] to [image: ] is one-one; so is the relation of [image: ] to [image: ] or to [image: ] . When we are considering only positive numbers, the relation of [image: ] to [image: ] is one-one; but when negative numbers are admitted, it becomes two-one, since [image: ] and [image: ] have the same square. These instances should suffice to make clear the notions of one-one, one-many, and many-one relations, which play a great part in the principles of mathematics, not only in relation to the definition of numbers, but in many other connections.",
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      "ref": "PG41654.B00118",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "Two classes are said to be \"similar\" when there is a one-one [Pg 15] relation which correlates the terms of the one class each with one term of the other class, in the same manner in which the relation of marriage correlates husbands with wives. A few preliminary definitions will help us to state this definition more precisely. The class of those terms that have a given relation to something or other is called the domain of that relation: thus fathers are the domain of the relation of father to child, husbands are the domain of the relation of husband to wife, wives are the domain of the relation of wife to husband, and husbands and wives together are the domain of the relation of marriage. The relation of wife to husband is called the converse of the relation of husband to wife. Similarly less is the converse of greater, later is the converse of earlier, and so on. Generally, the converse of a given relation is that relation which holds between [image: ] and [image: ] whenever the given relation holds between [image: ] and [image: ] . The converse domain of a relation is the domain of its converse: thus the class of wives is the converse domain of the relation of husband to wife. We may now state our definition of similarity as follows:—",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00119",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "One class is said to be \"similar\" to another when there is a one-one relation of which the one class is the domain, while the other is the converse domain.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00120",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "It is easy to prove (1) that every class is similar to itself, (2) that if a class [image: ] is similar to a class [image: ] , then [image: ] is similar to [image: ] , (3) that if [image: ] is similar to [image: ] and [image: ] to [image: ] , then [image: ] is similar to [image: ] . A relation is said to be reflexive when it possesses the first of these properties, symmetrical when it possesses the second, and transitive when it possesses the third. It is obvious that a relation which is symmetrical and transitive must be reflexive throughout its domain. Relations which possess these properties are an important kind, and it is worth while to note that similarity is one of this kind of relations.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00121",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "It is obvious to common sense that two finite classes have the same number of terms if they are similar, but not otherwise. The act of counting consists in establishing a one-one correlation [Pg 16] between the set of objects counted and the natural numbers (excluding 0) that are used up in the process. Accordingly common sense concludes that there are as many objects in the set to be counted as there are numbers up to the last number used in the counting. And we also know that, so long as we confine ourselves to finite numbers, there are just [image: ] numbers from 1 up to [image: ] . Hence it follows that the last number used in counting a collection is the number of terms in the collection, provided the collection is finite. But this result, besides being only applicable to finite collections, depends upon and assumes the fact that two classes which are similar have the same number of terms; for what we do when we count (say) 10 objects is to show that the set of these objects is similar to the set of numbers 1 to 10. The notion of similarity is logically presupposed in the operation of counting, and is logically simpler though less familiar. In counting, it is necessary to take the objects counted in a certain order, as first, second, third, etc., but order is not of the essence of number: it is an irrelevant addition, an unnecessary complication from the logical point of view. The notion of similarity does not demand an order: for example, we saw that the number of husbands is the same as the number of wives, without having to establish an order of precedence among them. The notion of similarity also does not require that the classes which are similar should be finite. Take, for example, the natural numbers (excluding 0) on the one hand, and the fractions which have 1 for their numerator on the other hand: it is obvious that we can correlate 2 with [image: ] , 3 with [image: ] , and so on, thus proving that the two classes are similar.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00122",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "We may thus use the notion of \"similarity\" to decide when two collections are to belong to the same bundle, in the sense in which we were asking this question earlier in this chapter. We want to make one bundle containing the class that has no members: this will be for the number 0. Then we want a bundle of all the classes that have one member: this will be for the number 1. Then, for the number 2, we want a bundle consisting [Pg 17] of all couples; then one of all trios; and so on. Given any collection, we can define the bundle it is to belong to as being the class of all those collections that are \"similar\" to it. It is very easy to see that if (for example) a collection has three members, the class of all those collections that are similar to it will be the class of trios. And whatever number of terms a collection may have, those collections that are \"similar\" to it will have the same number of terms. We may take this as a definition of \"having the same number of terms.\" It is obvious that it gives results conformable to usage so long as we confine ourselves to finite collections.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00123",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "So far we have not suggested anything in the slightest degree paradoxical. But when we come to the actual definition of numbers we cannot avoid what must at first sight seem a paradox, though this impression will soon wear off. We naturally think that the class of couples (for example) is something different from the number 2. But there is no doubt about the class of couples: it is indubitable and not difficult to define, whereas the number 2, in any other sense, is a metaphysical entity about which we can never feel sure that it exists or that we have tracked it down. It is therefore more prudent to content ourselves with the class of couples, which we are sure of, than to hunt for a problematical number 2 which must always remain elusive. Accordingly we set up the following definition:—",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00124",
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      "text": "The number of a class is the class of all those classes that are similar to it.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00125",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "Thus the number of a couple will be the class of all couples. In fact, the class of all couples will be the number 2, according to our definition. At the expense of a little oddity, this definition secures definiteness and indubitableness; and it is not difficult to prove that numbers so defined have all the properties that we expect numbers to have.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00126",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "We may now go on to define numbers in general as any one of the bundles into which similarity collects classes. A number will be a set of classes such as that any two are similar to each [Pg 18] other, and none outside the set are similar to any inside the set. In other words, a number (in general) is any collection which is the number of one of its members; or, more simply still:",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00136",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "The key to our problem lies in mathematical induction. It will be remembered that, in Chapter I., this was the fifth of the five primitive propositions which we laid down about the natural numbers. It stated that any property which belongs to 0, and to the successor of any number which has the property, belongs to all the natural numbers. This was then presented as a principle, but we shall now adopt it as a definition. It is not difficult to see that the terms obeying it are the same as the numbers that can be reached from 0 by successive steps from next to next, but as the point is important we will set forth the matter in some detail.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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      "text": "We shall do well to begin with some definitions, which will be useful in other connections also.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00138",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 47718,
      "end": 48395,
      "sha256": "efb8ce68a19f674fc890b6ee66a01af4043a38c88e1af88381245e6a075b971a",
      "text": "A property is said to be \"hereditary\" in the natural-number series if, whenever it belongs to a number [image: ] , it also belongs to [image: ] , the successor of [image: ] . Similarly a class is said to be \"hereditary\" if, whenever [image: ] is a member of the class, so is [image: ] . It is easy to see, though we are not yet supposed to know, that to say a property is hereditary is equivalent to saying that it belongs to all the natural numbers not less than some one of them, e.g. it must belong to all that are not less than 100, or all that are less than 1000, or it may be that it belongs to all that are not less than 0, i.e. to all without exception.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
      "sourceType": "derived-reading-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00139",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "A property is said to be \"inductive\" when it is a hereditary [Pg 21] property which belongs to 0. Similarly a class is \"inductive\" when it is a hereditary class of which 0 is a member.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00140",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "Given a hereditary class of which 0 is a member, it follows that 1 is a member of it, because a hereditary class contains the successors of its members, and 1 is the successor of 0. Similarly, given a hereditary class of which 1 is a member, it follows that 2 is a member of it; and so on. Thus we can prove by a step-by-step procedure that any assigned natural number, say 30,000, is a member of every inductive class.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00141",
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      "text": "We will define the \"posterity\" of a given natural number with respect to the relation \"immediate predecessor\" (which is the converse of \"successor\") as all those terms that belong to every hereditary class to which the given number belongs. It is again easy to see that the posterity of a natural number consists of itself and all greater natural numbers; but this also we do not yet officially know.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00142",
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      "text": "By the above definitions, the posterity of 0 will consist of those terms which belong to every inductive class.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
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      "text": "It is now not difficult to make it obvious that the posterity of 0 is the same set as those terms that can be reached from 0 by successive steps from next to next. For, in the first place, 0 belongs to both these sets (in the sense in which we have defined our terms); in the second place, if [image: ] belongs to both sets, so does [image: ] . It is to be observed that we are dealing here with the kind of matter that does not admit of precise proof, namely, the comparison of a relatively vague idea with a relatively precise one. The notion of \"those terms that can be reached from 0 by successive steps from next to next\" is vague, though it seems as if it conveyed a definite meaning; on the other hand, \"the posterity of 0\" is precise and explicit just where the other idea is hazy. It may be taken as giving what we meant to mean when we spoke of the terms that can be reached from 0 by successive steps.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00144",
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      "text": "We now lay down the following definition:—",
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    {
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      "text": "The definition of existence, as applied to ambiguous descriptions, results from what was said at the end of the preceding chapter. We say that \"men exist\" or \"a man exists\" if the [Pg 171] propositional function \" [image: ] is human\" is sometimes true; and generally \"a so-and-so\" exists if \" [image: ] is so-and-so\" is sometimes true. We may put this in other language. The proposition \"Socrates is a man\" is no doubt equivalent to \"Socrates is human,\" but it is not the very same proposition. The is of \"Socrates is human\" expresses the relation of subject and predicate; the is of \"Socrates is a man\" expresses identity. It is a disgrace to the human race that it has chosen to employ the same word \"is\" for these two entirely different ideas—a disgrace which a symbolic logical language of course remedies. The identity in \"Socrates is a man\" is identity between an object named (accepting \"Socrates\" as a name, subject to qualifications explained later) and an object ambiguously described. An object ambiguously described will \"exist\" when at least one such proposition is true, i.e. when there is at least one true proposition of the form \" [image: ] is a so-and-so,\" where \" [image: ] \" is a name. It is characteristic of ambiguous (as opposed to definite) descriptions that there may be any number of true propositions of the above form—Socrates is a man, Plato is a man, etc. Thus \"a man exists\" follows from Socrates, or Plato, or anyone else. With definite descriptions, on the other hand, the corresponding form of proposition, namely, \" [image: ] is the so-and-so\" (where \" [image: ] \" is a name), can only be true for one value of [image: ] at most. This brings us to the subject of definite descriptions, which are to be defined in a way analogous to that employed for ambiguous descriptions, but rather more complicated.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00679",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 369793,
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      "text": "We come now to the main subject of the present chapter, namely, the definition of the word the (in the singular). One very important point about the definition of \"a so-and-so\" applies equally to \"the so-and-so\"; the definition to be sought is a definition of propositions in which this phrase occurs, not a definition of the phrase itself in isolation. In the case of \"a so-and-so,\" this is fairly obvious: no one could suppose that \"a man\" was a definite object, which could be defined by itself. [Pg 172] Socrates is a man, Plato is a man, Aristotle is a man, but we cannot infer that \"a man\" means the same as \"Socrates\" means and also the same as \"Plato\" means and also the same as \"Aristotle\" means, since these three names have different meanings. Nevertheless, when we have enumerated all the men in the world, there is nothing left of which we can say, \"This is a man, and not only so, but it is the 'a man,' the quintessential entity that is just an indefinite man without being anybody in particular.\" It is of course quite clear that whatever there is in the world is definite: if it is a man it is one definite man and not any other. Thus there cannot be such an entity as \"a man\" to be found in the world, as opposed to specific man. And accordingly it is natural that we do not define \"a man\" itself, but only the propositions in which it occurs.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00680",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "In the case of \"the so-and-so\" this is equally true, though at first sight less obvious. We may demonstrate that this must be the case, by a consideration of the difference between a name and a definite description. Take the proposition, \"Scott is the author of Waverley.\" We have here a name, \"Scott,\" and a description, \"the author of Waverley,\" which are asserted to apply to the same person. The distinction between a name and all other symbols may be explained as follows:—",
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    {
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      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "A name is a simple symbol whose meaning is something that can only occur as subject, i.e. something of the kind that, in Chapter XIII., we defined as an \"individual\" or a \"particular.\" And a \"simple\" symbol is one which has no parts that are symbols. Thus \"Scott\" is a simple symbol, because, though it has parts (namely, separate letters), these parts are not symbols. On the other hand, \"the author of Waverley\" is not a simple symbol, because the separate words that compose the phrase are parts which are symbols. If, as may be the case, whatever seems to be an \"individual\" is really capable of further analysis, we shall have to content ourselves with what may be called \"relative individuals,\" which will be terms that, throughout the context in question, are never analysed and never occur [Pg 173] otherwise than as subjects. And in that case we shall have correspondingly to content ourselves with \"relative names.\" From the standpoint of our present problem, namely, the definition of descriptions, this problem, whether these are absolute names or only relative names, may be ignored, since it concerns different stages in the hierarchy of \"types,\" whereas we have to compare such couples as \"Scott\" and \"the author of Waverley,\" which both apply to the same object, and do not raise the problem of types. We may, therefore, for the moment, treat names as capable of being absolute; nothing that we shall have to say will depend upon this assumption, but the wording may be a little shortened by it.",
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      "text": "We have, then, two things to compare: (1) a name, which is a simple symbol, directly designating an individual which is its meaning, and having this meaning in its own right, independently of the meanings of all other words; (2) a description, which consists of several words, whose meanings are already fixed, and from which results whatever is to be taken as the \"meaning\" of the description.",
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      "text": "A proposition containing a description is not identical with what that proposition becomes when a name is substituted, even if the name names the same object as the description describes. \"Scott is the author of Waverley\" is obviously a different proposition from \"Scott is Scott\": the first is a fact in literary history, the second a trivial truism. And if we put anyone other than Scott in place of \"the author of Waverley,\" our proposition would become false, and would therefore certainly no longer be the same proposition. But, it may be said, our proposition is essentially of the same form as (say) \"Scott is Sir Walter,\" in which two names are said to apply to the same person. The reply is that, if \"Scott is Sir Walter\" really means \"the person named 'Scott' is the person named 'Sir Walter,'\" then the names are being used as descriptions: i.e. the individual, instead of being named, is being described as the person having that name. This is a way in which names are frequently used [Pg 174] in practice, and there will, as a rule, be nothing in the phraseology to show whether they are being used in this way or as names. When a name is used directly, merely to indicate what we are speaking about, it is no part of the fact asserted, or of the falsehood if our assertion happens to be false: it is merely part of the symbolism by which we express our thought. What we want to express is something which might (for example) be translated into a foreign language; it is something for which the actual words are a vehicle, but of which they are no part. On the other hand, when we make a proposition about \"the person called 'Scott,'\" the actual name \"Scott\" enters into what we are asserting, and not merely into the language used in making the assertion. Our proposition will now be a different one if we substitute \"the person called 'Sir Walter.'\" But so long as we are using names as names, whether we say \"Scott\" or whether we say \"Sir Walter\" is as irrelevant to what we are asserting as whether we speak English or French. Thus so long as names are used as names, \"Scott is Sir Walter\" is the same trivial proposition as \"Scott is Scott.\" This completes the proof that \"Scott is the author of Waverley\" is not the same proposition as results from substituting a name for \"the author of Waverley,\" no matter what name may be substituted.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00684",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 376034,
      "end": 378146,
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      "text": "When we use a variable, and speak of a propositional function, [image: ] say, the process of applying general statements about [image: ] to particular cases will consist in substituting a name for the letter \" [image: ] ,\" assuming that [image: ] is a function which has individuals for its arguments. Suppose, for example, that [image: ] is \"always true\"; let it be, say, the \"law of identity,\" [image: ] . Then we may substitute for \" [image: ] \" any name we choose, and we shall obtain a true proposition. Assuming for the moment that \"Socrates,\" \"Plato,\" and \"Aristotle\" are names (a very rash assumption), we can infer from the law of identity that Socrates is Socrates, Plato is Plato, and Aristotle is Aristotle. But we shall commit a fallacy if we attempt to infer, without further premisses, that the author of Waverley is the author of Waverley. This results [Pg 175] from what we have just proved, that, if we substitute a name for \"the author of Waverley\" in a proposition, the proposition we obtain is a different one. That is to say, applying the result to our present case: If \" [image: ] \" is a name, \" [image: ] \" is not the same proposition as \"the author of Waverley is the author of Waverley,\" no matter what name \" [image: ] \" may be. Thus from the fact that all propositions of the form \" [image: ] \" are true we cannot infer, without more ado, that the author of Waverley is the author of Waverley. In fact, propositions of the form \"the so-and-so is the so-and-so\" are not always true: it is necessary that the so-and-so should exist (a term which will be explained shortly). It is false that the present King of France is the present King of France, or that the round square is the round square. When we substitute a description for a name, propositional functions which are \"always true\" may become false, if the description describes nothing. There is no mystery in this as soon as we realise (what was proved in the preceding paragraph) that when we substitute a description the result is not a value of the propositional function in question.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00685",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "end": 379279,
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      "text": "We are now in a position to define propositions in which a definite description occurs. The only thing that distinguishes \"the so-and-so\" from \"a so-and-so\" is the implication of uniqueness. We cannot speak of \"the inhabitant of London,\" because inhabiting London is an attribute which is not unique. We cannot speak about \"the present King of France,\" because there is none; but we can speak about \"the present King of England.\" Thus propositions about \"the so-and-so\" always imply the corresponding propositions about \"a so-and-so,\" with the addendum that there is not more than one so-and-so. Such a proposition as \"Scott is the author of Waverly\" could not be true if Waverly had never been written, or if several people had written it; and no more could any other proposition resulting from a propositional function [image: ] by the substitution of \"the author of Waverly\" for \" [image: ] .\" We may say that \"the author of Waverly\" means \"the value of [image: ] for which ' [image: ] wrote [Pg 176] Waverly' is true.\" Thus the proposition \"the author of Waverly was Scotch,\" for example, involves:",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00686",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "(1) \" [image: ] wrote Waverly\" is not always false;",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00687",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 379347,
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      "text": "(2) \"if [image: ] and [image: ] wrote Waverly, [image: ] and [image: ] are identical\" is always true;",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
      "sourceType": "derived-reading-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00701",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 382324,
      "end": 382459,
      "sha256": "40d0aab3951b9f580757194ff7e3e508b4141944deb4593dfaf7a0dcf9048b6a",
      "text": "\"There is a term [image: ] such that (1) [image: ] is always equivalent to ' [image: ] is [image: ] ,' (2) [image: ] is true.\"",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
      "sourceType": "derived-reading-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00702",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 382469,
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      "text": "This is the definition of propositions in which descriptions occur.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00703",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 382544,
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      "text": "It is possible to have much knowledge concerning a term described, i.e. to know many propositions concerning \"the so-and-so,\" without actually knowing what the so-and-so is, i.e. without knowing any proposition of the form \" [image: ] is the so-and-so,\" where \" [image: ] \" is a name. In a detective story propositions about \"the man who did the deed\" are accumulated, in the hope that ultimately they will suffice to demonstrate that it was [image: ] who did the deed. We may even go so far as to say that, in all such knowledge as can be expressed in words—with the exception of \"this\" and \"that\" and a few other words of which the meaning varies on different occasions—no names, in the strict sense, occur, but what seem like names are really descriptions. We may inquire significantly whether Homer existed, which we could not do if \"Homer\" were a name. The proposition \"the so-and-so exists\" is significant, whether true or false; but if [image: ] is the so-and-so (where \" [image: ] \" is a name), the words \" [image: ] exists\" are meaningless. It is only of descriptions—definite [Pg 178] or indefinite—that existence can be significantly asserted; for, if \" [image: ] \" is a name, it must name something: what does not name anything is not a name, and therefore, if intended to be a name, is a symbol devoid of meaning, whereas a description, like \"the present King of France,\" does not become incapable of occurring significantly merely on the ground that it describes nothing, the reason being that it is a complex symbol, of which the meaning is derived from that of its constituent symbols. And so, when we ask whether Homer existed, we are using the word \"Homer\" as an abbreviated description: we may replace it by (say) \"the author of the Iliad and the Odyssey.\" The same considerations apply to almost all uses of what look like proper names.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00704",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 384452,
      "end": 385892,
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      "text": "When descriptions occur in propositions, it is necessary to distinguish what may be called \"primary\" and \"secondary\" occurrences. The abstract distinction is as follows. A description has a \"primary\" occurrence when the proposition in which it occurs results from substituting the description for \" [image: ] \" in some propositional function [image: ] ; a description has a \"secondary\" occurrence when the result of substituting the description for [image: ] in [image: ] gives only part of the proposition concerned. An instance will make this clearer. Consider \"the present King of France is bald.\" Here \"the present King of France\" has a primary occurrence, and the proposition is false. Every proposition in which a description which describes nothing has a primary occurrence is false. But now consider \"the present King of France is not bald.\" This is ambiguous. If we are first to take \" [image: ] is bald,\" then substitute \"the present King of France\" for \" [image: ] \" and then deny the result, the occurrence of \"the present King of France\" is secondary and our proposition is true; but if we are to take \" [image: ] is not bald\" and substitute \"the present King of France\" for \" [image: ] \" then \"the present King of France\" has a primary occurrence and the proposition is false. Confusion of primary and secondary occurrences is a ready source of fallacies where descriptions are concerned. [Pg 179]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00705",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 385900,
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      "text": "Descriptions occur in mathematics chiefly in the form of descriptive functions, i.e. \"the term having the relation [image: ] to [image: ] ,\" or \"the [image: ] of [image: ] \" as we may say, on the analogy of \"the father of [image: ] \" and similar phrases. To say \"the father of [image: ] is rich,\" for example, is to say that the following propositional function of [image: ] : \" [image: ] is rich, and ' [image: ] begat [image: ] ' is always equivalent to ' [image: ] is [image: ] ,'\" is \"sometimes true,\" i.e. is true for at least one value of [image: ] . It obviously cannot be true for more than one value.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
      "sourceType": "derived-reading-block",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00706",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 386541,
      "end": 386908,
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      "text": "The theory of descriptions, briefly outlined in the present chapter, is of the utmost importance both in logic and in theory of knowledge. But for purposes of mathematics, the more philosophical parts of the theory are not essential, and have therefore been omitted in the above account, which has confined itself to the barest mathematical requisites. [Pg 180]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00708",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 386942,
      "end": 386949,
      "sha256": "b05b4644f05a0a54b2d21f4417a2dd6bd325e64db513563cb517585bfe8a97f3",
      "text": "CLASSES",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00709",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 386958,
      "end": 388961,
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      "text": "IN the present chapter we shall be concerned with the in the plural: the inhabitants of London, the sons of rich men, and so on. In other words, we shall be concerned with classes. We saw in Chapter II. that a cardinal number is to be defined as a class of classes, and in Chapter III. that the number 1 is to be defined as the class of all unit classes, i.e. of all that have just one member, as we should say but for the vicious circle. Of course, when the number 1 is defined as the class of all unit classes, \"unit classes\" must be defined so as not to assume that we know what is meant by \"one\"; in fact, they are defined in a way closely analogous to that used for descriptions, namely: A class [image: ] is said to be a \"unit\" class if the propositional function \"' [image: ] is an [image: ] ' is always equivalent to ' [image: ] is [image: ] '\" (regarded as a function of [image: ] ) is not always false, i.e., in more ordinary language, if there is a term [image: ] such that [image: ] will be a member of [image: ] when [image: ] is [image: ] but not otherwise. This gives us a definition of a unit class if we already know what a class is in general. Hitherto we have, in dealing with arithmetic, treated \"class\" as a primitive idea. But, for the reasons set forth in Chapter XIII., if for no others, we cannot accept \"class\" as a primitive idea. We must seek a definition on the same lines as the definition of descriptions, i.e. a definition which will assign a meaning to propositions in whose verbal or symbolic expression words or symbols apparently representing classes occur, but which will assign a meaning that altogether eliminates all mention of classes from a right analysis [Pg 181] of such propositions. We shall then be able to say that the symbols for classes are mere conveniences, not representing objects called \"classes,\" and that classes are in fact, like descriptions, logical fictions, or (as we say) \"incomplete symbols.\"",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00710",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 388969,
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      "text": "The theory of classes is less complete than the theory of descriptions, and there are reasons (which we shall give in outline) for regarding the definition of classes that will be suggested as not finally satisfactory. Some further subtlety appears to be required; but the reasons for regarding the definition which will be offered as being approximately correct and on the right lines are overwhelming.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00711",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 389386,
      "end": 391291,
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      "text": "The first thing is to realise why classes cannot be regarded as part of the ultimate furniture of the world. It is difficult to explain precisely what one means by this statement, but one consequence which it implies may be used to elucidate its meaning. If we had a complete symbolic language, with a definition for everything definable, and an undefined symbol for everything indefinable, the undefined symbols in this language would represent symbolically what I mean by \"the ultimate furniture of the world.\" I am maintaining that no symbols either for \"class\" in general or for particular classes would be included in this apparatus of undefined symbols. On the other hand, all the particular things there are in the world would have to have names which would be included among undefined symbols. We might try to avoid this conclusion by the use of descriptions. Take (say) \"the last thing Cæsar saw before he died.\" This is a description of some particular; we might use it as (in one perfectly legitimate sense) a definition of that particular. But if \" [image: ] \" is a name for the same particular, a proposition in which \" [image: ] \" occurs is not (as we saw in the preceding chapter) identical with what this proposition becomes when for \" [image: ] \" we substitute \"the last thing Cæsar saw before he died.\" If our language does not contain the name \" [image: ] \" or some other name for the same particular, we shall have no means of expressing the proposition which we expressed by means of \" [image: ] \" as opposed to the one that [Pg 182] we expressed by means of the description. Thus descriptions would not enable a perfect language to dispense with names for all particulars. In this respect, we are maintaining, classes differ from particulars, and need not be represented by undefined symbols. Our first business is to give the reasons for this opinion.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00712",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 391299,
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      "text": "We have already seen that classes cannot be regarded as a species of individuals, on account of the contradiction about classes which are not members of themselves (explained in Chapter XIII.), and because we can prove that the number of classes is greater than the number of individuals.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00716",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "Let us set forth the conditions that a symbol must fulfil if it is to serve as a class. I think the following conditions will be found necessary and sufficient:—",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00717",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "(1) Every propositional function must determine a class, consisting of those arguments for which the function is true. Given any proposition (true or false), say about Socrates, we can imagine Socrates replaced by Plato or Aristotle or a gorilla or the man in the moon or any other individual in the world. In general, some of these substitutions will give a true proposition and some a false one. The class determined will consist of all those substitutions that give a true one. Of course, we have still to decide what we mean by \"all those which, etc.\" All that [Pg 184] we are observing at present is that a class is rendered determinate by a propositional function, and that every propositional function determines an appropriate class.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00718",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "(2) Two formally equivalent propositional functions must determine the same class, and two which are not formally equivalent must determine different classes. That is, a class is determined by its membership, and no two different classes can have the same membership. (If a class is determined by a function [image: ] , we say that [image: ] is a \"member\" of the class if [image: ] is true.)",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00719",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "sha256": "43a1838e6ac45a9f62ca6b1dc05df15b74f627181952591ce9542b060a211895",
      "text": "(3) We must find some way of defining not only classes, but classes of classes. We saw in Chapter II. that cardinal numbers are to be defined as classes of classes. The ordinary phrase of elementary mathematics, \"The combinations of [image: ] things [image: ] at a time\" represents a class of classes, namely, the class of all classes of [image: ] terms that can be selected out of a given class of [image: ] terms. Without some symbolic method of dealing with classes of classes, mathematical logic would break down.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
      "sourceType": "derived-reading-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00720",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "text": "(4) It must under all circumstances be meaningless (not false) to suppose a class a member of itself or not a member of itself. This results from the contradiction which we discussed in Chapter XIII.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00740",
      "bookId": 41654,
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      "end": 411978,
      "sha256": "618a518f2db44160d396f6f654dfb8c57afead997bc22750f491326ceb3d44b2",
      "text": "This axiom, like the multiplicative axiom and the axiom of infinity, is necessary for certain results, but not for the bare existence of deductive reasoning. The theory of deduction, as explained in Chapter XIV., and the laws for propositions involving \"all\" and \"some,\" are of the very texture of mathematical reasoning: without them, or something like them, we should not merely not obtain the same results, but we should not obtain any results at all. We cannot use them as hypotheses, and deduce hypothetical consequences, for they are rules of deduction as well as premisses. They must be absolutely true, or else what we deduce according to them does not even follow from the premisses. On the other hand, the axiom of reducibility, like our two previous mathematical axioms, could perfectly well be stated as an hypothesis whenever it is used, instead of being assumed to be actually true. We can deduce [Pg 191] its consequences hypothetically; we can also deduce the consequences of supposing it false. It is therefore only convenient, not necessary. And in view of the complication of the theory of types, and of the uncertainty of all except its most general principles, it is impossible as yet to say whether there may not be some way of dispensing with the axiom of reducibility altogether. However, assuming the correctness of the theory outlined above, what can we say as to the truth or falsehood of the axiom?",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG41654.B00741",
      "bookId": 41654,
      "start": 411986,
      "end": 413622,
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      "text": "The axiom, we may observe, is a generalised form of Leibniz's identity of indiscernibles. Leibniz assumed, as a logical principle, that two different subjects must differ as to predicates. Now predicates are only some among what we called \"predicative functions,\" which will include also relations to given terms, and various properties not to be reckoned as predicates. Thus Leibniz's assumption is a much stricter and narrower one than ours. (Not, of course, according to his logic, which regarded all propositions as reducible to the subject-predicate form.) But there is no good reason for believing his form, so far as I can see. There might quite well, as a matter of abstract logical possibility, be two things which had exactly the same predicates, in the narrow sense in which we have been using the word \"predicate.\" How does our axiom look when we pass beyond predicates in this narrow sense? In the actual world there seems no way of doubting its empirical truth as regards particulars, owing to spatio-temporal differentiation: no two particulars have exactly the same spatial and temporal relations to all other particulars. But this is, as it were, an accident, a fact about the world in which we happen to find ourselves. Pure logic, and pure mathematics (which is the same thing), aims at being true, in Leibnizian phraseology, in all possible worlds, not only in this higgledy-piggledy job-lot of a world in which chance has imprisoned us. There is a certain lordliness which the logician should preserve: he must not condescend to derive arguments from the things he sees about him. [Pg 192]",
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      "text": "Viewed from this strictly logical point of view, I do not see any reason to believe that the axiom of reducibility is logically necessary, which is what would be meant by saying that it is true in all possible worlds. The admission of this axiom into a system of logic is therefore a defect, even if the axiom is empirically true. It is for this reason that the theory of classes cannot be regarded as being as complete as the theory of descriptions. There is need of further work on the theory of types, in the hope of arriving at a doctrine of classes which does not require such a dubious assumption. But it is reasonable to regard the theory outlined in the present chapter as right in its main lines, i.e. in its reduction of propositions nominally about classes to propositions about their defining functions. The avoidance of classes as entities by this method must, it would seem, be sound in principle, however the detail may still require adjustment. It is because this seems indubitable that we have included the theory of classes, in spite of our desire to exclude, as far as possible, whatever seemed open to serious doubt.",
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      "text": "The theory of classes, as above outlined, reduces itself to one axiom and one definition. For the sake of definiteness, we will here repeat them. The axiom is:",
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      "text": "There is a type [image: ] such that if [image: ] is a function which can take a given object [image: ] as argument, then there is a function [image: ] of the type [image: ] which is formally equivalent to [image: ] .",
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      "text": "In this sense all the \"constants\" that occur in pure mathematics are logical constants. The number 1, for example, is derivative from propositions of the form: \"There is a term [image: ] such that [image: ] is true when, and only when, [image: ] is [image: ] .\" This is a function of [image: ] , and various different propositions result from giving different values to [image: ] . We may (with a little omission of intermediate steps not relevant to our present purpose) take the above function of [image: ] as what is meant by \"the class determined by [image: ] is a unit class\" or \"the class determined by [image: ] is a member of 1\" (1 being a class of classes). In this way, propositions in which 1 occurs acquire a meaning which is derived from a certain constant logical form. And the same will be found to be the case with all mathematical constants: all are logical constants, or symbolic abbreviations whose full use in a proper context is defined by means of logical constants.",
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      "text": "But although all logical (or mathematical) propositions can be expressed wholly in terms of logical constants together with variables, it is not the case that, conversely, all propositions that can be expressed in this way are logical. We have found so far a necessary but not a sufficient criterion of mathematical propositions. We have sufficiently defined the character of the primitive ideas in terms of which all the ideas of mathematics can be defined, but not of the primitive propositions from which all the propositions of mathematics can be deduced. This is a more difficult matter, as to which it is not yet known what the full answer is.",
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      "text": "We may take the axiom of infinity as an example of a proposition which, though it can be enunciated in logical terms, [Pg 202] cannot be asserted by logic to be true. All the propositions of logic have a characteristic which used to be expressed by saying that they were analytic, or that their contradictories were self-contradictory. This mode of statement, however, is not satisfactory. The law of contradiction is merely one among logical propositions; it has no special pre-eminence; and the proof that the contradictory of some proposition is self-contradictory is likely to require other principles of deduction besides the law of contradiction. Nevertheless, the characteristic of logical propositions that we are in search of is the one which was felt, and intended to be defined, by those who said that it consisted in deducibility from the law of contradiction. This characteristic, which, for the moment, we may call tautology, obviously does not belong to the assertion that the number of individuals in the universe is [image: ] , whatever number [image: ] may be. But for the diversity of types, it would be possible to prove logically that there are classes of [image: ] terms, where [image: ] is any finite integer; or even that there are classes of [image: ] terms. But, owing to types, such proofs, as we saw in Chapter XIII., are fallacious. We are left to empirical observation to determine whether there are as many as [image: ] individuals in the world. Among \"possible\" worlds, in the Leibnizian sense, there will be worlds having one, two, three, ... individuals. There does not even seem any logical necessity why there should be even one individual[43]—why, in fact, there should be any world at all. The ontological proof of the existence of God, if it were valid, would establish the logical necessity of at least one individual. But it is generally recognised as invalid, and in fact rests upon a mistaken view of existence—i.e. it fails to realise that existence can only be asserted of something described, not of something named, so that it is meaningless to argue from \"this is the so-and-so\" and \"the so-and-so exists\" to \"this exists.\" If we reject the ontological [Pg 203] argument, we seem driven to conclude that the existence of a world is an accident—i.e. it is not logically necessary. If that be so, no principle of logic can assert \"existence\" except under a hypothesis, i.e. none can be of the form \"the propositional function so-and-so is sometimes true.\" Propositions of this form, when they occur in logic, will have to occur as hypotheses or consequences of hypotheses, not as complete asserted propositions. The complete asserted propositions of logic will all be such as affirm that some propositional function is always true. For example, it is always true that if [image: ] implies [image: ] and [image: ] implies [image: ] then [image: ] implies [image: ] , or that, if all [image: ] 's are [image: ] 's and [image: ] is an [image: ] then [image: ] is a [image: ] . Such propositions may occur in logic, and their truth is independent of the existence of the universe. We may lay it down that, if there were no universe, all general propositions would be true; for the contradictory of a general proposition (as we saw in Chapter XV.) is a proposition asserting existence, and would therefore always be false if no universe existed.",
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      "text": "[43]The primitive propositions in Principia Mathematica are such as to allow the inference that at least one individual exists. But I now view this as a defect in logical purity.",
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      "text": "Logical propositions are such as can be known a priori, without study of the actual world. We only know from a study of empirical facts that Socrates is a man, but we know the correctness of the syllogism in its abstract form (i.e. when it is stated in terms of variables) without needing any appeal to experience. This is a characteristic, not of logical propositions in themselves, but of the way in which we know them. It has, however, a bearing upon the question what their nature may be, since there are some kinds of propositions which it would be very difficult to suppose we could know without experience.",
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      "text": "It is clear that the definition of \"logic\" or \"mathematics\" must be sought by trying to give a new definition of the old notion of \"analytic\" propositions. Although we can no longer be satisfied to define logical propositions as those that follow from the law of contradiction, we can and must still admit that they are a wholly different class of propositions from those that we come to know empirically. They all have the characteristic which, a moment ago, we agreed to call \"tautology.\" This, [Pg 204] combined with the fact that they can be expressed wholly in terms of variables and logical constants (a logical constant being something which remains constant in a proposition even when all its constituents are changed)—will give the definition of logic or pure mathematics. For the moment, I do not know how to define \"tautology.\"[44] It would be easy to offer a definition which might seem satisfactory for a while; but I know of none that I feel to be satisfactory, in spite of feeling thoroughly familiar with the characteristic of which a definition is wanted. At this point, therefore, for the moment, we reach the frontier of knowledge on our backward journey into the logical foundations of mathematics.",
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      "text": "[44]The importance of \"tautology\" for a definition of mathematics was pointed out to me by my former pupil Ludwig Wittgenstein, who was working on the problem. I do not know whether he has solved it, or even whether he is alive or dead.",
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      "text": "We have now come to an end of our somewhat summary introduction to mathematical philosophy. It is impossible to convey adequately the ideas that are concerned in this subject so long as we abstain from the use of logical symbols. Since ordinary language has no words that naturally express exactly what we wish to express, it is necessary, so long as we adhere to ordinary language, to strain words into unusual meanings; and the reader is sure, after a time if not at first, to lapse into attaching the usual meanings to words, thus arriving at wrong notions as to what is intended to be said. Moreover, ordinary grammar and syntax is extraordinarily misleading. This is the case, e.g., as regards numbers; \"ten men\" is grammatically the same form as \"white men,\" so that 10 might be thought to be an adjective qualifying \"men.\" It is the case, again, wherever propositional functions are involved, and in particular as regards existence and descriptions. Because language is misleading, as well as because it is diffuse and inexact when applied to logic (for which it was never intended), logical symbolism is absolutely necessary to any exact or thorough treatment of our subject. Those readers, [Pg 205] therefore, who wish to acquire a mastery of the principles of mathematics, will, it is to be hoped, not shrink from the labour of mastering the symbols—a labour which is, in fact, much less than might be thought. As the above hasty survey must have made evident, there are innumerable unsolved problems in the subject, and much work needs to be done. If any student is led into a serious study of mathematical logic by this little book, it will have served the chief purpose for which it has been written. [Pg 206]",
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      "text": "INDEX",
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      "text": "Aggregates, 12",
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      "text": "CONFUCIAN ANALECTS THE GREAT LEARNING THE DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN",
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      "text": "CONFUCIAN ANALECTS. BOOK I. HSIO R.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER I. 1. The Master said, 'Is it not pleasant to learn with a constant perseverance and application? 2. 'Is it not delightful to have friends coming from distant quarters?' 3. 'Is he not a man of complete virtue, who feels no discomposure though men may take no note of him?'",
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      "text": "CHAP. II. 1. The philosopher Yu said, 'They are few who, being filial and fraternal, are fond of offending against their superiors. There have been none, who, not liking to offend against their superiors, have been fond of stirring up confusion. 2. 'The superior man bends his attention to what is radical.",
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      "text": "That being established, all practical courses naturally grow up. Filial piety and fraternal submission!-- are they not the root of all benevolent actions?' CHAP. III. The Master said, 'Fine words and an insinuating appearance are seldom associated with true virtue.' CHAP. IV. The philosopher Tsang said, 'I daily examine myself on three points:-- whether, in transacting business for others, I may have been not faithful;-- whether, in intercourse with friends, I may have been not sincere;-- whether I may have not mastered and practised the instructions of my teacher.'",
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      "text": "if, in serving his prince, he can devote his life; if, in his intercourse with his friends, his words are sincere:-- although men say that he has not learned, I will certainly say that he has.' CHAP. VIII. 1. The Master said, 'If the scholar be not grave, he will not call forth any veneration, and his learning will not be solid. 2. 'Hold faithfulness and sincerity as first principles. 3. 'Have no friends not equal to yourself. 4. 'When you have faults, do not fear to abandon them.' CHAP. IX. The philosopher Tsang said, 'Let there be a careful attention to perform the funeral rites to parents, and let them be followed when long gone with the ceremonies of sacrifice;-- then the virtue of the people will resume its proper excellence.'",
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      "text": "CHAP. X. 1. Tsze-ch'in asked Tsze-kung, saying, 'When our master comes to any country, he does not fail to learn all about its government. Does he ask his information? or is it given to him?' 2. Tsze-kung said, 'Our master is benign, upright, courteous, temperate, and complaisant, and thus he gets his information. The master's mode of asking information!-- is it not different from that of other men?' CHAP. XI. The Master said, 'While a man's father is alive, look at the bent of his will; when his father is dead, look at his conduct. If for three years he does not alter from the way of his father, he may be called filial.'",
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      "text": "CHAP. XII. 1. The philosopher Yu said, 'In practising the rules of propriety, a natural ease is to be prized. In the ways prescribed by the ancient kings, this is the excellent quality, and in things small and great we follow them. 2. 'Yet it is not to be observed in all cases. If one, knowing how such ease should be prized, manifests it, without regulating it by the rules of propriety, this likewise is not to be done.' CHAP. XIII. The philosopher Yu said, 'When agreements are made according to what is right, what is spoken can be made good. When respect is shown according to what is proper, one keeps far from shame and disgrace. When the parties upon whom a man leans are proper persons to be intimate with, he can make them his guides and masters.' CHAP. XIV. The Master said, 'He who aims to be a man of complete virtue in his food does not seek to gratify his appetite, nor",
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      "text": "in his dwelling place does he seek the appliances of ease; he is earnest in what he is doing, and careful in his speech; he frequents the company of men of principle that he may be rectified:-- such a person may be said indeed to love to learn.' CHAP. XV. 1. Tsze-kung said, 'What do you pronounce concerning the poor man who yet does not flatter, and the rich man who is not proud?' The Master replied, 'They will do; but they are not equal to him, who, though poor, is yet cheerful, and to him, who, though rich, loves the rules of propriety.' 2. Tsze-kung replied, 'It is said in the Book of Poetry, \"As you cut and then file, as you carve and then polish.\"-- The meaning is the same, I apprehend, as that which you have just expressed.' 3. The Master said, 'With one like Ts'ze, I can begin to talk",
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      "text": "about the odes. I told him one point, and he knew its proper sequence.' CHAP. XVI. The Master said, 'I will not be afflicted at men's not knowing me; I will be afflicted that I do not know men.'",
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      "text": "BOOK II. WEI CHANG.",
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      "text": "CHAP. I. The Master said, 'He who exercises government by means of his virtue may be compared to the north polar star, which keeps its place and all the stars turn towards it.' CHAP. II. The Master said, 'In the Book of Poetry are three hundred pieces, but the design of them all may be embraced in one sentence-- \"Having no depraved thoughts.\"' CHAP. III. 1. The Master said, 'If the people be led by laws, and uniformity sought to be given them by punishments, they will try to avoid the punishment, but have no sense of shame. 2. 'If they be led by virtue, and uniformity sought to be given them by the rules of propriety, they will have the sense of shame, and moreover will become good.' CHAP. IV. 1. The Master said, 'At fifteen, I had my mind bent on learning. 2. 'At thirty, I stood firm. 3. 'At forty, I had no doubts. 4. 'At fifty, I knew the decrees of Heaven.",
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      "text": "5. 'At sixty, my ear was an obedient organ for the reception of truth. 6. 'At seventy, I could follow what my heart desired, without transgressing what was right.' CHAP. V. 1. Mang I asked what filial piety was. The Master said, 'It is not being disobedient.' 2. Soon after, as Fan Ch'ih was driving him, the Master told him, saying, 'Mang-sun asked me what filial piety was, and I answered him,-- \"not being disobedient.\"' 3. Fan Ch'ih said, 'What did you mean?' The Master replied, 'That parents, when alive, be served according to propriety; that, when dead, they should be buried according to propriety; and that they should be sacrificed to according to propriety.'",
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      "text": "CHAP. VI. Mang Wu asked what filial piety was. The Master said, 'Parents are anxious lest their children should be sick.' CHAP. VII. Tsze-yu asked what filial piety was. The Master said, 'The filial piety of now-a-days means the support of one's parents. But dogs and horses likewise are able to do something in the way of support;-- without reverence, what is there to distinguish the one support given from the other?' CHAP. VIII. Tsze-hsia asked what filial piety was. The Master said, 'The difficulty is with the countenance. If, when their elders have any troublesome affairs, the young take the toil of them, and if, when the young have wine and food, they set them before their elders, is THIS to be considered filial piety?'",
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. IX. The Master said, 'I have talked with Hui for a whole day, and he has not made any objection to anything I said;-- as if he were stupid. He has retired, and I have examined his conduct when away from me, and found him able to illustrate my teachings. Hui!-- He is not stupid.' CHAP. X. 1. The Master said, 'See what a man does. 2. 'Mark his motives. 3. 'Examine in what things he rests. 4. 'How can a man conceal his character? 5. How can a man conceal his character?' CHAP. XI. The Master said, 'If a man keeps cherishing his old knowledge, so as continually to be acquiring new, he may be a teacher of others.'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XII. The Master said, 'The accomplished scholar is not a utensil.' CHAP. XIII. Tsze-kung asked what constituted the superior man. The Master said, 'He acts before he speaks, and afterwards speaks according to his actions.' CHAP. XIV. The Master said, 'The superior man is catholic and no partisan. The mean man is partisan and not catholic.' CHAP. XV. The Master said, 'Learning without thought is labour lost; thought without learning is perilous.' CHAP. XVI. The Master said, 'The study of strange doctrines is injurious indeed!'",
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      "text": "CHAP. XVII. The Master said, 'Yu, shall I teach you what knowledge is? When you know a thing, to hold that you know it; and when you do not know a thing, to allow that you do not know it;-- this is knowledge.' CHAP. XVII. 1. Tsze-chang was learning with a view to official emolument. 2. The Master said, 'Hear much and put aside the points of which you stand in doubt, while you speak cautiously at the same time of the others:-- then you will afford few occasions for blame. See much and put aside the things which seem perilous, while you are cautious at the same time in carrying the others into practice:-- then you will have few occasions for repentance. When one gives few occasions for blame in his words, and few occasions for repentance in his conduct, he is in the way to get emolument.'",
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      "text": "CHAP. XIX. The Duke Ai asked, saying, 'What should be done in order to secure the submission of the people?' Confucius replied, 'Advance the upright and set aside the crooked, then the people will submit. Advance the crooked and set aside the upright, then the people will not submit.' CHAP. XX. Chi K'ang asked how to cause the people to reverence their ruler, to be faithful to him, and to go on to nerve themselves to virtue. The Master said, 'Let him preside over them with gravity;-- then they will reverence him. Let him be filial and kind to all;-- then they will be faithful to him. Let him advance the good and teach the incompetent;-- then they will eagerly seek to be virtuous.' CHAP. XXI. 1. Some one addressed Confucius, saying, 'Sir, why are you not engaged in the government?'",
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      "text": "2. The Master said, 'What does the Shu-ching say of filial piety?-- \"You are filial, you discharge your brotherly duties. These qualities are displayed in government.\" This then also constitutes the exercise of government. Why must there be THAT-- making one be in the government?' CHAP. XXII. The Master said, 'I do not know how a man without truthfulness is to get on. How can a large carriage be made to go without the cross-bar for yoking the oxen to, or a small carriage without the arrangement for yoking the horses?' CHAP. XXIII. 1. Tsze-chang asked whether the affairs of ten ages after could be known. 2. Confucius said, 'The Yin dynasty followed the regulations of the Hsia: wherein it took from or added to them may be known. The Chau dynasty has followed the regulations of Yin: wherein it took from or added to them may be known. Some other may follow the Chau, but though it should be at the distance of a hundred ages, its affairs may be known.'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. IX. The Master said, 'I could describe the ceremonies of the Hsia dynasty, but Chi cannot sufficiently attest my words. I could describe the ceremonies of the Yin dynasty, but Sung cannot sufficiently attest my words. (They cannot do so) because of the insufficiency of their records and wise men. If those were sufficient, I could adduce them in support of my words.' CHAP. X. The Master said, 'At the great sacrifice, after the pouring out of the libation, I have no wish to look on.' CHAP. XI. Some one asked the meaning of the great sacrifice. The Master said, 'I do not know. He who knew its meaning would find it as easy to govern the kingdom as to look on this;-- pointing to his palm.",
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    {
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      "text": "CHAP. XII. 1. He sacrificed to the dead, as if they were present. He sacrificed to the spirits, as if the spirits were present. 2. The Master said, 'I consider my not being present at the sacrifice, as if I did not sacrifice.' CHAP. XIII. 1. Wang-sun Chia asked, saying, 'What is the meaning of the saying, \"It is better to pay court to the furnace than to the south-west corner?\"' 2. The Master said, 'Not so. He who offends against Heaven has none to whom he can pray.'",
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    {
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      "text": "CHAP. XIV. The Master said, 'Chau had the advantage of viewing the two past dynasties. How complete and elegant are its regulations! I follow Chau.' CHAP. XV. The Master, when he entered the grand temple, asked about everything. Some one said, 'Who will say that the son of the man of Tsau knows the rules of propriety! He has entered the grand temple and asks about everything.' The Master heard the remark, and said, 'This is a rule of propriety.' CHAP. XVI. The Master said, 'In archery it is not going through the leather which is the principal thing;-- because people's strength is not equal. This was the old way.'",
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    {
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      "text": "CHAP. XVII. 1. Tsze-kung wished to do away with the offering of a sheep connected with the inauguration of the first day of each month. 2. The Master said, 'Ts'ze, you love the sheep; I love the ceremony.' CHAP. XVII. The Master said, 'The full observance of the rules of propriety in serving one's prince is accounted by people to be flattery.' CHAP. XIX. The Duke Ting asked how a prince should employ his ministers, and how ministers should serve their prince. Confucius replied, 'A prince should employ his minister according to according to the rules of propriety; ministers should serve their prince with faithfulness.' CHAP. XX. The Master said, 'The Kwan Tsu is expressive of enjoyment without being licentious, and of grief without being hurtfully excessive.'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XXI. 1. The Duke Ai asked Tsai Wo about the altars of the spirits of the land. Tsai Wo replied, 'The Hsia sovereign planted the pine tree about them; the men of the Yin planted the cypress; and the men of the Chau planted the chestnut tree, meaning thereby to cause the people to be in awe.' 2. When the Master heard it, he said, 'Things that are done, it is needless to speak about; things that have had their course, it is needless to remonstrate about; things that are past, it is needless to blame.' CHAP. XXII. 1. The Master said, 'Small indeed was the capacity of Kwan Chung!' 2. Some one said, 'Was Kwan Chung parsimonious?' 'Kwan,' was the reply, 'had the San Kwei, and his officers performed no double duties; how can he be considered parsimonious?' 3. 'Then, did Kwan Chung know the rules of propriety?' The",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. VI. 1. The Master said, 'I have not seen a person who loved virtue, or one who hated what was not virtuous. He who loved virtue, would esteem nothing above it. He who hated what is not virtuous, would practise virtue in such a way that he would not allow anything that is not virtuous to approach his person. 2. 'Is any one able for one day to apply his strength to virtue? I have not seen the case in which his strength would be insufficient. 3. 'Should there possibly be any such case, I have not seen it.' CHAP. VII. The Master said, 'The faults of men are characteristic of the class to which they belong. By observing a man's faults, it may be known that he is virtuous.'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. VIII. The Master said, 'If a man in the morning hear the right way, he may die in the evening without regret.' CHAP. IX. The Master said, 'A scholar, whose mind is set on truth, and who is ashamed of bad clothes and bad food, is not fit to be discoursed with.' CHAP. X. The Master said, 'The superior man, in the world, does not set his mind either for anything, or against anything; what is right he will follow.' CHAP. XI. The Master said, 'The superior man thinks of virtue; the small man thinks of comfort. The superior man thinks of the sanctions of law; the small man thinks of favours which he may receive.'",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00055",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XII. The Master said: 'He who acts with a constant view to his own advantage will be much murmured against.' CHAP. XIII. The Master said, 'If a prince is able to govern his kingdom with the complaisance proper to the rules of propriety, what difficulty will he have? If he cannot govern it with that complaisance, what has he to do with the rules of propriety?' CHAP. XIV. The Master said, 'A man should say, I am not concerned that I have no place, I am concerned how I may fit myself for one. I am not concerned that I am not known, I seek to be worthy to be known.' CHAP. XV. 1. The Master said, 'Shan, my doctrine is that of an all-pervading unity.' The disciple Tsang replied, 'Yes.' 2. The Master went out, and the other disciples asked, saying,",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00056",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "'What do his words mean?' Tsang said, 'The doctrine of our master is to be true to the principles of our nature and the benevolent exercise of them to others,-- this and nothing more.' CHAP. XVI. The Master said, 'The mind of the superior man is conversant with righteousness; the mind of the mean man is conversant with gain.' CHAP. XVII. The Master said, 'When we see men of worth, we should think of equalling them; when we see men of a contrary character, we should turn inwards and examine ourselves.' CHAP. XVIII. The Master said, 'In serving his parents, a son may remonstrate with them, but gently; when he sees that they do not incline to follow his advice, he shows an increased degree of reverence, but does not abandon his purpose; and should they punish him, he does not allow himself to murmur.'",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00057",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XIX. The Master said, 'While his parents are alive, the son may not go abroad to a distance. If he does go abroad, he must have a fixed place to which he goes.' CHAP. XX. The Master said, 'If the son for three years does not alter from the way of his father, he may be called filial.' CHAP. XXI. The Master said, 'The years of parents may by no means not be kept in the memory, as an occasion at once for joy and for fear.' CHAP. XXII. The Master said, 'The reason why the ancients did not readily give utterance to their words, was that they feared lest their actions should not come up to them.' CHAP. XXIII. The Master said, 'The cautious seldom err.'",
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    {
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      "text": "CHAP. XXIV. The Master said, 'The superior man wishes to be slow in his speech and earnest in his conduct.' CHAP. XXV. The Master said, 'Virtue is not left to stand alone. He who practises it will have neighbors.' CHAP. XXVI. Tsze-yu said, 'In serving a prince, frequent remonstrances lead to disgrace. Between friends, frequent reproofs make the friendship distant.'",
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      "text": "BOOK IX. TSZE HAN.",
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      "bookId": 3330,
      "start": 58848,
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      "text": "CHAP. I. The subjects of which the Master seldom spoke were-- profitableness, and also the appointments of Heaven, and perfect virtue. CHAP. II. 1. A man of the village of Ta-hsiang said, 'Great indeed is the philosopher K'ung! His learning is extensive, and yet he does not render his name famous by any particular thing.' 2. The Master heard the observation, and said to his disciples, 'What shall I practise? Shall I practise charioteering, or shall I practise archery? I will practise charioteering.'",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00107",
      "bookId": 3330,
      "start": 59388,
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      "text": "CHAP. III. 1. The Master said, 'The linen cap is that prescribed by the rules of ceremony, but now a silk one is worn. It is economical, and I follow the common practice. 2. 'The rules of ceremony prescribe the bowing below the hall, but now the practice is to bow only after ascending it. That is arrogant. I continue to bow below the hall, though I oppose the common practice.' CHAP. IV. There were four things from which the Master was entirely free. He had no foregone conclusions, no arbitrary predeterminations, no obstinacy, and no egoism. CHAP. V. 1. The Master was put in fear in K'wang. 2. He said, 'After the death of King Wan, was not the cause of truth lodged here in me?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00108",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "3. 'If Heaven had wished to let this cause of truth perish, then I, a future mortal, should not have got such a relation to that cause. While Heaven does not let the cause of truth perish, what can the people of K'wang do to me?' CHAP. VI. 1. A high officer asked Tsze-kung, saying, 'May we not say that your Master is a sage? How various is his ability!' 2. Tsze-kung said, 'Certainly Heaven has endowed him unlimitedly. He is about a sage. And, moreover, his ability is various.' 3. The Master heard of the conversation and said, 'Does the high officer know me? When I was young, my condition was low, and therefore I acquired my ability in many things, but they were mean matters. Must the superior man have such variety of ability? He does not need variety of ability.' 4. Lao said, 'The Master said, \"Having no official employment, I acquired many arts.\"'",
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. VII. The Master said, 'Am I indeed possessed of knowledge? I am not knowing. But if a mean person, who appears quite empty-like, ask anything of me, I set it forth from one end to the other, and exhaust it.' CHAP. VIII. The Master said, 'The FANG bird does not come; the river sends forth no map:-- it is all over with me!' CHAP. IX. When the Master saw a person in a mourning dress, or any one with the cap and upper and lower garments of full dress, or a blind person, on observing them approaching, though they were younger than himself, he would rise up, and if he had to pass by them, he would do so hastily.",
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      "text": "CHAP. I. 1. Yen Yuan asked about perfect virtue. The Master said, 'To subdue one's self and return to propriety, is perfect virtue. If a man can for one day subdue himself and return to propriety, all under heaven will ascribe perfect virtue to him. Is the practice of perfect virtue from a man himself, or is it from others?' 2. Yen Yuan said, 'I beg to ask the steps of that process.' The Master replied, 'Look not at what is contrary to propriety; listen not to what is contrary to propriety; speak not what is contrary to propriety; make no movement which is contrary to propriety.' Yen Yuan then said, 'Though I am deficient in intelligence and vigour, I will make it my business to practise this lesson.'",
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. II. Chung-kung asked about perfect virtue. The Master said, 'It is, when you go abroad, to behave to every one as if you were receiving a great guest; to employ the people as if you were assisting at a great sacrifice; not to do to others as you would not wish done to yourself; to have no murmuring against you in the country, and none in the family.' Chung-kung said, 'Though I am deficient in intelligence and vigour, I will make it my business to practise this lesson.' CHAP. III. 1. Sze-ma Niu asked about perfect virtue. 2. The Master said, 'The man of perfect virtue is cautious and slow in his speech.'",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00142",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "3. 'Cautious and slow in his speech!' said Niu;-- 'is this what is meant by perfect virtue?' The Master said, 'When a man feels the difficulty of doing, can he be other than cautious and slow in speaking?' CHAP. IV. 1. Sze-ma Niu asked about the superior man. The Master said, 'The superior man has neither anxiety nor fear.' 2. 'Being without anxiety or fear!' said Nui;-- 'does this constitute what we call the superior man?' 3. The Master said, 'When internal examination discovers nothing wrong, what is there to be anxious about, what is there to fear?' CHAP. V. 1. Sze-ma Niu, full of anxiety, said, 'Other men all have their brothers, I only have not.' 2. Tsze-hsia said to him, 'There is the following saying which I have heard:--",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00143",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "3. '\"Death and life have their determined appointment; riches and honours depend upon Heaven.\" 4. 'Let the superior man never fail reverentially to order his own conduct, and let him be respectful to others and observant of propriety:-- then all within the four seas will be his brothers. What has the superior man to do with being distressed because he has no brothers?' CHAP. VI. Tsze-chang asked what constituted intelligence. The Master said, 'He with whom neither slander that gradually soaks into the mind, nor statements that startle like a wound in the flesh, are successful, may be called intelligent indeed. Yea, he with whom neither soaking slander, nor startling statements, are successful, may be called farseeing.'",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00144",
      "bookId": 3330,
      "start": 89882,
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      "text": "CHAP. VII. 1. Tsze-kung asked about government. The Master said, 'The requisites of government are that there be sufficiency of food, sufficiency of military equipment, and the confidence of the people in their ruler.' 2. Tsze-kung said, 'If it cannot be helped, and one of these must be dispensed with, which of the three should be foregone first?' 'The military equipment,' said the Master. 3. Tsze-kung again asked, 'If it cannot be helped, and one of the remaining two must be dispensed with, which of them should be foregone?' The Master answered, 'Part with the food. From of old, death has been the lot of all men; but if the people have no faith in their rulers, there is no standing for the state.' CHAP. VIII. 1. Chi Tsze-ch'ang said, 'In a superior man it is only the substantial qualities which are wanted;-- why should we seek for ornamental accomplishments?'",
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "2. Fan Ch'ih did not immediately understand these answers. 3. The Master said, 'Employ the upright and put aside all the crooked;-- in this way the crooked can be made to be upright.' 4. Fan Ch'ih retired, and, seeing Tsze-hsia, he said to him, 'A Little while ago, I had an interview with our Master, and asked him about knowledge. He said, 'Employ the upright, and put aside all the crooked;-- in this way, the crooked will be made to be upright.' What did he mean?' 5. Tsze-hsia said, 'Truly rich is his saying! 6. 'Shun, being in possession of the kingdom, selected from among all the people, and employed Kao-yao, on which all who were devoid of virtue disappeared. T'ang, being in possession of the kingdom, selected from among all the people, and employed I Yin, and all who were devoid of virtue disappeared.' CHAP. XXIII. Tsze-kung asked about friendship. The Master said, 'Faithfully admonish your friend, and skillfully lead him on. If you find him impracticable, stop. Do not disgrace yourself.'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XXIV. The philosopher Tsang said, 'The superior man on grounds of culture meets with his friends, and by their friendship helps his virtue.'",
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "BOOK XIII. TSZE-LU.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00154",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. I. 1. Tsze-lu asked about government. The Master said, 'Go before the people with your example, and be laborious in their affairs.' 2. He requested further instruction, and was answered, 'Be not weary (in these things).' CHAP. II. 1. Chung-kung, being chief minister to the Head of the Chi family, asked about government. The Master said, 'Employ",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00155",
      "bookId": 3330,
      "start": 97788,
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      "text": "first the services of your various officers, pardon small faults, and raise to office men of virtue and talents.' 2. Chung-kung said, 'How shall I know the men of virtue and talent, so that I may raise them to office?' He was answered, 'Raise to office those whom you know. As to those whom you do not know, will others neglect them?' CHAP. III. 1. Tsze-lu said, 'The ruler of Wei has been waiting for you, in order with you to administer the government. What will you consider the first thing to be done?' 2. The Master replied, 'What is necessary is to rectify names.' 3. 'So, indeed!' said Tsze-lu. 'You are wide of the mark! Why must there be such rectification?' 4. The Master said, 'How uncultivated you are, Yu! A superior man, in regard to what he does not know, shows a cautious reserve. 5. 'If names be not correct, language is not in accordance with",
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "the truth of things. If language be not in accordance with the truth of things, affairs cannot be carried on to success. 6. 'When affairs cannot be carried on to success, proprieties and music will not flourish. When proprieties and music do not flourish, punishments will not be properly awarded. When punishments are not properly awarded, the people do not know how to move hand or foot. 7. 'Therefore a superior man considers it necessary that the names he uses may be spoken appropriately, and also that what he speaks may be carried out appropriately. What the superior man requires, is just that in his words there may be nothing incorrect.' CHAP. IV. 1. Fan Ch'ih requested to be taught husbandry. The Master said, 'I am not so good for that as an old husbandman.' He",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00157",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "requested also to be taught gardening, and was answered, 'I am not so good for that as an old gardener.' 2. Fan Ch'ih having gone out, the Master said, 'A small man, indeed, is Fan Hsu! 3. If a superior love propriety, the people will not dare not to be reverent. If he love righteousness, the people will not dare not to submit to his example. If he love good faith, the people will not dare not to be sincere. Now, when these things obtain, the people from all quarters will come to him, bearing their children on their backs;-- what need has he of a knowledge of husbandry?' CHAP. V. The Master said, 'Though a man may be able to recite the three hundred odes, yet if, when intrusted with a governmental charge, he knows not how to act, or if, when sent to any quarter on a mission, he cannot give his replies unassisted, notwithstanding the extent of his learning, of what practical use is it?'",
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. VI. The Master said, 'When a prince's personal conduct is correct, his government is effective without the issuing of orders. If his personal conduct is not correct, he may issue orders, but they will not be followed.' CHAP. VII. The Master said, 'The governments of Lu and Wei are brothers.' CHAP. VIII. The Master said of Ching, a scion of the ducal family of Wei, that he knew the economy of a family well. When he began to have means, he said, 'Ha! here is a collection!' When they were a little increased, he said, 'Ha! this is complete!' When he had become rich, he said, 'Ha! this is admirable!' CHAP. IX. 1. When the Master went to Wei, Zan Yu acted as driver of his carriage. 2. The Master observed, 'How numerous are the people!' 3. Yu said, 'Since they are thus numerous, what more shall be done for them?' 'Enrich them,' was the reply.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "4. 'And when they have been enriched, what more shall be done?' The Master said, 'Teach them.' CHAP. X. The Master said, 'If there were (any of the princes) who would employ me, in the course of twelve months, I should have done something considerable. In three years, the government would be perfected.' CHAP. XI. The Master said, '\"If good men were to govern a country in succession for a hundred years, they would be able to transform the violently bad, and dispense with capital punishments.\" True indeed is this saying!' CHAP. XII. The Master said, 'If a truly royal ruler were to arise, it would still require a generation, and then virtue would prevail.'",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00160",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XIII. The Master said, 'If a minister make his own conduct correct, what difficulty will he have in assisting in government? If he cannot rectify himself, what has he to do with rectifying others?' CHAP. XIV. The disciple Zan returning from the court, the Master said to him, 'How are you so late?' He replied, 'We had government business.' The Master said, 'It must have been family affairs. If there had been government business, though I am not now in office, I should have been consulted about it.' CHAP. XV. 1. The Duke Ting asked whether there was a single sentence which could make a country prosperous. Confucius replied, 'Such an effect cannot be expected from one sentence. 2. 'There is a saying, however, which people have-- \"To be a prince is difficult; to be a minister is not easy.\" 3. 'If a ruler knows this,-- the difficulty of being a prince,-- may there not be expected from this one sentence the prosperity of his country?' 4. The duke then said, 'Is there a single sentence which can ruin a country?' Confucius replied, 'Such an effect as that cannot be expected from one sentence. There is, however, the saying which people have-- \"I have no pleasure in being a prince, but only in that no one can offer any opposition to what I say!\" 5. 'If a ruler's words be good, is it not also good that no one oppose them? But if they are not good, and no one opposes them, may there not be expected from this one sentence the ruin of his country?' CHAP. XVI. 1. The Duke of Sheh asked about government. 2. The Master said, 'Good government obtains, when those who are near are made happy, and those who are far off are attracted.'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XVII. Tsze-hsia, being governor of Chu-fu, asked about government. The Master said, 'Do not be desirous to have things done quickly; do not look at small advantages. Desire to have things done quickly prevents their being done thoroughly. Looking at small advantages prevents great affairs from being accomplished.' CHAP. XVIII. 1. The Duke of Sheh informed Confucius, saying, 'Among us here there are those who may be styled upright in their conduct. If their father have stolen a sheep, they will bear witness to the fact.' 2. Confucius said, 'Among us, in our part of the country, those who are upright are different from this. The father conceals the misconduct of the son, and the son conceals the misconduct of the father. Uprightness is to be found in this.'",
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      "ref": "PG3330.B00162",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XIX. Fan Ch'ih asked about perfect virtue. The Master said, 'It is, in retirement, to be sedately grave; in the management of business, to be reverently attentive; in intercourse with others, to be strictly sincere. Though a man go among rude, uncultivated tribes, these qualities may not be neglected.' CHAP. XX. 1. Tsze-kung asked, saying, 'What qualities must a man possess to entitle him to be called an officer? The Master said, 'He who in his conduct of himself maintains a sense of shame, and when sent to any quarter will not disgrace his prince's commission, deserves to be called an officer.' 3. Tsze-kung pursued, 'I venture to ask who may be placed in the next lower rank?' And he was told, 'He whom the circle of his relatives pronounce to be filial, whom his fellow-villagers and neighbours pronounce to be fraternal.' 3. Again the disciple asked, 'I venture to ask about the class still next in order.' The Master said, 'They are determined to be sincere in what they say, and to carry out what they do. They are obstinate little men. Yet perhaps they may make the next class.'",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00163",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "4. Tsze-kung finally inquired, 'Of what sort are those of the present day, who engage in government?' The Master said 'Pooh! they are so many pecks and hampers, not worth being taken into account.' CHAP. XXI. The Master said, 'Since I cannot get men pursuing the due medium, to whom I might communicate my instructions, I must find the ardent and the cautiously-decided. The ardent will advance and lay hold of truth; the cautiously-decided will keep themselves from what is wrong.' CHAP. XXII. 1. The Master said, 'The people of the south have a saying-- \"A man without constancy cannot be either a wizard or a doctor.\" Good! 2. 'Inconstant in his virtue, he will be visited with disgrace.'",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00164",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "3. The Master said, 'This arises simply from not attending to the prognostication.' CHAP. XXIII. The Master said, 'The superior man is affable, but not adulatory; the mean man is adulatory, but not affable.' CHAP. XXIV. Tsze-kung asked, saying, 'What do you say of a man who is loved by all the people of his neighborhood?' The Master replied, 'We may not for that accord our approval of him.' 'And what do you say of him who is hated by all the people of his neighborhood?' The Master said, 'We may not for that conclude that he is bad. It is better than either of these cases that the good in the neighborhood love him, and the bad hate him.' CHAP. XXV. The Master said, 'The superior man is easy to serve and difficult to please. If you try to please him in any way which is not accordant with right, he will not be pleased. But in his",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "employment of men, he uses them according to their capacity. The mean man is difficult to serve, and easy to please. If you try to please him, though it be in a way which is not accordant with right, he may be pleased. But in his employment of men, he wishes them to be equal to everything.' CHAP. XXVI. The Master said, 'The superior man has a dignified ease without pride. The mean man has pride without a dignified ease.' CHAP. XXVII. The Master said, 'The firm, the enduring, the simple, and the modest are near to virtue.' CHAP. XXVIII. Tsze-lu asked, saying, 'What qualities must a man possess to entitle him to be called a scholar?' The Master said, 'He must be thus,-- earnest, urgent, and bland:-- among his friends, earnest and urgent; among his brethren, bland.'",
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    {
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      "text": "CHAP. XXIX. The Master said, 'Let a good man teach the people seven years, and they may then likewise be employed in war.' CHAP. XXX. The Master said, 'To lead an uninstructed people to war, is to throw them away.'",
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    {
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      "text": "CHAP. XXXIX. 1. The Master said, 'Some men of worth retire from the world. 2. Some retire from particular states. 3. Some retire because of disrespectful looks. 4. Some retire because of contradictory language.' CHAP. XL. The Master said, 'Those who have done this are seven men.' CHAP. XLI. Tsze-lu happening to pass the night in Shih-man, the gatekeeper said to him, 'Whom do you come from?' Tsze-lu said, 'From Mr. K'ung.' 'It is he,-- is it not?'-- said the other, 'who knows the impracticable nature of the times and yet will be doing in them.' CHAP. XLII. 1. The Master was playing, one day, on a musical stone in Wei, when a man, carrying a straw basket, passed the door",
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      "text": "of the house where Confucius was, and said, 'His heart is full who so beats the musical stone.' 2. A little while after, he added, 'How contemptible is the one-ideaed obstinacy those sounds display! When one is taken no notice of, he has simply at once to give over his wish for public employment. \"Deep water must be crossed with the clothes on; shallow water may be crossed with the clothes held up.\"' 3. The Master said, 'How determined is he in his purpose! But this is not difficult!' CHAP. XLIII. 1. Tsze-chang said, 'What is meant when the Shu says that Kao-tsung, while observing the usual imperial mourning, was for three years without speaking?' 2. The Master said, 'Why must Kao-tsung be referred to as an example of this? The ancients all did so. When the sovereign died, the officers all attended to their several duties, taking instructions from the prime minister for three years.'",
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      "text": "CHAP. XLIV. The Master said, 'When rulers love to observe the rules of propriety, the people respond readily to the calls on them for service.' CHAP. XLV. Tsze-lu asked what constituted the superior man. The Master said, 'The cultivation of himself in reverential carefulness.' 'And is this all?' said Tsze-lu. 'He cultivates himself so as to give rest to others,' was the reply. 'And is this all?' again asked Tsze-lu. The Master said, 'He cultivates himself so as to give rest to all the people. He cultivates himself so as to give rest to all the people:-- even Yao and Shun were still solicitous about this.' CHAP. XLVI. Yuan Zang was squatting on his heels, and",
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      "text": "so waited the approach of the Master, who said to him, 'In youth not humble as befits a junior; in manhood, doing nothing worthy of being handed down; and living on to old age:-- this is to be a pest.' With this he hit him on the shank with his staff. CHAP. XLVI. 1. A youth of the village of Ch'ueh was employed by Confucius to carry the messages between him and his visitors. Some one asked about him, saying, 'I suppose he has made great progress.' 2. The Master said, 'I observe that he is fond of occupying the seat of a full-grown man; I observe that he walks shoulder to shoulder with his elders. He is not one who is seeking to make progress in learning. He wishes quickly to become a man.'",
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      "text": "BOOK XV. WEI LING KUNG.",
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    {
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      "text": "3. The Master said, 'Can it be without some reason that he has invited ME? If any one employ me, may I not make an eastern Chau?' CHAP. VI. Tsze-chang asked Confucius about perfect virtue. Confucius said, 'To be able to practise five things everywhere under heaven constitutes perfect virtue.' He begged to ask what they were, and was told, 'Gravity, generosity of soul, sincerity, earnestness, and kindness. If you are grave, you will not be treated with disrespect. If you are generous, you will win all. If you are sincere, people will repose trust in you. If you are earnest, you will accomplish much. If you are kind, this will enable you to employ the services of others.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. VII. 1. Pi Hsi inviting him to visit him, the Master was inclined to go. 2. Tsze-lu said, 'Master, formerly I have heard you say, \"When a man in his own person is guilty of doing evil, a superior man will not associate with him.\" Pi Hsi is in rebellion, holding possession of Chung-mau; if you go to him, what shall be said?' 3. The Master said, 'Yes, I did use these words. But is it not said, that, if a thing be really hard, it may be ground without being made thin? Is it not said, that, if a thing be really white, it may be steeped in a dark fluid without being made black? 4. 'Am I a bitter gourd! How can I be hung up out of the way of being eaten?'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. VIII. 1. The Master said, 'Yu, have you heard the six words to which are attached six becloudings?' Yu replied, 'I have not.' 2. 'Sit down, and I will tell them to you. 3. 'There is the love of being benevolent without the love of learning;-- the beclouding here leads to a foolish simplicity. There is the love of knowing without the love of learning;-- the beclouding here leads to dissipation of mind. There is the love of being sincere without the love of learning;-- the beclouding here leads to an injurious disregard of consequences. There is the love of straightforwardness without the love of learning;-- the beclouding here leads to rudeness. There is the love of boldness without the love of learning;-- the beclouding here leads to insubordination. There is the love of firmness without the love of learning;-- the beclouding here leads to extravagant conduct.'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
      "start": 146539,
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      "text": "CHAP. IX. 1. The Master said, 'My children, why do you not study the Book of Poetry? 2. 'The Odes serve to stimulate the mind. 3. 'They may be used for purposes of self-contemplation. 4. 'They teach the art of sociability. 5. 'They show how to regulate feelings of resentment. 6. 'From them you learn the more immediate duty of serving one's father, and the remoter one of serving one's prince. 7. 'From them we become largely acquainted with the names of birds, beasts, and plants.' CHAP. X. The Master said to Po-yu, 'Do you give yourself to the Chau-nan and the Shao-nan. The man who has not studied the Chau-nan and the Shao-nan, is like one who stands with his face right against a wall. Is he not so?'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XI. The Master said, '\"It is according to the rules of propriety,\" they say.-- \"It is according to the rules of propriety,\" they say. Are gems and silk all that is meant by propriety? \"It is music,\" they say.-- \"It is music,\" they say. Are bells and drums all that is meant by music?' CHAP. XII. The Master said, 'He who puts on an appearance of stern firmness, while inwardly he is weak, is like one of the small, mean people;-- yea, is he not like the thief who breaks through, or climbs over, a wall?' CHAP. XIII. The Master said, 'Your good, careful people of the villages are the thieves of virtue.' CHAP. XIV. The Master said, 'To tell, as we go along, what we have heard on the way, is to cast away our virtue.'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XV. 1. The Master said, 'There are those mean creatures! How impossible it is along with them to serve one's prince! 2. 'While they have not got their aims, their anxiety is how to get them. When they have got them, their anxiety is lest they should lose them. 3. 'When they are anxious lest such things should be lost, there is nothing to which they will not proceed.' CHAP. XVI. 1. The Master said, 'Anciently, men had three failings, which now perhaps are not to be found. 2. 'The high-mindedness of antiquity showed itself in a disregard of small things; the high-mindedness of the present day shows itself in wild license. The stern dignity of antiquity showed itself in grave reserve; the stern dignity of the present day shows itself in quarrelsome perverseness. The stupidity of antiquity showed itself in straightforwardness; the stupidity of the present day shows itself in sheer deceit.'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XVII. The Master said, 'Fine words and an insinuating appearance are seldom associated with virtue.' CHAP. XVIII. The Master said, 'I hate the manner in which purple takes away the luster of vermilion. I hate the way in which the songs of Chang confound the music of the Ya. I hate those who with their sharp mouths overthrow kingdoms and families.' CHAP. XIX. 1. The Master said, 'I would prefer not speaking.' 2. Tsze-kung said, 'If you, Master, do not speak, what shall we, your disciples, have to record?' 3. The Master said, 'Does Heaven speak? The four seasons pursue their courses, and all things are continually being produced, but does Heaven say anything?'",
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    {
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      "text": "BOOK XIX. TSZE-CHANG.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. I. Tsze-chang said, 'The scholar, trained for public duty, seeing threatening danger, is prepared to sacrifice his life. When the opportunity of gain is presented to him, he thinks of righteousness. In sacrificing, his thoughts are reverential. In mourning, his thoughts are about the grief which he should feel. Such a man commands our approbation indeed.' CHAP. II. Tsze-chang said, 'When a man holds fast to virtue, but without seeking to enlarge it, and believes right principles, but without firm sincerity, what account can be made of his existence or non-existence?'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. III. The disciples of Tsze-hsia asked Tsze-chang about the principles that should characterize mutual intercourse. Tsze- chang asked, 'What does Tsze-hsia say on the subject?' They replied, 'Tsze-hsia says:-- \"Associate with those who can advantage you. Put away from you those who cannot do so.\"' Tsze-chang observed, 'This is different from what I have learned. The superior man honours the talented and virtuous, and bears with all. He praises the good, and pities the incompetent. Am I possessed of great talents and virtue?-- who is there among men whom I will not bear with? Am I devoid of talents and virtue?-- men will put me away from them. What have we to do with the putting away of others?' CHAP. IV. Tsze-hsia said, 'Even in inferior studies and employments there is something worth being looked at; but if it be",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "attempted to carry them out to what is remote, there is a danger of their proving inapplicable. Therefore, the superior man does not practise them.' CHAP. V. Tsze-hsia said, 'He, who from day to day recognises what he has not yet, and from month to month does not forget what he has attained to, may be said indeed to love to learn.' CHAP. VI. Tsze-hsia said, 'There are learning extensively, and having a firm and sincere aim; inquiring with earnestness, and reflecting with self-application:-- virtue is in such a course.' CHAP. VII. Tsze-hsia said, 'Mechanics have their shops to dwell in, in order to accomplish their works. The superior man learns, in order to reach to the utmost of his principles.'",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00241",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. VIII. Tsze-hsia said, 'The mean man is sure to gloss his faults.' CHAP. IX. Tsze-hsia said, 'The superior man undergoes three changes. Looked at from a distance, he appears stern; when approached, he is mild; when he is heard to speak, his language is firm and decided.' CHAP. X. Tsze-hsia said, 'The superior man, having obtained their confidence, may then impose labours on his people. If he have not gained their confidence, they will think that he is oppressing them. Having obtained the confidence of his prince, one may then remonstrate with him. If he have not gained his confidence, the prince will think that he is vilifying him.' CHAP. XI. Tsze-hsia said, 'When a person does not transgress the boundary line in the great virtues, he may pass and repass it in the small virtues.'",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00242",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XII. 1. Tsze-yu said, 'The disciples and followers of Tsze-hsia, in sprinkling and sweeping the ground, in answering and replying, in advancing and receding, are sufficiently accomplished. But these are only the branches of learning, and they are left ignorant of what is essential.-- How can they be acknowledged as sufficiently taught?' 2. Tsze-hsia heard of the remark and said, 'Alas! Yen Yu is wrong. According to the way of the superior man in teaching, what departments are there which he considers of prime importance, and delivers? what are there which he considers of secondary importance, and allows himself to be idle about? But as in the case of plants, which are assorted according to their classes, so he deals with his disciples. How can the way of a superior man be such as to make fools of any of them? Is it not the sage alone, who can unite in one the beginning and the consummation of learning?'",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00243",
      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XIII. Tsze-hsia said, 'The officer, having discharged all his duties, should devote his leisure to learning. The student, having completed his learning, should apply himself to be an officer.' CHAP. XIV. Tsze-hsia said, 'Mourning, having been carried to the utmost degree of grief, should stop with that.' CHAP. XV. Tsze-hsia said, 'My friend Chang can do things which are hard to be done, but yet he is not perfectly virtuous.' CHAP. XVI. The philosopher Tsang said, 'How imposing is the manner of Chang! It is difficult along with him to practise virtue.' CHAP. XVII. The philosopher Tsang said, 'I heard this from our Master:-- \"Men may not have shown what is in them to the full extent, and yet they will be found to do so, on occasion of mourning for their parents.\"'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. XVIII. The philosopher Tsang said, 'I have heard this from our Master:-- \"The filial piety of Mang Chwang, in other matters, was what other men are competent to, but, as seen in his not changing the ministers of his father, nor his father's mode of government, it is difficult to be attained to.\"' CHAP. XIX. The chief of the Mang family having appointed Yang Fu to be chief criminal judge, the latter consulted the philosopher Tsang. Tsang said, 'The rulers have failed in their duties, and the people consequently have been disorganised, for a long time. When you have found out the truth of any accusation, be grieved for and pity them, and do not feel joy at your own ability.' CHAP. XX. Tsze-kung said, 'Chau's wickedness was not so great as that name implies. Therefore, the superior man hates to dwell",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "in a low-lying situation, where all the evil of the world will flow in upon him.' CHAP. XXI. Tsze-kung said, 'The faults of the superior man are like the eclipses of the sun and moon. He has his faults, and all men see them; he changes again, and all men look up to him.' CHAP. XXII. 1. Kung-sun Ch'ao of Wei asked Tsze-kung, saying, 'From whom did Chung-ni get his learning?' 2. Tsze-kung replied, 'The doctrines of Wan and Wu have not yet fallen to the ground. They are to be found among men. Men of talents and virtue remember the greater principles of them, and others, not possessing such talents and virtue, remember the smaller. Thus, all possess the doctrines of Wan and Wu. Where could our Master go that he should not have an opportunity of learning them? And yet what necessity was there for his having a regular master?'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. I. 1. Yao said, 'Oh! you, Shun, the Heaven-determined order of succession now rests in your person. Sincerely hold fast the due Mean. If there shall be distress and want within the four seas, the Heavenly revenue will come to a perpetual end.' 2. Shun also used the same language in giving charge to Yu. 3. T'ang said, 'I the child Li, presume to use a dark-coloured victim, and presume to announce to Thee, O most great and sovereign God, that the sinner I dare not pardon, and thy ministers, O God, I do not keep in obscurity. The examination of them is by thy mind, O God. If, in my person, I commit offences, they are not to be attributed to you, the people of the myriad regions. If you in the myriad regions commit offences, these offences must rest on my person.'",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "4. Chau conferred great gifts, and the good were enriched. 5. 'Although he has his near relatives, they are not equal to my virtuous men. The people are throwing blame upon me, the One man.' 6. He carefully attended to the weights and measures, examined the body of the laws, restored the discarded officers, and the good government of the kingdom took its course. 7. He revived States that had been extinguished, restored families whose line of succession had been broken, and called to office those who had retired into obscurity, so that throughout the kingdom the hearts of the people turned towards him. 8. What he attached chief importance to, were the food of the people, the duties of mourning, and sacrifices. 9. By his generosity, he won all. By his sincerity, he made the people repose trust in him. By his earnest activity, his achievements were great. By his justice, all were delighted.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 3330,
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      "text": "CHAP. II. 1. Tsze-chang asked Confucius, saying, 'In what way should a person in authority act in order that he may conduct government properly?' The Master replied, 'Let him honour the five excellent, and banish away the four bad, things;-- then may he conduct government properly.' Tsze-chang said, 'What are meant by the five excellent things?' The Master said, 'When the person in authority is beneficent without great expenditure; when he lays tasks on the people without their repining; when he pursues what he desires without being covetous; when he maintains a dignified ease without being proud; when he is majestic without being fierce.' 2. Tsze-chang said, 'What is meant by being beneficent without great expenditure?' The Master replied, 'When the person in authority makes more beneficial to the people the things from which",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00253",
      "bookId": 3330,
      "start": 171177,
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      "text": "they naturally derive benefit;-- is not this being beneficent without great expenditure? When he chooses the labours which are proper, and makes them labour on them, who will repine? When his desires are set on benevolent government, and he secures it, who will accuse him of covetousness? Whether he has to do with many people or few, or with things great or small, he does not dare to indicate any disrespect;-- is not this to maintain a dignified ease without any pride? He adjusts his clothes and cap, and throws a dignity into his looks, so that, thus dignified, he is looked at with awe;-- is not this to be majestic without being fierce?' 3. Tsze-chang then asked, 'What are meant by the four bad things?' The Master said, 'To put the people to death without having instructed them;-- this is called cruelty. To require from them, suddenly, the full tale of work, without having given them warning;-- this is called oppression. To issue orders as if without urgency, at first, and, when the time comes, to insist on them with severity;-- this is called injury. And, generally, in the giving pay",
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    {
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      "text": "or rewards to men, to do it in a stingy way;-- this is called acting the part of a mere official.' CHAP III. 1. The Master said, 'Without recognising the ordinances of Heaven, it is impossible to be a superior man. 2. 'Without an acquaintance with the rules of Propriety, it is impossible for the character to be established. 3. 'Without knowing the force of words, it is impossible to know men.'",
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      "sha256": "2100839060d2840787dfbf19d0982c13d86987e7ab1cf82109e1b4d7544dc021",
      "text": "*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS (FROM THE CHINESE CLASSICS) ***",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3330.B00256",
      "bookId": 3330,
      "start": 172859,
      "end": 172942,
      "sha256": "1d51416f58ccf2e0cbf9d6c33fc0c63852bee02e894080cc5737bee02089024e",
      "text": "Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00024",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 1878,
      "end": 1894,
      "sha256": "8c14ece53f3b4df5409c5be64a5940cdef004f3e52fff4353eabe660276c2243",
      "text": "COLLINS, PRINTER",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00025",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 1904,
      "end": 1912,
      "sha256": "027490d745c7c8ff49ec56b0e3fb74105b7f81ce69a7a23dbc11aed956852609",
      "text": "PREFACE.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00026",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 1918,
      "end": 3333,
      "sha256": "b6a74685e1f491e3e2e9e21e2cf80e980b8686b9f965ede47dd4a8884f236173",
      "text": "The object of this book is to enable the beginner to learn to make simple mechanical drawings without the aid of an instructor, and to create an interest in the subject by giving examples such as the machinist meets with in his every-day workshop practice. The plan of representing in many examples the pencil lines, and numbering the order in which they are marked, the author believes to possess great advantages for the learner, since it is the producing of the pencil lines that really proves the study, the inking in being merely a curtailed repetition of the pencilling. Similarly when the drawing of a piece, such, for example, as a fully developed screw thread, is shown fully developed from end to end, even though the pencil lines were all shown, yet the process of construction will be less clear than if the process of development be shown gradually along the drawing. Thus beginning at an end of the example the first pencil lines only may be shown, and as the pencilling progresses to the right-hand, the development may progress so that at the other or left-hand end, the finished inked in and shaded thread may be shown, and between these two ends will be found a part showing each stage of development of the thread, all the lines being numbered in the order in which they were marked. This prevents a confusion of lines, and makes it more easy to follow or to copy the drawing.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00027",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 3337,
      "end": 3790,
      "sha256": "693287ad1f3d5e5c31f6349abef36a3c459bf58a489d23c4eb0b7cd71c63041e",
      "text": "It is the numerous inquiries from working machinists for a book of this kind that have led the author to its production, which he hopes and believes will meet the want thus indicated, giving to the learner a sufficiently practical knowledge of mechanical drawing to enable him to proceed further by copying such drawings as he may be able to obtain, or by the aid of some of the more expensive and elaborate books already published on the subject.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00028",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 3794,
      "end": 4320,
      "sha256": "e1fdc4e79703b796ee48c4fbcbedb019d4dab82fef91f174d3c016acb2bfaff5",
      "text": "He believes that in learning mechanical drawing without the aid of an instructor the chief difficulty is overcome when the learner has become sufficiently familiar with the instruments to be enabled to use them without hesitation or difficulty, and it is to attain this end that the chapter on plotting mechanical motions and the succeeding examples have been introduced; these forming studies that are easily followed by the beginner; while sufficiently interesting to afford to the student pleasure as well as profit.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00243",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 29488,
      "end": 29571,
      "sha256": "f06dd0679d67a899445c6b543889698f9cec5f84c5d2f92734db16973978c0ac",
      "text": "All the instruments that need be used in the examples of this book are as follows:",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00244",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 29575,
      "end": 29830,
      "sha256": "59a085f0283599d9f743da64167c4966d4d4b3d9b94fe9efdddd82425a41fb68",
      "text": "A small spring bow-pen for circles, a lining pen or pen for straight lines, a small spring bow-pencil for circles, a large bow-pen with a removable leg to replace by a divider leg or a pencil leg, and having an extension piece to increase its capacity.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00245",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 29834,
      "end": 31084,
      "sha256": "5895f401af93849025c1d4659e0e1039cbd2ab0757602d1f18db13cd13725b9a",
      "text": "The spring bow-pen should have a stiff spring, and should be opened out to its full capacity to see that the spring acts well when so opened out, keeping the legs stiff when opened for the larger diameters. The purchaser should see that the joint for opening and closing the legs is an easy but not a loose fit on the screw, and that the legs will not move sideways. To test this latter, which is of great importance in the spring bow-pencil as well as in the pen, it is well to close the legs nearly together and taking one leg in one hand and the other leg in the other hand (between the forefinger and thumb), pushing and pulling them sideways, any motion in that direction being sufficient to condemn the instrument. It is safest and best to have the two legs of the bow-pen and pencil made from one piece of metal, and not of two separate pieces screwed together at the top, as the screw will rarely hold them firmly together. The points should be long and fine, and as round as possible. In very small instruments separate points that are fastened with a screw are objectionable, because, in very small circles, they hide the point and make it difficult to apply the instrument to the exact proper point or spot on the drawing.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00246",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 31088,
      "end": 31586,
      "sha256": "8a101da336717aa78c3f97784d79941a79b64916249a0022186328dccdd1a442",
      "text": "The joints of the large bow or circle-pen should also be somewhat stiff, and quite free from side motion, and the extension piece should be rigidly secured when held by the screw. It is a good plan in purchasing to put in the extension piece, open the joint and the pen to their fullest, and draw a circle, moving the pen in one direction, and then redraw it, moving it in the other direction, and if one line only appears and that not thickened by the second drawing, the pen is a good one.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00247",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 31590,
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      "sha256": "5d3359c56fe3799a8fa7c07ad8b8acd1f4b5ab33fad473dd72358020c4398406",
      "text": "The lead pencil should be of hard lead, and it is recommended that they be of the H, H, H, H, H, H, in the English grades, which corresponds to the V, V, H, of the Dixon grade. The pencil lines should be made as lightly as possible; first, because the presence of the lead on the paper tends to prevent the ink from passing to the paper; and, secondly, because in rubbing out the pencil lines the ink lines are reduced in blackness and the surface of the paper becomes roughened, so that it will soil easier and be harder to clean. In order to produce fine pencil lines without requiring a very frequent sharpening of the pencil it is best to sharpen the pencil as in Figures 7 and 8, so that the edge shall be long in the direction in which it is moved, which is denoted by the arrow in Figure 7. But when very fine work is to be done, as in the case of Patent Office drawings, a long, round point is preferable, because the eye can see plainer just where the pencil will begin to mark and leave off; hence the pencil lines will not be so liable to overrun.",
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      "ref": "PG23319.B00248",
      "bookId": 23319,
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      "sha256": "d837e16a29a71cfb29940d932b2f8d999baf1b5c390b8b3c3f8472c052af4060",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 7.]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00249",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 32693,
      "end": 32716,
      "sha256": "7f915d1055b80d0a99cc017719610e388eebb92aec48cdedadb2264cec76b7a8",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 8.]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00250",
      "bookId": 23319,
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      "text": "In place of the ordinary wood-covered lead pencils there may be obtained at the drawing material stores pencil holders for holding the fine, round sticks of lead, and these are by far the best for a learner. They are easier to sharpen, and will slip in the holder, giving warning when the draftsman is pressing them too hard on the paper, as he is apt to do. The best method of trimming these leads, as also lead pencils after they have been roughly shaped, is with a small fine file, holding the file still and moving the pencil; or a good piece of emery paper or sand paper is good, moving the pencil as before.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00251",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 33345,
      "end": 34461,
      "sha256": "e4756245c3d8132ad2f7b4b64746108a7e5a449ae0be78efc251e5103c806bad",
      "text": "All lines in pencilling as in inking in should begin at the left hand and be drawn towards the right, or when triangles are used the lines are begun at the bottom and drawn towards the top or away from the operator. The rubber used should not be of a harsh grade, since that will roughen the face of the paper and probably cause the ink to run. The less rubbing out the better the learner will progress, and the more satisfaction he will receive from the results. If it becomes necessary to scratch out it is best done with a penknife well sharpened, and not applied too forcibly to the paper but somewhat lightly, and moved in different and not all in one direction. After the penknife the rubber may sometimes be used to advantage, since it will, if of a smooth grade, leave the paper smoother than the knife. Finally, before inking in, the surface that has been scraped should be condensed again by rubbing some clean, hard substance over it which will prevent the ink from spreading. The end of a paper-cutter or the end of a rounded ivory handled drawing instrument is excellent for this purpose.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00252",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 34465,
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      "sha256": "cf6e67e8ddeb585271a3287f004d8ee8f9f06565229114e5fc88b080b9f50731",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 9.]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00259",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 35635,
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      "sha256": "7c42e7432a7f3f66c877075d185cac6f05471a755079d981fdd56cd9f689e4b2",
      "text": "For glazed surface paper, as Bristol-board, the smoothest rubber must be used, the grade termed velvet rubber answering well.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00260",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 35767,
      "end": 35785,
      "sha256": "700c393e3098215ef4894eea6cbf28611e17a9049b91eb59d401e68f7bdc40c6",
      "text": "THE DRAWING PAPER.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00261",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 35789,
      "end": 36007,
      "sha256": "dc56065d07a89aa2d1c36d427a0180063df516eebd8ffea7e79170e2c77bf7fe",
      "text": "Whatever kind of drawing paper be used it should be kept dry, or the ink, however good it may be, will be apt to run and make a thick line that will not have the sharp, clean edges necessary to make lines look well.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00262",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 36011,
      "end": 36134,
      "sha256": "215ef9b6520144711a1a9210518330a337adef661d2d0f2643d7af01ee86180d",
      "text": "Drawing paper is made in various qualities, kinds, and forms, as follows: The sizes and names of paper made in sheets are:",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00263",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 36138,
      "end": 36615,
      "sha256": "3dbf672aba1969bc7f4e4219fbae88204a2ce24d3fd64fc301524b0829840656",
      "text": "Cap, 13 x 16 inches. Demy, 20 x 15 \" Medium, 22 x 17 \" Royal, 24 x 19 \" Super Royal, 27 x 19 \" Imperial, 30 x 21 \" Elephant, 28 x 22 \" Columbier, 34 x 23 \" Atlas, 33 x 26 \" Theorem, 34 x 28 \" Double Elephant, 40 x 26 \" Antiquarian, 52 x 31 \" Emperor, 40 x 60 \" Uncle Sam, 48 x 120 \"",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00286",
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      "text": "When it is an object to have the lines of a drawing show as black as possible, as for drawings that are to be photo-engraved, the ink should be mixed so thickly as to have a tendency to lift when a body, such as a lead pencil, is lifted out of it. For Patent Office drawings some will mix it so thickly that under the above test it appears a little stringy.",
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      "ref": "PG23319.B00287",
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      "text": "The thicker the ink can be used the better, because the tendency of the carbon to separate is less; and it is for this reason that the test mentioned with a tumbler of water is so accurate. When ink is to be used on parchment, or glossy tracing-paper, it will flow perfectly if a few drops of ox-gall be mixed with it; but on soft paper, or on bristol board, this will cause the ink to spread.",
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      "ref": "PG23319.B00288",
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      "text": "For purposes of measurement, there are special rules or scales of steel and of paper manufactured. The steel rules are finely and accurately divided, and some are of triangular form, so that when laid upon the paper the lines divided will lie close to the paper, and the light will fall directly on the ruled surface. Triangular rules or scales are therefore much superior to flat ones. The object of having a paper rule or scale is, that the paper will expand and contract under varying degrees of atmospheric moisture, the same as the drawing paper does.",
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      "text": "Figure 16 represents a triangular scale, having upon it six different divisions of the inch. These are made in different patterns, having either decimal divisions or the vulgar fractions. Being made of steel, and nickel-plated, they are proof against the moisture of the fingers, and are not subject to the variation of the wooden scale.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 16.]",
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      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 17.]",
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      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 18.]",
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      "text": "The lining pen should be formed as in Figure 17, which presents an edge and a front view of the points. The inside faces should be flat across, and slightly curved in their lengths, as shown. If this curve is too great, as shown exaggerated in Figure 18, the body of the ink lies too near the point and is apt to flow too freely, running over the pen-point and making a thick, ragged line. On the other hand, if the inside faces, between which the ink lies, are too parallel and narrow near the points, the ink dries in the pen, and renders a too frequent cleaning necessary. Looking at the face of the pen as at A in Figure 17, its point should have an even curve, as shown, the edge being as sharp as it can be made without cutting the drawing paper. Upon this quality depends the fineness and cleanness of the lines it will make. This thin edge should extend around the curve as far as the dotted line, so that it will be practicable to slant the pen in either of the directions shown in Figure 19; and it is obvious that its thickness must be equal around the arc, so that the same thickness of line will be drawn whether the pen be held vertical or slanted in either direction.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 19.]",
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      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 20.]",
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      "text": "[Illustration: Fig 33.]",
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      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 34.]",
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      "text": "It follows, from what has been said, that the needle-point and pen-point should stand vertical when in use, and to effect this the instruments, except in the smallest sizes, are provided with joints, such as shown at A and B in the bow-pencil or circle-pencil, in Figure 33. These joints should be sufficiently stiff that they will not move too easily, and yet will move rather than that the legs should sensibly spring without moving at the joint. The needle-point leg should be adjusted by means of the joint, to stand vertical, and the same remarks apply equally to the pen-leg; but in the case of the pencil-leg it is the pencil itself and not the leg that requires attention, the joint B being so adjusted that the pencil either stands vertical, or, what is perhaps preferable, so that it stands inclined slightly towards the needle-point. In sharpening the pencil the inner face C may be made concave or at least vertical and flat, and the outer convex or else bevelled and flat, producing a fine and long edge rounded in its length of edge. In using the circle-pencil and circle-pen it will be found more convenient to rotate it in the direction of the arrow in Figure 34. It should be held lightly to the paper, and the learner will find that he has a natural tendency to hold it too firmly and press it too heavily, which is _especially to be avoided_.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00328",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 59657,
      "end": 60079,
      "sha256": "aa1cbe517b9adefdecec609abcd407b4ffeb602b645720f6ef0b458f70b54838",
      "text": "If in drawing a small circle the needle-point slips out of the paper, it is because the pencil-point is too long; or, what is the same thing, the needle-point does not protrude far enough out from the leg. Or if the instrument requires to be leaned over too much to make the pencil or pen mark, it is because the pen or pencil is not far enough out, and this again may cause the needle-point to slip out of the paper.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00329",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 60083,
      "end": 60107,
      "sha256": "5d61170624adb197b5ed15ae9c9820cd3e916097f7525f80a1714b0c77a777e2",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 35.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00332",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 60770,
      "end": 60793,
      "sha256": "58485d3498b33c44be4a27b87575be6bdcc2d43dc9d21a1dc88aa8648cdef40c",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig 37.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00333",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 60797,
      "end": 61140,
      "sha256": "7e7d7a4fafe6ebf051eb8696d2e7e51ab734b843cd8370446617a80c00c56155",
      "text": "In applying the ink to the bow-pen as to all other instruments, care must be taken that the ink lies between the points only and not on the outside, for in the latter case the ink will flow down too freely and make a broad, ragged line, perhaps getting on the edge of the square blade or triangle, and causing a blot of ink on the drawing.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00334",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 61144,
      "end": 61739,
      "sha256": "54888c2a119751e03ebf86bc2a73a8b893dc4098712cbb9eca5067ac9e15815d",
      "text": "In using a straight line or lining pen with a T square it may be used as in Figure 36, being nearly vertical, as shown, and moved from left to right as denoted by the arrow, S representing the square blade. But in using it, or a pencil, with a straight edge or a triangle unsupported by the square blade, the latter should be steadied by letting the fingers rest upon it while using the instrument, the operation being shown in Figure 37. The position, Figure 36, is suitable for long lines, and that in Figure 37 for small drawings, where the pen requires close adjustment to the lines.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00335",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 61749,
      "end": 61761,
      "sha256": "d3df84af596edc11e1a38f5bc43e79309a2cf2046b4ea9a136982d1df2cc932f",
      "text": "CHAPTER III.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00336",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 61765,
      "end": 61784,
      "sha256": "9b8b6318ea402d70ca630899296fbd8ebd584988310af50737e5b6ad354fb1ce",
      "text": "_LINES AND CURVES._",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00340",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 62416,
      "end": 62440,
      "sha256": "0258f19e608f6d686efa0f03b8c4a656845d716895f998b916b010c74dcf354b",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 39.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00341",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 62444,
      "end": 62468,
      "sha256": "1ce72ab6752f37437b47eb523db48242f396bdb8fd11bf0d72dccf2f2c6296ed",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 40.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00342",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 62472,
      "end": 62995,
      "sha256": "d91d88ad9b4594971b36177374e22443a40ef602e96472455bb1d859fb070816",
      "text": "Dotted lines, thus, <----->, mean the direction and the points at which a dimension is taken or marked. Dotted lines, thus,-----, simply connect the same parts or lines in different views of the object. Thus in Figure 38 are a side and an end view of a rivet, and the dotted lines show that the circles on the end view correspond to the circle of the diameters of the head and of the stem, and therefore represent their diameters while showing that both are round. A straight line is in geometry termed a right line.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00343",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 62999,
      "end": 63204,
      "sha256": "8f8b4d772b4eb01845806b6f4713cdfc2f4a524d320b402a1f98542124a598ec",
      "text": "A line at a right angle to another is said to be perpendicular to it; thus, in Figures 39, 40, and 41, lines A are in each case perpendicular to line B, or line B is in each case perpendicular to line A.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00344",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 63208,
      "end": 63320,
      "sha256": "d2a19677c1434142c17bd6133c7a80355bb4c5bb361be3aa3fcf3b69ac93e756",
      "text": "A point is a position or location supposed to have no size, and in cases where necessary is indicated by a dot.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00448",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 92466,
      "end": 92498,
      "sha256": "f083c917115ae730ca77e88838629a7a842c92f6dcd3c1722da441251436120e",
      "text": "_SHADOW LINES AND LINE SHADING._",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00449",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 92502,
      "end": 92535,
      "sha256": "2472d8754d8b3c4b219d7613b0d5fac4455559919e42f6026d27e13ca020e4f8",
      "text": "SECTION LINING OR CROSS-HATCHING.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00450",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 92541,
      "end": 93617,
      "sha256": "165b9eeb57129f1a950a4cd56c0463e97e8195933cbd16ad1643bc55115f9c85",
      "text": "When the interior of a piece is to be shown as a piece cut in half, or when a piece is broken away, as is done to make more of the parts show, or show more clearly, the surface so broken away or cut off is section-lined or cross-hatched; that is to say, diagonal lines are drawn across it, and to distinguish one piece from another these lines are drawn at varying angles and of varying widths apart. In Figure 87 is given a view of three cylindrical pieces. It may be known to be a sectional view by the cross-hatching or section lines. It would be a difficult matter to represent the three pieces put together without showing them in section, because, in an outline view, the collars and recesses would not appear. Each piece could of course be drawn separately, but this would not show how they were placed when put together. They could be shown in one view if they were shaded by lines and a piece shown broken out where the collars and, recesses are, but line shading is too tedious for detail drawings, beside involving too much labor in their production.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00451",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 93621,
      "end": 93645,
      "sha256": "2451fc3b5799d495f2b55e799d2036c2ed6894969757dfb592004f0aab1f6ba3",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 87.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00452",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 93649,
      "end": 94013,
      "sha256": "66df1851b3583098173387d68914077a57a10ad4565b67d2794df151970af4f6",
      "text": "Figure 88 represents a case in which there are three cylindrical pieces one within the other, the two inner ones being fastened together by a screw which is shown dotted in in the end view, and whose position along the pieces is shown in the side view. The edges of the fracture in the outer piece are in this case cross-hatched, to show the line of fracture.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00453",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 94017,
      "end": 94041,
      "sha256": "963f3a1b7e2c05fec914f94451b120030d3917fe763bc7b7d1cd839cc4d65507",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 88.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00454",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 94045,
      "end": 94069,
      "sha256": "8bfcb3601451f4393d98ccacbbdd511e5d41f9858691e706f4bdcaf0dac8c7b5",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 89.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00455",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 94073,
      "end": 94371,
      "sha256": "c815b68e9b1df933da7999cf5e0079bfecf69d9fc70778f0db8f7d57532c54fa",
      "text": "In cross-hatching it is better that the diagonal lines do not quite meet the edges of the piece, than that they should in the least overrun, as is shown in Figure 89, where in the top half the diagonals slightly overrun, while in the lower half they do not quite meet the outlines of the piece.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00456",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 94375,
      "end": 95124,
      "sha256": "135917d8b2286ee5535b5bb735d0f0d7c18352a6598e1525535a024736a29bd3",
      "text": "In Figure 90 are shown in section a number of pieces one within the other, the central bore being filled with short plugs. All the cross-hatching was done with the triangle of 60 degrees and that of 90 degrees. It is here shown that with these two triangles only, and a judicious arrangement of the diagonals, an almost infinite number of pieces may be shown in cross section without any liability of mistaking one for the other, or any doubt as to the form and arrangement of the pieces; for, beside the difference in spacing in the cross-hatching, there are no two adjoining pieces with the diagonals running in the same direction. It will be seen that the narrow pieces are most clearly defined by a close spacing of the cross-hatching.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00457",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 95128,
      "end": 95152,
      "sha256": "eacc300c6c5b445cd802eb3cf6a22f9a1fc1158b21b6bc9e7e3ddc61423385ad",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 90.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00459",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 95967,
      "end": 95991,
      "sha256": "2a87a1f8282af04dc93b6ee7e0d448358fc20ac4a279e82c207162ca894336d5",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 91.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00460",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 95995,
      "end": 96019,
      "sha256": "31c996f0d01edad05b9c5c8726f8083de76c21af98cee580104dd348728e373c",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 92.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00461",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 96023,
      "end": 96409,
      "sha256": "102c4464fd49f5dab7a1cedfd0eef82d53d6bb2aacbf98c2d94057c5ba902dfd",
      "text": "Section shading or cross-hatching may sometimes cause the lines of the drawing to appear crooked to the eye. Thus, in Figure 92, the key edge on the right appears curved inwards, while on the left the key edge appears curved outwards, although such is not actually the case. The same effect is produced in Figure 93 on the right-hand edge of the key, but not on the left-hand edge.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00462",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 96413,
      "end": 96436,
      "sha256": "98addc925863e705c4aef4611fd846b62ac5d2080f0b792ae938961e99fa1b12",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 93]",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00463",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 96440,
      "end": 96464,
      "sha256": "55f215691a2c1d27e590c62ea3b8cf95326e0b1372f722e001ea800681c08443",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 94.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00464",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 96468,
      "end": 96645,
      "sha256": "39c7543ff7fdb366974fdf7b69a83a5da31f93a01471fdf65cbce71126cc7fd4",
      "text": "A remarkable instance of this kind is shown in Figure 94, when the vertical lines appear to the eye to be at a considerable angle one to the other, although they are parallel.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00465",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 96649,
      "end": 97179,
      "sha256": "ed14d56c8378f2554290f15ed7abaf4ae7197349ad663482b1f4bf71af27feac",
      "text": "The lines in sectional shading or cross-hatching may be made to denote the material of which the piece is to be composed. Thus Professor Unwin has proposed the system shown in the Figures 95 and 96. This may be of service in some cases, but it would involve very much more labor than it is worth in ordinary machine shop drawings, except in the case of cast iron and wood, these two being shown in the simplest and the usual manner. It is much better to write the name of the material beneath the piece in a detail drawing.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00466",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 97183,
      "end": 97207,
      "sha256": "242be58633bf9b489e43b85bc2c520368e60081a5f53cd8f63dbfa2d2d642219",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 95.]",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00467",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 97211,
      "end": 97235,
      "sha256": "e9c3c52415ab8943b29f92372b0c264c42ae8feb49520e80e737a38583afca10",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 96.]",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00468",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 97241,
      "end": 97254,
      "sha256": "600bc3a6ad75b3abfdd4fb5166c7ef42db05a778283878d98941aaa5fbbd6456",
      "text": "LINE SHADING.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00469",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 97258,
      "end": 97449,
      "sha256": "1e86821cb8bcd6feee9691ea22cf1462d1ac2992843807b5c58457fdcf263402",
      "text": "Mechanical drawings are made to look better and to show more distinctly by being line shaded or shaded by lines. The simplest form of line shading is by the use of the shade or shadow line.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00470",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 97453,
      "end": 98304,
      "sha256": "98c217e3adf23116623454846b47ffe0d12775a823d449dda1ceed53489816e5",
      "text": "In a mechanical drawing the light is supposed, for the purposes of line shading or of coloring, to come in from the upper left-hand corner of the drawing paper; hence it falls directly upon the upper and left-hand lines of each piece, which are therefore represented by fine lines, while the right hand and lower edges of the piece being on the shadow side may therefore, with propriety, be represented by broader lines, which are called shadow or shade lines. These lines will often serve to indicate the shape of some part of the piece represented, as will be seen from the following examples. In Figure 97 is a piece that contains a hole, the fact being shown by the circle being thickened at A. If the circle were thickened on the other side as at B, in Figure 98, it would show that it represented a cylindrical stem instead of a hole.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00471",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 98308,
      "end": 98332,
      "sha256": "07e87a06679ddad40b9286db0741041b6069e2a9d873560ef93d63bc2353dede",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 97.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00472",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 98336,
      "end": 98360,
      "sha256": "b5caa0044d168ba39423394652f3ff996177bf85fa9bdbacd882e37d15e0f0b4",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 98.]",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00473",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 98364,
      "end": 98388,
      "sha256": "5bfab3743243e44ed1b9889dd8b898e4f82aeb5d5f1fbb33e518dcb9bdcd56f7",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 99.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00474",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 98392,
      "end": 98539,
      "sha256": "9cd5e84a74194c601c6e16be83ffd9eea086228bac19517f93120c76569a2d02",
      "text": "In Figure 99 is represented a washer, the surfaces that are in the shadow side being shown in a shade line or shadow line, as it is often called.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00475",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 98543,
      "end": 99104,
      "sha256": "1b554a2a679310f26000a8504d000da88b4d1cd4d802dd3b37cf380787e8ee78",
      "text": "In Figure 100 is a key drawn with a shade line, while in Figure 101 the shade line is shown applied to a nut. The shade line may be produced in straight lines by drawing the line twice over, and slightly inclining the pen, or by opening the pen points a little. For circles, however, it may be produced either by slightly moving the centre from which the circle is drawn, or by going over the shade part twice, and slightly pressing the instrument as it moves, so as to gradually spring the legs farther apart, the latter plan being generally preferable.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00476",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 99108,
      "end": 99133,
      "sha256": "786e79e917118bbb9ce0e8475f3402b71691ee5ab4f5934fb794add37620927f",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 100.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00477",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 99137,
      "end": 99162,
      "sha256": "34d6a4d966aff8e8e549c9d6d3602efcc3a7e09125b2c68797692f8d05ff0e1b",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 101.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00499",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 103735,
      "end": 103745,
      "sha256": "e3daf2d4156a0b23cfc3a5f2ca9503220e1314d703750b217a5dda58a3597ed8",
      "text": "CHAPTER V.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00500",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 103749,
      "end": 103770,
      "sha256": "22e821fc03297eb7b85d431122a8c2d3cc12773d89ee1b9c5e4a636d1786ba01",
      "text": "_MARKING DIMENSIONS._",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00501",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 103776,
      "end": 104001,
      "sha256": "4fb9a12148105b6f2cd2899ae4898830fd5e392bbc1089ab7d9097f723104bb5",
      "text": "The dimensions of mechanical drawings are best marked in red ink so that they will show plainly, and that the lines denoting the points at which the dimension is given shall not be confounded with the lines of the drawing.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00502",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 104005,
      "end": 104283,
      "sha256": "328f9026de36406cb88d526867d8a173976dad0a2798d2b240ea1fa4d3bdc87f",
      "text": "The dimension figures should be as large as the drawing will conveniently admit; and should be marked at every point at which a shoulder or change of form or dimension occurs, except in the case of straight tapers which have their dimensions marked at each end of the taper.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00503",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 104287,
      "end": 104716,
      "sha256": "e291924e084caac7e1785fd2002e406f995ec58ac91ccd2144164bf415b01db1",
      "text": "In the case of a single piece standing by itself the dimension figures may be marked all standing one way, so as to be read without changing the position of the operator or requiring to turn the drawing around. This is done in Figure 115, which represents the drawing of a key. The figures are here placed outside the drawing in all cases where it can be done, which, in the case of a small drawing, leaves the same clearer.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00504",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 104720,
      "end": 104745,
      "sha256": "0af88411a101b9d8ce975bc6ffa9a53429ecad97afbd9d9f9bf9be08f191ce68",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 115.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00505",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 104749,
      "end": 104941,
      "sha256": "9fe050214cab1df29ed100ef46252fd13548d6db230b9bae6526d1f06e8b18dd",
      "text": "In Figure 116 the dimensions are marked, running parallel to the dimension for which they are given, so that all measures of length stand lengthwise, and those of breadth across the drawing.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00506",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 104945,
      "end": 104970,
      "sha256": "9df284da91c60e50e33e19cccf3facc8c97ea0c4772c84547909787374f303b2",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 116.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00507",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 104974,
      "end": 105372,
      "sha256": "b5e1994d533dad5ba4225902d2c8748b2c22995e3b45ac4f1012246aaee57941",
      "text": "Figure 117 represents a key with a sharp-cornered step in it. Here the two dimensions forming the steps cannot both be coincident with it; hence they are marked as near to it as convenient, it being understood that they apply to the step, and not to one side of it. When the step has a round instead of a sharp corner, the radius of the arc of the corner may be marked, as shown in Figure 118.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00508",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 105376,
      "end": 105401,
      "sha256": "3ee952b0eb9302b0c8df506d05a77a3a4eb43cf40c9e56f44d9b32927433f294",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 117.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00509",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 105405,
      "end": 105894,
      "sha256": "913bfdb90a41445d3dd57d23c6ce3f757a4ac438c62ebf900afb6f4b24a5bdac",
      "text": "Figure 119 represents a key drawn in perspective, so that all the dimensions may be marked on one view. Perspective sketches may be used for single pieces, as they denote the shape of the piece more clearly to the eye. On account of the skill required in their production, they are not, however, used in mechanical drawing, except as in the case of Patent-Office or similar drawings, where the form and construction rather than the dimension is the information sought to be conveyed.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00510",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 105898,
      "end": 105923,
      "sha256": "5d8662b63c19f4db745599f3a879b9e1c625cd9c8b6c78021f71d5bab5eeddc8",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 118.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00511",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 105927,
      "end": 105952,
      "sha256": "56e7b30222eb87fa810761a89da4620cc4742e84f6b759a93464f6ee678b6f89",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 119.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00512",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 105962,
      "end": 105973,
      "sha256": "21b2684012bd9e7216d99aa81e3891b6fe162134bfe0e7fd50752e8c4e4dc93c",
      "text": "CHAPTER VI.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00716",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 164781,
      "end": 166615,
      "sha256": "a10daf583c51f6e40d7c67b188bcce04084285634dbd3db7be60a37d3f89e9f8",
      "text": "For the bottoms of the thread, lines are similarly drawn, as from _i'_ to meet _i_, where dot I is marked. J is got from _j'_ and _j_, while K is got from the intersection of _k'_ with _k_, and so on, the dots from I to O being those through which a curve is drawn for the bottom of the thread, and from this curve a template also may be made to mark all the thread bottoms. We have in our example used eight points of division in each half-circle, but either more or less points maybe used, the only requisite being that the pitch of the thread must be divided into as many divisions as the two half-circles are. But it is not absolutely necessary that both half-circles be divided into the same number of equal divisions. Thus, suppose the large half-circle were divided into ten divisions, then instead of the first half of the pitch being divided into eight (as from _a_ to _h_) it would require to have ten lines. But the inner half-circle may have eight only, as in our example. It is more convenient, however, to use the same number of divisions for both circles, so that they may both be divided together by lines radiating from the centre. The more the points of division, the greater number of points to draw the curves through; hence it is desirable to have as many as possible, which is governed by the pitch of the thread, it being obvious that the finer the pitch the less the number of distinct and clear divisions it is practicable to divide it into. In our example the angles of the thread are spread out to cause these lines to be thrown further apart than they would be in a bolt of that diameter; hence it will be seen that in threads of but two or three inches in diameter the lines would fall very close together, and would require to be drawn finely and with care to keep them distinct.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00717",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 166619,
      "end": 166648,
      "sha256": "98a8debc70d0947c912b4618de4e80196fcc871809d13da8f2af37d2854d058c",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 208 _a_.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00718",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 166652,
      "end": 166677,
      "sha256": "bd503045ddd29ddc0b62491e65630ef7aa1bdce16966ea14180253cbc781c546",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 209.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00719",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 166681,
      "end": 170020,
      "sha256": "ad190da0c0e137112c72fed3ee905c10ec0ef2442203610db4ace2156f1fdc82",
      "text": "The curves for a United States standard form of thread are obtained in the same manner as from the $V$ thread in Figure 208, but the thread itself is more difficult to draw. The construction of this thread is shown in Figure 208, it having a flat place at the top and at the bottom of the thread. A common $V$ thread has its sides at an angle of 60 degrees, one to the other, the top and bottom meeting in a point. The United States standard is obtained from drawing a common $V$ thread and dividing its depth into eight equal divisions, as at _x_, in Figure 208 _a_, and cutting off one of these divisions at the top and filling in one at the bottom to form flat places, as shown in the figure. But the thread cannot be sketched on a bolt by this means unless temporary lines are used to get the thread from, these temporary lines being drawn to represent a bolt one-fourth the depth of the thread too large in diameter. Thus, in Figure 208 _a_, it is seen that cutting off one-eighth the depth of the thread reduces the diameter of the thread. It is necessary, then, to draw the flat place on top of the thread first, the order of procedure being shown in Figure 209. The lines for the full diameter of the thread being drawn, the pitch is stepped off by arcs, as 1, 2, 3, etc.; and from these, arcs, as 4, 5, 6, etc., are marked for the width of the flat places at the tops of the threads. Then one side of the thread is marked off by lines, as 7, which meet the arcs 1, 2, 3, etc., as at _a_, _c_, etc. Similar lines, as 8 and 9, are marked for the other side of the thread, these lines, 7, 8 and 9, projecting until they cross each other. Line 10 is then drawn, making a flat place at the bottom of the thread equal in width to that at the top. Line 12 is then drawn square across the bolt, starting from the bottom of the thread, and line 13 is drawn starting from the corner _f_ on one side of the thread and meeting line 12 on the other side of the thread, which gives the angle for the tops of the thread. The depth of the thread may then be marked on the other side of the bolt by the arcs _d_ and _e_, and the line 14. The tops of all the threads may then be drawn in, as by lines 15, 16, 17 and 18, and by lines, as 19, etc., the thread sides may be drawn on the other side of the bolt. All that remains is to join the bottoms of the threads by lines across the bolt, and the pencil lines will be complete, ready to ink in. If the thread is to be shown curved instead of drawn straight across, the curve may be obtained by the construction in Figure 208, which is similar to that in Figure 207, except that while the pitch is divided off into 16 divisions, the whole of these 16 divisions are not used to get the curves, some of them being used twice over; thus for the bottom the eight divisions from _b_ to _i_ are used, while for the tops the eight from _g_ to _o_ are used. Hence _g_, _h_ and _i_ are used for getting both curves, the divisions from _a_ to _b_ and from _o_ to _p_ being taken up by the flat top and bottom of the thread. It will be noted that in Figure 207, the top of the thread is drawn first, while in Figure 208 the bottom is drawn first, and that in the latter (for the U.S. standard) the pitch is marked from centre to centre of the flats of the thread.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00720",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 170024,
      "end": 170049,
      "sha256": "0a4bb38caf037c2b0902496153d5a1a7ce2ad9e7fce04a9ba22a003bef1fb5de",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 210.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00721",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 170053,
      "end": 170935,
      "sha256": "1c52a8584d61ed012e00d5ab1311e6fb2eb4c09432dd63361ffbef093860dada",
      "text": "To draw a square thread the pencil lines are marked in the order shown in Figure 210, in which 1 represents the centre line and 2, 3, 4 and 5, the diameter and depth of the thread. The pitch of the thread is marked off by arcs, as 6, 7, etc., or by laying a rule directly on the centre line and marking with a lead pencil. To obtain the slant of the thread, lines 8 and 9 are drawn, and from these line 10, touching 8 and 9 where they meet lines 2 and 5; the threads may then be drawn in from the arcs as 6, 7, etc. The side of the thread will show at the top and the bottom as at A B, because of the coarse pitch and the thread on the other or unseen side of the bolt slants, as denoted by the lines 12, 13; and hence to draw the sides A B, the triangle must be set from one thread to the next on the opposite side of the bolt, as denoted by the dotted lines 12 and 13.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00722",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 170939,
      "end": 170964,
      "sha256": "821b6d47c2e97da50d7a50e91b7268189086f04b95f487f9130e12f1ac1f48f1",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 211.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00723",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 170968,
      "end": 171577,
      "sha256": "1d5e163fbf5f9124f29d622604fbeee228779f1074b86d492a283a3347134c91",
      "text": "If the curves of the thread are to be drawn in, they may be obtained as in Figure 211, which is substantially the same as described for a V thread. The curves _f_, representing the sides of the thread, terminate at the centre line _g_, and the curves _e_ are equidistant with the curves _c_ from the vertical lines _d_. As the curves _f_ above the line are the same as _f_ below the line, the template for _f_ need not be made to extend the whole distance across, but one-half only; as is shown by the dotted curve _g_, in the construction for finding the curve for square-threaded nuts in Figure 212.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00724",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 171581,
      "end": 171606,
      "sha256": "76b87ef11416f88aed70b683cca1667f5ff64b9cb78b91f7ce7669becf925652",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 212.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00725",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 171610,
      "end": 171635,
      "sha256": "c21dc3ebc9e993a38913b898d1e49175d66b7a68cf2914b338c6d2b0e1d2f3bb",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 213.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00726",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 171639,
      "end": 172583,
      "sha256": "1233ff1753b27b85ca1f6fa4b911a6d4682ca4348830a3516f62c12502bab4c0",
      "text": "A specimen of the form of template for drawing these curves is shown in Figure 213; _g_ _g_, is the centre line parallel to the edges R, S; lines _m_, _n_, represent the diameter of the thread at the top, and _o_, _p_, that at the bottom or root; edge _a_ is formed to the points (found by the constructions in the figures as already explained) for the tops of the thread, and edge _f_ is so formed for the curve at the thread bottoms. The edge, as S or R, is laid against the square-blade to steady it while drawing in the curves. It may be noted, however, that since the curve is the same below the centre line as it is above, the template may be made to serve for one-half the thread diameter, as at _f_, where it is made from _o_ to _g_, only being turned upside down to draw the other half of the curve; the notches cut out at _x_, _x_, are merely to let the pencil-lines in the drawing show plainly when setting the template.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00727",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 172587,
      "end": 172885,
      "sha256": "025b9bf26f5acadc26fe57aa25bd075639e8ac56f33d159ee49f8ad7fb4cd5e3",
      "text": "When the thread of a nut is shown in section, it slants in the opposite direction to that which appears on the bolt-thread, because it shows the thread that fits to the opposite side of the bolt, which, therefore, slants in the opposite direction, as shown by the lines 12 and 13 in Figure 210.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00728",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 172889,
      "end": 172991,
      "sha256": "50295153da787a312dfda572a96df925895d860293fbd3674ef5c749bfbb24ee",
      "text": "In a top or end view of a nut the thread depth is usually shown by a simple circle, as in Figure 214.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00729",
      "bookId": 23319,
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      "end": 173020,
      "sha256": "b762f432ffa0d28e5c6351b3281ddf2537c1c9d8e1db9c610319f5c7ed579efc",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 214.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00730",
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      "sha256": "2c97aeea332a3cf91673689e4cf3b9b9183257bebd6c18e28009b44958783998",
      "text": "To draw a spiral spring, draw the centre line A, and lines B, C, Figure 215, distant apart the diameter the spring is to be less the diameter of the wire of which it is to be made. On the centre line A mark two lines _a b_, _c d_, representing the pitch of the spring. Divide the distance between _a_ and _b_ into four equal divisions, as by lines 1, 2, 3, letting line 3 meet line B. Line _e_ meeting the centre line at line _a_, and the line B at its intersection with line 3, is the angle of the coil on one side of the spring; hence it may be marked in at all the locations, as at _e f_, etc. These lines give at their intersections with the lines C and B the centres for the half circles _g_, which being drawn, the sides _h_, _i_, _j_, _k_, etc., of the spring, may all be marked in. By the lines _m_, _n_, _o_, _p_, the other sides of the spring may be marked in.",
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      "ref": "PG23319.B00731",
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      "sha256": "dfef44c354d3ff545c869921898144a969f3eed461b8e8b48ab132f1c528d7e4",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 215.]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00732",
      "bookId": 23319,
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      "text": "The end of the spring is usually marked straight across, as at L. If it is required to draw the coils curved instead of straight across, a template must be made, the curve being obtained as already described for threads. It may be pointed out, however, that to obtain as accurate a division as possible of the lines that divide the pitch, the pitch may be divided upon a diagonal line, as F, Figure 216, which will greatly facilitate the operation.",
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      "ref": "PG23319.B00733",
      "bookId": 23319,
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      "sha256": "9b136ef688e7197c2d5a1738122ec81542016a3c618e4bfff086aef91ca9518f",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 216.]",
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      "ref": "PG23319.B00734",
      "bookId": 23319,
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      "text": "Before going into projections it may be as well to give some examples for practice.",
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      "ref": "PG23319.B00735",
      "bookId": 23319,
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      "sha256": "0fb7625d40e5a07872c293b04cd1837aeb1b145d2f4694ac27c5e181cb68aa3a",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 219. (Page 169.)]",
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      "ref": "PG23319.B00736",
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      "sha256": "dc69c38aa136a468d0c239d5294cb4471429df104d4deb839e8994b881397cc3",
      "text": "CHAPTER IX.",
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      "bookId": 23319,
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      "sha256": "bc37c8cdb653e63872649d08b14779d01e6c491c50617b6b0b0b041d65974693",
      "text": "_EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE._",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00761",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 180573,
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      "sha256": "7f3a8c3706cb05e54b8c42f74f9f832c43dde4b27cc370f6269943c345dc7cb5",
      "text": "It is sometimes necessary to reduce a drawing to a smaller scale, or to find a minute fraction of a given dimension, such fraction not being marked on the lineal measuring rules at hand. Figure 224 represents a scale for finding minute fractions. Draw seven lines parallel to each other, and equidistant draw vertical lines dividing the scale into half-inches, as at _a_, _b_, _c_, etc. Divide the first space _e d_ into equal halves, draw diagonal lines, and number them as in the figure. The distance of point 1, which is at the intersection of diagonal with the second horizontal line, will be 1/24 inch from vertical line _e_. Point 2 will be 2/24 inch from line _e_, and so on. For tenths of inches there would require to be but six horizontal lines, the diagonals being drawn as before. A similar scale is shown in Figure 225. Draw the lines A B, B D, D C, C A, enclosing a square inch. Divide each of these lines into ten equal divisions, and number and letter them as shown. Draw also the diagonal lines A 1, _a_ 2, B 3, and so on; then the distances from the line A C to the points of intersection of the diagonals with the horizontal lines represent hundredths of an inch.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00762",
      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 181775,
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      "text": "Suppose, for example, we trace one diagonal line in its path across the figure, taking that which starts from A and ends at 1 on the top horizontal line; then where the diagonal intersects _horizontal_ line 1, is 99/100 from the line B D, and 1/100 from the line A C, while where it intersects _horizontal_ line 2, is 98/100 from line B D, and 2/100 from line A C, and so on. If we require to set the compasses to 67/100 inch, we set them to the radius of _n_, and the figure 3 on line B D, because from that 3 to the vertical line _d_ 4 is 6/10 or 60/100 inch, and from that vertical line to the diagonal at _n_ is seven divisions from the line C D of the figure.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG23319.B00763",
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      "start": 182452,
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      "text": "In making a drawing to scale, however, it is an excellent plan to draw a line and divide it off to suit the required scale. Suppose, for example, that the given scale is one-quarter size, or three inches per foot; then a line three inches long may be divided into twelve equal divisions, representing twelve inches, and these may be subdivided into half or quarter inches and so on. It is recommended to the beginner, however, to spend all his time making simple drawings, without making them to scale, in order to become so familiar with the use of the instruments as to feel at home with them, avoiding the complication of early studies that would accompany drawing to scale.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER X.",
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      "text": "_PROJECTIONS._",
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      "text": "In projecting, the lines in one view are used to mark those in other views, and to find their shapes or curvature as they will appear in other views. Thus, in Figure 225_a_ we have a spiral, wound around a cylinder whose end is cut off at an angle. The pitch of the spiral is the distance A B, and we may delineate the curve of the spiral looking at the cylinder from two positions (one at a right-angle to the other, as is shown in the figure), by means of a circle having a circumference equal to that of the cylinder.",
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      "bookId": 23319,
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      "text": "The circumference of this circle we divide into any number of equidistant divisions, as from 1 to 24. The pitch A B of the spiral or thread is then divided off also into 24 equidistant divisions, as marked on the left hand of the figure; vertical lines are then drawn from the points of division on the circle to the points correspondingly numbered on the lines dividing the pitch; and where line 1 on the circle intersects line 1 on the pitch is one point in the curve. Similarly, where point 2 on the circle intersects line 2 on the pitch is another point in the curve, and so on for the whole 24 divisions on the circle and on the pitch. In this view, however, the path of the spiral from line 7 to line 19 lies on the other side of the cylinder, and is marked in dotted lines, because it is hidden by the cylinder. In the right-hand view, however, a different portion of the spiral or thread is hidden, namely from lines 1 to 13 inclusive, being an equal proportion to that hidden in the left-hand view.",
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      "sha256": "0027da1e33db8de1bac26d862015f65eba0445f554c7312411abccb9c3198b74",
      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 225 _a_.]",
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      "text": "The top of the cylinder is shown in the left-hand view to be cut off at an angle to the axis, and will therefore appear elliptical; in the right-hand view, to delineate this oval, the same vertical lines from the circle may be carried up as shown on the right hand, and horizontal lines may be drawn from the inclined face in one view across the end of the other view, as at P; the divisions on the circle may be carried up on the right-hand view by means of straight lines, as Q, and arcs of circle, as at R, and vertical lines drawn from these arcs, as line S, and where these vertical lines S intersect the horizontal lines as P, are points in the ellipse.",
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      "ref": "PG23319.B00770",
      "bookId": 23319,
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      "text": "Let it be required to draw a cylindrical body joining another at a right-angle; as for example, a Tee, such as in Figure 226, and the outline can all be shown in one view, but it is required to find the line of junction of one piece, A, with the other, B; that is, find or mark the lines of junction C. Now when the diameters of A and B are equal, the line of junction C is a straight line, but it becomes a curved one when the diameter of A is less than that of B, or _vice versa_; hence it may be as well to project it in both cases. For this purpose the three views are necessary. One-quarter of the circle of B, in the end view, is divided off into any number of equal divisions; thus we have chosen the divisions marked _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, _e_, etc.; a quarter of the top view is similarly divided off, as at _f_, _g_, _h_, _i_, _j_; from these points of division lines are projected on to the side view, as shown by the dotted lines _k_, _l_, _m_, _n_, _o_, _p_, etc., and where these lines meet, as denoted by the dots, is in each case a point in the line of junction of the two cylinders A, B.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 226.]",
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      "bookId": 23319,
      "start": 186592,
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      "text": "[Illustration: Fig. 227.]",
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      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "HABIT.",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B00456",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "=Its Importance for Psychology.=--There remains a condition of general neural activity so important as to deserve a chapter by itself--I refer to the aptitude of the nerve-centres, especially of the hemispheres, for acquiring habits. _An acquired habit, from the physiological point of view, is nothing but a new pathway of discharge formed in the brain, by which certain incoming currents ever after tend to escape._ That is the thesis of this chapter; and we shall see in the later and more psychological chapters that such functions as the association of ideas, perception, memory, reasoning, the education of the will, etc., etc., can best be understood as results of the formation _de novo_ of just such pathways of discharge.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B00457",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "sha256": "24763e503baf077df8d0e554d7c36b1564ba933a3df19b104c4b86530fc7d83b",
      "text": "=Habit has a physical basis.= The moment one tries to define what habit is, one is led to the fundamental properties of matter. The laws of Nature are nothing but the immutable habits which the different elementary sorts of matter follow in their actions and reactions upon each other. In the organic world, however, the habits are more variable than this. Even instincts vary from one individual to another of a kind; and are modified in the same individual, as we shall later see, to suit the exigencies of the case. On the principles of the atomistic philosophy the habits of an elementary particle of matter cannot change, because the particle is itself an unchangeable thing; but those of a compound mass of matter can change, because they are in the last instance due to the structure of the compound, and either outward forces or inward tensions can, from one hour to another, turn that structure into something different from what it was. That is, they can do so if the body be plastic enough to maintain its integrity, and be not disrupted when its structure yields. The change of structure here spoken of need not involve the outward shape; it may be invisible and molecular, as when a bar of iron becomes magnetic or crystalline through the action of certain outward causes, or india-rubber becomes friable, or plaster 'sets.' All these changes are rather slow; the material in question opposes a certain resistance to the modifying cause, which it takes time to overcome, but the gradual yielding whereof often saves the material from being disintegrated altogether. When the structure has yielded, the same inertia becomes a condition of its comparative permanence in the new form, and of the new habits the body then manifests. _Plasticity_, then, in the wide sense of the word, means the possession of a structure weak enough to yield to an influence, but strong enough not to yield all at once. Each relatively stable phase of equilibrium in such a structure is marked by what we may call a new set of habits. Organic matter, especially nervous tissue, seems endowed with a very extraordinary degree of plasticity of this sort; so that we may without hesitation lay down as our first proposition the following: that _the phenomena of habit in living beings are due to the plasticity of the organic materials of which their bodies are composed_.",
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      "text": "The philosophy of habit is thus, in the first instance, a chapter in physics rather than in physiology or psychology. That it is at bottom a physical principle, is admitted by all good recent writers on the subject. They call attention to analogues of acquired habits exhibited by dead matter. Thus, M. Léon Dumont writes:",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B00459",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "sha256": "0d85ddc25df35218343d8c711f9964425ee3dc84dc5892561dcb06de55b91b83",
      "text": "\"Every one knows how a garment, after having been worn a certain time, clings to the shape of the body better than when it was new; there has been a change in the tissue, and this change is a new habit of cohesion. A lock works better after being used some time; at the outset more force was required to overcome certain roughness in the mechanism. The overcoming of their resistance is a phenomenon of habituation. It costs less trouble to fold a paper when it has been folded already; ... and just so in the nervous system the impressions of outer objects fashion for themselves more and more appropriate paths, and these vital phenomena recur under similar excitements from without, when they have been interrupted a certain time.\"",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B00460",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "Not in the nervous system alone. A scar anywhere is a _locus minoris resistentiæ_, more liable to be abraded, inflamed, to suffer pain and cold, than are the neighboring parts. A sprained ankle, a dislocated arm, are in danger of being sprained or dislocated again; joints that have once been attacked by rheumatism or gout, mucous membranes that have been the seat of catarrh, are with each fresh recurrence more prone to a relapse, until often the morbid state chronically substitutes itself for the sound one. And in the nervous system itself it is well known how many so-called functional diseases seem to keep themselves going simply because they happen to have once begun; and how the forcible cutting short by medicine of a few attacks is often sufficient to enable the physiological forces to get possession of the field again, and to bring the organs back to functions of health. Epilepsies, neuralgias, convulsive affections of various sorts, insomnias, are so many cases in point. And, to take what are more obviously habits, the success with which a 'weaning' treatment can often be applied to the victims of unhealthy indulgence of passion, or of mere complaining or irascible disposition, shows us how much the morbid manifestations themselves were due to the mere inertia of the nervous organs, when once launched on a false career.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B00462",
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      "text": "It must be noticed that the growth of structural modification in living matter may be more rapid than in any lifeless mass, because the incessant nutritive renovation of which the living matter is the seat tends often to corroborate and fix the impressed modification, rather than to counteract it by renewing the original constitution of the tissue that has been impressed. Thus, we notice after exercising our muscles or our brain in a new way, that we can do so no longer at that time; but after a day or two of rest, when we resume the discipline, our increase in skill not seldom surprises us. I have often noticed this in learning a tune; and it has led a German author to say that we learn to swim during the winter, and to skate during the summer.",
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      "text": "=Practical Effects of Habit.=--First, habit simplifies our movements, makes them accurate, and diminishes fatigue.",
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      "text": "Man is born with a tendency to do more things than he has ready-made arrangements for in his nerve-centres. Most of the performances of other animals are automatic. But in him the number of them is so enormous that most of them must be the fruit of painful study. If practice did not make perfect, nor habit economize the expense of nervous and muscular energy, he would be in a sorry plight. As Dr. Maudsley says:[30]",
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      "text": "\"If an act became no easier after being done several times, if the careful direction of consciousness were necessary to its accomplishment on each occasion, it is evident that the whole activity of a lifetime might be confined to one or two deeds--that no progress could take place in development. A man might be occupied all day in dressing and undressing himself; the attitude of his body would absorb all his attention and energy; the washing of his hands or the fastening of a button would be as difficult to him on each occasion as to the child on its first trial; and he would, furthermore, be completely exhausted by his exertions. Think of the pains necessary to teach a child to stand, of the many efforts which it must make, and of the ease with which it at last stands, unconscious of any effort. For while secondarily-automatic acts are accomplished with comparatively little weariness--in this regard approaching the organic movements, or the original reflex movements--the conscious effort of the will soon produces exhaustion. A spinal cord without ... memory would simply be an idiotic spinal cord.... It is impossible for an individual to realize how much he owes to its automatic agency until disease has impaired its functions.\"",
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      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "Secondly, _habit diminishes the conscious attention with which our acts are performed_.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B00467",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "One may state this abstractly thus: If an act require for its execution a chain, _A, B, C, D, E, F, G_, etc., of successive nervous events, then in the first performances of the action the conscious will must choose each of these events from a number of wrong alternatives that tend to present themselves; but habit soon brings it about that each event calls up its own appropriate successor without any alternative offering itself, and without any reference to the conscious will, until at last the whole chain, _A, B, C, D, E, F, G_, rattles itself off as soon as _A_ occurs, just as if _A_ and the rest of the chain were fused into a continuous stream. Whilst we are learning to walk, to ride, to swim, skate, fence, write, play, or sing, we interrupt ourselves at every step by unnecessary movements and false notes. When we are proficients, on the contrary, the results follow not only with the very minimum of muscular action requisite to bring them forth, but they follow from a single instantaneous 'cue.' The marksman sees the bird, and, before he knows it, he has aimed and shot. A gleam in his adversary's eye, a momentary pressure from his rapier, and the fencer finds that he has instantly made the right parry and return. A glance at the musical hieroglyphics, and the pianist's fingers have rippled through a shower of notes. And not only is it the right thing at the right time that we thus involuntarily do, but the wrong thing also, if it be an habitual thing. Who is there that has never wound up his watch on taking off his waistcoat in the daytime, or taken his latch-key out on arriving at the door-step of a friend? Persons in going to their bedroom to dress for dinner have been known to take off one garment after another and finally to get into bed, merely because that was the habitual issue of the first few movements when performed at a later hour. We all have a definite routine manner of performing certain daily offices connected with the toilet, with the opening and shutting of familiar cupboards, and the like. But our higher thought-centres know hardly anything about the matter. Few men can tell off-hand which sock, shoe, or trousers-leg they put on first. They must first mentally rehearse the act; and even that is often insufficient--the act must be _performed_. So of the questions, Which valve of the shutters opens first? Which way does my door swing? etc. I cannot _tell_ the answer; yet my _hand_ never makes a mistake. No one can _describe_ the order in which he brushes his hair or teeth; yet it is likely that the order is a pretty fixed one in all of us.",
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      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "\"There is a story,\" says Prof. Huxley, \"which is credible enough, though it may not be true, of a practical joker who, seeing a discharged veteran carrying home his dinner, suddenly called out, 'Attention!' whereupon the man instantly brought his hands down, and lost his mutton and potatoes in the gutter. The drill had been thorough, and its effects had become embodied in the man's nervous structure.\"",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B00476",
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      "text": "Riderless cavalry-horses, at many a battle, have been seen to come together and go through their customary evolutions at the sound of the bugle-call. Most domestic beasts seem machines almost pure and simple, undoubtingly, unhesitatingly doing from minute to minute the duties they have been taught, and giving no sign that the possibility of an alternative ever suggests itself to their mind. Men grown old in prison have asked to be readmitted after being once set free. In a railroad accident a menagerie-tiger, whose cage had broken open, is said to have emerged, but presently crept back again, as if too much bewildered by his new responsibilities, so that he was without difficulty secured.",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B00477",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "Habit is thus the enormous fly-wheel of society, its most precious conservative agent. It alone is what keeps us all within the bounds of ordinance, and saves the children of fortune from the envious uprisings of the poor. It alone prevents the hardest and most repulsive walks of life from being deserted by those brought up to tread therein. It keeps the fisherman and the deck-hand at sea through the winter; it holds the miner in his darkness, and nails the countryman to his log-cabin and his lonely farm through all the months of snow; it protects us from invasion by the natives of the desert and the frozen zone. It dooms us all to fight out the battle of life upon the lines of our nurture or our early choice, and to make the best of a pursuit that disagrees, because there is no other for which we are fitted, and it is too late to begin again. It keeps different social strata from mixing. Already at the age of twenty-five you see the professional mannerism settling down on the young commercial traveller, on the young doctor, on the young minister, on the young counsellor-at-law. You see the little lines of cleavage running through the character, the tricks of thought, the prejudices, the ways of the 'shop,' in a word, from which the man can by-and-by no more escape than his coat-sleeve can suddenly fall into a new set of folds. On the whole, it is best he should not escape. It is well for the world that in most of us, by the age of thirty, the character has set like plaster, and will never soften again.",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B00478",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "If the period between twenty and thirty is the critical one in the formation of intellectual and professional habits, the period below twenty is more important still for the fixing of _personal_ habits, properly so called, such as vocalization and pronunciation, gesture, motion, and address. Hardly ever is a language learned after twenty spoken without a foreign accent; hardly ever can a youth transferred to the society of his betters unlearn the nasality and other vices of speech bred in him by the associations of his growing years. Hardly ever, indeed, no matter how much money there be in his pocket, can he even learn to _dress_ like a gentleman-born. The merchants offer their wares as eagerly to him as to the veriest 'swell,' but he simply _cannot_ buy the right things. An invisible law, as strong as gravitation, keeps him within his orbit, arrayed this year as he was the last; and how his better-clad acquaintances contrive to get the things they wear will be for him a mystery till his dying day.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B00479",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "The great thing, then, in all education, is to _make our nervous system our ally instead of our enemy_. It is to fund and capitalize our acquisitions, and live at ease upon the interest of the fund. _For this we must make automatic and habitual, as early as possible, as many useful actions as we can_, and guard against the growing into ways that are likely to be disadvantageous to us, as we should guard against the plague. The more of the details of our daily life we can hand over to the effortless custody of automatism, the more our higher powers of mind will be set free for their own proper work. There is no more miserable human being than one in whom nothing is habitual but indecision, and for whom the lighting of every cigar, the drinking of every cup, the time of rising and going to bed every day, and the beginning of every bit of work, are subjects of express volitional deliberation. Full half the time of such a man goes to the deciding, or regretting, of matters which ought to be so ingrained in him as practically not to exist for his consciousness at all. If there be such daily duties not yet ingrained in any one of my readers, let him begin this very hour to set the matter right.",
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      "text": "The question of \"tapering-off,\" in abandoning such habits as drink and opium-indulgence comes in here, and is a question about which experts differ within certain limits, and in regard to what may be best for an individual case. In the main, however, all expert opinion would agree that abrupt acquisition of the new habit is the best way, _if there be a real possibility of carrying it out_. We must be careful not to give the will so stiff a task as to insure its defeat at the very outset; but, _provided one can stand it_, a sharp period of suffering, and then a free time, is the best thing to aim at, whether in giving up a habit like that of opium, or in simply changing one's hours of rising or of work. It is surprising how soon a desire will die of inanition if it be _never_ fed.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B00485",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "\"One must first learn, unmoved, looking neither to the right nor left, to walk firmly on the strait and narrow path, before one can begin 'to make one's self over again.' He who every day makes a fresh resolve is like one who, arriving at the edge of the ditch he is to leap, forever stops and returns for a fresh run. Without _unbroken_ advance there is no such thing as _accumulation_ of the ethical forces possible, and to make this possible, and to exercise us and habituate us in it, is the sovereign blessing of regular work.\"[31]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B00486",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "A third maxim may be added to the preceding pair: _Seize the very first possible opportunity to act on every resolution you make, and on every emotional prompting you may experience in the direction of the habits you aspire to gain_. It is not in the moment of their forming, but in the moment of their producing _motor effects_, that resolves and aspirations communicate the new 'set' to the brain. As the author last quoted remarks:",
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    {
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      "text": "\"The actual presence of the practical opportunity alone furnishes the fulcrum upon which the lever can rest, by means of which the moral will may multiply its strength, and raise itself aloft. He who has no solid ground to press against will never get beyond the stage of empty gesture-making.\"",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B00488",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "No matter how full a reservoir of _maxims_ one may possess, and no matter how good one's _sentiments_ may be, if one have not taken advantage of every concrete opportunity to _act_, one's character may remain entirely unaffected for the better. With mere good intentions, hell is proverbially paved. And this is an obvious consequence of the principles we have laid down. A 'character,' as J. S. Mill says, 'is a completely fashioned will'; and a will, in the sense in which he means it, is an aggregate of tendencies to act in a firm and prompt and definite way upon all the principal emergencies of life. A tendency to act only becomes effectively ingrained in us in proportion to the uninterrupted frequency with which the actions actually occur, and the brain 'grows' to their use. When a resolve or a fine glow of feeling is allowed to evaporate without bearing practical fruit it is worse than a chance lost; it works so as positively to hinder future resolutions and emotions from taking the normal path of discharge. There is no more contemptible type of human character than that of the nerveless sentimentalist and dreamer, who spends his life in a weltering sea of sensibility and emotion, but who never does a manly concrete deed. Rousseau, inflaming all the mothers of France, by his eloquence, to follow Nature and nurse their babies themselves, while he sends his own children to the foundling hospital, is the classical example of what I mean. But every one of us in his measure, whenever, after glowing for an abstractly formulated Good, he practically ignores some actual case, among the squalid 'other particulars' of which that same Good lurks disguised, treads straight on Rousseau's path. All Goods are disguised by the vulgarity of their concomitants, in this work-a-day world; but woe to him who can only recognize them when he thinks them in their pure and abstract form! The habit of excessive novel-reading and theatre-going will produce true monsters in this line. The weeping of the Russian lady over the fictitious personages in the play, while her coachman is freezing to death on his seat outside, is the sort of thing that everywhere happens on a less glaring scale. Even the habit of excessive indulgence in music, for those who are neither performers themselves nor musically gifted enough to take it in a purely intellectual way, has probably a relaxing effect upon the character. One becomes filled with emotions which habitually pass without prompting to any deed, and so the inertly sentimental condition is kept up. The remedy would be, never to suffer one's self to have an emotion at a concert, without expressing it afterward in _some_ active way. Let the expression be the least thing in the world--speaking genially to one's grandmother, or giving up one's seat in a horse-car, if nothing more heroic offers--but let it not fail to take place.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B00493",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "=The order of our study must be analytic.= We are now prepared to begin the introspective study of the adult consciousness itself. Most books adopt the so-called synthetic method. Starting with 'simple ideas of sensation,' and regarding these as so many atoms, they proceed to build up the higher states of mind out of their 'association,' 'integration,' or 'fusion,' as houses are built by the agglutination of bricks. This has the didactic advantages which the synthetic method usually has. But it commits one beforehand to the very questionable theory that our higher states of consciousness are compounds of units; and instead of starting with what the reader directly knows, namely his total concrete states of mind, it starts with a set of supposed 'simple ideas' with which he has no immediate acquaintance at all, and concerning whose alleged interactions he is much at the mercy of any plausible phrase. On every ground, then, the method of advancing from the simple to the compound exposes us to illusion. All pedants and abstractionists will naturally hate to abandon it. But a student who loves the fulness of human nature will prefer to follow the 'analytic' method, and to begin with the most concrete facts, those with which he has a daily acquaintance in his own inner life. The analytic method will discover in due time the elementary parts, if such exist, without danger of precipitate assumption. The reader will bear in mind that our own chapters on sensation have dealt mainly with the physiological conditions thereof. They were put first as a mere matter of convenience, because incoming currents come first. _Psychologically_ they might better have come last. Pure sensations were described on page 12 as processes which in adult life are well-nigh unknown, and nothing was said which could for a moment lead the reader to suppose that they were the _elements of composition_ of the higher states of mind.",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B00494",
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      "text": "=The Fundamental Fact.=--The first and foremost concrete fact which every one will affirm to belong to his inner experience is the fact that _consciousness of some sort goes on. 'States of mind' succeed each other in him._ If we could say in English 'it thinks,' as we say 'it rains' or 'it blows,' we should be stating the fact most simply and with the minimum of assumption. As we cannot, we must simply say that _thought goes on_.",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B00495",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "=Four Characters in Consciousness.=--How does it go on? We notice immediately four important characters in the process, of which it shall be the duty of the present chapter to treat in a general way:",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B00496",
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      "text": "1) Every 'state' tends to be part of a personal consciousness.",
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      "text": "2) Within each personal consciousness states are always changing.",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B00498",
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      "text": "3) Each personal consciousness is sensibly continuous.",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B00506",
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      "text": "Such a difference as this could never have been _sensibly_ learned; it had to be inferred from a series of indirect considerations. These make us believe that our sensibility is altering all the time, so that the same object cannot easily give us the same sensation over again. We feel things differently accordingly as we are sleepy or awake, hungry or full, fresh or tired; differently at night and in the morning, differently in summer and in winter; and above all, differently in childhood, manhood, and old age. And yet we never doubt that our feelings reveal the same world, with the same sensible qualities and the same sensible things occupying it. The difference of the sensibility is shown best by the difference of our emotion about the things from one age to another, or when we are in different organic moods. What was bright and exciting becomes weary, flat, and unprofitable. The bird's song is tedious, the breeze is mournful, the sky is sad.",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B00507",
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      "text": "To these indirect presumptions that our sensations, following the mutations of our capacity for feeling, are always undergoing an essential change, must be added another presumption, based on what must happen in the brain. Every sensation corresponds to some cerebral action. For an identical sensation to recur it would have to occur the second time _in an unmodified brain_. But as this, strictly speaking, is a physiological impossibility, so is an unmodified feeling an impossibility; for to every brain-modification, however small, we suppose that there must correspond a change of equal amount in the consciousness which the brain subserves.",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B00508",
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      "text": "But if the assumption of 'simple sensations' recurring in immutable shape is so easily shown to be baseless, how much more baseless is the assumption of immutability in the larger masses of our thought!",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B00509",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "For there it is obvious and palpable that our state of mind is never precisely the same. Every thought we have of a given fact is, strictly speaking, unique, and only bears a resemblance of kind with our other thoughts of the same fact. When the identical fact recurs, we _must_ think of it in a fresh manner, see it under a somewhat different angle, apprehend it in different relations from those in which it last appeared. And the thought by which we cognize it is the thought of it-in-those-relations, a thought suffused with the consciousness of all that dim context. Often we are ourselves struck at the strange differences in our successive views of the same thing. We wonder how we ever could have opined as we did last month about a certain matter. We have outgrown the possibility of that state of mind, we know not how. From one year to another we see things in new lights. What was unreal has grown real, and what was exciting is insipid. The friends we used to care the world for are shrunken to shadows; the women once so divine, the stars, the woods, and the waters, how now so dull and common!--the young girls that brought an aura of infinity, at present hardly distinguishable existences; the pictures so empty; and as for the books, what _was_ there to find so mysteriously significant in Goethe, or in John Mill so full of weight? Instead of all this, more zestful than ever is the work; and fuller and deeper the import of common duties and of common goods.",
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      "text": "I am sure that this concrete and total manner of regarding the mind's changes is the only true manner, difficult as it may be to carry it out in detail. If anything seems obscure about it, it will grow clearer as we advance. Meanwhile, if it be true, it is certainly also true that no two 'ideas' are ever exactly the same, which is the proposition we started to prove. The proposition is more important theoretically than it at first sight seems. For it makes it already impossible for us to follow obediently in the footprints of either the Lockian or the Herbartian school, schools which have had almost unlimited influence in Germany and among ourselves. No doubt it is often _convenient_ to formulate the mental facts in an atomistic sort of way, and to treat the higher states of consciousness as if they were all built out of unchanging simple ideas which 'pass and turn again.' It is convenient often to treat curves as if they were composed of small straight lines, and electricity and nerve-force as if they were fluids. But in the one case as in the other we must never forget that we are talking symbolically, and that there is nothing in nature to answer to our words. _A permanently existing 'Idea' which makes its appearance before the footlights of consciousness at periodical intervals is as mythological an entity as the Jack of Spades._",
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      "text": "=Within each personal consciousness, thought is sensibly continuous.= I can only define 'continuous' as that which is without breach, crack, or division. The only breaches that can well be conceived to occur within the limits of a single mind would either be _interruptions_, _time_-gaps during which the consciousness went out; or they would be breaks in the content of the thought, so abrupt that what followed had no connection whatever with what went before. The proposition that consciousness feels continuous, means two things:",
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      "text": "_a._ That even where there is a time-gap the consciousness after it feels as if it belonged together with the consciousness before it, as another part of the same self;",
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      "text": "_b._ But now there appears, even within the limits of the same self, and between thoughts all of which alike have this same sense of belonging together, a kind of jointing and separateness among the parts, of which this statement seems to take no account. I refer to the breaks that are produced by sudden _contrasts in the quality_ of the successive segments of the stream of thought. If the words 'chain' and 'train' had no natural fitness in them, how came such words to be used at all? Does not a loud explosion rend the consciousness upon which it abruptly breaks, in twain? No; for even into our awareness of the thunder the awareness of the previous silence creeps and continues; for what we hear when the thunder crashes is not thunder _pure_, but thunder-breaking-upon-silence-and-contrasting-with-it. Our feeling of the same objective thunder, coming in this way, is quite different from what it would be were the thunder a continuation of previous thunder. The thunder itself we believe to abolish and exclude the silence; but the _feeling_ of the thunder is also a feeling of the silence as just gone; and it would be difficult to find in the actual concrete consciousness of man a feeling so limited to the present as not to have an inkling of anything that went before.",
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      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "='Substantive' and 'Transitive' States of Mind.=--When we take a general view of the wonderful stream of our consciousness, what strikes us first is the different pace of its parts. Like a bird's life, it seems to be an alternation of flights and perchings. The rhythm of language expresses this, where every thought is expressed in a sentence, and every sentence closed by a period. The resting-places are usually occupied by sensorial imaginations of some sort, whose peculiarity is that they can be held before the mind for an indefinite time, and contemplated without changing; the places of flight are filled with thoughts of relations, static or dynamic, that for the most part obtain between the matters contemplated in the periods of comparative rest.",
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      "text": "_Let us call the resting-places the 'substantive parts,' and the places of flight the 'transitive parts,' of the stream of thought._ It then appears that our thinking tends at all times towards some other substantive part than the one from which it has just been dislodged. And we may say that the main use of the transitive parts is to lead us from one substantive conclusion to another.",
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      "text": "Now it is very difficult, introspectively, to see the transitive parts for what they really are. If they are but flights to a conclusion, stopping them to look at them before the conclusion is reached is really annihilating them. Whilst if we wait till the conclusion _be_ reached, it so exceeds them in vigor and stability that it quite eclipses and swallows them up in its glare. Let anyone try to cut a thought across in the middle and get a look at its section, and he will see how difficult the introspective observation of the transitive tracts is. The rush of the thought is so headlong that it almost always brings us up at the conclusion before we can arrest it. Or if our purpose is nimble enough and we do arrest it, it ceases forthwith to be itself. As a snowflake crystal caught in the warm hand is no longer a crystal but a drop, so, instead of catching the feeling of relation moving to its term, we find we have caught some substantive thing, usually the last word we were pronouncing, statically taken, and with its function, tendency, and particular meaning in the sentence quite evaporated. The attempt at introspective analysis in these cases is in fact like seizing a spinning top to catch its motion, or trying to turn up the gas quickly enough to see how the darkness looks. And the challenge to _produce_ these transitive states of consciousness, which is sure to be thrown by doubting psychologists at anyone who contends for their existence, is as unfair as Zeno's treatment of the advocates of motion, when, asking them to point out in what place an arrow is when it moves, he argues the falsity of their thesis from their inability to make to so preposterous a question an immediate reply.",
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      "text": "The results of this introspective difficulty are baleful. If to hold fast and observe the transitive parts of thought's stream be so hard, then the great blunder to which all schools are liable must be the failure to register them, and the undue emphasizing of the more substantive parts of the stream. Now the blunder has historically worked in two ways. One set of thinkers have been led by it to _Sensationalism_. Unable to lay their hands on any substantive feelings corresponding to the innumerable relations and forms of connection between the sensible things of the world, finding no _named_ mental states mirroring such relations, they have for the most part denied that any such states exist; and many of them, like Hume, have gone on to deny the reality of most relations _out_ of the mind as well as in it. Simple substantive 'ideas,' sensations and their copies, juxtaposed like dominoes in a game, but really separate, everything else verbal illusion,--such is the upshot of this view. The _Intellectualists_, on the other hand, unable to give up the reality of relations _extra mentem_, but equally unable to point to any distinct substantive feelings in which they were known, have made the same admission that such feelings do not exist. But they have drawn an opposite conclusion. The relations must be known, they say, in something that is no feeling, no mental 'state,' continuous and consubstantial with the subjective tissue out of which sensations and other substantive conditions of consciousness are made. They must be known by something that lies on an entirely different plane, by an _actus purus_ of Thought, Intellect, or Reason, all written with capitals and considered to mean something unutterably superior to any passing perishing fact of sensibility whatever.",
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      "text": "But from our point of view both Intellectualists and Sensationalists are wrong. If there be such things as feelings at all, _then so surely as relations between objects exist_ in rerum naturâ, _so surely, and more surely, do feelings exist to which these relations are known_. There is not a conjunction or a preposition, and hardly an adverbial phrase, syntactic form, or inflection of voice, in human speech, that does not express some shading or other of relation which we at some moment actually feel to exist between the larger objects of our thought. If we speak objectively, it is the real relations that appear revealed; if we speak subjectively, it is the stream of consciousness that matches each of them by an inward coloring of its own. In either case the relations are numberless, and no existing language is capable of doing justice to all their shades.",
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      "text": "We ought to say a feeling of _and_, a feeling of _if_, a feeling of _but_, and a feeling of _by_, quite as readily as we say a feeling of _blue_ or a feeling of _cold_. Yet we do not: so inveterate has our habit become of recognizing the existence of the substantive parts alone, that language almost refuses to lend itself to any other use. Consider once again the analogy of the brain. We believe the brain to be an organ whose internal equilibrium is always in a state of change--the change affecting every part. The pulses of change are doubtless more violent in one place than in another, their rhythm more rapid at this time than at that. As in a kaleidoscope revolving at a uniform rate, although the figures are always rearranging themselves, there are instants during which the transformation seems minute and interstitial and almost absent, followed by others when it shoots with magical rapidity, relatively stable forms thus alternating with forms we should not distinguish if seen again; so in the brain the perpetual rearrangement must result in some forms of tension lingering relatively long, whilst others simply come and pass. But if consciousness corresponds to the fact of rearrangement itself, why, if the rearrangement stop not, should the consciousness ever cease? And if a lingering rearrangement brings with it one kind of consciousness, why should not a swift rearrangement bring another kind of consciousness as peculiar as the rearrangement itself?",
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      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 54.]",
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      "text": "Once more, the object must change. When it is one of sight, it will actually become invisible; when of hearing, inaudible,--if we attend to it too unmovingly. Helmholtz, who has put his sensorial attention to the severest tests, by using his eyes on objects which in common life are expressly overlooked, makes some interesting remarks on this point in his section on retinal rivalry. The phenomenon called by that name is this, that if we look with each eye upon a different picture (as in the annexed stereoscopic slide), sometimes one picture, sometimes the other, or parts of both, will come to consciousness, but hardly ever both combined. Helmholtz now says:",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B00683",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "\"I find that I am able to attend voluntarily, now to one and now to the other system of lines; and that then this system remains visible alone for a certain time, whilst the other completely vanishes. This happens, for example, whenever I try to count the lines first of one and then of the other system.... But it is extremely hard to chain the attention down to one of the systems for long, unless we associate with our looking some distinct purpose which keeps the activity of the attention perpetually renewed. Such a one is counting the lines, comparing their intervals, or the like. An equilibrium of the attention, persistent for any length of time, is under no circumstances attainable. The natural tendency of attention when left to itself is to wander to ever new things; and so soon as the interest of its object is over, so soon as nothing new is to be noticed there, it passes, in spite of our will, to something else. _If we wish to keep it upon one and the same object, we must seek constantly to find out something new about the latter_, especially if other powerful impressions are attracting us away.\"",
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      "text": "These words of Helmholtz are of fundamental importance. And if true of sensorial attention, how much more true are they of the intellectual variety! The _conditio sine quâ non_ of sustained attention to a given topic of thought is that we should roll it over and over incessantly and consider different aspects and relations of it in turn. Only in pathological states will a fixed and ever monotonously recurring idea possess the mind.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B00685",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "=Genius and Attention.=--And now we can see why it is that what is called sustained attention is the easier, the richer in acquisitions and the fresher and more original the mind. In such minds, subjects bud and sprout and grow. At every moment, they please by a new consequence and rivet the attention afresh. But an intellect unfurnished with materials, stagnant, unoriginal, will hardly be likely to consider any subject long. A glance exhausts its possibilities of interest. Geniuses are commonly believed to excel other men in their power of sustained attention. In most of them, it is to be feared, the so-called 'power' is of the passive sort. Their ideas coruscate, every subject branches infinitely before their fertile minds, and so for hours they may be rapt. _But it is their genius making them attentive, not their attention making geniuses of them._ And, when we come down to the root of the matter, we see that they differ from ordinary men less in the character of their attention than in the nature of the objects upon which it is successively bestowed. In the genius, these form a concatenated series, suggesting each other mutually by some rational law. Therefore we call the attention 'sustained' and the topic of meditation for hours 'the same.' In the common man the series is for the most part incoherent, the objects have no rational bond, and we call the attention wandering and unfixed.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B00686",
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      "text": "It is probable that genius tends actually to prevent a man from acquiring habits of voluntary attention, and that moderate intellectual endowments are the soil in which we may best expect, here as elsewhere, the virtues of the will, strictly so called, to thrive. But, whether the attention come by grace of genius or by dint of will, the longer one does attend to a topic the more mastery of it one has. And the faculty of voluntarily bringing back a wandering attention over and over again is the very root of judgment, character, and will. No one is _compos sui_ if he have it not. An education which should improve this faculty would be _the_ education _par excellence_. But it is easier to define this ideal than to give practical directions for bringing it about. The only general pedagogic maxim bearing on attention is that the more interests the child has in advance in the subject, the better he will attend. Induct him therefore in such a way as to knit each new thing on to some acquisition already there; and if possible awaken curiosity, so that the new thing shall seem to come as an answer, or part of an answer, to a question preëxisting in his mind.",
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      "text": "=The Physiological Conditions of Attention.=--These seem to be the following:",
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      "text": "1) _The appropriate cortical centre must be excited ideationally as well as sensorially, before attention to an object can take place._",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B01093",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "Here we immediately reap the good fruits of our simple physiological conception of what an instinct is. If it be a mere excito-motor impulse, due to the preëxistence of a certain 'reflex arc' in the nerve-centres of the creature, of course it must follow the law of all such reflex arcs. One liability of such arcs is to have their activity 'inhibited' by other processes going on at the same time. It makes no difference whether the arc be organized at birth, or ripen spontaneously later, or be due to acquired habit; it must take its chances with all the other arcs, and sometimes succeed, and sometimes fail, in drafting off the currents through itself. The mystical view of an instinct would make it invariable. The physiological view would require it to show occasional irregularities in any animal in whom the number of separate instincts, and the possible entrance of the same stimulus into several of them, were great. And such irregularities are what every superior animal's instincts do show in abundance.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55262.B01094",
      "bookId": 55262,
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      "text": "Wherever the mind is elevated enough to discriminate; wherever several distinct sensory elements must combine to discharge the reflex arc; wherever, instead of plumping into action instantly at the first rough intimation of what _sort_ of a thing is there, the agent waits to see which _one_ of its kind it is and what the _circumstances_ are of its appearance; wherever different individuals and different circumstances can impel him in different ways; wherever these are the conditions--we have a masking of the elementary constitution of the instinctive life. The whole story of our dealings with the lower wild animals is the history of our taking advantage of the way in which they judge of everything by its mere label, as it were, so as to ensnare or kill them. Nature, in them, has left matters in this rough way, and made them act _always_ in the manner which would be _oftenest_ right. There are more worms unattached to hooks than impaled upon them; therefore, on the whole, says Nature to her fishy children, bite at _every_ worm and take your chances. But as her children get higher, and their lives more precious, she reduces the risks. Since what seems to be the same object may be now a genuine food and now a bait; since in gregarious species each individual may prove to be either the friend or the rival, according to the circumstances, of another; since any entirely unknown object may be fraught with weal or woe. _Nature implants contrary impulses to act on many classes of things_, and leaves it to slight alterations in the conditions of the individual case to decide which impulse shall carry the day. Thus, greediness and suspicion, curiosity and timidity, coyness and desire, bashfulness and vanity, sociability and pugnacity, seem to shoot over into each other as quickly, and to remain in as unstable an equilibrium, in the higher birds and mammals as in man. All are impulses, congenital, blind at first, and productive of motor reactions of a rigorously determinate sort. _Each one of them then is an instinct_, as instincts are commonly defined. _But they contradict each other_--'experience' in each particular opportunity of application usually deciding the issue. _The animal that exhibits them loses the 'instinctive' demeanor_ and appears to lead a life of hesitation and choice, an intellectual life; _not, however, because he has no instincts--rather because he has so many that they block each other's path_.",
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      "ref": "PG55262.B01095",
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      "text": "Thus we may confidently say that however uncertain man's reactions upon his environment may sometimes seem in comparison with those of lower mammals, the uncertainty is probably not due to their possession of any principles of action which he lacks. _On the contrary, man possesses all the impulses that they have, and a great many more besides._ In other words, there is no material antagonism between instinct and reason. Reason, _per se_, can inhibit no impulses; the only thing that can neutralize an impulse is an impulse the other way. Reason may, however, make an _inference which will excite the imagination so as to let loose_ the impulse the other way; and thus, though the animal richest in reason is also the animal richest in instinctive impulses too, he never seems the fatal automaton which a _merely_ instinctive animal must be.",
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      "text": "=Two Principles of Non-uniformity.=--Instincts may be masked in the mature animal's life by two other causes. These are:",
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      "text": "_a._ The _inhibition of instincts by habits_; and",
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      "text": "_b._ The _transitoriness of instincts_.",
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      "text": "In Chapter XIX we saw how enormously individuals differ in respect to their mental imagery. In the type of imagination called _tactile_ by the French authors, it is probable that the kinæsthetic ideas are more prominent than in my account. We must not expect too great a uniformity in individual accounts, nor wrangle overmuch as to which one 'truly' represents the process.",
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      "text": "I trust that I have now made clear what that 'idea of a movement' is which must precede it in order that it be voluntary. It is not the thought of the innervation which the movement requires. It is the anticipation of the movement's sensible effects, resident or remote, and sometimes very remote indeed. Such anticipations, to say the least, determine _what_ our movements shall be. I have spoken all along as if they also might determine _that_ they shall be. This, no doubt, has disconcerted many readers, for it certainly seems as if a special fiat, or consent to the movement, were required in addition to the mere conception of it, in many cases of volition; and this fiat I have altogether left out of my account. This leads us to the next point in our discussion.",
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      "text": "=Ideo-motor Action.=--The question is this: _Is the bare idea of a movement's sensible effects its sufficient motor-cue, or must there be an additional mental antecedent, in the shape of a fiat, decision, consent, volitional mandate, or other synonymous phenomenon of consciousness, before the movement can follow?_",
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      "text": "I answer: Sometimes the bare idea is sufficient, but sometimes an additional conscious element, in the shape of a fiat, mandate, or express consent, has to intervene and precede the movement. The cases without a fiat constitute the more fundamental, because the more simple, variety. The others involve a special complication, which must be fully discussed at the proper time. For the present let us turn to _ideo-motor action_, as it has been termed, or the sequence of movement upon the mere thought of it, without a special fiat, as the type of the process of volition.",
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      "text": "Wherever a movement _unhesitatingly and immediately_ follows upon the idea of it, we have ideo-motor action. We are then aware of nothing between the conception and the execution. All sorts of neuro-muscular processes come between, of course, but we know absolutely nothing of them. We think the act, and it is done; and that is all that introspection tells us of the matter. Dr. Carpenter, who first used, I believe, the name of ideo-motor action, placed it, if I mistake not, among the curiosities of our mental life. The truth is that it is no curiosity, but simply the normal process stripped of disguise. Whilst talking I become conscious of a pin on the floor, or of some dust on my sleeve. Without interrupting the conversation I brush away the dust or pick up the pin. I make no express resolve, but the mere perception of the object and the fleeting notion of the act seem of themselves to bring the latter about. Similarly, I sit at table after dinner and find myself from time to time taking nuts or raisins out of the dish and eating them. My dinner properly is over, and in the heat of the conversation I am hardly aware of what I do; but the perception of the fruit, and the fleeting notion that I may eat it, seem fatally to bring the act about. There is certainly no express fiat here; any more than there is in all those habitual goings and comings and rearrangements of ourselves which fill every hour of the day, and which incoming sensations instigate so immediately that it is often difficult to decide whether not to call them reflex rather than voluntary acts. As Lotze says:",
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      "text": "\"We see in writing or piano-playing a great number of very complicated movements following quickly one upon the other, the instigative representations of which remained scarcely a second in consciousness, certainly not long enough to awaken any other volition than the general one of resigning one's self without reserve to the passing over of representation into action. All the acts of our daily life happen in this wise: Our standing up, walking, talking, all this never demands a distinct impulse of the will, but is adequately brought about by the pure flux of thought.\"[54]",
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      "text": "In all this the determining condition of the unhesitating and resistless sequence of the act seems to be _the absence of any conflicting notion in the mind_. Either there is nothing else at all in the mind, or what is there does not conflict. We know what it is to get out of bed on a freezing morning in a room without a fire, and how the very vital principle within us protests against the ordeal. Probably most persons have lain on certain mornings for an hour at a time unable to brace themselves to the resolve. We think how late we shall be, how the duties of the day will suffer; we say, \"I _must_ get up, this is ignominious,\" etc.; but still the warm couch feels too delicious, the cold outside too cruel, and resolutions faints away and postpones itself again and again just as it seemed on the verge of bursting the resistance and passing over into the decisive act. Now how do we _ever_ get up under such circumstances? If I may generalize from my own experience, we more often than not get up without any struggle or decision at all. We suddenly find that we _have_ got up. A fortunate lapse of consciousness occurs; we forget both the warmth and the cold; we fall into some revery connected with the day's life, in the course of which the idea flashes across us, \"Hollo! I must lie here no longer\"--an idea which at that lucky instant awakens no contradictory or paralyzing suggestions, and consequently produces immediately its appropriate motor effects. It was our acute consciousness of both the warmth and the cold during the period of struggle, which paralyzed our activity then and kept our idea of rising in the condition of _wish_ and not of _will_. The moment these inhibitory ideas ceased, the original idea exerted its effects.",
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      "text": "If in these our _first_ acts pleasures and pains bear no part, as little do they bear in our last acts, or those artificially acquired performances which have become habitual. All the daily routine of life, our dressing and undressing, the coming and going from our work or carrying through of its various operations, is utterly without mental reference to pleasure and pain, except under rarely realized conditions. It is ideo-motor action. As I do not breathe for the pleasure of the breathing, but simply find that I _am_ breathing, so I do not write for the pleasure of the writing, but simply because I have once begun, and being in a state of intellectual excitement which keeps venting itself in that way, find that I _am_ writing still. Who will pretend that when he idly fingers his knife-handle at the table, it is for the sake of any pleasure which it gives him, or pain which he thereby avoids? We do all these things because at the moment we cannot help it; our nervous systems are so shaped that they overflow in just that way; and for many of our idle or purely 'nervous' and fidgety performances we can assign absolutely no _reason_ at all.",
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      "text": "Or what shall be said of a shy and unsociable man who receives point-blank an invitation to a small party? The thing is to him an abomination; but your presence exerts a compulsion on him, he can think of no excuse, and so says yes, cursing himself the while for what he does. He is unusually _sui compos_ who does not every week of his life fall into some such blundering act as this. Such instances of _voluntas invita_ show not only that our acts cannot all be conceived as effects of represented pleasure, but that they cannot even be classed as cases of represented _good_. The class 'goods' contains many more generally influential motives to action than the class 'pleasants.' But almost as little as under the form of pleasures do our acts invariably appear to us under the form of _goods_. All diseased impulses and pathological fixed ideas are instances to the contrary. It is the very badness of the act that gives it then its vertiginous fascination. Remove the prohibition, and the attraction stops. In my university days a student threw himself from an upper entry window of one of the college buildings and was nearly killed. Another student, a friend of my own, had to pass the window daily in coming and going from his room, and experienced a dreadful temptation to imitate the deed. Being a Catholic, he told his director, who said, 'All right! if you must, you must,' and added, 'Go ahead and do it,' thereby instantly quenching his desire. This director knew how to minister to a mind diseased. But we need not go to minds diseased for examples of the occasional tempting-power of simple badness and unpleasantness as such. Every one who has a wound or hurt anywhere, a sore tooth, e.g., will ever and anon press it just to bring out the pain. If we are near a new sort of stink, we must sniff it again just to verify once more how bad it is. This very day I have been repeating over and over to myself a verbal jingle whose mawkish silliness was the secret of its haunting power. I loathed yet could not banish it.",
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      "text": "=What holds attention determines action.= If one must have a single name for the condition upon which the impulsive and inhibitive quality of objects depends, one had better call it their _interest_. 'The interesting' is a title which covers not only the pleasant and the painful, but also the morbidly fascinating, the tediously haunting, and even the simply habitual, inasmuch as the attention usually travels on habitual lines, and what-we-attend-to and what-interests-us are synonymous terms. It seems as if we ought to look for the secret of an idea's impulsiveness, not in any peculiar relations which it may have with paths of motor discharge,--for _all_ ideas have relations with some such paths,--but rather in a preliminary phenomenon, the _urgency, namely, with which it is able to compel attention and dominate in consciousness_. Let it once so dominate, let no other ideas succeed in displacing it, and whatever motor effects belong to it by nature will inevitably occur--its impulsion, in short, will be given to boot, and will manifest itself as a matter of course. This is what we have seen in instinct, in emotion, in common ideo-motor action, in hypnotic suggestion, in morbid impulsion, and in _voluntas invita_,--the impelling idea is simply the one which possesses the attention. It is the same where pleasure and pain are the motor spurs--they drive other thoughts from consciousness at the same time that they instigate their own characteristic 'volitional' effects. And this is also what happens at the moment of the _fiat_, in all the five types of 'decision' which we have described. In short, one does not see any case in which the steadfast occupancy of consciousness does not appear to be the prime condition of impulsive power. It is still more obviously the prime condition of inhibitive power. What checks our impulses is the mere thinking of reasons to the contrary--it is their bare presence to the mind which gives the veto, and makes acts, otherwise seductive, impossible to perform. If we could only _forget_ our scruples, our doubts, our fears, what exultant energy we should for a while display!",
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      "text": "=Will is a relation between the mind and its 'ideas.'= In closing in, therefore, after all these preliminaries, upon the more _intimate_ nature of the volitional process, we find ourselves driven more and more exclusively to consider the conditions which make ideas prevail in the mind. With the prevalence, once there as a fact, of the motive idea, the _psychology_ of volition properly stops. The movements which ensue are exclusively physiological phenomena, following according to physiological laws upon the neural events to which the idea corresponds. The _willing_ terminates with the prevalence of the idea; and whether the act then follows or not is a matter quite immaterial, so far as the willing itself goes. I will to write, and the act follows. I will to sneeze, and it does not. I will that the distant table slide over the floor towards me; it also does not. My willing representation can no more instigate my sneezing-centre than it can instigate the table to activity. But in both cases it is as true and good willing as it was when I willed to write. In a word, volition is a psychic or moral fact pure and simple, and is absolutely completed when the stable state of the idea is there. The supervention of motion is a supernumerary phenomenon depending on executive ganglia whose function lies outside the mind. If the ganglia work duly, the act occurs perfectly. If they work, but work wrongly, we have St. Vitus's dance, locomotor ataxy, motor aphasia, or minor degrees of awkwardness. If they don't work at all, the act fails altogether, and we say the man is paralyzed. He may make a tremendous effort, and contract the other muscles of the body, but the paralyzed limb fails to move. In all these cases, however, the volition considered as a psychic process is intact.",
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      "text": "=Volitional effort is effort of attention.= We thus find that _we reach the heart of our inquiry into volition when we ask by what process it is that the thought of any given action comes to prevail stably in the mind_. Where thoughts prevail without effort, we have sufficiently studied in the several chapters on Sensation, Association, and Attention, the laws of their advent before consciousness and of their stay. We shall not go over that ground again, for we know that interest and association are the words, let their worth be what it may, on which our explanations must perforce rely. Where, on the other hand, the prevalence of the thought is accompanied by the phenomenon of effort, the case is much less clear. Already in the chapter on Attention we postponed the final consideration of voluntary attention with effort to a later place. We have now brought things to a point at which we see that attention with effort is all that any case of volition implies. _The essential achievement of the will, in short, when it is most 'voluntary,' is to attend to a difficult object and hold it fast before the mind._ The so-doing _is_ the _fiat_; and it is a mere physiological incident that when the object is thus attended to, immediate motor consequences should ensue.",
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      "text": "_Effort of attention is thus the essential phenomenon of will._[55] Every reader must know by his own experience that this is so, for every reader must have felt some fiery passion's grasp. What constitutes the difficulty for a man laboring under an unwise passion of acting as if the passion were wise? Certainly there is no physical difficulty. It is as easy physically to avoid a fight as to begin one, to pocket one's money as to squander it on one's cupidities, to walk away from as towards a coquette's door. The difficulty is mental: it is that of getting the idea of the wise action to stay before our mind at all. When any strong emotional state whatever is upon us, the tendency is for no images but such as are congruous with it to come up. If others by chance offer themselves, they are instantly smothered and crowded out. If we be joyous, we cannot keep thinking of those uncertainties and risks of failure which abound upon our path; if lugubrious, we cannot think of new triumphs, travels, loves, and joys; nor if vengeful, of our oppressor's community of nature with ourselves. The cooling advice which we get from others when the fever-fit is on us is the most jarring and exasperating thing in life. Reply we cannot, so we get angry; for by a sort of self-preserving instinct which our passion has, it feels that these chill objects, if they once but gain a lodgment, will work and work until they have frozen the very vital spark from out of all our mood and brought our airy castles in ruin to the ground. Such is the inevitable effect of reasonable ideas over others--_if they can once get a quiet hearing_; and passion's cue accordingly is always and everywhere to prevent their still small voice from being heard at all. \"Let me not think of that! Don't speak to me of that!\" This is the sudden cry of all those who in a passion perceive some sobering considerations about to check them in mid-career. There is something so icy in this cold-water bath, something which seems so hostile to the movement of our life, so purely negative, in Reason, when she lays her corpse-like finger on our heart and says, \"Halt! give up! leave off! go back! sit down!\" that it is no wonder that to most men the steadying influence seems, for the time being, a very minister of death.",
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      "text": "The strong-willed man, however, is the man who hears the still small voice unflinchingly, and who, when the death-bringing consideration comes, looks at its face, consents to its presence, clings to it, affirms it, and holds it fast, in spite of the host of exciting mental images which rise in revolt against it and would expel it from the mind. Sustained in this way by a resolute effort of attention, the difficult object erelong begins to call up its own congeners and associates and ends by changing the disposition of the man's consciousness altogether. And with his consciousness his action changes, for the new object, once stably in possession of the field of his thoughts, infallibly produces its own motor effects. The difficulty lies in the gaining possession of that field. Though the spontaneous drift of thought is all the other way, the attention must be kept strained on that one object until at last it _grows_, so as to maintain itself before the mind with ease. This strain of the attention is the fundamental act of will. And the will's work is in most cases practically ended when the bare presence to our thought of the naturally unwelcome object has been secured. For the mysterious tie between the thought and the motor centres next comes into play, and, in a way which we cannot even guess at, the obedience of the bodily organs follows as a matter of course.",
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      "text": "PSYCHOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY.",
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      "text": "=What the Word Metaphysics means.=--In the last chapter we handed the question of free-will over to 'metaphysics.' It would indeed have been hasty to settle the question absolutely, inside the limits of psychology. Let psychology frankly admit that _for her scientific purposes_ determinism may be _claimed_, and no one can find fault. If, then, it turn out later that the claim has only a relative purpose, and may be crossed by counter-claims, the readjustment can be made. Now ethics makes a counterclaim; and the present writer, for one, has no hesitation in regarding her claim as the stronger, and in assuming that our wills are 'free.' For him, then, the deterministic assumption of psychology is merely provisional and methodological. This is no place to argue the ethical point; and I only mention the conflict to show that all these special sciences, marked off for convenience from the remaining body of truth (cf. p. 1), must hold their assumptions and results subject to revision in the light of each others' needs. The forum where they hold discussion is called metaphysics. Metaphysics means only an unusually obstinate attempt to think clearly and consistently. The special sciences all deal with data that are full of obscurity and contradiction; but from the point of view of their limited purposes these defects may be overlooked. Hence the disparaging use of the name metaphysics which is so common. To a man with a limited purpose any discussion that is over-subtle for that purpose is branded as 'metaphysical.' A geologist's purposes fall short of understanding Time itself. A mechanist need not know how action and reaction are possible at all. A psychologist has enough to do without asking how both he and the mind which he studies are able to take cognizance of the same outer world. But it is obvious that problems irrelevant from one standpoint may be essential from another. And as soon as one's purpose is the attainment of the maximum of possible insight into the world as a whole, the metaphysical puzzles become the most urgent ones of all. Psychology contributes to general philosophy her full share of these; and I propose in this last chapter to indicate briefly which of them seem the more important. And first, of the",
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      "text": "=Relation of Consciousness to the Brain.=--When psychology is treated as a natural science (after the fashion in which it has been treated in this book), 'states of mind' are taken for granted, as data immediately given in experience; and the working hypothesis (see p. 6) is the mere empirical law that to the entire state of the brain at any moment one unique state of mind always 'corresponds.' This does very well till we begin to be metaphysical and ask ourselves just what we mean by such a word as 'corresponds.' This notion appears dark in the extreme, the moment we seek to translate it into something more intimate than mere parallel variation. Some think they make the notion of it clearer by calling the mental state and the brain the inner and outer 'aspects,' respectively, of 'One and the Same Reality.' Others consider the mental state as the 'reaction' of a unitary being, the Soul, upon the multiple activities which the brain presents. Others again comminute the mystery by supposing each brain-cell to be separately conscious, and the empirically given mental state to be the appearance of all the little consciousnesses fused into one, just as the 'brain' itself is the appearance of all the cells together, when looked at from one point of view.",
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      "text": "We may call these three metaphysical attempts the _monistic_, the _spiritualistic_, and the _atomistic_ theories respectively. Each has its difficulties, of which it seems to me that those of the spiritualistic theory are _logically_ much the least grave. But the spiritualistic theory is quite out of touch with the facts of multiple consciousness, alternate personality, etc. (pp. 207-214). These lend themselves more naturally to the atomistic formulation, for it seems easier to think of a lot of minor consciousnesses now gathering together into one large mass, and now into several smaller ones, than of a Soul now reacting totally, now breaking into several disconnected simultaneous reactions. The localization of brain-functions also makes for the atomistic view. If in my experience, say of a bell, it is my occipital lobes which are the condition of its being seen, and my temporal lobes which are the condition of its being heard, what is more natural than to say that the former _see_ it and the latter _hear_ it, and then 'combine their information'? In view of the extreme naturalness of such a way of representing the well-established fact that the appearance of the several parts of an object to consciousness at any moment does depend on as many several parts of the brain being then active, all such objections as were urged, on pp. 23, 57, and elsewhere, to the notion that 'parts' of consciousness _can_ 'combine' will be rejected as far-fetched, unreal, and 'metaphysical' by the atomistic philosopher. His 'purpose' is to gain a formula which shall unify things in a natural and easy manner, and for such a purpose the atomistic theory seems expressly made to his hand.",
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      "text": "But the difficulty with the problem of 'correspondence' is not only that of solving it, it is that of even stating it in elementary terms.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00018",
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      "start": 2270,
      "end": 2280,
      "sha256": "38daefaa8538133b2006637ecf4301d4eba1bd80cef61e80742b799b548d0717",
      "text": "DHAMMAPADA",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00019",
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      "start": 2290,
      "end": 2316,
      "sha256": "8c99b4a49a00628759d6f9debe8e92ae6aed9b92390d2c877884e457da31634f",
      "text": "Chapter I. The Twin-Verses",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00020",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 2320,
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      "text": "1. All that we are is the result of what we have thought: it is founded on our thoughts, it is made up of our thoughts. If a man speaks or acts with an evil thought, pain follows him, as the wheel follows the foot of the ox that draws the carriage.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00021",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 2575,
      "end": 2802,
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      "text": "2. All that we are is the result of what we have thought: it is founded on our thoughts, it is made up of our thoughts. If a man speaks or acts with a pure thought, happiness follows him, like a shadow that never leaves him.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00022",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 2806,
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      "sha256": "6922970a77a06fbc902a65267467376a91e6be9ebb9c5437bb7a5693f9e0de32",
      "text": "3. \"He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me,\"--in those who harbour such thoughts hatred will never cease.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00023",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 2932,
      "end": 3055,
      "sha256": "1d405081368703f97230606eef6be1a2c551b0268cf2955c35b9322e4a8ba985",
      "text": "4. \"He abused me, he beat me, he defeated me, he robbed me,\"--in those who do not harbour such thoughts hatred will cease.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00024",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 3059,
      "end": 3155,
      "sha256": "d83f83efa166bf147a079ed88e0ab200a6b0265a74bb0606a8587c3255e25003",
      "text": "5. For hatred does not cease by hatred at any time: hatred ceases by love, this is an old rule.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00025",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 3159,
      "end": 3278,
      "sha256": "ef513083b6e03794c34aafe36ccbd45106ec3eb6b5f71515a154a76d31103093",
      "text": "6. The world does not know that we must all come to an end here;--but those who know it, their quarrels cease at once.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00026",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 3282,
      "end": 3478,
      "sha256": "1807ae149267ec6750ccf56e85c2063444cdb36e7e3a1728210e68c6e0860b76",
      "text": "7. He who lives looking for pleasures only, his senses uncontrolled, immoderate in his food, idle, and weak, Mara (the tempter) will certainly overthrow him, as the wind throws down a weak tree.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00027",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 3482,
      "end": 3694,
      "sha256": "7f18be3d3369ea82ce406e227c2e98ecfca33d8395778ddaf5941dbacb1486ba",
      "text": "8. He who lives without looking for pleasures, his senses well controlled, moderate in his food, faithful and strong, him Mara will certainly not overthrow, any more than the wind throws down a rocky mountain.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00034",
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      "start": 4464,
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      "sha256": "62b3ad2accacfc71f82443e0bfd8fada7eda429a7f8d2d2e9a822aee9ccc798f",
      "text": "15. The evil-doer mourns in this world, and he mourns in the next; he mourns in both. He mourns and suffers when he sees the evil of his own work.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00035",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 4616,
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      "text": "16. The virtuous man delights in this world, and he delights in the next; he delights in both. He delights and rejoices, when he sees the purity of his own work.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00036",
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      "start": 4783,
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      "sha256": "5658f4f9af83122d25750f83c1dee6d26889a19b0d2b1209cbb4649d0a237b4b",
      "text": "17. The evil-doer suffers in this world, and he suffers in the next; he suffers in both. He suffers when he thinks of the evil he has done; he suffers more when going on the evil path.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00037",
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      "start": 4973,
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      "text": "18. The virtuous man is happy in this world, and he is happy in the next; he is happy in both. He is happy when he thinks of the good he has done; he is still more happy when going on the good path.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00038",
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      "text": "19. The thoughtless man, even if he can recite a large portion (of the law), but is not a doer of it, has no share in the priesthood, but is like a cowherd counting the cows of others.",
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    {
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      "start": 5367,
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      "text": "20. The follower of the law, even if he can recite only a small portion (of the law), but, having forsaken passion and hatred and foolishness, possesses true knowledge and serenity of mind, he, caring for nothing in this world or that to come, has indeed a share in the priesthood.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00040",
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      "sha256": "07e8e904f9a10ef8edba46fb097f4ec398f996c41634e06f929a125d331479d4",
      "text": "Chapter II. On Earnestness",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00041",
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      "text": "21. Earnestness is the path of immortality (Nirvana), thoughtlessness the path of death. Those who are in earnest do not die, those who are thoughtless are as if dead already.",
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      "ref": "PG2017.B00042",
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      "text": "22. Those who are advanced in earnestness, having understood this clearly, delight in earnestness, and rejoice in the knowledge of the Ariyas (the elect).",
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      "ref": "PG2017.B00043",
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      "sha256": "d6ca1ec92f2c5b7fd4836e18a547299158b66e5b3e157da1f50f6c6f2bc02f86",
      "text": "23. These wise people, meditative, steady, always possessed of strong powers, attain to Nirvana, the highest happiness.",
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      "ref": "PG2017.B00044",
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      "text": "24. If an earnest person has roused himself, if he is not forgetful, if his deeds are pure, if he acts with consideration, if he restrains himself, and lives according to law,--then his glory will increase.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00045",
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      "start": 6368,
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      "text": "25. By rousing himself, by earnestness, by restraint and control, the wise man may make for himself an island which no flood can overwhelm.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00046",
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      "start": 6512,
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      "text": "26. Fools follow after vanity, men of evil wisdom. The wise man keeps earnestness as his best jewel.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00052",
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      "start": 7443,
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      "text": "32. A Bhikshu (mendicant) who delights in reflection, who looks with fear on thoughtlessness, cannot fall away (from his perfect state)--he is close upon Nirvana.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00053",
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      "text": "Chapter III. Thought",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00054",
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      "text": "33. As a fletcher makes straight his arrow, a wise man makes straight his trembling and unsteady thought, which is difficult to guard, difficult to hold back.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00055",
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      "start": 7805,
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      "text": "34. As a fish taken from his watery home and thrown on dry ground, our thought trembles all over in order to escape the dominion of Mara (the tempter).",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00056",
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      "start": 7962,
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      "text": "35. It is good to tame the mind, which is difficult to hold in and flighty, rushing wherever it listeth; a tamed mind brings happiness.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00057",
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      "start": 8102,
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      "sha256": "3e9514b4e24b3352ccc41a4c90c9882b16e5fd2cb565fe7fabe94ab4c36aa109",
      "text": "36. Let the wise man guard his thoughts, for they are difficult to perceive, very artful, and they rush wherever they list: thoughts well guarded bring happiness.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00058",
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      "sha256": "f9981b6a9ec67333edbcf0db5b18b99bfaef13584d14a9ed6350e2fca1826efd",
      "text": "37. Those who bridle their mind which travels far, moves about alone, is without a body, and hides in the chamber (of the heart), will be free from the bonds of Mara (the tempter).",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00059",
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      "start": 8456,
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      "sha256": "1cc72dc237dac33235d33a38e958c12cd84ba53e2373449256ca1cc13187dac4",
      "text": "38. If a man's thoughts are unsteady, if he does not know the true law, if his peace of mind is troubled, his knowledge will never be perfect.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00068",
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      "start": 9813,
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      "sha256": "678a4499b5359a8af47376f957b3de51ac14529c4b9785e60643125d93d3f996",
      "text": "46. He who knows that this body is like froth, and has learnt that it is as unsubstantial as a mirage, will break the flower-pointed arrow of Mara, and never see the king of death.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00069",
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      "start": 9999,
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      "sha256": "61164608d53db61044ac7f9068064091035a525a0037bb62460fbeadca2e0f02",
      "text": "47. Death carries off a man who is gathering flowers and whose mind is distracted, as a flood carries off a sleeping village.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00070",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 10129,
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      "sha256": "9a94530269c02bec74923549b9f15ab7ff45341c13c246da722e65c539310ef9",
      "text": "48. Death subdues a man who is gathering flowers, and whose mind is distracted, before he is satiated in his pleasures.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00071",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 10253,
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      "sha256": "90daf7d33dbd987bde7adc89c7bcbd5550431884f4bb56886319e2f214c36ffc",
      "text": "49. As the bee collects nectar and departs without injuring the flower, or its colour or scent, so let a sage dwell in his village.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00072",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 10389,
      "end": 10535,
      "sha256": "840530702436c718f417da172a355df1c2b02e0d0f669998bdccb80471ef328b",
      "text": "50. Not the perversities of others, not their sins of commission or omission, but his own misdeeds and negligences should a sage take notice of.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00073",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 10539,
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      "sha256": "b8c15a398046a4887aa8e58b37370d283042d1f2ebd74d51dc8169ab0655924d",
      "text": "51. Like a beautiful flower, full of colour, but without scent, are the fine but fruitless words of him who does not act accordingly.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00074",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 10677,
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      "sha256": "50981ea914aac30aeac04b5c7a3394a87f52ca3bda88663c242c080ce04bbeec",
      "text": "52. But, like a beautiful flower, full of colour and full of scent, are the fine and fruitful words of him who acts accordingly.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00075",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 10810,
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      "sha256": "c1db7a18c326f64ac8c1ef5e9042400c9f6ba65a3411c7a6c7f397cf669c3a2f",
      "text": "53. As many kinds of wreaths can be made from a heap of flowers, so many good things may be achieved by a mortal when once he is born.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00076",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 10949,
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      "sha256": "173f92b2a7d5a05a17af3263756ad8bce084b2ce886c769b89ed81c2726ce684",
      "text": "54. The scent of flowers does not travel against the wind, nor (that of) sandal-wood, or of Tagara and Mallika flowers; but the odour of good people travels even against the wind; a good man pervades every place.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00077",
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      "text": "55. Sandal-wood or Tagara, a lotus-flower, or a Vassiki, among these sorts of perfumes, the perfume of virtue is unsurpassed.",
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      "ref": "PG2017.B00085",
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      "text": "63. The fool who knows his foolishness, is wise at least so far. But a fool who thinks himself wise, he is called a fool indeed.",
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      "ref": "PG2017.B00086",
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      "start": 12525,
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      "text": "64. If a fool be associated with a wise man even all his life, he will perceive the truth as little as a spoon perceives the taste of soup.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00087",
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      "text": "65. If an intelligent man be associated for one minute only with a wise man, he will soon perceive the truth, as the tongue perceives the taste of soup.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00088",
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      "start": 12827,
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      "text": "66. Fools of little understanding have themselves for their greatest enemies, for they do evil deeds which must bear bitter fruits.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00089",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 12963,
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      "text": "67. That deed is not well done of which a man must repent, and the reward of which he receives crying and with a tearful face.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00090",
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      "start": 13094,
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      "text": "68. No, that deed is well done of which a man does not repent, and the reward of which he receives gladly and cheerfully.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00091",
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      "text": "69. As long as the evil deed done does not bear fruit, the fool thinks it is like honey; but when it ripens, then the fool suffers grief.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00092",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 13362,
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      "text": "70. Let a fool month after month eat his food (like an ascetic) with the tip of a blade of Kusa grass, yet he is not worth the sixteenth particle of those who have well weighed the law.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00097",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 14218,
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      "text": "75. \"One is the road that leads to wealth, another the road that leads to Nirvana;\" if the Bhikshu, the disciple of Buddha, has learnt this, he will not yearn for honour, he will strive after separation from the world.",
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      "ref": "PG2017.B00098",
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      "text": "Chapter VI. The Wise Man (Pandita)",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00099",
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      "text": "76. If you see an intelligent man who tells you where true treasures are to be found, who shows what is to be avoided, and administers reproofs, follow that wise man; it will be better, not worse, for those who follow him.",
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      "ref": "PG2017.B00100",
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      "text": "77. Let him admonish, let him teach, let him forbid what is improper!--he will be beloved of the good, by the bad he will be hated.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00101",
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      "text": "78. Do not have evil-doers for friends, do not have low people for friends: have virtuous people for friends, have for friends the best of men.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00102",
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      "start": 15001,
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      "text": "79. He who drinks in the law lives happily with a serene mind: the sage rejoices always in the law, as preached by the elect (Ariyas).",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00103",
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      "start": 15140,
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      "text": "80. Well-makers lead the water (wherever they like); fletchers bend the arrow; carpenters bend a log of wood; wise people fashion themselves.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00104",
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      "text": "81. As a solid rock is not shaken by the wind, wise people falter not amidst blame and praise.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00105",
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      "text": "82. Wise people, after they have listened to the laws, become serene, like a deep, smooth, and still lake.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00106",
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      "text": "83. Good people walk on whatever befall, the good do not prattle, longing for pleasure; whether touched by happiness or sorrow wise people never appear elated or depressed.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00122",
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      "start": 18338,
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      "text": "99. Forests are delightful; where the world finds no delight, there the passionless will find delight, for they look not for pleasures.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00123",
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      "start": 18484,
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      "text": "Chapter VIII. The Thousands",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00124",
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      "start": 18515,
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      "text": "100. Even though a speech be a thousand (of words), but made up of senseless words, one word of sense is better, which if a man hears, he becomes quiet.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00125",
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      "start": 18673,
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      "text": "101. Even though a Gatha (poem) be a thousand (of words), but made up of senseless words, one word of a Gatha is better, which if a man hears, he becomes quiet.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00126",
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      "start": 18839,
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      "text": "102. Though a man recite a hundred Gathas made up of senseless words, one word of the law is better, which if a man hears, he becomes quiet.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00127",
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      "start": 18984,
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      "sha256": "757473259f4f5c6c9916555f8160521900e30ab5a63ddeb9314a46871b482f98",
      "text": "103. If one man conquer in battle a thousand times thousand men, and if another conquer himself, he is the greatest of conquerors.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00128",
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      "start": 19119,
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      "text": "104, 105. One's own self conquered is better than all other people; not even a god, a Gandharva, not Mara with Brahman could change into defeat the victory of a man who has vanquished himself, and always lives under restraint.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00129",
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      "start": 19352,
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      "text": "106. If a man for a hundred years sacrifice month after month with a thousand, and if he but for one moment pay homage to a man whose soul is grounded (in true knowledge), better is that homage than sacrifice for a hundred years.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00143",
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      "text": "119. Even an evil-doer sees happiness as long as his evil deed has not ripened; but when his evil deed has ripened, then does the evil-doer see evil.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00144",
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      "start": 21527,
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      "text": "120. Even a good man sees evil days, as long as his good deed has not ripened; but when his good deed has ripened, then does the good man see happy days.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00145",
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      "start": 21686,
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      "text": "121. Let no man think lightly of evil, saying in his heart, It will not come nigh unto me. Even by the falling of water-drops a water-pot is filled; the fool becomes full of evil, even if he gather it little by little.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00146",
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      "text": "122. Let no man think lightly of good, saying in his heart, It will not come nigh unto me. Even by the falling of water-drops a water-pot is filled; the wise man becomes full of good, even if he gather it little by little.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00147",
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      "text": "123. Let a man avoid evil deeds, as a merchant, if he has few companions and carries much wealth, avoids a dangerous road; as a man who loves life avoids poison.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00148",
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      "start": 22307,
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      "text": "124. He who has no wound on his hand, may touch poison with his hand; poison does not affect one who has no wound; nor is there evil for one who does not commit evil.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00152",
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      "text": "128. Not in the sky, not in the midst of the sea, not if we enter into the clefts of the mountains, is there known a spot in the whole world where death could not overcome (the mortal).",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00153",
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      "start": 23165,
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      "text": "Chapter X. Punishment",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00154",
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      "start": 23190,
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      "text": "129. All men tremble at punishment, all men fear death; remember that you are like unto them, and do not kill, nor cause slaughter.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00155",
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      "start": 23326,
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      "text": "130. All men tremble at punishment, all men love life; remember that thou art like unto them, and do not kill, nor cause slaughter.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00156",
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      "start": 23462,
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      "text": "131. He who seeking his own happiness punishes or kills beings who also long for happiness, will not find happiness after death.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00157",
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      "start": 23595,
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      "text": "132. He who seeking his own happiness does not punish or kill beings who also long for happiness, will find happiness after death.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00158",
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      "text": "133. Do not speak harshly to anybody; those who are spoken to will answer thee in the same way. Angry speech is painful, blows for blows will touch thee.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00159",
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      "start": 23889,
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      "text": "134. If, like a shattered metal plate (gong), thou utter not, then thou hast reached Nirvana; contention is not known to thee.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00160",
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      "text": "135. As a cowherd with his staff drives his cows into the stable, so do Age and Death drive the life of men.",
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      "text": "136. A fool does not know when he commits his evil deeds: but the wicked man burns by his own deeds, as if burnt by fire.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00181",
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      "text": "156. Men who have not observed proper discipline, and have not gained treasure in their youth, lie, like broken bows, sighing after the past.",
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      "ref": "PG2017.B00182",
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      "start": 27414,
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      "text": "Chapter XII. Self",
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      "ref": "PG2017.B00183",
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      "text": "157. If a man hold himself dear, let him watch himself carefully; during one at least out of the three watches a wise man should be watchful.",
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      "ref": "PG2017.B00184",
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      "text": "158. Let each man direct himself first to what is proper, then let him teach others; thus a wise man will not suffer.",
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      "text": "159. If a man make himself as he teaches others to be, then, being himself well subdued, he may subdue (others); one's own self is indeed difficult to subdue.",
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      "text": "160. Self is the lord of self, who else could be the lord? With self well subdued, a man finds a lord such as few can find.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00187",
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      "text": "161. The evil done by oneself, self-begotten, self-bred, crushes the foolish, as a diamond breaks a precious stone.",
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    {
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      "text": "162. He whose wickedness is very great brings himself down to that state where his enemy wishes him to be, as a creeper does with the tree which it surrounds.",
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      "text": "163. Bad deeds, and deeds hurtful to ourselves, are easy to do; what is beneficial and good, that is very difficult to do.",
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      "text": "164. The foolish man who scorns the rule of the venerable (Arahat), of the elect (Ariya), of the virtuous, and follows false doctrine, he bears fruit to his own destruction, like the fruits of the Katthaka reed.",
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      "text": "165. By oneself the evil is done, by oneself one suffers; by oneself evil is left undone, by oneself one is purified. Purity and impurity belong to oneself, no one can purify another.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00192",
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      "start": 28812,
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      "text": "166. Let no one forget his own duty for the sake of another's, however great; let a man, after he has discerned his own duty, be always attentive to his duty.",
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      "text": "Chapter XIII. The World",
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      "text": "220. In like manner his good works receive him who has done good, and has gone from this world to the other;--as kinsmen receive a friend on his return.",
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      "text": "Chapter XVII. Anger",
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      "text": "221. Let a man leave anger, let him forsake pride, let him overcome all bondage! No sufferings befall the man who is not attached to name and form, and who calls nothing his own.",
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      "text": "222. He who holds back rising anger like a rolling chariot, him I call a real driver; other people are but holding the reins.",
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      "text": "223. Let a man overcome anger by love, let him overcome evil by good; let him overcome the greedy by liberality, the liar by truth!",
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      "text": "224. Speak the truth, do not yield to anger; give, if thou art asked for little; by these three steps thou wilt go near the gods.",
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      "text": "225. The sages who injure nobody, and who always control their body, they will go to the unchangeable place (Nirvana), where, if they have gone, they will suffer no more.",
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      "text": "226. Those who are ever watchful, who study day and night, and who strive after Nirvana, their passions will come to an end.",
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      "text": "227. This is an old saying, O Atula, this is not only of to-day: `They blame him who sits silent, they blame him who speaks much, they also blame him who says little; there is no one on earth who is not blamed.'",
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      "text": "228. There never was, there never will be, nor is there now, a man who is always blamed, or a man who is always praised.",
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      "text": "255. There is no path through the air, a man is not a Samana by outward acts. No creatures are eternal; but the awakened (Buddha) are never shaken.",
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      "text": "Chapter XIX. The Just",
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      "text": "256, 257. A man is not just if he carries a matter by violence; no, he who distinguishes both right and wrong, who is learned and leads others, not by violence, but by law and equity, and who is guarded by the law and intelligent, he is called just.",
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      "text": "258. A man is not learned because he talks much; he who is patient, free from hatred and fear, he is called learned.",
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      "text": "259. A man is not a supporter of the law because he talks much; even if a man has learnt little, but sees the law bodily, he is a supporter of the law, a man who never neglects the law.",
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      "text": "260. A man is not an elder because his head is grey; his age may be ripe, but he is called `Old-in-vain.'",
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      "text": "261. He in whom there is truth, virtue, love, restraint, moderation, he who is free from impurity and is wise, he is called an elder.",
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      "text": "262. An envious greedy, dishonest man does not become respectable by means of much talking only, or by the beauty of his complexion.",
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      "text": "263. He in whom all this is destroyed, and taken out with the very root, he, when freed from hatred and wise, is called respectable.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00300",
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      "text": "271, 272. Not only by discipline and vows, not only by much learning, not by entering into a trance, not by sleeping alone, do I earn the happiness of release which no worldling can know. Bhikshu, be not confident as long as thou hast not attained the extinction of desires.",
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      "text": "Chapter XX. The Way",
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      "text": "273. The best of ways is the eightfold; the best of truths the four words; the best of virtues passionlessness; the best of men he who has eyes to see.",
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      "text": "274. This is the way, there is no other that leads to the purifying of intelligence. Go on this way! Everything else is the deceit of Mara (the tempter).",
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      "text": "275. If you go on this way, you will make an end of pain! The way was preached by me, when I had understood the removal of the thorns (in the flesh).",
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      "text": "276. You yourself must make an effort. The Tathagatas (Buddhas) are only preachers. The thoughtful who enter the way are freed from the bondage of Mara.",
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      "text": "277. `All created things perish,' he who knows and sees this becomes passive in pain; this is the way to purity.",
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      "text": "278. `All created things are grief and pain,' he who knows and sees this becomes passive in pain; this is the way that leads to purity.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00308",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 45680,
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      "text": "279. `All forms are unreal,' he who knows and sees this becomes passive in pain; this is the way that leads to purity.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00309",
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      "text": "280. He who does not rouse himself when it is time to rise, who, though young and strong, is full of sloth, whose will and thought are weak, that lazy and idle man will never find the way to knowledge.",
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      "ref": "PG2017.B00310",
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      "text": "281. Watching his speech, well restrained in mind, let a man never commit any wrong with his body! Let a man but keep these three roads of action clear, and he will achieve the way which is taught by the wise.",
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      "ref": "PG2017.B00311",
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      "sha256": "a7cebb1229754e44817d9a03145457b97870c229a678941e5216b395cf61164c",
      "text": "282. Through zeal knowledge is gotten, through lack of zeal knowledge is lost; let a man who knows this double path of gain and loss thus place himself that knowledge may grow.",
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      "ref": "PG2017.B00365",
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      "sha256": "b4ae2f80ba94da0c63df543c7d77645a530ea1db43d05d588411d7b62b28a834",
      "text": "333. Pleasant is virtue lasting to old age, pleasant is a faith firmly rooted; pleasant is attainment of intelligence, pleasant is avoiding of sins.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00366",
      "bookId": 2017,
      "start": 54559,
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      "sha256": "866345be6cee74f3abffd8ed5f742157657992f1a124eb19a8ba6b587cf404c4",
      "text": "Chapter XXIV. Thirst",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00367",
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      "text": "334. The thirst of a thoughtless man grows like a creeper; he runs from life to life, like a monkey seeking fruit in the forest.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00368",
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      "text": "335. Whomsoever this fierce thirst overcomes, full of poison, in this world, his sufferings increase like the abounding Birana grass.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00369",
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      "text": "336. He who overcomes this fierce thirst, difficult to be conquered in this world, sufferings fall off from him, like water-drops from a lotus leaf.",
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      "text": "337. This salutary word I tell you, `Do ye, as many as are here assembled, dig up the root of thirst, as he who wants the sweet-scented Usira root must dig up the Birana grass, that Mara (the tempter) may not crush you again and again, as the stream crushes the reeds.'",
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      "text": "338. As a tree, even though it has been cut down, is firm so long as its root is safe, and grows again, thus, unless the feeders of thirst are destroyed, the pain (of life) will return again and again.",
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      "text": "339. He whose thirst running towards pleasure is exceeding strong in the thirty-six channels, the waves will carry away that misguided man, viz. his desires which are set on passion.",
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      "text": "340. The channels run everywhere, the creeper (of passion) stands sprouting; if you see the creeper springing up, cut its root by means of knowledge.",
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      "text": "341. A creature's pleasures are extravagant and luxurious; sunk in lust and looking for pleasure, men undergo (again and again) birth and decay.",
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      "text": "342. Men, driven on by thirst, run about like a snared hare; held in fetters and bonds, they undergo pain for a long time, again and again.",
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      "start": 62898,
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      "text": "382. He who, even as a young Bhikshu, applies himself to the doctrine of Buddha, brightens up this world, like the moon when free from clouds.",
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      "text": "Chapter XXVI. The Brahmana (Arhat)",
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      "text": "383. Stop the stream valiantly, drive away the desires, O Brahmana! When you have understood the destruction of all that was made, you will understand that which was not made.",
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      "text": "384. If the Brahmana has reached the other shore in both laws (in restraint and contemplation), all bonds vanish from him who has obtained knowledge.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2017.B00420",
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      "text": "385. He for whom there is neither this nor that shore, nor both, him, the fearless and unshackled, I call indeed a Brahmana.",
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      "text": "386. He who is thoughtful, blameless, settled, dutiful, without passions, and who has attained the highest end, him I call indeed a Brahmana.",
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      "text": "387. The sun is bright by day, the moon shines by night, the warrior is bright in his armour, the Brahmana is bright in his meditation; but Buddha, the Awakened, is bright with splendour day and night.",
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      "text": "388. Because a man is rid of evil, therefore he is called Brahmana; because he walks quietly, therefore he is called Samana; because he has sent away his own impurities, therefore he is called Pravragita (Pabbagita, a pilgrim).",
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      "text": "392. After a man has once understood the law as taught by the Well-awakened (Buddha), let him worship it carefully, as the Brahmana worships the sacrificial fire.",
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      "text": "393. A man does not become a Brahmana by his platted hair, by his family, or by birth; in whom there is truth and righteousness, he is blessed, he is a Brahmana.",
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      "text": "394. What is the use of platted hair, O fool! what of the raiment of goat-skins? Within thee there is ravening, but the outside thou makest clean.",
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      "text": "395. The man who wears dirty raiments, who is emaciated and covered with veins, who lives alone in the forest, and meditates, him I call indeed a Brahmana.",
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      "text": "396. I do not call a man a Brahmana because of his origin or of his mother. He is indeed arrogant, and he is wealthy: but the poor, who is free from all attachments, him I call indeed a Brahmana.",
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      "text": "397. Him I call indeed a Brahmana who has cut all fetters, who never trembles, is independent and unshackled.",
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      "text": "398. Him I call indeed a Brahmana who has cut the strap and the thong, the chain with all that pertains to it, who has burst the bar, and is awakened.",
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      "text": "THE CONSTITUTIONAL INIQUITY INVOLVED IN ALL FORMS OF THE REGULATION OF PROSTITUTION.",
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      "text": "BY MRS. JOSEPHINE E. BUTLER.",
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      "text": "The moral aspect of this question is undoubtedly the most important. There is, however, another aspect of it closely allied with the moral side, which is of scarcely less importance, namely, the constitutional and legal view. The late Professor Sheldon Amos, Professor of Jurisprudence in the London University, exposed this side of the subject fully in his book, “Laws for the Regulation of Vice” (Stevens and Sons, London). A great legal writer, Mittermayer, says, “It is more and more acknowledged that the penal code of a nation is the keystone of that nation’s public law.” Another great authority on law, Montesquieu, says, “It is upon the excellence of the criminal laws chiefly that the liberty of the subject depends; and these words, ‘liberty of the subject,’ what do they not include?”",
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      "text": "Now the system of State regulation of vice with which we are dealing is everywhere, and in whatever name embodied, a piece of penal legislation of the most severe and repressive nature. By these regulations is erected an arbitrary tribunal before which are tried certain arbitrarily-created offences. The inventors of this system of regulation have invented new crimes, and attached to them new and terrible penalties, till recently unheard of in our country; and in the whole treatment of these newly-invented crimes they have introduced an element of dangerous laxity into the criminal code of England, and of every country in which there exists a just criminal code, which threatens the stability of justice throughout the whole of jurisprudence.",
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      "text": "It may be well to consider for a moment, carefully, the meaning of the word “constitutional;” the more so, as people are not even yet awake to the tremendous issues at stake in the case before us. The controversy throughout Europe and in our own colonies may be considered as a question of constitutional and legal rights. A profound thinker and writer, Lieber, enumerates the points of what we call “constitutional law,” which characterise a fair, just and sound penal trial, and if we compare this picture point by point with the principles and practice of the regulations we oppose, we shall find that these regulations are wanting in every one of the characteristics of a fair, just and sound penal trial. The following are the points:—",
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      "text": "No intimidation before the trial;",
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      "text": "No attempt by artifice to induce the prisoner to confess, or to incriminate himself or herself;",
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      "text": "Every contrivance which protects the citizen against being placed too easily in the position of an accused person;",
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      "text": "The fullest possible realisation of the principle that every one is to be held innocent until proved to be guilty;",
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      "text": "A total discarding of the principle that the more heinous the imputed crime, the less ought to be the protection of the prisoner; but, on the contrary, the adoption of the reverse;",
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      "bookId": 76297,
      "start": 4398,
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      "sha256": "977a4ae7a137dcd394ab49a8b62d659a52b2a742e9d605655f8dcfd37606d9b0",
      "text": "A distinct indictment, and the acquaintance of the prisoner with the indictment a sufficiently long time before the trial to give him time to prepare his defence;",
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      "bookId": 76297,
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      "sha256": "aaff059682de4b62f696262e7840199dc3649f33d878133aa7152dcf4b3e66c8",
      "text": "The accusative process, with publicity, and not a process in writing;",
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      "ref": "PG76297.B00023",
      "bookId": 76297,
      "start": 4655,
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      "sha256": "716960f56530d44b89201243208065a9de1dd766aea88b9e86506d75ec7cbbad",
      "text": "Counsel, or defence, for the prisoner;",
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      "bookId": 76297,
      "start": 4699,
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      "sha256": "005bac4087405a0b271b23a059809aef8ca90e21bd3557777b82911cd2fff9ab",
      "text": "A distinct theory, or law, of evidence, and no mere hearsay testimony;",
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    {
      "ref": "PG76297.B00025",
      "bookId": 76297,
      "start": 4775,
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      "sha256": "01f4bae798b87e6df76a5e93cc8346d2bdec396dc2150a5042ff409665c63aab",
      "text": "Verdict upon evidence alone;",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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      "bookId": 76297,
      "start": 4809,
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      "sha256": "b4c31dc4cbc7563499f62bb56a887e2ddfceb589d2e05401e0b4bf5e5fa6a905",
      "text": "A punishment in proportion to the offence, and in accordance with common sense and justice;",
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    {
      "ref": "PG76297.B00027",
      "bookId": 76297,
      "start": 4913,
      "end": 5048,
      "sha256": "899b499119fc2817b21d591c777b3b55a659a544ecccddffc6abee07bf6d96f3",
      "text": "Especially, no punishment which must make a prisoner worse than he or she was before they fell into the hands of the Government;",
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    {
      "ref": "PG76297.B00028",
      "bookId": 76297,
      "start": 5054,
      "end": 5478,
      "sha256": "cdb3cdc30cacb78ba875e6d8036b5ed90a9696119944b3c0043a61a45f5bf698",
      "text": "The accusative as opposed to the inquisitorial procedure, carried out with good faith, requires that the accusation shall not be made by the Executive, but upon information by whomsoever made, through an act, which itself includes a guarantee against frivolous and oppressive accusations; for be it remembered that arrest and trial themselves, though followed by acquittal, are a hardship.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG76297.B00029",
      "bookId": 76297,
      "start": 5482,
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      "sha256": "c4f4b82469e0b45ececc40188041e6baf2d4b5f7847eb211b8a39bea0101264b",
      "text": "Now the English Constitution during the present century at any rate has provided all these conditions of a just penal code, except while the Contagious Diseases Acts disgraced our Statute Book.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG76297.B00030",
      "bookId": 76297,
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      "text": "The above Acts, and all similar laws and regulations, are utterly and entirely opposed to the above-stated principles; they are a deadly blow at the very heart of these principles, and they are not worthy of the name of laws. It behoves every citizen who rules his life by the commands of the Great and Eternal Law-Giver to oppose himself to these base laws, these bastards amongst the legitimate laws of our country. These Acts and all similar regulations of prostitution, allow, and enforce, the accused to incriminate herself. They sanction her being intimidated or persuaded to write herself down as guilty before she has had any kind of trial whatever. (This was done in England by means of what was ironically called a “voluntary submission.”) They hold the accused to be guilty until she can prove herself innocent (and that in a matter in which it is impossible, except by some very dreadful alternative, for a woman to prove her innocence.) They condemn and punish on suspicion merely (on the suspicion of the police only) and no positive proof is required. They grant no open trial. They imprison arbitrarily, and again and again. They require no witnesses other than the suspecting and accusing Government-paid spy-police. They allow the accusation to be made by the Executive. They require from the Executive no reasons whatever for the suspicion and the accusation. They try the suspected and accused persons not in open court, but in a secret court. Finally, they make redress all but impossible for persons who have been falsely accused and cruelly outraged.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG76297.B00031",
      "bookId": 76297,
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      "end": 7371,
      "sha256": "276affa7303dc4e5bf92b54ce3b23a13444c506ac1e9a7b3f11edff8d39362c3",
      "text": "Such is a general outline of all systems of regulation and protection of prostitution.",
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      "bookId": 76297,
      "start": 7375,
      "end": 7779,
      "sha256": "5001433e8e6e700bcf24f4f0f71c373d7eed741995bb276034356fdbf5241f14",
      "text": "Such laws and regulations eat like a cancer not only into the morality of the nation which allows them, but into its political life. If we once admit the principle that our sacred legal and personal rights may be surrendered, even in the case of the most despised members of the community, then our boasted jurisprudence totters to its downfall, and our freedom will soon become a thing of the past.",
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      "ref": "PG76297.B00033",
      "bookId": 76297,
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      "text": "The outrages practised upon the persons of women periodically under all these systems is confessed by all to be the central and essential feature of them, the _sine qua non_ of the whole fabric. Concerning the illegality of this act of enforced personal examination, considered from the point of view of the English law, we consulted some twenty years ago an able jurist, Sir Hardinge Giffard, now Lord Halsbury, the late Lord Chancellor. We asked of him a distinct legal opinion, which, coming from such a source, must be authoritative. Lord Halsbury was then not in sympathy with our agitation against this system, but he was a just man and a learned jurist. The following is his opinion, given in writing:—",
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      "sha256": "75701bc290432b099e46bf05ef6bb05583822c5a6b6ca09ab9232a3cf51d8033",
      "text": "“I entertain no doubt that the order for examination (in the cases cited) is illegal. No trace of the existence of any such power as this order assumes is to be found in any book of authority. _Such an order is contrary to the whole spirit and principle of our law._ I am of opinion that the Coroner’s power is simply to detain by his warrant all suspected persons safe in custody. As ancillary to that purpose of detaining in safe custody, whatever is reasonably necessary for that detention would be justified, and also such an examination of the person as would prevent the accused person escaping, either by self destruction, by prison breaking, or by corrupting the gaolers; and for that reason, as a matter of prison regulation, it is probably lawful, and even apart from Acts of Parliament giving any such power, to search for offensive weapons, files, tools, or the like, or money, and while the accused is in custody, to keep such articles from him.",
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      "bookId": 76297,
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      "sha256": "5284c50c1838aabbed773c6e67ce9c321e7dec7fc55b4b9d4b2ee98e4537c01b",
      "text": "“The bodily examination, however, is _a search of the person for evidence_, and seems to me to be wholly contrary to law.",
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      "sha256": "380e11516956fb7a04f9ef9c6acdd634cb518bed09bb33e3da4f212e8a25c46f",
      "text": "“I need hardly say that our law considers all persons innocent till they are proved to be guilty; and, further, that the law invests _the person of everyone of the Queen’s subjects with its protection against the merest touch_.—(Signed) HARDINGE GIFFARD, The Temple, London.”",
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      "bookId": 76297,
      "start": 9949,
      "end": 10078,
      "sha256": "a2c754f85425008e803864cedf6cd4a131588779b31bddf5bca17053d1f5ae90",
      "text": "To be obtained at the Office of THE BRITISH, CONTINENTAL, AND GENERAL FEDERATION, 1, King Street, Westminster, S.W.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "ref": "PG76297.B00038",
      "bookId": 76297,
      "start": 10082,
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      "sha256": "5be59d365acb8d35446f682c6d314fffd5db5846ab8c6eb021e6bacd98a82aa0",
      "text": "------------------------------------------------------------------------",
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      "ref": "PG76297.B00039",
      "bookId": 76297,
      "start": 10190,
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      "sha256": "5cd630c84eb4bbef837e21ad835a93922d4d6865949b7d8075e47853dfed51af",
      "text": "TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00060",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 13753,
      "end": 13865,
      "sha256": "6834d5f3ebda60244d08780d5b390a9862e4e97fa10de67eadbae15d105c7b4b",
      "text": "♦ “15” replaced with “9” ♠ “13” replaced with “19” ♥ “50” replaced with “51”",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00061",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 13908,
      "end": 13913,
      "sha256": "e8e602c4d6ab347319d10b6dac800c2fb2c458f4375541dca5781129f264fc8b",
      "text": "PROEM",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00062",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 13919,
      "end": 14007,
      "sha256": "f1ea2345cd6fd489a2cabffe634aef47aab605fb3d299effb6a5efb824fcc948",
      "text": "I am a Negro: Black as the night is black, Black like the depths of my Africa.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00063",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 14013,
      "end": 14123,
      "sha256": "4e61e396924fbf4a5fdaf54710d09e874de203045a468c47ec04617f2bed8458",
      "text": "I’ve been a slave: Caesar told me to keep his door-steps clean. I brushed the boots of Washington.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00064",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 14129,
      "end": 14236,
      "sha256": "7a3b0777b1c7499ad263def963564bfa8a6a43df8be725db679f2aa2c764ed8d",
      "text": "I’ve been a worker: Under my hand the pyramids arose. I made mortar for the Woolworth Building.",
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00065",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 14242,
      "end": 14356,
      "sha256": "ace579a2e012654fc1ebbbf91ba90dff56f6dc7606e2cd9005aeb7b5ccb88001",
      "text": "I’ve been a singer: All the way from Africa to Georgia I carried my sorrow songs. I made ragtime.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00066",
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      "start": 14362,
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      "sha256": "4608173d58b43b6a395de429ca3aadae8e71859ba09fef7637d3a81c9f04b113",
      "text": "I’ve been a victim: The Belgians cut off my hands in the Congo. They lynch me now in Texas.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00067",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 14471,
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      "sha256": "f1ea2345cd6fd489a2cabffe634aef47aab605fb3d299effb6a5efb824fcc948",
      "text": "I am a Negro: Black as the night is black, Black like the depths of my Africa.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00068",
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      "start": 14597,
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      "sha256": "fcbe2d604c871381c2ba4e9661f2cc6ac82e4583d93b0d65c8236df5083bf0d0",
      "text": "THE WEARY BLUES",
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00069",
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      "start": 14646,
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      "text": "THE WEARY BLUES",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00070",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 14669,
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      "sha256": "0f25495b90afa4da0095bd1759f8cf1c5f5b836ee2f10e9dcf6de0725f378bfc",
      "text": "Droning a drowsy syncopated tune, Rocking back and forth to a mellow croon, I heard a Negro play. Down on Lenox Avenue the other night By the pale dull pallor of an old gas light He did a lazy sway.... He did a lazy sway.... To the tune o’ those Weary Blues. With his ebony hands on each ivory key He made that poor piano moan with melody. O Blues! Swaying to and fro on his rickety stool He played that sad raggy tune like a musical fool. Sweet Blues! Coming from a black man’s soul. O Blues! In a deep song voice with a melancholy tone I heard that Negro sing, that old piano moan— “Ain’t got nobody in all this world, Ain’t got nobody but ma self. I’s gwine to quit ma frownin’ And put ma troubles on the shelf.” Thump, thump, thump, went his foot on the floor. He played a few chords then he sang some more— “I got the Weary Blues And I can’t be satisfied. Got the Weary Blues And can’t be satisfied— I ain’t happy no mo’ And I wish that I had died.” And far into the night he crooned that tune. The stars went out and so did the moon. The singer stopped playing and went to bed While the Weary Blues echoed through his head. He slept like a rock or a man that’s dead.",
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      "start": 16114,
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      "text": "JAZZONIA",
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    {
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      "start": 16130,
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      "sha256": "f1c0a29876ecf2de4abf92ec228ffb5da3d9231af36a454f0a706e3ccecfbe5e",
      "text": "Oh, silver tree! Oh, shining rivers of the soul!",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00077",
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      "start": 16584,
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      "sha256": "b9e6286e03e1236bef8fb69c7f0e87cdba6e4cb0cabc6d03eb23e4c1ee4cb9d3",
      "text": "In a whirling cabaret Six long-headed jazzers play.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00078",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 16675,
      "end": 16688,
      "sha256": "6e4c33da6668aadd23829e97668fdd2e0a4ecfaaf27b2b15c232ce18bc766abe",
      "text": "NEGRO DANCERS",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00079",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 16696,
      "end": 16851,
      "sha256": "5767df11e7cd9f70b1f48356537454efaed5198ee917c1ce11b11ca811d57b9b",
      "text": "“Me an’ ma baby’s Got two mo’ ways, Two mo’ ways to do de buck! Da, da, Da, da, da! Two mo’ ways to do de buck!”",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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      "start": 16859,
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      "sha256": "d41a435dad1b5a23377efd4611c638bb90b34bc9207035b6567527b596d64c0d",
      "text": "Soft light on the tables, Music gay, Brown-skin steppers In a cabaret.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
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      "start": 16952,
      "end": 16995,
      "sha256": "061addafab9ebd3293f612ac5068603278c44ba3ffdf0ce0bd6be4d43ff793cb",
      "text": "White folks, laugh! White folks, pray!",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00082",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 17003,
      "end": 17089,
      "sha256": "3fc09504e15b0c82d58f9340a0fecdcbfc235effbcb1f19a7909159856b23468",
      "text": "“Me an’ ma baby’s Got two mo’ ways, Two mo’ ways to do de buck!”",
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00083",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 17113,
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      "sha256": "c85d8066acc0da4dc27f7809bb2e3583f92be9da804333f978dcfa88c6c71e69",
      "text": "THE CAT AND THE SAXOPHONE (2 A.M.)",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00084",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 17155,
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      "text": "EVERYBODY Half-pint,— Gin? No, make it LOVES MY BABY corn. You like liquor, don’t you, honey? BUT MY BABY Sure. Kiss me, DON’T LOVE NOBODY daddy. BUT ME. Say! EVERYBODY Yes? WANTS MY BABY I’m your BUT MY BABY sweetie, ain’t I? DON’T WANT NOBODY Sure. BUT Then let’s ME, do it! SWEET ME. Charleston, mamma! !",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00085",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 17656,
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      "text": "YOUNG SINGER",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00086",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 17676,
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      "text": "One who sings “chansons vulgaires” In a Harlem cellar Where the jazz-band plays From dark to dawn Would not understand Should you tell her That she is like a nymph For some wild faun.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00114",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 21260,
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      "sha256": "02c79040d61184eab16639b54550b24a6237939020bdbd3c84907f7f588a7392",
      "text": "Shake your brown feet, Liza, Shake ’em, Liza, chile, Shake your brown feet, Liza, (The music’s soft and wil’) Shake your brown feet, Liza, (The banjo’s sobbing low) The sun’s going down this very night— Might never rise no mo’.",
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      "start": 21577,
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      "text": "BLUES FANTASY",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00116",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 21598,
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      "sha256": "fff593f645428f06de268e92ed673fbc1b238dcd4a1573cc0f2daef0faf66f40",
      "text": "Hey! Hey! That’s what the Blues singers say. Singing minor melodies They laugh, Hey! Hey!",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00117",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 21722,
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      "text": "My man’s done left me, Chile, he’s gone away. My good man’s left me, Babe, he’s gone away. Now the cryin’ blues Haunts me night and day.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00118",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 21901,
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      "sha256": "9867bfda533fd6e5367cf2fb5d1dc0cb20b5f10fcc3f7d6866eee5d2481380c1",
      "text": "Hey!...Hey!",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00119",
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      "start": 21920,
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      "sha256": "b3184340aea3abaa1c1d35082c89056f374d31da061e89543447743d22488547",
      "text": "Weary, Weary, Trouble, pain. Sun’s gonna shine Somewhere Again.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00120",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 22018,
      "end": 22071,
      "sha256": "40c215f9ec55fdabc54bab2bf111fefe25f40c03f03a7b2bb47c8ae0c550217a",
      "text": "I got a railroad ticket, Pack my trunk and ride.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00121",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 22079,
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      "sha256": "99230a4a2ca53e107e6ba4dc560638654df9a7493736d1db17c48ce7b3012e26",
      "text": "Sing ’em, sister!",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00122",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 22106,
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      "text": "Got a railroad ticket, Pack my trunk and ride. And when I get on the train I’ll cast my blues aside.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00123",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 22231,
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      "text": "Laughing, Hey!...Hey! Laugh a loud, Hey! Hey!",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00124",
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      "start": 22321,
      "end": 22343,
      "sha256": "ded5ecc1aa3280b158277826f2590fc17e0a5674d2d2fe175fec90820ee5172f",
      "text": "LENOX AVENUE: MIDNIGHT",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00125",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 22351,
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      "sha256": "ea9017e363204b2f19ff678bf1bb3bbbae7b711e830126a4e8f4bbbbc6a4d2e3",
      "text": "The rhythm of life Is a jazz rhythm, Honey. The gods are laughing at us.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00128",
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      "start": 22733,
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      "sha256": "4578bd4d89132d42dcb24bb5df1ec74e9b7b1cfa2c0e2d4db62ccf989dca78e4",
      "text": "DREAM VARIATIONS",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00129",
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      "start": 22781,
      "end": 22800,
      "sha256": "d3fe9a2576061d2fe223351eb58361344ab7a43acd80857e098731e34d470600",
      "text": "♦DREAM VARIATIONS",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00130",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 22808,
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      "sha256": "b08c05835d5ea25b406ffa7a830b8510d8215a66d5bf855bd30760340cb9f91a",
      "text": "To fling my arms wide In some place of the sun, To whirl and to dance Till the white day is done. Then rest at cool evening Beneath a tall tree While night comes on gently, Dark like me,— That is my dream!",
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00131",
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      "start": 23065,
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      "text": "To fling my arms wide In the face of the sun, Dance! whirl! whirl! Till the quick day is done. Rest at pale evening.... A tall, slim tree.... Night coming tenderly Black like me.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00132",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 23288,
      "end": 23350,
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      "text": "♦ “DREAM VARIATION” replaced with “DREAM VARIATIONS”",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00133",
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      "start": 23386,
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      "text": "WINTER MOON",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00146",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 25157,
      "end": 25183,
      "sha256": "591adbbb64c056541dba9beb3bff2ce3506f19f23bac357a1f96e32560a7ebc9",
      "text": "THE NEGRO SPEAKS OF RIVERS",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00147",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 25212,
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      "sha256": "7f69505e771a739ddcf347e02f6008de38d8761573267aec71dea78790a435b0",
      "text": "(To W. E. B. DuBois)",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00148",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 25240,
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      "sha256": "5d150bc1d25dcff945ea02e41f68d6f9b8d6e7f147ece1106c55f3e9fe04d16e",
      "text": "I’ve known rivers:",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00149",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 25268,
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      "sha256": "dc34bf8e7471e5a073765b0ac7a3ffa279bb9137a35277c7db303ddb6093fdec",
      "text": "I’ve known rivers ancient as the world and older than the flow of human blood in human veins.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00150",
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      "start": 25378,
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      "sha256": "f5929a571e814797b507dd6fa1b909fe2e06ce04605a851a4eeb9759dbcecf1e",
      "text": "My soul has grown deep like the rivers.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00151",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 25425,
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      "sha256": "58b1c6fd230b1d0182249d270049d757bf69aa8906bb40e6cd4bca181396ade6",
      "text": "I bathed in the Euphrates when dawns were young. I built my hut near the Congo and it lulled me to sleep. I looked upon the Nile and raised the pyramids above it. I heard the singing of the Mississippi when Abe Lincoln went down to New Orleans, and I’ve seen its muddy bosom turn all golden in the sunset.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00152",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 25769,
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      "text": "I’ve known rivers: Ancient, dusky rivers.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00153",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 25825,
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      "sha256": "f5929a571e814797b507dd6fa1b909fe2e06ce04605a851a4eeb9759dbcecf1e",
      "text": "My soul has grown deep like the rivers.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00154",
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      "start": 25903,
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      "text": "CROSS",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00155",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 25916,
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      "sha256": "f8ce8cffb672aa36bf1f2b5b4feb59f8ea6509a93298b02888994b1ea2116497",
      "text": "My old man’s a white old man And my old mother’s black. If ever I cursed my white old man I take my curses back.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00156",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 26055,
      "end": 26191,
      "sha256": "167180d83612320c85ad0a282a259acf0cdd1a9feebf1e70dc9cde8258e3dcd0",
      "text": "If ever I cursed my black old mother And wished she were in hell, I’m sorry for that evil wish And now I wish her well.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00157",
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      "start": 26199,
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      "sha256": "368836349f1a9d94780d486e336dfeb6c98fc8f7cbb04b295a960503d42d9d32",
      "text": "My old man died in a fine big house. My ma died in a shack. I wonder where I’m gonna die, Being neither white nor black?",
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      "end": 26382,
      "sha256": "5747f6ea2e01a66255af3cab867147eb6f143353458b66f81fc96a70828f000c",
      "text": "THE JESTER",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00159",
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      "sha256": "eed568cecc0a18b52593df05d22d7a5f2a3fff451718cd7d578efe67c83ec446",
      "text": "In one hand I hold tragedy And in the other Comedy,— Masks for the soul. Laugh with me. You would laugh! Weep with me. You would weep! Tears are my laughter. Laughter is my pain. Cry at my grinning mouth, If you will. Laugh at my sorrow’s reign. I am the Black Jester, The dumb clown of the world, The booted, booted fool of silly men. Once I was wise. Shall I be wise again?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "THE SOUTH",
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    {
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      "start": 26913,
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      "text": "The lazy, laughing South With blood on its mouth. The sunny-faced South, Beast-strong, Idiot-brained. The child-minded South Scratching in the dead fire’s ashes For a Negro’s bones. Cotton and the moon, Warmth, earth, warmth, The sky, the sun, the stars, The magnolia-scented South. Beautiful, like a woman, Seductive as a dark-eyed whore, Passionate, cruel, Honey-lipped, syphilitic— That is the South. And I, who am black, would love her But she spits in my face. And I, who am black, Would give her many rare gifts But she turns her back upon me. So now I seek the North— The cold-faced North, For she, they say, Is a kinder mistress, And in her house my children May escape the spell of the South.",
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      "text": "AS I GREW OLDER",
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    {
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      "text": "It was a long time ago. I have almost forgotten my dream. But it was there then, In front of me, Bright like a sun,— My dream.",
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      "text": "And then the wall rose, Rose slowly, Slowly, Between me and my dream. Rose slowly, slowly, Dimming, Hiding, The light of my dream. Rose until it touched the sky,— The wall.",
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      "text": "Shadow. I am black.",
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      "text": "I lie down in the shadow. No longer the light of my dream before me, Above me. Only the thick wall. Only the shadow.",
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      "text": "My hands! My dark hands! Break through the wall! Find my dream! Help me to shatter this darkness, To smash this night, To break this shadow Into a thousand lights of sun, Into a thousand whirling dreams Of sun!",
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      "text": "AUNT SUE’S STORIES",
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      "text": "Aunt Sue has a head full of stories. Aunt Sue has a whole heart full of stories. Summer nights on the front porch Aunt Sue cuddles a brown-faced child to her bosom And tells him stories.",
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      "text": "Black slaves Working in the hot sun, And black slaves Walking in the dewy night, And black slaves Singing sorrow songs on the banks of a mighty river Mingle themselves softly In the flow of old Aunt Sue’s voice, Mingle themselves softly In the dark shadows that cross and recross Aunt Sue’s stories.",
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      "text": "And the dark-faced child, listening, Knows that Aunt Sue’s stories are real stories. He knows that Aunt Sue Never got her stories out of any book at all, But that they came Right out of her own life.",
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      "text": "And the dark-faced child is quiet Of a summer night Listening to Aunt Sue’s stories.",
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      "text": "The night is beautiful, So the faces of my people.",
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      "text": "♦WATER FRONT STREETS",
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      "text": "♦WATER FRONT STREETS",
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      "text": "The spring is not so beautiful there,— But dream ships sail away To where the spring is wondrous rare And life is gay.",
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      "text": "The spring is not so beautiful there,— But lads put out to sea Who carry beauties in their hearts And dreams, like me.",
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      "text": "♦ “WATER-FRONT” replaced with “WATER FRONT”",
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      "text": "A FAREWELL",
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    {
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      "start": 36730,
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      "text": "SEA CHARM",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00243",
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      "text": "Sea charm The sea’s own children Do not understand. They know But that the sea is strong Like God’s hand. They know But that sea wind is sweet Like God’s breath, And that the sea holds A wide, deep death.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00244",
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      "start": 37037,
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      "text": "DEATH OF AN OLD SEAMAN",
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      "text": "We buried him high on a windy hill, But his soul went out to sea. I know, for I heard, when all was still, His sea-soul say to me:",
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    {
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      "text": "Put no tombstone at my head, For here I do not make my bed. Strew no flowers on my grave, I’ve gone back to the wind and wave. Do not, do not weep for me, For I am happy with my sea.",
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      "text": "SHADOWS IN THE SUN",
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      "text": "BEGGAR BOY",
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      "text": "What is there within this beggar lad That I can neither hear nor feel nor see, That I can neither know nor understand And still it calls to me?",
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      "text": "Is not he but a shadow in the sun— A bit of clay, brown, ugly, given life? And yet he plays upon his flute a wild free tune As if Fate had not bled him with her knife!",
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      "text": "TROUBLED WOMAN",
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      "text": "She stands In the quiet darkness, This troubled woman, Bowed by Weariness and pain, Like an Autumn flower In the frozen rain. Like a Wind-blown autumn flower That never lifts its head Again.",
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      "text": "They say she died,— Although I do not know, They say she died of grief And in the earth-dark arms of Death Sought calm relief, And rest from pain of love In loveless sleep.",
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      "text": "THE DREAM KEEPER",
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      "text": "Bring me all of your dreams, You dreamers. Bring me all of your Heart melodies That I may wrap them In a blue cloud-cloth Away from the too rough fingers Of the world.",
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      "text": "(To F. S.)",
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      "text": "OUR LAND",
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      "text": "Poem for a Decorative Panel",
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      "text": "We should have a land of sun, Of gorgeous sun, And a land of fragrant water Where the twilight Is a soft bandanna handkerchief Of rose and gold, And not this land where life is cold.",
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      "text": "We should have a land of trees, Of tall thick trees Bowed down with chattering parrots Brilliant as the day, And not this land where birds are grey.",
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      "text": "Ah, we should have a land of joy, Of love and joy and wine and song, And not this land where joy is wrong.",
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      "text": "Oh, sweet, away! Ah, my beloved one, away!",
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      "text": "LAMENT FOR DARK PEOPLES",
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      "sha256": "1271f764677c4e70baba71dce2e0192b5439f2c2b0497096051d5e02bf2b743b",
      "text": "I was a red man one time, But the white men came. I was a black man, too, But the white men came.",
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    },
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      "text": "They drove me out of the forest. They took me away from the jungles. I lost my trees. I lost my silver moons.",
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      "text": "Now they’ve caged me In the circus of civilization. Now I herd with the many— Caged in the circus of civilization.",
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00284",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 41727,
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      "text": "AFRAID",
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      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 41741,
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      "sha256": "be98c601ce4372436bf5962b1d0c718f5ac3165f7bb5f266ab38ef64e3705136",
      "text": "We cry among the skyscrapers As our ancestors Cried among the palms in Africa Because we are alone, It is night, And we’re afraid.",
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    },
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00293",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 42983,
      "end": 43299,
      "sha256": "fc2364cda72852159447d248d2e58a5209f055a68b5f67cae17150ed62da8e03",
      "text": "I would be simple again, Simple and clean Like the earth, Like the rain, Nor ever know, Dark Harlem, The wild laughter Of your mirth Nor the salt tears Of your pain. Be kind to me, Oh, great dark city. Let me forget. I will not come To you again.",
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      "start": 43333,
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      "text": "DANSE AFRICAINE",
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      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 43356,
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      "sha256": "dda508042f5626e1e87598d318e64f0156a0566971073ee4358d5be2d1d80370",
      "text": "The low beating of the tom-toms, The slow beating of the tom-toms. Low ... slow Slow ... low— Stirs your blood. Dance! A night-veiled girl Whirls softly into a Circle of light. Whirls softly ... slowly, Like a wisp of smoke around the fire— And the tom-toms beat, And the tom-toms beat, And the low beating of the tom-toms Stirs your blood.",
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      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 43826,
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      "text": "THE WHITE ONES",
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00297",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 43848,
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      "sha256": "9b1493e4aab9a32b6f2dfba168134c12008edc9a8dcdb018641f83d9e08b3710",
      "text": "I do not hate you, For your faces are beautiful, too. I do not hate you, Your faces are whirling lights of loveliness and splendor, too. Yet why do you torture me, O, white strong ones, Why do you torture me?",
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      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 44121,
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      "sha256": "0791d495ae252ea51a7ea4372c40134ab59c3f67576e62e1ba54e40371400874",
      "text": "MOTHER TO SON",
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00299",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 44142,
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      "sha256": "c028cb5d04799511b5bfc268bfb6d122fafba5252675ad0a9d8e415d7664ecf5",
      "text": "Well, son, I’ll tell you: Life for me ain’t been no crystal stair. It’s had tacks in it, And splinters, And boards torn up, And places with no carpet on the floor— Bare. But all the time I’se been a-cimbin’ on, And reachin’ landin’s, And turnin’ corners, And sometimes goin’ in the dark Where there ain’t been no light. So boy, don’t you turn back. Don’t you set down on the steps ’Cause you finds it’s kinder hard. Don’t you fall now— For I’se still goin’, honey, I’se still climbin’, And life for me ain’t been no crystal stair.",
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00300",
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      "start": 44850,
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      "text": "POEM",
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00301",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 44862,
      "end": 44919,
      "sha256": "7e8a507f668bcc2b4773a8d084a1a95f09a6738255f72701af88c138066501e9",
      "text": "We have tomorrow Bright before us Like a flame.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG74745.B00303",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 44991,
      "end": 45045,
      "sha256": "afb014a84af4114d9ceaf71cb369e2570aba4e027568fa27f7c880627f386894",
      "text": "And dawn-today Broad arch above the road we came.",
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      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 45082,
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      "text": "EPILOGUE",
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00305",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 45098,
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      "sha256": "03ac03a79a24e23ddbec46711b044a30d98d650a86b80d595c33ef6dc0c4fc77",
      "text": "I, too, sing America.",
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      "bookId": 74745,
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      "sha256": "60c440c11786fd2d4f31872e6ef1fb2383a08818f9d62a6a558cd92a6aabdec6",
      "text": "I am the darker brother. They send me to eat in the kitchen When company comes, But I laugh, And eat well, And grow strong.",
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      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 45283,
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      "text": "Tomorrow, I’ll sit at the table When company comes. Nobody’ll dare Say to me, “Eat in the kitchen,” Then.",
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      "bookId": 74745,
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      "text": "Besides, They’ll see how beautiful I am And be ashamed,—",
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00309",
      "bookId": 74745,
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      "text": "I, too, am America.",
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00310",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 45565,
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      "sha256": "2d04faa0e8d10e03c57393540197759ef70f2e83a2edf5b5c025020efce5c4c8",
      "text": "Transcriber’s Notes",
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      "ref": "PG74745.B00311",
      "bookId": 74745,
      "start": 45593,
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      "sha256": "9aff0f8078c7cd9cfff562dae44d052ed2e081a590219da6df976bd388aaaa3f",
      "text": "1. Differences between the table of contents and the text have been reconciled. Obsolete and alternative spellings have been left unchanged. Grammar has not been altered.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00117",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 16804,
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      "sha256": "24900828d2481de80776300539c66671d311ac0b368446514555488d955e0f09",
      "text": "GEOLOGY.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00118",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 16816,
      "end": 17257,
      "sha256": "e861fb96f32bef3902e24064837f2b6f1a303713b54c1a706dd7258b349975b4",
      "text": "Of Physical Geography—Position of the Earth in the Solar System—Distance from the Sun—Civil Year—Inclination of Terrestrial Orbit—Mass of the Sun—Distance of the Moon—Figure and Density of the Earth from the Motions of the Moon—Figure of the Earth from Arcs of the Meridian—from Oscillations of Pendulum—Local Disturbances—Mean Density of the Earth— Known Depth below its Surface—Outlines of Geology.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00119",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 17263,
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      "sha256": "87e4eaf48bb8cb8f43ad2d56e3cdb7e2f6fcca526fc8acc0a9f4dbfe20c5673c",
      "text": "PHYSICAL Geography is a description of the earth, the sea, and the air, with their inhabitants animal and vegetable, of the distribution of these organized beings, and the causes of that distribution. Political and arbitrary divisions are disregarded, the sea and the land are considered only with respect to those great features that have been stamped upon them by the hand of the Almighty, and man himself is viewed but as a fellow-inhabitant of the globe with other created things, yet influencing them to a certain extent by his actions, and influenced in return. The effects of his intellectual superiority on the inferior animals, and even on his own condition by the subjection of some of the most powerful agents in nature to his will, together with the other causes which have had the greatest influence on his physical and moral state, are among the most important subjects of this science.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00120",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 18179,
      "end": 18470,
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      "text": "The former state of our terrestrial habitation, the successive convulsions which have ultimately led to its present geographical arrangement, and to the actual distribution of land and water, so powerfully influential on the destinies of mankind, are circumstances of primary importance.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00121",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 18474,
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      "text": "The position of the earth with regard to the sun, and its connection with the bodies of the solar system, have been noticed by the author elsewhere. It was there shown that our globe forms but an atom in the immensity of space, utterly invisible from the nearest fixed star, and scarcely a telescopic object to the remote planets of our system. The increase of temperature with the depth below the surface of the earth, and the tremendous desolation hurled over wide regions by numerous fire-breathing mountains, show that man is removed but a few miles from immense lakes or seas of liquid fire. The very shell on which he stands is unstable under his feet, not only from those temporary convulsions that seem to shake the globe to its centre, but from a slow almost imperceptible elevation in some places, and an equally gentle subsidence in others, as if the internal molten matter were subject to secular tides, now heaving and now ebbing, or that the subjacent rocks were in one place expanded and in another contracted by changes of temperature.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00122",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 19543,
      "end": 20816,
      "sha256": "2aeff95bc8eb8c7172135e9a9340b3cb7e1e98e900ce5c1a920f714d7dd09ea3",
      "text": "The earthquake and the torrent, the august and terrible ministers of Almighty Power, have torn the solid earth and opened the seals of the most ancient records of creation, written in indelible characters on the “perpetual hills and the everlasting mountains.” There we read of the changes that have brought the rude mass to its present fair state, and of the myriads of beings that have appeared on this mortal stage, have fulfilled their destinies, and have been swept from existence to make way for new races, which, in their turn, have vanished from the scene, till the creation of man completed the glorious work. Who shall define the periods of those mornings and evenings when God saw that his work was good? and who shall declare the time allotted to the human race, when the generations of the most insignificant insect existed for unnumbered ages? Yet man is also to vanish in the ever-changing course of events. The earth is to be burnt up, and the elements are to melt with fervent heat—to be again reduced to chaos—possibly to be renovated and adorned for other races of beings. These stupendous changes may be but cycles in those great laws of the universe, where all is variable but the laws themselves, and He who has ordained them.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00135",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "text": "There seems scarcely to have been any age of the world in which volcanic eruptions have not taken place in some part of the globe. Lava has pierced through every description of rocks, spread over the surface of those existing at the time, filled their crevices, and flowed between their strata. Ever changing its place of action, it has burst out at the bottom of the sea as well as on dry land. Enormous quantities of scoriæ and ashes have been ejected from numberless craters, and have formed extensive deposits in the sea, in lakes, and on the land, in which are embedded the remains of the animals and vegetables of the epoch. Some of these deposits have become hard rock, others remain in a crumbling state; and as they alternate with the aqueous strata of almost every period, they contain the fossils of all the geological epochs, chiefly fresh and salt water testaceæ.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00136",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "text": "According to a theory now generally adopted, which originated with Sir Charles Lyell, whose works are models of philosophical investigation, the metamorphic rocks, which consist of gneiss, micaschist, clay-slate, statuary marble, &c., were formed of the sediment of water in regular layers, differing in kind and colour, but, having been deposited near the place where plutonic rocks were generated, they have been changed by the heat transmitted from the fused matter, and, in cooling under heavy pressure and at great depths, they have become as highly crystallized as the granite itself, without losing their stratified form. An earthy stratum has sometimes been changed into a highly crystallized rock, to the distance of a quarter of a mile from the point of contact, by transmitted heat; and there are instances of dark-coloured limestone, full of fossil shells, that has been changed into statuary marble from that cause. Such alterations may frequently be seen to a small extent on rocks adjacent to a stream of lava. There is seldom a trace of organic remains in the metamorphic rocks; their strata are sometimes horizontal, but they are usually tilted at all angles to the horizon, and form some of the highest mountains and most extensive table-lands on the face of the globe. Although there is the greatest similarity in the plutonic rocks in all parts of the world, they are by no means identical; they differ in colour, and even in ingredients, though these are few.",
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      "text": "Aqueous rocks are all stratified, being the sedimentary deposits of water. They originate in the wear of the land by rain, streams, or the ocean. The débris carried by running water is deposited at the bottom of the seas and lakes, where it is consolidated, and then raised up by subterraneous forces, again to undergo the same process after a lapse of time. By the wasting away of the land the lower rocks are laid bare, and, as the materials are deposited in different places according to their weight, the strata are exceedingly varied, but consist chiefly of arenaceous or sandstone rocks, composed of sand, clay, and carbonate of lime. They constitute three great classes, which, in an ascending order, are the primary and secondary fossiliferous strata and the tertiary formations.",
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      "text": "The primary fossiliferous strata, the most ancient of all the sedimentary rocks, consisting of limestone, sandstones, and shales, are entirely of marine origin, having been formed far from land at the bottom of a very deep ocean; consequently, they contain the exuviæ of marine animals only, and after the lapse of unnumbered ages the ripple-marks of the waves are still distinctly visible on some of their strata. This series of rocks is subdivided into the Cambrian and the upper and lower Silurian systems, on account of differences in their fossil remains.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00139",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "end": 39225,
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      "text": "The Cambrian rocks, sometimes many thousand yards thick, are, for the most part, destitute of organic remains, but the Silurian rocks abound in them more and more as the strata lie higher in the series. In the lower Silurian group are the remains of shell-fish, almost all of extinct genera, and the few that have any affinity to those alive are of extinct species; crinoidea, or stone lilies, which had been fixed to the rocks like tulips on their stems, are coëval with the earliest inhabitants of the deep; and the trilobite, a jointed creature of the crab kind, with prominent eyes, are almost exclusively confined to the Silurian strata, but the last traces of them are found in the coal-measures above. In the upper Silurian group are abundance of marine shells of almost every order, together with crinoidea, vast quantities of corals, and some sea-weeds: several fossil sauroid fishes, of extinct genera, but high organization, have been found in the highest beds—the only vertebrated animals that have yet been discovered among the countless profusion of the lower orders of creatures that are entombed in the primary fossiliferous strata. The remains of one or more land plants, in a very imperfect state, have been found in the Silurian rocks of North America, which shows that there had been land with vegetation at that early period. The type of these plants, as well as the size of the shells and the quantity of the coral, indicate that a uniformly warm temperature had then prevailed over the globe. During the Silurian period an ocean covered the northern hemisphere, islands and lands of moderate size had just begun to rise, and earthquakes, with volcanic eruptions from insular and submarine volcanos, were frequent towards its close.",
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      "text": "Under the vegetable mould in every country there is a stratum of loose sand, gravel, and mud, lying upon the subjacent rocks, often of great thickness, called alluvium, which in the high latitudes of North America and Europe is mixed with enormous fragments of rock, sometimes angular and sometimes rounded and water-worn, which have been transported hundreds of miles from their origin. It is there known as the Boulder formation, or Northern Drift, because, from the identity of the boulders with the rocks of the northern mountains, they evidently have come from them, and their size becomes less as the distance increases. In Russia there are blocks of great magnitude that have been carried 800 and even 1000 miles south-east from their origin in the Scandinavian range. There is much reason to believe that such masses, enormous as they are, have been transported by ice-bergs, and deposited when the northern parts of the continents were covered by the glacial sea, by which part of Russia was submerged to the depth of at least 1000 feet. The same process is now in progress in the high southern latitudes, where icebergs have been met with covered with fragments of rock and boulders.[10]",
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      "ref": "PG61652.B00167",
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      "text": "The last manifestation of creative power, with few exceptions, differs specifically from all that preceded it; the recent strata contain only the exuviæ of animals now living, often mixed with the works of man.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00168",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 70473,
      "end": 71486,
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      "text": "The solid earth thus tells us of mountains washed down into the sea with their forests and inhabitants; of lands raised from the bottom of the ocean loaded with the accumulated spoils of centuries; of torrents of water and torrents of fire. In the ordinances of the heavens no voice declares a beginning, no sign points to an end; in the bosom of the earth, however the dawn of life appears, the time is obscurely marked when first living things moved in the waters, when the first plants clothed the land. There we see that during ages of tranquillity the solid rock was forming at the bottom of the ocean, that during ages it was tossed and riven by fire and earthquake. What years must have gone by since that ocean flowed which has left its ripple-marks on the sand, now a solid mass on the mountain—since those unknown creatures left their foot-prints on the shore, now fixed by time on the rock for ever! time, which man measures by days and years, nature measures by thousands of centuries.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00169",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "text": "The thickness of the fossiliferous strata up to the end of the tertiary formation has been estimated at about seven or eight miles; so that the time requisite for their deposition must have been immense. Every river carries down mud, sand, or gravel, to the sea: the Ganges brings more than 700,000 cubic feet of mud every hour, the Yellow River in China 2,000,000,[11] and the Mississippi still more; yet, notwithstanding these great deposits, the Italian hydrographer Manfredi has estimated that, if the sediment of all the rivers on the globe were spread equally over the bottom of the ocean, it would require 1000 years to raise its bed one foot, so that at that rate it would require 3,960,000 years to raise the bed of the ocean alone to a height nearly equal to the thickness of the fossiliferous strata, or seven miles and a half, not taking account of the waste of the coasts by the sea itself: but if the whole globe be considered, instead of the bottom of the sea only, the time would be nearly four times as great, even supposing as much alluvium to be deposited uniformly both with regard to time and place, which it never is. Besides, in various places the strata have been more than once carried to the bottom of the ocean, and again raised above its surface by subterranean fires after many ages, so that the whole period from the beginning of the primary fossiliferous strata to the present day must be great beyond calculation, and only bears comparison with the astronomical cycles, as might naturally be expected, the earth being without doubt of the same antiquity with the other bodies of the solar system. What then shall we say if the time be included which the granitic, metamorphic, and recent series occupied in forming? These great periods of time correspond wonderfully with the gradual increase of animal life and the successive creation and extinction of numberless orders of being, and with the incredible quantity of organic remains buried in the crust of the earth in every country on the face of the globe.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00170",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 73564,
      "end": 74290,
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      "text": "Every great geological change in the nature of the strata was accompanied by the introduction of a new race of beings, and the gradual extinction of those that had previously existed, their structure and habits being no longer fitted for the new circumstances in which these changes had placed them. The change, however, never was abrupt; and it may be observed that there is no proof of progressive development of species by generation from a low to a high organization, for animals and plants of high organization appeared among the earliest of their kind, yet throughout the whole, the gradual approach to living and more perfect forms is undoubted, not by change of species, but by increasing similarity of type.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00171",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 74294,
      "end": 76140,
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      "text": "The geographical distribution of animated beings was much more extensive in the ancient seas and land than in latter times. In very remote ages the same animal inhabited the most distant parts of the sea: the corallines built from the equator to within ten or fifteen degrees of the pole; and previous to the formation of the carboniferous strata there appears to have been even a greater uniformity in the vegetable than in the animal world, though New Holland had formed even then a peculiar district, supposing the coal in that country to be of the same epoch as in Europe and America; but as the strata became more varied, species were less widely diffused. Some of the saurians were inhabitants of both the Old and New World, while others lived in the latter only. During the tertiary period, the animals of Australia and America differed nearly as much from those of Europe as they do at the present day. The world was then, as now, divided into great physical regions, each inhabited by a peculiar race of animals; and even the different species of mollusca of the same sea were confined to certain shores. Of 405 species of shell-fish which inhabited the Atlantic Ocean during the early and middle parts of the tertiary period, only 12 were common to the American and European coasts. In fact, the divisions of the animal and vegetable creation into geographical districts had been in the latter periods contemporaneous with the rise of the land, each portion of which, as it rose above the deep, had been clothed with a vegetation and peopled with creatures suited to its position with regard to the equator, and to the existing circumstances of the globe; and the marine creatures had, no doubt, been divided into districts at the same periods, because the bed of the ocean had been subject to similar changes.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00704",
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      "text": "The effect of a gale descends to a comparatively small distance below the surface; the sea is probably tranquil at the depth of 200 or 300 feet; were it not so, the water would be turbid and shellfish would be destroyed. Anything that diminishes the friction of the wind smoothes the surface of the sea—for example, oil or a small stream of packed ice, which suppresses even a swell. When the air is moist, its attraction for water is diminished, and consequently so is the friction; hence the sea is not so rough in rainy as in dry weather.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 510907,
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      "text": "Currents of various extent, magnitude, and velocity disturb the tranquillity of the ocean; some of them depend upon circumstances permanent as the globe itself, others on ever-varying causes. Constant currents are produced by the combined action of the rotation of the earth, the heat of the sun, and the trade-winds; periodical currents are occasioned by tides, monsoons, and other long-continued winds; temporary currents arise from the tides, melting ice, and from every gale of some duration. A perpetual circulation is kept up in the waters of the main by these vast marine streams; they are sometimes superficial and sometimes submarine, according as their density is greater or less than that of the surrounding sea.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00706",
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      "text": "The exchange of water between the poles and the equator affects the great currents of the ocean. Although these depend upon the same causes as the trade-winds, they differ essentially in this respect—that whereas the atmosphere is heated from below by its contact with the earth, and transmits the heat to the strata above, the sea is heated at its surface by the direct rays of the sun, which diminish the specific gravity of the upper strata, especially between the tropics, and also occasion strong and rapid evaporation, both of which causes disturb the equilibrium of the ocean. The rotation of the earth also gives the water a tendency to take an oblique direction in its flow towards the equatorial regions, as, in order to restore the equilibrium, deranged by so many circumstances, great streams perpetually descend from either pole. When these currents leave the poles they flow towards the equator; but, before proceeding far, their motion is deflected by the diurnal rotation of the earth. At the poles they have no rotatory motion; and although they gain it more and more in their progress to the equator, which revolves at the rate of 1000 miles an hour, they arrive at the tropics before they have acquired the same velocity of rotation with the intertropical ocean. On that account they are left behind, and consequently seem to flow in a direction contrary to the diurnal rotation of the earth. For that reason the whole surface of the ocean, for 30 degrees on each side of the equator, has an apparent tendency from east to west, which produces all the effects of a great current or stream flowing in that direction. The trade-winds, which blow constantly in one direction, combine to give this current a mean velocity of 10 or 11 miles in 24 hours.",
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      "ref": "PG61652.B00707",
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      "text": "It has been supposed that the primary currents, as well as those derived from them, are subject to periodical variations of intensity occasioned by the melting of the ice at each pole alternately.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00708",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "text": "In consequence of the uninterrupted expanse of ocean in the southern hemisphere, the prevalence of westerly winds, and the tendency of the polar water towards the equator, a great oceanic current is originated in the Antarctic Sea. Driven by the prevailing winds, the waters take an easterly direction inclining to the northward, and one part sets upon the American coast, where it is divided. A small part doubles Cape Horn, while the main cold stream flows down the American shore; then turning suddenly to the west, it loses itself in the great equatorial current of the Pacific, which crosses that ocean between the parallels of 26° S. and 24° N. in a vast stream nearly 3500 miles broad. In the north this stream is interrupted by the coast of China, the Eastern Peninsula, and the islands of the Indian Archipelago; but a part forces its way between the islands, and joins the great equatorial current of the Indian Ocean, which, impelled by the S.E. trade-wind, maintains a westerly course between the 10th and 20th parallels of south latitude; as it approaches the Island of Madagascar the stream is divided; one part runs to the north-west, bends round the northern end of Madagascar, flows through the Mosambique Channel, and, being joined by the other branch, it doubles the Cape of Good Hope outside of the Agullhas Bank, and, under the name of the South Atlantic Current, it runs along the west coast of Africa to the parallel of St. Helena. There it is deflected by the coast of Guinea, and forms the Great Atlantic Equatorial Current, which flows westward and divides upon Cape St. Roque in Brazil. One branch of the stream setting southward along the continent of South America, becomes insensible before it reaches the Straits of Magellan; but an offset from it stretches directly across the Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope, having made the circuit of the South Atlantic Ocean, and keeping 150 miles outside of the Cape or Agullhas current, which runs in the opposite direction, it pursues its course into the Indian Ocean, where traces of it are met with 2000 miles from the Cape.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00709",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "text": "The principal branch of the great equatorial current takes a northerly course from off Cape St. Roque, and rushes along the coast of Brazil with such force and depth that it suffers only a temporary deflection by the powerful streams of the river Amazon and of the Orinoco. Though much weakened in passing among the West Indian islands, it acquires new strength in the Caribbean Sea. From thence, after sweeping round the Gulf of Mexico with the high temperature of 88° 52ʹ of Fahrenheit, it flows through the Straits of Florida, and along the North American coast to Newfoundland under the name of the Gulf-stream: it is there deflected eastward by the form of the land and the prevalent wind, and after passing Newfoundland by a current from Baffin’s Bay. From the Azores it bends southward, and aided by the north-east trade rejoins the equatorial current, having made a circuit of 3800 miles with various velocity, leaving a vast loop or space of water nearly stagnant in its centre, which is thickly covered with sea-weed. The bodies of men, animals, and plants of unknown appearance, brought to the Azores by this stream, suggested to Columbus the idea of land beyond the Western Ocean, and thus led to the discovery of America. The Gulf-stream is more salt, warmer, and of a deeper blue than the rest of the ocean, till it reaches Newfoundland, where it becomes turbid from the shallowness of that part of the sea. Its greatest velocity is 78 miles a-day soon after leaving the Florida Strait; and its breadth increases with its distance from the strait until the warm water spreads over a large surface of the ocean. An important branch leaves the current near Newfoundland, setting towards Britain and Norway; which is again subdivided into many branches, whose origin is recognized by their greater warmth, even at the edge of perpetual ice in the Polar Ocean; and in consequence of some of these branches the Spitzbergen Sea is 6° or 7° warmer at the depth of 200 fathoms than at its surface. Though the warmth of the Gulf-stream diminishes as it goes north, Lieutenant Murray says “that the quantity of heat which it spreads over the Atlantic in a winter’s day would be sufficient to raise the whole atmosphere that covers France and Great Britain from the freezing point to summer heat;” and it really is the cause of the mildness and of the damp of Ireland and the south of England.",
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      "bookId": 61652,
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      "text": "These oceanic streams exceed all the rivers in the world in breadth and depth as well as length. The equatorial current in the Atlantic is 160 miles broad off the coast of Africa, and towards its mid-course across the Atlantic its width becomes nearly equal to the length of Great Britain: but as it then sends off a branch to the N.W., it is diminished to 200 miles before reaching the coast of Brazil. The depth of this great stream is unknown; but the Brazilian branch must be very profound, since it is not deflected by the river La Plata, which crosses it with so strong a current that its fresh muddy waters are perceptible 500 miles from its mouth. When currents pass over banks and shoals, the colder water rises to the surface and gives warning of the danger.",
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      "ref": "PG61652.B00711",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "text": "In summer, the great north polar current coming along the coasts of Greenland and Labrador, together with the current from Davis’s Straits, brings icebergs to the margin of the Gulf-Stream. The difference between the temperatures of these two oceanic streams brought into contact is the cause of the dense fogs that brood over the banks of Newfoundland. The north polar current runs inside of the Gulf-Stream, along the coast of North America to Florida, and beyond it—since it sends an under-current into the Caribbean Sea. Counter-currents on the surface are of such frequent occurrence that there is scarcely a strait joining two seas that does not furnish an example—a current running in along one shore, and a counter-current running out along the other. One of the most remarkable occurs in the Atlantic: it begins off the coast of France, and, after sending a mass of water into the Mediterranean, it holds a southerly direction at some distance from the continent of Africa; till, after passing Cape Mesurada, it flows rapidly for 1000 miles due east to the Bight of Biafra in immediate contact with the equatorial current, running with great velocity in the opposite direction, and seems to merge in it at last.",
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      "ref": "PG61652.B00712",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "text": "Periodical currents are frequent in the eastern seas: one flows into the Red Sea from October to May, and out of it from May to October. In the Persian Gulf this order is reversed; in the Indian Ocean and China Sea the waters are driven alternately backwards and forwards by the monsoons. It is the southwesterly monsoon that causes inundations in the Ganges, and a tremendous surf on the coast of Coromandel. The tides also produce periodical currents on the coasts and in straits, the water running in one direction during the flood, and the contrary way in the ebb. The Roost of Sumburgh, at the southern promontory of Shetland, runs at the rate of 15 miles an hour; indeed, the strongest tidal currents known are among the Orkney and Shetland islands; their great velocity arises from local circumstances. Currents in the wide ocean move at the rate of from one to three miles an hour, but the velocity is less at the margin and bottom of the stream from friction.",
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      "ref": "PG61652.B00748",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 547100,
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      "sha256": "1e12225a0a5a3223847dc745abeb5e3f9893423914ebf0dbe31f3498522ac869",
      "text": "CHAPTER XVII.",
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      "ref": "PG61652.B00749",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 547117,
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      "text": "Springs—Basins of the Ocean—Origin, Course, and Heads of Rivers— Hydraulic Systems of Europe—African Rivers—the Nile, Niger, &c.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00750",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "sha256": "2e063571196ce7e72045f8612a91fcd76e6114057659a374e76f395f56bf2264",
      "text": "THE vapour which rises invisibly from the land and water ascends in the atmosphere till it is condensed by the cold into clouds, which restore it again to the earth in the form of rain, hail, and snow; hence, there is probably not a drop of water on the globe that has not been borne on the wings of the wind. Part of this moisture restored to the earth is reabsorbed by the air, part supplies the wants of animal and vegetable life, a portion is carried off by the streams, and the remaining part penetrates through porous soils till it arrives at a stratum impervious to water, where it accumulates in subterranean lakes often of great extent. The mountains receive the greatest portion of the aërial moisture, and, from the many alternations of permeable and impermeable strata they contain, a complete system of reservoirs is formed in them, which, continually overflowing, form perennial springs at different elevations, which unite and run down their sides in incipient rivers. A great portion of the water at these high levels penetrates the earth till it comes to an impermeable stratum below the plains, where it collects in a sheet, and is forced by hydraulic pressure to rise in springs, through cracks in the ground, to the surface. In this manner the water which falls on hills and mountains is carried through highly-inclined strata to great depths, and even below the bed of the ocean, in many parts of which there are springs of fresh water. In boring Artesian wells the water often rushes up with such impetuosity by the hydrostatic pressure as to form jets 40 or 50 feet high. In this operation several successive reservoirs have been met with; at St. Ouen, near Paris, five sheets of water were found; the water in the first four not being good, the operation was continued to a greater depth; it consists merely in boring a hole of small diameter, and lining it with a tube. It rarely happens that water may not be procured in this way; and as the substratum in many parts of deserts is an argillaceous marl, it is probable that Artesian wells might be bored with success.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00751",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 549390,
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      "text": "A spring will be intermittent when it issues from an opening in the side of a reservoir fed from above, if the supply be not equal to the waste, for the water will sink below the opening, and the spring will stop till the reservoir is replenished. Few springs give the same quantity of water at all times; they also vary much in the quantity of foreign matter they contain. Mountain-springs are generally very pure, the carbonic acid gas almost always found in them escapes into the atmosphere, and their earthy matter is deposited as they run along, so that river-water from such source is soft, while wells and springs in the plains are hard, and more or less mineral.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00752",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "text": "The water of springs takes its temperature from that of the strata through which it passes: mountain-springs are cold, but, if the water has penetrated deep into the earth, it acquires a temperature depending on that circumstance.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00753",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "text": "The temperature of the surface of the earth varies with the seasons to a certain depth, where it becomes permanent and equal to the mean annual temperature of the air above. It is evident that the depth at which this stratum of invariable temperature lies must vary with the latitude. At the equator the effect of the seasons is imperceptible at the depth of a foot below the surface: between the parallels of 40° and 52° the temperature of the ground in Europe is constant at the depth of from 55 to 60 feet: and in the high Arctic regions the soil is perpetually frozen a foot below the surface. Now, in every part of the world where experiments have been made, the temperature of the earth increases with the depth below the constant stratum at the rate of 1° of Fahrenheit for every 50 or 60 feet of perpendicular depth; hence, should the increase continue to follow the same ratio, even granite must be in fusion at little more than five miles below the surface. In Siberia, the stratum of frozen earth is some hundred feet thick, but below that the increase of heat with the depth is three times as rapid as in Europe. The temperature of springs must therefore depend on the depth to which the water has penetrated before it has been forced to the surface, either by the hydraulic pressure of water at higher levels, or by steam. If it never goes below the stratum of invariable temperature, the heat of the spring will vary with the seasons, more or less, according to the depth below the surface: should the water come from the constant stratum itself, its temperature will be invariable; and if from below it, the heat will be in proportion to the depth to which it has penetrated. Thus, there may be hot and even boiling springs hundreds of miles distant from volcanic action and volcanic strata, of which there are many examples, though they are more frequent in volcanic countries and those subject to earthquakes. The temperature of hot springs is very constant, and that of boiling springs has remained unchanged for ages; shocks of earthquakes sometimes affect the temperature, and have even stopped them altogether. Jets of steam of high tension are frequent in volcanic countries, as in Iceland.",
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      "text": "Both hot and cold water dissolves and combines with many of the mineral substances it meets with in the earth, and comes to the surface from great depths as medicinal springs, containing various ingredients. So numerous are they that in the Austrian dominions alone there are 1500; and few countries of any extent are destitute of them. They contain hydro-sulphuric and carbonic acids, sulphur, iron, magnesia, and other substances. Boiling springs deposit silex, as in Iceland and in the Azores; and others of lower temperature deposit carbonate of lime in great quantities all over the world. Springs of pure brine are rare; those in Cheshire are rich in salt, and have flowed unchanged 1000 years, a proof of the tranquil state of that part of the globe. Many substances that lie beyond our reach are brought to the surface by springs, as naphtha, petroleum, and boracic acid: petroleum is particularly abundant in Persia, and numberless springs and lakes of it surround some parts of the Caspian Sea. It is found in immense quantities in various parts of the world.",
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      "ref": "PG61652.B00755",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 553682,
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      "sha256": "5ac4dcc61a989bece2bcc4f97880d94f587550bb6112f36ed7bf1ee934d8fa50",
      "text": "RIVERS.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00756",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 553693,
      "end": 553926,
      "sha256": "e9288285122e19f44a029a5f511b5f76e27865bb043fda195e33740380897014",
      "text": "Rivers have had a greater influence on the location and fortunes of the human race than almost any other physical cause, and, since their velocity has been overcome by steam navigation, they have become the highway of the nations.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00757",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 553930,
      "end": 554243,
      "sha256": "2f4d07125aa784a4b4b10ce94949e04358983fd0532952b8ff9bb655e44d3dc4",
      "text": "They frequently rise in lakes, which they unite with the sea; in other instances they spring from small elevations in the plains, from perennial sources in the mountains, alpine lakes, melted snow and glaciers; but the everlasting storehouses of the mightiest floods are the ice-clad mountains of table-lands.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00907",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 670485,
      "end": 671351,
      "sha256": "f9a5a321a810063b06fb1b3cfc626d9259852232f56943c1d65bceb79b4f35f9",
      "text": "THE atmosphere completely envelops the earth to the height of about 20 miles; it bulges at the equator, and is flattened at the poles, in consequence of the diurnal rotation. It is a mixture of water in an invisible state and of air; but the air is not homogeneous; 100 parts of it consist of 79 parts of hydrogen or azotic gas, and 21 of oxygen, the source of combustion and animal heat. Besides these, there is a little ammoniacal vapour, and a small quantity of carbonic acid gas, which is sufficient to supply all the vegetation on the earth with wood and leaves. No doubt exhalations of various kinds ascend into the air, such as those which produce miasmata, but they are in quantities too minute to be detected by chemical analysis, so that the atmosphere is found to be of the same composition at all heights above the sea hitherto attained.[126]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00908",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 671355,
      "end": 672980,
      "sha256": "2904b25f0cff9fc14793ee348732d2e2aed9d47737b48039280d133df416eb02",
      "text": "The temperature of the earth’s surface, and the phenomena of the atmosphere, depend upon the revolution and rotation of the earth, which successively expose all the parts of the earth, and the air which surrounds it, to a perpetual variation of the gravitating forces of the two great luminaries, and to annual and diurnal vicissitudes of solar heat. Atmospheric phenomena are consequently periodical and connected with one another, and their harmony, and the regularity of the laws which govern them, become the more evident in proportion as the mean values of their vicissitudes are determined from simultaneous observations made over widely-extended tracts of the globe. The fickleness of the wind and weather is proverbial, but, as the same quantity of heat is annually received from the sun, and annually radiated into space, it follows that all climates on the earth are stable, and that their changes, like the perturbations of the planets, are limited, and accomplished in fixed cycles, whose periods are still in many instances unknown. It is possible, however, that the earth and air may be affected by secular variations of temperature during the progress of the solar system through space, or from periodical changes in the sun’s light and heat, similar to those which take place in many of the fixed stars. The secular variation in the moon’s mean distance will no doubt alter the amount of her attractive force, though probably by a quantity inappreciable in the aërial tides; at all events, variations arising from such circumstances could only become perceptible after many ages.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00909",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 672984,
      "end": 673876,
      "sha256": "ef64a6c95eb288115c4202cc3404aa254f759faffd003884086b4b2836011ac7",
      "text": "From experiments made by M. Peltier it appears that, if the absolute quantity of heat annually received by the earth were equally dispersed over its surface, it would, in the course of a year, melt a stratum of ice 46 feet deep covering the whole globe. It is evident that, if so great a quantity of heat had been continually accumulated in the earth, instead of being radiated into space, it would have been transmitted through the surface to the poles, where it would have melted the ice, and the torrid zone, if not the whole globe, would by this time have been uninhabitable. In fact, every surface absorbs and radiates heat at the same time, and the power of radiation is always equal to the power of absorption, for, under the same circumstances, bodies which become soon warm also cool rapidly, and the earth, as a whole, is under the same law as the bodies at its surface.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00910",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 673880,
      "end": 674134,
      "sha256": "dc38b0d6f3af0b054a5e13173a94c2ed102e8cbf57716847b61338ec9a22e4bd",
      "text": "Although part of the heat received from the sun in summer is radiated back again, by far the greater part sinks into the earth’s surface, and tempers the severity of the winter’s cold while passing through the atmosphere into the etherial regions.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00911",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 674138,
      "end": 674446,
      "sha256": "2199ccbba808c64f3a45791077335cc9e94af918282c7bd1eb583837cd534205",
      "text": "The power of the solar rays depends on the manner in which they fall, as may be seen from the difference of climates. The earth is about 3,000,000 of miles nearer to the sun in winter than in summer, but the rays strike the northern hemisphere more obliquely in winter than in the other half of the year.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00912",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 674450,
      "end": 675710,
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      "text": "Diurnal variations of heat are perceptible only to a small distance below the surface of the ground, because the earth is a bad conductor: the annual influence of the sun penetrates much farther. At the equator, where the heat is greatest, it descends deeper than elsewhere with a diminishing intensity, but there, and everywhere throughout the globe, there is a stratum, at a depth varying from 40 to 100 feet below the surface of the ground, where the temperature never varies, and is nearly the same with the mean temperature of the country over it. This zone, unaffected by the sun’s heat from above, or by the internal heat from below, serves as an origin whence the effects of solar heat are estimated on one hand, and the internal temperature of the globe on the other. Below it the heat of the earth increases, as already mentioned, at the rate of one degree of Fahrenheit’s thermometer for every 50 or 60 feet of perpendicular depth; were it to continue increasing at that rate, every substance would be in a state of fusion at the depth of 21 miles; hitherto, however, the experiments in mines and Artesian wells, whence the earth’s temperature below the constant stratum is ascertained, have not been extended below 1700 feet.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00913",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 675714,
      "end": 675995,
      "sha256": "3286eaeeaf387e224ab68ecb641c96691f296b35597207fc3e4242a448c92a3b",
      "text": "M. de Beaumont has estimated by the theory of Fourier, from the observations of M. Arago, that the quantity of central heat which reaches the surface of the earth is capable, in the course of a year, of melting a shell of ice covering the globe a quarter of an inch thick.[127]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00914",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 675999,
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      "sha256": "6e31e59a54ffc0e7fcb424342bf09ec3f191f663a61b3c018a49093d03288e75",
      "text": "The superficial temperature of the earth is great at the equator, it decreases gradually towards the poles, and is an exact mean between the two at the 45th parallel of latitude; but a multitude of causes disturb this law even between the tropics. It is affected chiefly by the unequal distribution of land and water, by the height above the sea, by the nature of the soil, and by vegetation, so that a line drawn on a map through all the places where the mean temperature of the earth is the same would be very far from coinciding with the parallels of latitude, but would approximate more to them near the equator. Between the tropics the temperature of the earth’s surface is greater in the interior of continents than on the sea-coasts and islands, and in the interior of Africa it is greater than in any other part of the globe.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00915",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 676849,
      "end": 678082,
      "sha256": "0da7b570e649190219665a96f190140d5f571b74efbf3840992b29509c6134a3",
      "text": "Temperature depends upon the property all bodies possess, more or less, of perpetually absorbing and emitting or radiating heat. When the interchange is equal, the temperature of a substance remains the same; but when the radiation exceeds the absorption, it becomes colder, and _vice versâ_. The temperature of the air is certainly raised by the passage of the solar heat through it, because it absorbs one-third of it before reaching the earth, but it is chiefly warmed by heat transmitted and radiated from the earth. The radiation is abundant when the sky is clear and blue, but clouds intercept it; so that a thermometer rises in cloudy weather, and sinks when the air becomes clear and calm; even a slight mist diminishes radiation from the earth, because it returns as much heat as it receives. The temperature of the air is subject to such irregularities from these circumstances, and from the difference in the radiating powers of the bodies at the surface of the globe, that it is necessary to find, by experiment, the mean or average warmth of the day, month, and year, at a great variety of places, in order to have a standard by which the temperature in different parallels of latitude may be compared.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00931",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 690154,
      "end": 691673,
      "sha256": "ece317ac515608f4559c1e89fba661085b4b46731fd818c11dbc79a4750bd748",
      "text": "A quantity of vapour is continually raised by the heat of the sun from the surface of the globe, which mixes in an invisible state with the dry air or gaseous part of the atmosphere. It is most abundant in the torrid zone, and, like the heat on which it depends, varies with the latitude, the season of the year, the time of the day, the elevation above the sea, and also with the nature of the soil, the land, and the water. There is no chemical combination between the aërial and aqueous atmospheres, they are merely mixed; and the diurnal variations arise from the superposition of two distinct diurnal oscillations, each going through its complete period in 24 hours; one taking place in the aërial atmosphere from the alternate heating and cooling of the air, which produce a flux and reflux over the point of observation; the other arising from the aqueous atmosphere, owing to the alternate production and destruction of vapour by the heat of the day and the cold of the night. The diurnal variations of the vapour have their maximum at or near the hottest hour of the day, and their minimum at or near the coldest, which is exactly the converse of the diurnal variations of the dry air. On the whole, there are two maxima and two minima heights of the barometer in the course of 24 hours from the combinations of these, but in the interior of continents far from water, where the air is very dry, there ought to be one maximum and one minimum during that period, according to this theory.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00932",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 691677,
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      "sha256": "5af020491fb0d26cc38e5ebd9913a01d086f23f29c7a4c2d25b8a0a7b05065b6",
      "text": "Between the tropics the barometer attains its greatest height at nine or half-past nine in the morning; it then sinks till four in the afternoon, after which it again rises and attains a second maximum at ten or half-past ten in the evening; it then begins to fall till it reaches a second time its lowest point at four in the morning. The difference in the height is 0·117 of an inch, which gradually decreases north and south. Baron Humboldt mentions that the diurnal variations of the barometric pressure are so regular between the tropics, that the hour of the day may be inferred from the height of the mercury to within fifteen or sixteen minutes, and that it is undisturbed by storm, tempest, rain, or earthquake, both on the coasts and at altitudes 13,000 feet above them. The mean height of the barometer between the tropics at the level of the sea is 30 inches with very little fluctuation, but, owing to the ascending currents of air from the heat of the earth, it is less under the equator than in the temperate zones. It attains a maximum in western Europe between the parallels of 40° and 45°; in the North Atlantic the maximum is about the 30th parallel, and in the southern part of that ocean it is near the tropic of Capricorn; the amplitude of the oscillations decreases from the tropics to about the 70th parallel, where the diurnal variations cease. They are affected by the seasons, being greatest in summer and least in winter. It appears, also, that the fluctuations are the reverse on mountain-tops from what they are on the plains, and probably at a certain height they would cease altogether.[135] It is a singular fact, discovered by our navigators, that the mean height of the barometer is an inch lower throughout the Antarctic Ocean and at Cape Horn than it is at the Cape of Good Hope or Valparaiso: that difference in the pressure of the atmosphere is probably connected with the perpetual gales off the extremity of South America. M. Erman observed a similar depression near the Sea of Okhotsk in eastern Siberia.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00933",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 693759,
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      "text": "Besides the small horary undulations, there are vast waves moving over the oceans and continents in separate and independent systems, being confined to local yet very extensive districts, probably occasioned by long-continued rains or dry weather over wide tracts of country. By numerous barometrical observations made simultaneously in both hemispheres, the courses of several have been traced, some of which take 24, others 36 hours, to accomplish their rise and fall. One especially of these vast barometric waves, many hundreds of miles in breadth, has been traced over the greater part of Europe, and not its breadth only, but also the direction of its front, and its velocity, have been clearly ascertained. The course of another wave has been made out from the Cape of Good Hope, through many intermediate stations, to the observatory at Toronto in Canada. Since every undulation has its perfect effect independently of the others, each one is marked by a change in the barometer, and this is beautifully illustrated by curved lines on paper, constructed from a series of observations. The general form of the curve shows the course of the principal wave, while small undulations in its outline mark the maxima and minima of the minor oscillations. Although, like all other waves, these in the atmosphere are but waving forms, in which there is no transfer of air, yet winds arise from them like tide-streams in the ocean, and Sir John Herschel is of opinion that the crossing of two of these vast aërial waves, coming in different directions, may generate, at the point of intersection, those tremendous revolving storms, or hurricanes, which spread desolation far and wide.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00934",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 695469,
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      "sha256": "a6ab6eb90b27dc8b8ac05e38b7f9804ffa1395a014d7383fafe9998649599673",
      "text": "The air expands and becomes lighter with heat, contracts and becomes heavier with cold, and, as there are 82 degrees of difference between the equatorial and polar temperature, the light warm air at the equator is constantly ascending to the upper regions of the atmosphere, and flowing north and south to the poles, from whence the cold heavy air rushes along the surface of the earth to supply its place between the tropics, for the same tendency to restore equilibrium exists in air as in other fluids. These two superficial currents, which have no rotatory motion when they leave the poles, are deflected from their meridional paths by friction from the continually increasing velocity of the earth’s rotation, as they come nearer and nearer to the tropics; and, as they revolve slower than the corresponding parts of the earth at which they arrive, the bodies on its surface strike against them with the excess of their velocity, so that the wind appears, to a person who thinks himself at rest, to blow in a direction contrary to that of the earth’s rotation. For that reason the current from the north pole becomes a north-east wind before arriving at the tropic of Cancer, and that from the south pole becomes a south-east wind before it comes to the tropic of Capricorn, their limit being the 28th parallel of latitude on each side of the equator. In fact, the difference of temperature puts the air in motion, and the direction of the resulting wind, at every place, depends upon the difference between the rotatory motion of the wind and the rotatory motion of the earth—the whole theory of the winds depends upon these circumstances.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00935",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 697147,
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      "text": "Near the equator the trade-winds, north and south of it, so completely neutralize each other, that far at sea a candle burns without flickering [_i. e._ when it is flat calm]. This zone of calms and light breezes, known as the _Variables_, which has a breadth of about five degrees and a half, is subject to heavy rains and violent thunder-storms. On account of the arrangement of land and water, it does not coincide with the equator, but its centre runs along the sixth parallel of north latitude; however, it changes in position and extent with the declination of the sun, but never crosses the line.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00936",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 697762,
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      "text": "Though the trade-winds extend to the 28th degree on each side of the equator, their limits vary considerably in different parts of the ocean, moving two or three degrees to the north or south, according to the position of the sun; and in the Atlantic the north-east trade-wind is less steady than the south-east.[136] These perennial winds are known by recent observations to be less uniform in the Pacific than in the Atlantic; they only blow permanently over that portion between the Galapagos Archipelago, off the coast of America, and the Marquesas. In the Indian Ocean the south-east trade-wind blows from a few degrees east of Madagascar to the coast of Australia, between 10° and 28° S. lat. The trade-winds are only constant far from land, because continents and islands intercept them, and change their course. On that account the numerous groups of islands westward from the Marquesas change the trade-winds into the periodical monsoons, which are steady currents of air in the Arabian Gulf, the Indian Ocean, and China Sea, arising from diminished atmospheric pressure at each tropic alternately, from the heat of the sun, thereby producing a regular alternation of north and south winds, which, combining with the rotation of the earth on its axis, become a north-east wind in the northern hemisphere, and a south-east in the southern. The former blows from April to October, the latter from October to April; the change is accompanied by heavy rain and violent storms of thunder and lightning. The ascent of the warm air between the tropics occasions a depression of the barometer amounting to the tenth of an inch, which is a measure of the force producing the trade-winds. In both hemispheres there is a regular variation in the mean height of the barometer within the zone in which these great aërial currents flow; it is higher at their polar limits, and decreases with extreme uniformity towards their equatorial boundaries, the difference in both hemispheres being 0·25 of an inch.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00937",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "text": "The unequal temperature of the land and sea causes sea-breezes which blow towards the land during the day, and land-breezes which blow sea-ward in the night; they are not perceptible in the mornings and evenings, because the temperature of the land and water is then nearly the same.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00938",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 700089,
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      "text": "The trade-winds and monsoons are permanent, depending on the apparent motion of the sun; but it is evident from theory that there must be partial winds in all parts of the earth, occasioned by the local circumstances that affect the temperature of the air. Consequently, the atmosphere is divided into districts, both over the sea and land, in which the winds have nearly the same vicissitudes from year to year. The regularity is greatest towards the tropics, where the causes of disturbance are fewer. In the higher latitudes it is more difficult to discover any regularity, on account of the greater proportion of land, the difference in its radiating power, and the greater extremes of heat and cold. But even there a degree of uniformity prevails in the succession of the winds; for example, in all places where north and south winds blow alternately, a vane veers through every point of the compass in the transition, and in some places the wind makes several of these gyrations in the course of the year.[137] The south-westerly winds, so prevalent in the Atlantic Ocean between the 30th and 60th degrees of north latitude, are produced by the upper current being drawn down to supply the superficial current which goes towards the equator, and, as it has a greater rotatory motion than the earth in these latitudes, it produces a south-westerly wind. On this account the average voyage from Liverpool to New York in a sailing vessel is 40 days, while it is only 23 days from New York to Liverpool. For the same reason the average direction of the wind in England, France, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, and North America, is some point between south and west. North-westerly winds prevail in the corresponding latitudes of the southern hemisphere from the same cause. In fact, whenever the air has a greater velocity of rotation than the surface of the earth, a wind more or less westerly is produced; and when it has less velocity of rotation than the earth, a wind having an easterly tendency results. Thus, there is a perpetual change between the different masses of the atmosphere, the warm air tempering the cold of the higher latitudes, and the cold air mitigating the heat of the lower; it will be shown afterwards that the aërial currents are the bearers of principles on which the life of the animal and vegetable world depends.",
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    {
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      "text": "The sudden fall of the mercury in the barometer in latitudes habitually visited by hurricanes is a certain indication of a coming tempest. In consequence of the centrifugal force of these rotatory storms, the air becomes rarified, and, as the atmosphere is disturbed to some distance beyond the actual circle of gyration or the limits of the storm, the barometer often sinks some hours before its arrival: it continues sinking the first half of the hurricane, and again rises during the passage of the latter half, though it does not attain its greatest height till the storm is over. The diminution of atmospheric pressure is greater, and extends over a wider area, in the temperate zones than in the torrid, on account of the sudden expansion of the circle of rotation where the gale crosses the tropic.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00945",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 709151,
      "end": 709958,
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      "text": "As the fall of the barometer gives warning of the approach of a hurricane, so the laws of the storm’s motion afford to the seaman knowledge to avoid it. In the northern temperate zone, if the gale begins from the S.E. and veers by S. to W., the ship should steer to the S.E.; but if the gale begins from the N.E. and changes through N. to N.W., the vessel ought to go to the N.W. In the northern part of the torrid zone, if the storm begin from the N.E. and veer through E. to S.E., the ship should steer to the N.E.; but if it begin from the N.W. and veer by W. to S.W., the ship should steer to the S.W., because she is on the south-western side of the storm. Since the laws of storms are reversed in the southern hemisphere, the rules for steering vessels are necessarily reversed also.[138]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00946",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 709962,
      "end": 711195,
      "sha256": "df62357ac626dc8d634c8a9b1da54f590e750f82f71e7a89b174e770bc2b81cf",
      "text": "A heavy swell or storm-wave is peculiarly characteristic of these tempests. In the centre of the hurricane the pressure of the atmosphere is so much diminished by rotation, that the mercury in the barometer falls from one to two, and even two and a-half inches. On that account, the pressure of the ocean beyond the range of the wind raises the water in the centre of the vortex about two feet above its usual level, and proportionally to the degree of diminished pressure over the whole area of the storm. This mass of water, or storm-wave, is driven bodily along with, or before, the tempest, and rolls in upon the land like a huge wall of water. It is similar to the earthquake wave, and is by no means the heaping up of the water after a long gale. Ships have been swept by it out of docks and rivers, and it has sometimes carried vessels over reefs and banks so as to land them high and dry; this happened to two ships on the coast of the Eastern Andaman islands, in 1844. Coringa, on the Coromandel coast, is particularly subject to inundations from that cause. In 1789, the town and 20,000 inhabitants were destroyed by a succession of these great waves during a hurricane, and as many perished there in 1839.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00947",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 711199,
      "end": 711354,
      "sha256": "b943e0486eac6809dd08a8577e344f304b918173e5f56baab49210bd8fa90ecb",
      "text": "Besides storm-waves, storm-currents are raised, which revolve with the rotation of the wind, and are of the greatest force near the centre of the vortex.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00948",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 711358,
      "end": 712016,
      "sha256": "061b321d51a5da0a149ff0e262ebb73fe575b0cd287bd1d3755798ece7ffaedb",
      "text": "The rise of the sea by the pressure of the surrounding ocean, and the irresistible fury of the wind, makes a tremendous commotion in the centre of the storm, where the sea rises, not in waves, but in pyramidal masses: the noise during its passage resembles the deafening roar of the most tremendous thunder; and in the typhoons in the China seas it is like numberless voices raised to the utmost pitch of screaming. In general, there is very little thunder and lightning; sometimes a vivid flash occurs during the passage of the centre, or at the beginning of the storm; yet in Barbadoes the whole atmosphere has been enveloped in an electric cloud.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00949",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 712020,
      "end": 712506,
      "sha256": "4a8abb9912b29fb9c4cae9eb55cfe8806f36a847090cf3ecdfde38b3c1581325",
      "text": "A thick lurid appearance, with dense masses of cloud in the horizon, ominous and terrible, are the harbingers of the coming tempest. The sun and clouds frequently assume a fiery redness, the whole sky takes a wild and threatening aspect, and the wind rises and falls with a moaning sound, like that heard in old houses on a winter’s night: it is akin to the “calling of the sea,” a melancholy noise which, in a dead calm, presages a storm on some parts of the English coast.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B00950",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 712510,
      "end": 713038,
      "sha256": "643a26b66261edda890731e907d4353d65639b96e9c7c0b864f936f11babc1cc",
      "text": "Those intensely violent gales, of short duration, called _arched squalls_, because they rise from an arch of clouds on the horizon, are not rotatory; they occur in the Straits of Malacca, attended by fierce thunder and lightning and a lurid phosphorescent gleam. The north-western gales in the Bay of Bengal, the tornadoes on the African coast, and the pampéros of the Rio de la Plata, are of the same nature. On an average, a strong gale moves at the rate of 40 miles an hour, a storm at about 56, and hurricanes at 90.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01008",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 758294,
      "end": 759886,
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      "text": "When the air is highly rarified by heat, its coercive power is diminished, so that the electricity escapes from the clouds in the form of diffuse lambent sheets of lightning without thunder or rain, frequently seen in warm summer evenings, sometimes even near the zenith, and quite different from that sheet-lightning at the horizon which is in general only the reflection of the forked lightning of a distant storm. When the quantity of electricity developed by the sudden condensation of vapour is very great, the lightning is always forked; its zigzag form is occasioned by the unequal conducting power of the air, by which it is sometimes divided into several branches. The author once saw a flash divide into four parallel streams—a very uncommon occurrence. Occasionally, in very great storms, the lightning sends off lateral branches. It often appears as a globe of fire moving so slowly that it is visible for several seconds, while the flashes of forked lightning do not last the millionth part of a second. Professor Wheatstone, who has measured the velocity of lightning by experiments of great ingenuity, found that it far surpasses the velocity of light, and would encircle the globe in the twinkling of an eye. This inconceivable velocity is beautifully exemplified in the electric telegraph, by which the most violent and terrific agent in nature is rendered obedient to man, and conveys his thoughts as rapidly as they are formed. The colour of lightning is generally a dazzling white or blue, though in highly rarified air it is rose-colour or violet.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01009",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 759890,
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      "text": "The sudden compression of the air during the passage of lightning must convert a great quantity of latent into sensible heat, for heat in a latent or insensible state exists in all bodies independent of their temperature. Heat is absorbed and becomes insensible to the thermometer when solids become liquids, and when liquids are changed to vapour; and it again becomes sensible when vapour is condensed, and when liquids become solid. When water freezes, all the heat that kept it liquid is given out; and when ice melts, it absorbs heat from everything near it. The air is full of heat in a latent state, whatever its temperature may be, but it can be squeezed out by sudden compression so as to kindle tinder. Every aërial wave, every sound, every word spoken must set free an infinitesimal quantity of heat; so everything that tends to rarify the air must cause it to absorb a proportional quantity.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01010",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "text": "The rolling noise of thunder is probably owing to the difference between the velocity of lightning and that of sound. Thunder may be regarded as originating in every point of a flash of lightning at the same instant; and as sound takes a considerable time to travel, it will arrive first from the nearest point; and if the flash run in a direct line from a person, the noise will come later and later from the remote points of its path, in a continued roar. Should the direction of the flash be inclined, the succession of sounds will be more rapid and intense; and if the lightning describe a circular course above a person, the sound will arrive at the same instant from every point with a stunning crash.[148]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01011",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 761536,
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      "text": "In passing to the earth, lightning follows the best conductors—metals by preference, then damp substances—which is the reason why men and animals are so often struck. If it meets with a bad conductor, it shivers it to pieces and scatters the fragments to a considerable distance. A powerful flash scatters gunpowder, while a feeble one ignites it; the hardest trees are split and torn to shreds; when a tree is struck, the heat of the flash converts the sap into steam, the expansive force of which shivers the tree. The surface of rocks is vitrified by it; and when it falls on a sandy soil, its course underground is marked by vitrified tubes many feet long.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01012",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 762213,
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      "sha256": "65f1395357e8f115eac4ad0475c199f414c24de133376aec69df4e489c073337",
      "text": "Thunder-storms occur daily within the region of the Variables, which is also the region of storms: in countries under the influence of the monsoons they are tremendous at the changes of these periodical winds; where the trade-winds prevail they are hardly known, though electrical discharges are frequent at their limits. In Greece and Italy there are about 40 thunder-storms annually, which occur in spring and autumn, while north of the Alps they chiefly take place in summer. There are about 24 in the year on the coasts of the Atlantic and in Germany, but they are much more frequent among mountains than on plains. In the interior of the old continent they rarely occur in winter, and three-fourths of the number happen in summer. They are of such rare occurrence in high latitudes, that in a residence of 6 years in Greenland Sir Charles Geiseke only heard it thunder once.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01013",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 763108,
      "end": 764174,
      "sha256": "03346fab6fc058cc41a33c63705e67dc389b38cb93e2090c9ff63e754594931a",
      "text": "Some storms arise from the contention of opposite currents in the air; others are occasioned by currents of warm air ascending from the earth, which are suddenly condensed as they enter the upper regions of the atmosphere, and, as this sometimes happens at the hottest hour of the day, these storms are periodical for many successive days, recurring always at the same hour. Sometimes they extend over a great expanse of country, and the lightning darts from all points of the compass. A person may be killed at the distance of 20 miles from the explosion by the _back stroke_. If the two extremities of a highly-charged cloud dip towards the earth, they will repel the electricity of the earth, if it be of the same kind with their own, and will attract the other kind; and if a discharge should take place at one end of the cloud, the equilibrium will instantly be restored by a flash from that part of the earth which is under the other, sufficiently strong to destroy life, and it is the most dangerous, though never so strong as the direct stroke.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01014",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 764178,
      "end": 764669,
      "sha256": "aebe84d4212872b2cd33d03503d4bb912946892f9ac0a81d611ecb9417637eb4",
      "text": "When thunder-clouds are very low, there is frequently no lightning; the electricity produced by induction is so powerful that it escapes from pointed objects in the shape of flame without heat, known as St. Elmo’s fire. These flames are not unfrequently seen at the topmasts of ships and the extremities of their yard-arms. Bodies between the clouds and earth may be electrized by induction, and their electricity will be seen in the form of flame, as showers of phosphorescent snow.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01398",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 1070682,
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      "sha256": "7b785fd5abdd0e4884c1a4c6b1c4fa3c9bf21a725ec4acd95873a882ad884811",
      "text": "AFRICAN BIRDS.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01399",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 1070700,
      "end": 1071553,
      "sha256": "e22c428ac0360d403a55e04d3829ba6ba35d313bf5944503c6c7e2b410ed12cc",
      "text": "A great number of European birds are also inhabitants of Africa, and many migrate there in winter, yet the birds of this continent are very peculiar and characteristic; those in the north and north-east, and at the Cape of Good Hope, are best known, but the greater part of tropical Africa is still unexplored. It may be observed, generally, that the tropical birds differ from those of north Africa, but are, with a few exceptions, the same with those in the southern part of the continent, and the whole of Africa, south of the desert, differs in species from those of north and western Africa and from Europe. Moreover, there is a strong analogy, though no affinity, between the birds of Africa and America in the same parallels of latitude; there is not a single perching bird common to the two, though some of the rapacious are in both.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01400",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 1071557,
      "end": 1074184,
      "sha256": "4a5a8ec93d7345d9a2d9294a2a51320a977c55d1b23422d366a8734720e5046d",
      "text": "There are 59 species of birds of prey, of which a few are also European. The Secretary-bird is the most singular of this order: it preys upon serpents at the Cape of Good Hope, in Abyssinia, and other parts of the continent. Africa possesses at least 300 species of the passerine order, of which 10 genera, with all their species, are peculiarly its own. The swallows are more beautiful than ours, especially the Cecropis striata, with two tail-feathers twice as long as its body. Many kingfishers, the most beautifully coloured of their brilliant race, frequent the lakes and rivers: four species of Hoopoes, one of which visits Europe in summer, are natives; and the honey-birds, the representatives of the humming-birds of South America, are peculiarly African. They abound at the Cape of Good Hope, where the nectaries of proteas and other plants produce the sacccharine juice which is their food. The Malurus Africanus, and many other singing-birds, for the most part unknown elsewhere, inhabit the forests. The canary-bird is confined to the Canary Islands; its song differs even in two adjacent districts: there are, however, other instances of this. The Capirote, also indigenous in the Canary Islands, is a finer songster, but it cannot be tamed. Various shrikes are peculiar to Africa, but the species known as the grand Baratra is confined to the Azores. There are several birds of the raven tribe, or nearly akin to them: as the Lampratornis superba; another with purple wings, the Buphaga, the only bird of its genus; and several species of the Calaos. The weaving-bird, or Loxia textor, is one of the most remarkable of the graminivorous tribe; it weaves its nest with grass and twigs very dexterously; one brought to Europe wove a quantity of thread among the wires of its cage, with great assiduity, into a strong texture. The Widow-bird, the Calious, the blue bee-eater, and all the fly-catching touracous, with many species of woodpeckers, are found nowhere else. The parrots and paroquets, which swarm in the tropical forests, from the size of a hen to that of a sparrow, are of original forms. The Trogons, or Couroucous, the most beautiful of the large-beaked climbing-birds, are the same as in Asia; but the Barbu and the four species of Barbicans are altogether African, and so are some of the cuckoos. Among the latter are two species of the Cuculus indicator, so named from indicating where the bees have their nests; one is peculiar to Abyssinia, the other to the interior at the Cape of Good Hope; and mocking-birds are spread over a wide extent of this continent.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01401",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 1074188,
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      "text": "There are at least 13 species of African pigeons; and to Africa we are indebted for the guinea-fowl, of which there are three or four kinds: it wanders in flocks of hundreds among the brushwood on the banks of rivers and lakes in Numidia and all the tropical regions, and they are even more abundant in Madagascar. Many grouse and partridges are peculiar, especially the Gangas, of which there are five species; some go in coveys, and others traverse the deserts in flocks of many hundreds. The sand-grouse, one of this family, is much more abundant on the arid deserts of north Africa than in Europe; and the partridges of this country are francolins, which feed on bulbous roots.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01402",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "sha256": "ae0ada7aad1f9f8e662a5809ea91982ca4b2dad6ce0265c64b54d01ba1219b60",
      "text": "The Ostrich takes the wide range of Africa and Arabia; the bird of the desert, and bustards, also wanderers in the plains, are numerous: the most peculiar are the rhaad and the Otis kori, in south Africa, five feet high, and remarkable for the brilliancy of its eye.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01403",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 1075155,
      "end": 1075673,
      "sha256": "63f3c6ff4bd48ad28a2a7b57ba53e994a877a7dbbd9ca02c53828961fd5f71c1",
      "text": "Waders of infinite variety inhabit the rivers, lakes, and marshes— woodcocks, snipes, plovers, storks, cranes, herons, and spoonbills. The most peculiar are the Dromes and Marabous, whose feathers form a considerable article of commerce; the cream-coloured plover, the Scorpus or ombrette, the water-treader of Abyssinia, and the Tantalus tribe, among which is the ibis (Tantalus ibis), held sacred by the ancient Egyptians, so frequently found in mummies in the catacombs, and represented on their monuments.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01541",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 1183972,
      "end": 1185342,
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      "text": "A nation or tribe driven by war, or any other cause, from a warm to a cold country, or the contrary, would be forced to change their food both in quality and quantity, which in the lapse of ages might produce an alteration in the external form and internal structure. The probability is still greater, if the entire change that a few years produces in the matter of which the human frame is composed be considered. At every instant during life, with every motion, voluntary and involuntary, with every thought and every exercise of the brain, a portion of our substance becomes dead, separates from the living part, combines with some of the inhaled oxygen, and is removed. By this process it is supposed that the whole body is renewed every 7 years; individuality, therefore, depends on the spirit, which retains its identity during all the changes of its earthly house, and sometimes even acts independently of it. When sleep is restoring exhausted nature, the spirit is often awake and active, crowding the events of years into a few seconds, and, by its unconsciousness of time, anticipates eternity. Every change of food, climate, and mental excitement, must have their influence on the reproduction of the mortal frame; and thus a thousand causes may co-operate to alter whole races of mankind placed under new circumstances, time being granted.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01542",
      "bookId": 61652,
      "start": 1185346,
      "end": 1186379,
      "sha256": "2c34dd5cae9ece2e94eb59751beeccd38101eea7b236fbcb3c349ea6ed59c006",
      "text": "The difference between the effects of manual labour and the efforts of the brain appears in the intellectual countenance of the educated man, compared with that of the peasant, though even he is occasionally stamped with nature’s own nobility. The most savage people are also the ugliest. Their countenance is deformed by violent unsubdued passions, anxiety, and suffering. Deep sensibility gives a beautiful and varied expression, but every strong emotion is unfavourable to perfect regularity of feature; and of that the Greeks were well aware when they gave that calmness of expression and repose to their unrivalled statues. The refining effects of high culture, and, above all, the Christian religion, by subduing the evil passions, and encouraging the good, are more than anything calculated to improve even the external appearance. The countenance, though perhaps of less regular form, becomes expressive of the amiable and benevolent feelings of the heart, the most captivating and lasting of all beauty.[193]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01543",
      "bookId": 61652,
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      "end": 1186897,
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      "text": "Thus, an infinite assemblage of causes may be assigned as having produced the endless varieties in the human race; but the fact remains an inscrutable mystery. But amidst all the physical vicissitudes man has undergone, the species remains permanent; and let those who think that the difference in the species of animals and vegetables arises from diversity of conditions, consider, that no circumstances whatever can degrade the form of man to that of the monkey—or elevate the monkey to the form of man.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG61652.B01544",
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      "text": "Animals and vegetables, being the sources of man’s sustenance, have had the chief influence on his destiny and location, and have induced him to settle in those parts of the world where he could procure them in greatest abundance. Wherever the chace or the spontaneous productions of the earth supply him with food, he is completely savage, and only a degree further advanced where he plants the palm and the banana; where grain is the principal food, industry and intelligence are most perfectly developed, as in the temperate zone. On that account the centres of civilization have generally been determined, not by a hot, but by a genial climate, fertile soil, by the vicinity of the sea-coast or great rivers, affording the means of fishing and transport, which last has been one of the chief causes of the superiority of Europe and Southern Asia. The mineral treasures of the earth have been the means of assembling great masses of men in Siberia and the table-land of the Andes, and have given rise to many great cities, both in the Old and the New World. Nations inhabiting elevated table-lands and high ungenial latitudes have been driven there by war, or obliged to wander from countries where the population exceeded the means of living—a cause of migration to which both language and tradition bear testimony. The belief in a future state, so universal, shown by respect for the dead, has no doubt been transmitted from nation to nation. The American Indians, driven from their hunting-grounds, still make pilgrimages to the tombs of their fathers; and these tribes alone, of all uncivilized mankind, worship the Great Spirit as the invisible God and Father of all—a degree of abstract refinement which could hardly have sprung up spontaneously among a rude people, and which must have been transmitted from races who held the Jewish faith.",
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      "text": "It is probable that America had been peopled from Asia before the separation of the continents by Behring’s Straits, and there is reason to believe that the location of various races of mankind, now insulated, may have taken place before the separation of the lands by mediterranean seas; whilst others, previously insulated, may be now united by the drying up of inland seas, as those which covered the Sahara desert, and the great hollow round the Caspian Sea, of which it and the Black Sea are probably the remnants.",
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      "text": "Some families of plants are more susceptible of improvement than others, and, like man himself, can bear almost any climate. One kind of wheat grows to 62° N. latitude; rye and barley are hardier, and succeed still farther north; and few countries are absolutely without grass. The cruciform tribe abounds in useful plants, indeed that family, together with the solanum, the papilionaceous and umbelliferous tribes, furnish most of our vegetables. Many plants, like animals, are of one colour only in their wild state, and their blossoms are single. Art has introduced the variety we now see in the same species, and, by changing the anthers of the wild flowers into petals, has produced double blossoms: by art, too, many plants, natives of warm countries, have been naturalized in colder climates. Few useful plants have beautiful blossoms—but if utility were the only object, of what pleasure should we be deprived! Refinement is not wanting in the inmates of a cottage covered with roses and honeysuckle; and the little garden cultivated amidst a life of toil, tells of a peaceful home.",
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      "text": "Among the objects which tend to the improvement of our race, the flower-garden and the park adorned with native and foreign trees have no small share: they are the greatest ornaments of the British Islands; and the love of a country life, which is so strong a passion, is chiefly owing to the law of primogeniture, by which the head of a family is secured in the possession and transmission of his undivided estate, and therefore each generation takes pride and pleasure in adorning the home of its forefathers.",
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      "text": "Animals yield more readily to man’s influence than vegetables, and certain classes have greater flexibility of disposition and structure than others. Those only are capable of being perfectly reclaimed that have a natural tendency for it, without which man’s endeavours would be unavailing. This predisposition is greatest in animals which are gregarious and follow a leader, as elephants, dogs, horses, and cattle do in their wild state; yet even among these some species are refractory, as the buffalo, which can only be regarded as half-reclaimed. The canine tribe, on the contrary, are capable of the greatest attachment, not the dog only, man’s faithful companion, but even the wolf, and especially the hyæna, generally believed to be so ferocious. After an absence of many months, a hyæna which had been the fellow-passenger of a friend of the author’s in a voyage from India, recognized his voice before he came in sight, and on seeing him it showed the greatest joy, lay down like a dog and licked his hands. He had been kind to it on the voyage, and no animal forgets kindness, which is the surest way of reclaiming them. There cannot be a greater mistake than the harsh and cruel means by which dogs and horses are too commonly trained; but it is long before man learns that his power is mental, and that it is his intellect alone that has given him dominion over the earth and its inhabitants, of which so many far surpass him in physical strength. The useful animals were reclaimed by the early inhabitants of Asia, and it is very remarkable, notwithstanding the enterprise and activity of the present times, that among the multitudes of animals that inhabit America, Central and Southern Africa, Australia and the Indian Archipelago, 4 only have been domesticated, yet many may be capable of becoming useful to man. Of 35 species, of which we possess one or more domestic races, 31 are natives of Asia, Europe, and North Africa; these countries are far from being exhausted, and a complete hemisphere is yet unexplored. An attempt has been made to domesticate the Llama, the Dziggetai, Zebra, and some species of Indian deer, but the success is either doubtful or the attempt has not been followed up. Little has been left for modern nations but the improvement of the species, and in that they have been very successful. The variety of horses, dogs, cattle, and sheep is beyond number. The form, colour, and even the disposition, may be materially altered, and the habits engrafted are transmitted to the offspring, as instinctive properties independent of education. Domestic fowls go in flocks on their native meads when wild. There are, however, instances of solitary birds being tamed to an extraordinary degree, as the raven, one of the most sagacious.",
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      "text": "Man’s necessities and pleasure have been the cause of great changes in the animal creation—and his destructive propensity of still greater. Animals are intended for our use, and field-sports are advantageous by encouraging a daring and active spirit in young men, but the utter destruction of some races, in order to protect those destined for his pleasure, is too selfish. Animals soon acquire a dread of man, which becomes instinctive and hereditary; in newly-discovered uninhabited countries, birds and beasts are so tame as to allow themselves to be caught; whales scarcely got out of the way of the ships that first navigated the Arctic Ocean, but now they universally have a dread of the common enemy: whales and seals have been extirpated in various places; sea-fowl and birds of passage are not likely to be extinguished, but many land animals and birds are vanishing before the advance of civilization. Drainage, cultivation, cutting down of forests, and even the introduction of new plants and animals, destroy some of the old, and alter the relations between those that remain. The inaccessible cliffs of the Himalaya and Andes will afford a refuge to the eagle and condor, but the time will come when the mighty forests of the Amazons and Orinoco will disappear with the myriads of their joyous inhabitants. The lion, the tiger, and the elephant will be known only by ancient records. Man, the lord of the creation, will extirpate the noble creatures of the earth—but he himself will ever be the slave of the canker-worm and the fly. Cultivation may lessen the scourge of the insect tribe, but God’s great army will ever, from time to time, appear suddenly—no one knows from whence; the grub will take possession of the ground, and the locust will come from the desert and destroy the fairest prospects of the harvest.",
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      "text": "Though the unreclaimed portion of the animal creation is falling before the progress of improvement, yet man has been both the voluntary and the involuntary cause of the introduction of new animals and plants into countries in which they were not natives. The Spanish conquerors little thought that the descendants of the few cattle and horses they allowed to run wild, would resume the original character of their species, and roam in hundreds of thousands over the savannahs of South America. Wherever man is, civilized or savage, there also is the dog, but he too has in some places resumed his native state and habits, and hunts in packs. Domestic animals, grain, fruit, vegetables, and the weeds that grow with them, have been conveyed by colonists to all settlements. Birds and insects follow certain plants into countries in which they were never seen before. Even the inhabitants of the waters change their abode in consequence of the influence of man. Fish, natives of the rivers on the coast of the Mexican Gulf, have migrated by the canals to the heart of North America; and the mytilus polymorphus, a shell-fish brought to the London Docks in the timbers of ships from the brackish waters of the Black Sea and its tributary streams, has spread into the interior of England by the Croydon and other canals.",
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      "text": "The influence of man on man is a power of the highest order, far surpassing that which he possesses over inanimate or animal nature. It is, however, as a collective body, and not as an individual, that he exercises this influence over his fellow-creatures. The free-will of man, nay, even his most capricious passions, neutralize each other, when large numbers of men are considered. Professor Quetelet has most ably proved, that the greater the number of individuals, the more completely does the will of each, as well as all individual peculiarities, moral or physical, disappear, and allow the series of general facts to predominate, which depend upon the causes by which society exists and is preserved. The uniformity with which the number of marriages in Belgium occurred in 20 years, places the neutralization of the free-will of the individual man beyond a doubt, and is one of many instances of the importance of average quantities in arriving at general laws.",
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      "text": "Certainly no event in a man’s life depends more upon his free will than his marriage, yet it appears from the records in Brussels, that nearly the same number of marriages take place every year, in the towns as well as in the country, and, moreover, that the same constancy prevails in each province, though the numbers of the people are so small, that accidental causes might be more likely to affect the general result than when the numbers are larger. In fact the whole affair passes as if the inhabitants of Belgium had agreed to contract nearly the same number of marriages annually, at each stage of life. Young people may possibly be in some degree under the control of parents, but there can be no restraint on the free will of men of 30 and women of 60 years of age, yet the same number of such incongruous marriages do annually take place between men and women at those unsuitable ages—a fact which almost exceeds belief. The day fixed for a wedding is of all things most entirely dependent on the will of the parties, yet even here there is regularity in the annual recurrence. (See Table on next page.)",
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      "text": "With regard to crimes also, M. Quetelet observes that the same number of crimes of the same description are committed annually, with remarkable uniformity, even in the case of those crimes which would seem most likely to baffle all attempt at prediction. The same regularity occurs in the sentences passed on criminals: in France, in every hundred trials there were sixty-one convictions regularly, year after year.",
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      "text": "Forgetfulness, as well as free-will, is under constant laws: the number of undirected letters put into the post-office in London and in Paris is very nearly the same year after year respectively—in London they amount to 2000: so that even the deviations from free-will proves the generality and the constancy of the laws that govern us.",
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      "text": "Scientific discoveries and social combinations, which put in practice great social principles, are not without a decided influence; but these causes of action coming from man, are placed out of the sphere of the free-will of each: so that individual impulse has less to do with the progress of mankind than is generally believed. When society has arrived at a certain point of advancement, certain discoveries will naturally be made; the general mind is directed that way, and if one individual does not hit upon the discovery, another will. Therefore, on the disputes and discussions of different nations for the honour of particular inventions or discoveries, as for example the steam-engine, a narrow view of the subject is taken; they properly belong to the age in which they are made, without derogating from the merits of those benefactors of mankind who have lessened his toil or increased his comfort by the efforts of their genius. The time had come for the invention of printing, and printing was invented; and the same observation is applicable to many objects in the physical, as well as to the moral world. In the present disturbed state of society the time is come for the termination of the feudal system, which will be swept away by the force of public opinion, though individuality merges in these general movements.",
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      "text": "_The following Table, which is one of the most curious of statistical documents, was formed by Professor Quetelet from the Register of Marriages at Brussels_:—",
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      "text": "ISLA´NDICUS. Lat. Belonging or relating to Iceland.",
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      "text": "ISO´GEO´THERMAL. From the Gr. _isos_, equal, _ge_, the earth, and _thermos_, heat. Applied to lines which are supposed to pass through all parts of the earth’s structure on the surface where the mean heat is the same.",
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      "text": "ISOTHE´RMAL. From the Gr. _isos_, equal, and _thermos_, heat. Isothermal lines are supposed to pass through all places where the mean temperature of the air is the same.",
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      "text": "ISOTHERIAL. From the Gr. _isos_, equal, and _thereios_, having the heat of summer. Isotherial lines are supposed to be drawn through all places having the same mean summer temperature.",
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      "text": "ISOCHI´MENAL. From the Gr. _isos_, equal, and _cheima_, winter. Isochimenal lines pass through all places where the mean winter temperature is the same.",
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      "text": "IXIA. A genus of plants of the family of Irideæ.",
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      "text": "The mean of any number of unequal quantities is equal to their sum divided by their number: thus the mean temperature of the air at any place during a year is equal to the sum of the mean temperature of each month divided by 12. This method, however, will only give an approximate value; therefore, to ascertain the mean annual temperature at any place accurately, the mean of a number of years must be taken.",
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      "text": "Footnote 129:",
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      "text": "Lines drawn on a map or globe through all places where the mean annual temperature is the same are isothermal lines.",
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      "text": "Footnote 130:",
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      "text": "For example, Professor Dove has found that the mean temperature of December, January, and February, at Toronto in Canada, added to the mean temperature of the same months at Hobart Town in Van Diemen’s Land, exceeds the sum of the mean temperature of June, July, and August, at the same places, added together, by 22°·7 of Fahrenheit. Similar results, though varying in amount, were obtained for many corresponding places in the two hemispheres, which establishes the law given in the text.",
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      "text": "Mr. Burke conceives his point sufficiently established by producing those clauses, which he enforces by saying that they exclude the right of the nation for ever. And not yet content with making such declarations, repeated over and over again, he farther says, \"that if the people of England possessed such a right before the Revolution\" (which he acknowledges to have been the case, not only in England, but throughout Europe, at an early period), \"yet that the English Nation did, at the time of the Revolution, most solemnly renounce and abdicate it, for themselves, and for all their posterity, for ever.\"",
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      "text": "As Mr. Burke occasionally applies the poison drawn from his horrid principles, not only to the English nation, but to the French Revolution and the National Assembly, and charges that august, illuminated and illuminating body of men with the epithet of usurpers, I shall, sans ceremonie, place another system of principles in opposition to his.",
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      "text": "The English Parliament of 1688 did a certain thing, which, for themselves and their constituents, they had a right to do, and which it appeared right should be done. But, in addition to this right, which they possessed by delegation, they set up another right by assumption, that of binding and controlling posterity to the end of time. The case, therefore, divides itself into two parts; the right which they possessed by delegation, and the right which they set up by assumption. The first is admitted; but with respect to the second, I reply: There never did, there never will, and there never can, exist a Parliament, or any description of men, or any generation of men, in any country, possessed of the right or the power of binding and controlling posterity to the \"end of time,\" or of commanding for ever how the world shall be governed, or who shall govern it; and therefore all such clauses, acts or declarations by which the makers of them attempt to do what they have neither the right nor the power to do, nor the power to execute, are in themselves null and void. Every age and generation must be as free to act for itself in all cases as the age and generations which preceded it. The vanity and presumption of governing beyond the grave is the most ridiculous and insolent of all tyrannies. Man has no property in man; neither has any generation a property in the generations which are to follow. The Parliament or the people of 1688, or of any other period, had no more right to dispose of the people of the present day, or to bind or to control them in any shape whatever, than the parliament or the people of the present day have to dispose of, bind or control those who are to live a hundred or a thousand years hence. Every generation is, and must be, competent to all the purposes which its occasions require. It is the living, and not the dead, that are to be accommodated. When man ceases to be, his power and his wants cease with him; and having no longer any participation in the concerns of this world, he has no longer any authority in directing who shall be its governors, or how its government shall be organised, or how administered.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00084",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 31102,
      "end": 31980,
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      "text": "I am not contending for nor against any form of government, nor for nor against any party, here or elsewhere. That which a whole nation chooses to do it has a right to do. Mr. Burke says, No. Where, then, does the right exist? I am contending for the rights of the living, and against their being willed away and controlled and contracted for by the manuscript assumed authority of the dead, and Mr. Burke is contending for the authority of the dead over the rights and freedom of the living. There was a time when kings disposed of their crowns by will upon their death-beds, and consigned the people, like beasts of the field, to whatever successor they appointed. This is now so exploded as scarcely to be remembered, and so monstrous as hardly to be believed. But the Parliamentary clauses upon which Mr. Burke builds his political church are of the same nature.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00085",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 31984,
      "end": 32377,
      "sha256": "5fbb47ee0b80e2ab566969d39c9c3d6a4ae3803b45b852888f1b8e06c2ee00c1",
      "text": "The laws of every country must be analogous to some common principle. In England no parent or master, nor all the authority of Parliament, omnipotent as it has called itself, can bind or control the personal freedom even of an individual beyond the age of twenty-one years. On what ground of right, then, could the Parliament of 1688, or any other Parliament, bind all posterity for ever?",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00086",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 32381,
      "end": 32809,
      "sha256": "9e06ea0ac7fee9b44d137dac42bf9591ab3c21fc5cac92a49a8c8405353a44d1",
      "text": "Those who have quitted the world, and those who have not yet arrived at it, are as remote from each other as the utmost stretch of mortal imagination can conceive. What possible obligation, then, can exist between them--what rule or principle can be laid down that of two nonentities, the one out of existence and the other not in, and who never can meet in this world, the one should control the other to the end of time?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00092",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 36197,
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      "text": "It requires but a very small glance of thought to perceive that although laws made in one generation often continue in force through succeeding generations, yet they continue to derive their force from the consent of the living. A law not repealed continues in force, not because it cannot be repealed, but because it is not repealed; and the non-repealing passes for consent.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00093",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 36582,
      "end": 37339,
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      "text": "But Mr. Burke's clauses have not even this qualification in their favour. They become null, by attempting to become immortal. The nature of them precludes consent. They destroy the right which they might have, by grounding it on a right which they cannot have. Immortal power is not a human right, and therefore cannot be a right of Parliament. The Parliament of 1688 might as well have passed an act to have authorised themselves to live for ever, as to make their authority live for ever. All, therefore, that can be said of those clauses is that they are a formality of words, of as much import as if those who used them had addressed a congratulation to themselves, and in the oriental style of antiquity had said: O Parliament, live for ever!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00094",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 37343,
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      "text": "The circumstances of the world are continually changing, and the opinions of men change also; and as government is for the living, and not for the dead, it is the living only that has any right in it. That which may be thought right and found convenient in one age may be thought wrong and found inconvenient in another. In such cases, who is to decide, the living or the dead?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00095",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "As almost one hundred pages of Mr. Burke's book are employed upon these clauses, it will consequently follow that if the clauses themselves, so far as they set up an assumed usurped dominion over posterity for ever, are unauthoritative, and in their nature null and void; that all his voluminous inferences, and declamation drawn therefrom, or founded thereon, are null and void also; and on this ground I rest the matter.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00096",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "We now come more particularly to the affairs of France. Mr. Burke's book has the appearance of being written as instruction to the French nation; but if I may permit myself the use of an extravagant metaphor, suited to the extravagance of the case, it is darkness attempting to illuminate light.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00100",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "It was not against Louis XVI. but against the despotic principles of the Government, that the nation revolted. These principles had not their origin in him, but in the original establishment, many centuries back: and they were become too deeply rooted to be removed, and the Augean stables of parasites and plunderers too abominably filthy to be cleansed by anything short of a complete and universal Revolution. When it becomes necessary to do anything, the whole heart and soul should go into the measure, or not attempt it. That crisis was then arrived, and there remained no choice but to act with determined vigor, or not to act at all. The king was known to be the friend of the nation, and this circumstance was favorable to the enterprise. Perhaps no man bred up in the style of an absolute king, ever possessed a heart so little disposed to the exercise of that species of power as the present King of France. But the principles of the Government itself still remained the same. The Monarch and the Monarchy were distinct and separate things; and it was against the established despotism of the latter, and not against the person or principles of the former, that the revolt commenced, and the Revolution has been carried.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00101",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 43289,
      "end": 43522,
      "sha256": "dd1186b5640cd6502a0f53543fc6f8704187d2db3744bc9fb15f5fd5960b3b61",
      "text": "Mr. Burke does not attend to the distinction between men and principles, and, therefore, he does not see that a revolt may take place against the despotism of the latter, while there lies no charge of despotism against the former.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00102",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 43526,
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      "text": "The natural moderation of Louis XVI. contributed nothing to alter the hereditary despotism of the monarchy. All the tyrannies of former reigns, acted under that hereditary despotism, were still liable to be revived in the hands of a successor. It was not the respite of a reign that would satisfy France, enlightened as she was then become. A casual discontinuance of the practice of despotism, is not a discontinuance of its principles: the former depends on the virtue of the individual who is in immediate possession of the power; the latter, on the virtue and fortitude of the nation. In the case of Charles I. and James II. of England, the revolt was against the personal despotism of the men; whereas in France, it was against the hereditary despotism of the established Government. But men who can consign over the rights of posterity for ever on the authority of a mouldy parchment, like Mr. Burke, are not qualified to judge of this Revolution. It takes in a field too vast for their views to explore, and proceeds with a mightiness of reason they cannot keep pace with.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00103",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 44624,
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      "text": "But there are many points of view in which this Revolution may be considered. When despotism has established itself for ages in a country, as in France, it is not in the person of the king only that it resides. It has the appearance of being so in show, and in nominal authority; but it is not so in practice and in fact. It has its standard everywhere. Every office and department has its despotism, founded upon custom and usage. Every place has its Bastille, and every Bastille its despot. The original hereditary despotism resident in the person of the king, divides and sub-divides itself into a thousand shapes and forms, till at last the whole of it is acted by deputation. This was the case in France; and against this species of despotism, proceeding on through an endless labyrinth of office till the source of it is scarcely perceptible, there is no mode of redress. It strengthens itself by assuming the appearance of duty, and tyrannizes under the pretence of obeying.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00104",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "When a man reflects on the condition which France was in from the nature of her government, he will see other causes for revolt than those which immediately connect themselves with the person or character of Louis XVI. There were, if I may so express it, a thousand despotisms to be reformed in France, which had grown up under the hereditary despotism of the monarchy, and became so rooted as to be in a great measure independent of it. Between the Monarchy, the Parliament, and the Church there was a rivalship of despotism; besides the feudal despotism operating locally, and the ministerial despotism operating everywhere. But Mr. Burke, by considering the king as the only possible object of a revolt, speaks as if France was a village, in which everything that passed must be known to its commanding officer, and no oppression could be acted but what he could immediately control. Mr. Burke might have been in the Bastille his whole life, as well under Louis XVI. as Louis XIV., and neither the one nor the other have known that such a man as Burke existed. The despotic principles of the government were the same in both reigns, though the dispositions of the men were as remote as tyranny and benevolence.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00105",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "What Mr. Burke considers as a reproach to the French Revolution (that of bringing it forward under a reign more mild than the preceding ones) is one of its highest honors. The Revolutions that have taken place in other European countries, have been excited by personal hatred. The rage was against the man, and he became the victim. But, in the instance of France we see a Revolution generated in the rational contemplation of the Rights of Man, and distinguishing from the beginning between persons and principles.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00106",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "But Mr. Burke appears to have no idea of principles when he is contemplating Governments. \"Ten years ago,\" says he, \"I could have felicitated France on her having a Government, without inquiring what the nature of that Government was, or how it was administered.\" Is this the language of a rational man? Is it the language of a heart feeling as it ought to feel for the rights and happiness of the human race? On this ground, Mr. Burke must compliment all the Governments in the world, while the victims who suffer under them, whether sold into slavery, or tortured out of existence, are wholly forgotten. It is power, and not principles, that Mr. Burke venerates; and under this abominable depravity he is disqualified to judge between them. Thus much for his opinion as to the occasions of the French Revolution. I now proceed to other considerations.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00159",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 91036,
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      "sha256": "376dee15f3e9f3fb65c64ff67b7d885e6be9c346a96b60a143221c9ac8024e60",
      "text": "A few words will explain this. Natural rights are those which appertain to man in right of his existence. Of this kind are all the intellectual rights, or rights of the mind, and also all those rights of acting as an individual for his own comfort and happiness, which are not injurious to the natural rights of others. Civil rights are those which appertain to man in right of his being a member of society. Every civil right has for its foundation some natural right pre-existing in the individual, but to the enjoyment of which his individual power is not, in all cases, sufficiently competent. Of this kind are all those which relate to security and protection.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00160",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "sha256": "76d52cebc636c14c00a3e47e34e5a976fe9a44ef838a5a1176fd1693b144053b",
      "text": "From this short review it will be easy to distinguish between that class of natural rights which man retains after entering into society and those which he throws into the common stock as a member of society.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00161",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "The natural rights which he retains are all those in which the Power to execute is as perfect in the individual as the right itself. Among this class, as is before mentioned, are all the intellectual rights, or rights of the mind; consequently religion is one of those rights. The natural rights which are not retained, are all those in which, though the right is perfect in the individual, the power to execute them is defective. They answer not his purpose. A man, by natural right, has a right to judge in his own cause; and so far as the right of the mind is concerned, he never surrenders it. But what availeth it him to judge, if he has not power to redress? He therefore deposits this right in the common stock of society, and takes the ann of society, of which he is a part, in preference and in addition to his own. Society grants him nothing. Every man is a proprietor in society, and draws on the capital as a matter of right.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00162",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 92882,
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      "sha256": "034026e16fee23c6730dc589f5d56233743b2e6fc75277f3275d16aef569fa7f",
      "text": "From these premisses two or three certain conclusions will follow:",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00163",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 92952,
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      "sha256": "77e2e62395cd0d132aee6e84411b46a39e2ab3aa786f84ba534e05febc4a4fbe",
      "text": "First, That every civil right grows out of a natural right; or, in other words, is a natural right exchanged.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00164",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 93066,
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      "sha256": "8841ffe1b9b0a4f92d540ef2f5a23d2f62bec279bc7f18de3edc108d88bfbc75",
      "text": "Secondly, That civil power properly considered as such is made up of the aggregate of that class of the natural rights of man, which becomes defective in the individual in point of power, and answers not his purpose, but when collected to a focus becomes competent to the Purpose of every one.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00165",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 93367,
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      "sha256": "92413f3afabc97c11a9a1bb5c7129397d391143b7cf7f7a3f77be5fe97fa1b07",
      "text": "Thirdly, That the power produced from the aggregate of natural rights, imperfect in power in the individual, cannot be applied to invade the natural rights which are retained in the individual, and in which the power to execute is as perfect as the right itself.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00166",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "We have now, in a few words, traced man from a natural individual to a member of society, and shown, or endeavoured to show, the quality of the natural rights retained, and of those which are exchanged for civil rights. Let us now apply these principles to governments.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00167",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "sha256": "fb7a587bf8adbb56b1795df8a4dee10e9e34e5d71e5456197a82f43252fb5168",
      "text": "In casting our eyes over the world, it is extremely easy to distinguish the governments which have arisen out of society, or out of the social compact, from those which have not; but to place this in a clearer light than what a single glance may afford, it will be proper to take a review of the several sources from which governments have arisen and on which they have been founded.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00168",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "sha256": "cc4e5069b4310b88752b0f0b81a06eb0b0c4c4cbabee115bb7d83dcd17a9e1e7",
      "text": "They may be all comprehended under three heads.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00179",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 97020,
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      "text": "To possess ourselves of a clear idea of what government is, or ought to be, we must trace it to its origin. In doing this we shall easily discover that governments must have arisen either out of the people or over the people. Mr. Burke has made no distinction. He investigates nothing to its source, and therefore he confounds everything; but he has signified his intention of undertaking, at some future opportunity, a comparison between the constitution of England and France. As he thus renders it a subject of controversy by throwing the gauntlet, I take him upon his own ground. It is in high challenges that high truths have the right of appearing; and I accept it with the more readiness because it affords me, at the same time, an opportunity of pursuing the subject with respect to governments arising out of society.",
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      "sha256": "00e0f2408376c0a98337f6998a4b87e8de3175b4aae4b689071c99bd7838c3c6",
      "text": "But it will be first necessary to define what is meant by a Constitution. It is not sufficient that we adopt the word; we must fix also a standard signification to it.",
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    {
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      "text": "A constitution is not a thing in name only, but in fact. It has not an ideal, but a real existence; and wherever it cannot be produced in a visible form, there is none. A constitution is a thing antecedent to a government, and a government is only the creature of a constitution. The constitution of a country is not the act of its government, but of the people constituting its government. It is the body of elements, to which you can refer, and quote article by article; and which contains the principles on which the government shall be established, the manner in which it shall be organised, the powers it shall have, the mode of elections, the duration of Parliaments, or by what other name such bodies may be called; the powers which the executive part of the government shall have; and in fine, everything that relates to the complete organisation of a civil government, and the principles on which it shall act, and by which it shall be bound. A constitution, therefore, is to a government what the laws made afterwards by that government are to a court of judicature. The court of judicature does not make the laws, neither can it alter them; it only acts in conformity to the laws made: and the government is in like manner governed by the constitution.",
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      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "Can, then, Mr. Burke produce the English Constitution? If he cannot, we may fairly conclude that though it has been so much talked about, no such thing as a constitution exists, or ever did exist, and consequently that the people have yet a constitution to form.",
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      "ref": "PG3742.B00183",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "Mr. Burke will not, I presume, deny the position I have already advanced--namely, that governments arise either out of the people or over the people. The English Government is one of those which arose out of a conquest, and not out of society, and consequently it arose over the people; and though it has been much modified from the opportunity of circumstances since the time of William the Conqueror, the country has never yet regenerated itself, and is therefore without a constitution.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00184",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "I readily perceive the reason why Mr. Burke declined going into the comparison between the English and French constitutions, because he could not but perceive, when he sat down to the task, that no such a thing as a constitution existed on his side the question. His book is certainly bulky enough to have contained all he could say on this subject, and it would have been the best manner in which people could have judged of their separate merits. Why then has he declined the only thing that was worth while to write upon? It was the strongest ground he could take, if the advantages were on his side, but the weakest if they were not; and his declining to take it is either a sign that he could not possess it or could not maintain it.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00185",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "Mr. Burke said, in a speech last winter in Parliament, \"that when the National Assembly first met in three Orders (the Tiers Etat, the Clergy, and the Noblesse), France had then a good constitution.\" This shows, among numerous other instances, that Mr. Burke does not understand what a constitution is. The persons so met were not a constitution, but a convention, to make a constitution.",
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      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "The present National Assembly of France is, strictly speaking, the personal social compact. The members of it are the delegates of the nation in its original character; future assemblies will be the delegates of the nation in its organised character. The authority of the present Assembly is different from what the authority of future Assemblies will be. The authority of the present one is to form a constitution; the authority of future assemblies will be to legislate according to the principles and forms prescribed in that constitution; and if experience should hereafter show that alterations, amendments, or additions are necessary, the constitution will point out the mode by which such things shall be done, and not leave it to the discretionary power of the future government.",
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      "ref": "PG3742.B00187",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "A government on the principles on which constitutional governments arising out of society are established, cannot have the right of altering itself. If it had, it would be arbitrary. It might make itself what it pleased; and wherever such a right is set up, it shows there is no constitution. The act by which the English Parliament empowered itself to sit seven years, shows there is no constitution in England. It might, by the same self-authority, have sat any great number of years, or for life. The bill which the present Mr. Pitt brought into Parliament some years ago, to reform Parliament, was on the same erroneous principle. The right of reform is in the nation in its original character, and the constitutional method would be by a general convention elected for the purpose. There is, moreover, a paradox in the idea of vitiated bodies reforming themselves.",
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      "text": "From these preliminaries I proceed to draw some comparisons. I have already spoken of the declaration of rights; and as I mean to be as concise as possible, I shall proceed to other parts of the French Constitution.",
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      "text": "\"If,\" says he, \"such writings shall be thought to deserve any other refutation than that of criminal justice.\"",
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      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "Pardoning the pun, it must be criminal justice indeed that should condemn a work as a substitute for not being able to refute it. The greatest condemnation that could be passed upon it would be a refutation. But in proceeding by the method Mr. Burke alludes to, the condemnation would, in the final event, pass upon the criminality of the process and not upon the work, and in this case, I had rather be the author, than be either the judge or the jury that should condemn it.",
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      "ref": "PG3742.B00484",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "But to come at once to the point. I have differed from some professional gentlemen on the subject of prosecutions, and I since find they are falling into my opinion, which I will here state as fully, but as concisely as I can.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00485",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "I will first put a case with respect to any law, and then compare it with a government, or with what in England is, or has been, called a constitution.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00486",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "It would be an act of despotism, or what in England is called arbitrary power, to make a law to prohibit investigating the principles, good or bad, on which such a law, or any other is founded.",
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      "ref": "PG3742.B00487",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "If a law be bad it is one thing to oppose the practice of it, but it is quite a different thing to expose its errors, to reason on its defects, and to show cause why it should be repealed, or why another ought to be substituted in its place. I have always held it an opinion (making it also my practice) that it is better to obey a bad law, making use at the same time of every argument to show its errors and procure its repeal, than forcibly to violate it; because the precedent of breaking a bad law might weaken the force, and lead to a discretionary violation, of those which are good.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00488",
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      "text": "The case is the same with respect to principles and forms of government, or to what are called constitutions and the parts of which they are, composed.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00489",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "It is for the good of nations and not for the emolument or aggrandisement of particular individuals, that government ought to be established, and that mankind are at the expense of supporting it. The defects of every government and constitution both as to principle and form, must, on a parity of reasoning, be as open to discussion as the defects of a law, and it is a duty which every man owes to society to point them out. When those defects, and the means of remedying them, are generally seen by a nation, that nation will reform its government or its constitution in the one case, as the government repealed or reformed the law in the other. The operation of government is restricted to the making and the administering of laws; but it is to a nation that the right of forming or reforming, generating or regenerating constitutions and governments belong; and consequently those subjects, as subjects of investigation, are always before a country as a matter of right, and cannot, without invading the general rights of that country, be made subjects for prosecution. On this ground I will meet Mr. Burke whenever he please. It is better that the whole argument should come out than to seek to stifle it. It was himself that opened the controversy, and he ought not to desert it.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00550",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 301675,
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      "text": "We have heard the Rights of Man called a levelling system; but the only system to which the word levelling is truly applicable, is the hereditary monarchical system. It is a system of mental levelling. It indiscriminately admits every species of character to the same authority. Vice and virtue, ignorance and wisdom, in short, every quality good or bad, is put on the same level. Kings succeed each other, not as rationals, but as animals. It signifies not what their mental or moral characters are. Can we then be surprised at the abject state of the human mind in monarchical countries, when the government itself is formed on such an abject levelling system?--It has no fixed character. To-day it is one thing; to-morrow it is something else. It changes with the temper of every succeeding individual, and is subject to all the varieties of each. It is government through the medium of passions and accidents. It appears under all the various characters of childhood, decrepitude, dotage, a thing at nurse, in leading-strings, or in crutches. It reverses the wholesome order of nature. It occasionally puts children over men, and the conceits of nonage over wisdom and experience. In short, we cannot conceive a more ridiculous figure of government, than hereditary succession, in all its cases, presents.",
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      "text": "Could it be made a decree in nature, or an edict registered in heaven, and man could know it, that virtue and wisdom should invariably appertain to hereditary succession, the objection to it would be removed; but when we see that nature acts as if she disowned and sported with the hereditary system; that the mental character of successors, in all countries, is below the average of human understanding; that one is a tyrant, another an idiot, a third insane, and some all three together, it is impossible to attach confidence to it, when reason in man has power to act.",
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      "text": "It is not to the Abbe Sieyes that I need apply this reasoning; he has already saved me that trouble by giving his own opinion upon the case. \"If it be asked,\" says he, \"what is my opinion with respect to hereditary right, I answer without hesitation, That in good theory, an hereditary transmission of any power of office, can never accord with the laws of a true representation. Hereditaryship is, in this sense, as much an attaint upon principle, as an outrage upon society. But let us,\" continues he, \"refer to the history of all elective monarchies and principalities: is there one in which the elective mode is not worse than the hereditary succession?\"",
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      "ref": "PG3742.B00553",
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      "text": "As to debating on which is the worst of the two, it is admitting both to be bad; and herein we are agreed. The preference which the Abbe has given, is a condemnation of the thing that he prefers. Such a mode of reasoning on such a subject is inadmissible, because it finally amounts to an accusation upon Providence, as if she had left to man no other choice with respect to government than between two evils, the best of which he admits to be \"an attaint upon principle, and an outrage upon society.\"",
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      "ref": "PG3742.B00554",
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      "text": "Passing over, for the present, all the evils and mischiefs which monarchy has occasioned in the world, nothing can more effectually prove its uselessness in a state of civil government, than making it hereditary. Would we make any office hereditary that required wisdom and abilities to fill it? And where wisdom and abilities are not necessary, such an office, whatever it may be, is superfluous or insignificant.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00555",
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      "text": "Hereditary succession is a burlesque upon monarchy. It puts it in the most ridiculous light, by presenting it as an office which any child or idiot may fill. It requires some talents to be a common mechanic; but to be a king requires only the animal figure of man--a sort of breathing automaton. This sort of superstition may last a few years more, but it cannot long resist the awakened reason and interest of man.",
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      "ref": "PG3742.B00556",
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      "text": "As to Mr. Burke, he is a stickler for monarchy, not altogether as a pensioner, if he is one, which I believe, but as a political man. He has taken up a contemptible opinion of mankind, who, in their turn, are taking up the same of him. He considers them as a herd of beings that must be governed by fraud, effigy, and show; and an idol would be as good a figure of monarchy with him, as a man. I will, however, do him the justice to say that, with respect to America, he has been very complimentary. He always contended, at least in my hearing, that the people of America were more enlightened than those of England, or of any country in Europe; and that therefore the imposition of show was not necessary in their governments.",
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      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "But I might go further, and place also foreign wars, of whatever kind, to the same cause. It is by adding the evil of hereditary succession to that of monarchy, that a permanent family interest is created, whose constant objects are dominion and revenue. Poland, though an elective monarchy, has had fewer wars than those which are hereditary; and it is the only government that has made a voluntary essay, though but a small one, to reform the condition of the country.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG3742.B00560",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "Having thus glanced at a few of the defects of the old, or hereditary systems of government, let us compare it with the new, or representative system.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00561",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "sha256": "a0f0421768e49bb2d366fb8877f3976f3608a6a0e7d2c6b8d42e7a3f776a7f12",
      "text": "The representative system takes society and civilisation for its basis; nature, reason, and experience, for its guide.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00562",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "Experience, in all ages, and in all countries, has demonstrated that it is impossible to control Nature in her distribution of mental powers. She gives them as she pleases. Whatever is the rule by which she, apparently to us, scatters them among mankind, that rule remains a secret to man. It would be as ridiculous to attempt to fix the hereditaryship of human beauty, as of wisdom. Whatever wisdom constituently is, it is like a seedless plant; it may be reared when it appears, but it cannot be voluntarily produced. There is always a sufficiency somewhere in the general mass of society for all purposes; but with respect to the parts of society, it is continually changing its place. It rises in one to-day, in another to-morrow, and has most probably visited in rotation every family of the earth, and again withdrawn.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00563",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "As this is in the order of nature, the order of government must necessarily follow it, or government will, as we see it does, degenerate into ignorance. The hereditary system, therefore, is as repugnant to human wisdom as to human rights; and is as absurd as it is unjust.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "As the republic of letters brings forward the best literary productions, by giving to genius a fair and universal chance; so the representative system of government is calculated to produce the wisest laws, by collecting wisdom from where it can be found. I smile to myself when I contemplate the ridiculous insignificance into which literature and all the sciences would sink, were they made hereditary; and I carry the same idea into governments. An hereditary governor is as inconsistent as an hereditary author. I know not whether Homer or Euclid had sons; but I will venture an opinion that if they had, and had left their works unfinished, those sons could not have completed them.",
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      "text": "Do we need a stronger evidence of the absurdity of hereditary government than is seen in the descendants of those men, in any line of life, who once were famous? Is there scarcely an instance in which there is not a total reverse of the character? It appears as if the tide of mental faculties flowed as far as it could in certain channels, and then forsook its course, and arose in others. How irrational then is the hereditary system, which establishes channels of power, in company with which wisdom refuses to flow! By continuing this absurdity, man is perpetually in contradiction with himself; he accepts, for a king, or a chief magistrate, or a legislator, a person whom he would not elect for a constable.",
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      "ref": "PG3742.B00626",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "end": 343496,
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      "text": "In forming those constitutions, or in altering them, little or no inconvenience took place. The ordinary course of things was not interrupted, and the advantages have been much. It is always the interest of a far greater number of people in a nation to have things right, than to let them remain wrong; and when public matters are open to debate, and the public judgment free, it will not decide wrong, unless it decides too hastily.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00627",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 343500,
      "end": 344009,
      "sha256": "4cf22c802348fc901ed311aeed35487cbffb37193979aa2c79e6ceeaf7e1ef61",
      "text": "In the two instances of changing the constitutions, the governments then in being were not actors either way. Government has no right to make itself a party in any debate respecting the principles or modes of forming, or of changing, constitutions. It is not for the benefit of those who exercise the powers of government that constitutions, and the governments issuing from them, are established. In all those matters the right of judging and acting are in those who pay, and not in those who receive.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00628",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 344013,
      "end": 344367,
      "sha256": "d644d87703d3d70df00d91e02c2f738c0548030a76e426fb740225f4f0627d6e",
      "text": "A constitution is the property of a nation, and not of those who exercise the government. All the constitutions of America are declared to be established on the authority of the people. In France, the word nation is used instead of the people; but in both cases, a constitution is a thing antecedent to the government, and always distinct there from.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00629",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "sha256": "5e89e790a4a1050304d9beeb02e81a5b817ffc1d59d1d2f21a9fba8dbaa3621b",
      "text": "In England it is not difficult to perceive that everything has a constitution, except the nation. Every society and association that is established, first agreed upon a number of original articles, digested into form, which are its constitution. It then appointed its officers, whose powers and authorities are described in that constitution, and the government of that society then commenced. Those officers, by whatever name they are called, have no authority to add to, alter, or abridge the original articles. It is only to the constituting power that this right belongs.",
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      "ref": "PG3742.B00630",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 344958,
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      "text": "From the want of understanding the difference between a constitution and a government, Dr. Johnson, and all writers of his description, have always bewildered themselves. They could not but perceive, that there must necessarily be a controlling power existing somewhere, and they placed this power in the discretion of the persons exercising the government, instead of placing it in a constitution formed by the nation. When it is in a constitution, it has the nation for its support, and the natural and the political controlling powers are together. The laws which are enacted by governments, control men only as individuals, but the nation, through its constitution, controls the whole government, and has a natural ability to do so. The final controlling power, therefore, and the original constituting power, are one and the same power.",
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      "ref": "PG3742.B00631",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "text": "Dr. Johnson could not have advanced such a position in any country where there was a constitution; and he is himself an evidence that no such thing as a constitution exists in England. But it may be put as a question, not improper to be investigated, that if a constitution does not exist, how came the idea of its existence so generally established?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00632",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 346173,
      "end": 346387,
      "sha256": "6eb87516ccd8b985c7360505af4388203fcf6f3c03135d10dc0fef5e18981158",
      "text": "In order to decide this question, it is necessary to consider a constitution in both its cases:--First, as creating a government and giving it powers. Secondly, as regulating and restraining the powers so given.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00796",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 431235,
      "end": 431473,
      "sha256": "d4e41fb467fb68da7a82431f74891f021c2006396351f9b7f5c2cad6780d6e61",
      "text": "To show that the sum of five hundred thousand pounds is more than sufficient to defray all the expenses of the government, exclusive of navies and armies, the following estimate is added, for any country, of the same extent as England.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG3742.B00797",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "sha256": "22f571525f72ad3f5f447ba0fd2bd9f821041a6be627d1639d446bad35bd7058",
      "text": "In the first place, three hundred representatives fairly elected, are sufficient for all the purposes to which legislation can apply, and preferable to a larger number. They may be divided into two or three houses, or meet in one, as in France, or in any manner a constitution shall direct.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00798",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 431775,
      "end": 432010,
      "sha256": "3ad71ec925349206514b630ba72211c56bb8058dad61c55ce159045f0b4bff41",
      "text": "As representation is always considered, in free countries, as the most honourable of all stations, the allowance made to it is merely to defray the expense which the representatives incur by that service, and not to it as an office.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00799",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 432016,
      "end": 432252,
      "sha256": "29017c685ac25eb033f7cba8fca1a95fd539715171597947270bfe18f0357e94",
      "text": "If an allowance, at the rate of five hundred pounds per annum, be made to every representative, deducting for non-attendance, the expense, if the whole number attended for six months, each year, would be L 75,00",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00800",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 432258,
      "end": 432361,
      "sha256": "a6896a2d52ba4cafffca6bda40375fafa18d92a53738443342267a01e6fdb7b6",
      "text": "The official departments cannot reasonably exceed the following number, with the salaries annexed:",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00801",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 432369,
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      "sha256": "7e2f990d575ca119b522dacf79c4b4d5be2a0000753534692be07c216d6ca9db",
      "text": "Three offices at ten thousand pounds each L 30,000 Ten ditto, at five thousand pounds each 50,000 Twenty ditto, at two thousand pounds each 40,000 Forty ditto, at one thousand pounds each 40,000 Two hundred ditto, at five hundred pounds each 100,000 Three hundred ditto, at two hundred pounds each 60,000 Five hundred ditto, at one hundred pounds each 50,000 Seven hundred ditto, at seventy-five pounds each 52,500 -------- L497,500",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00802",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 433047,
      "end": 433157,
      "sha256": "ec6d352aefe24e40b655bb09818613ce23f5799fb040076c21e9542118723489",
      "text": "If a nation choose, it can deduct four per cent. from all offices, and make one of twenty thousand per annum.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00803",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 433161,
      "end": 433266,
      "sha256": "acc9539c4892dad5050300431900ac907c367dd25f4377f5439f52e9b7828b19",
      "text": "All revenue officers are paid out of the monies they collect, and therefore, are not in this estimation.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00808",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 434671,
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      "sha256": "ca67b98b4dfdf5deef40dd2927850085ed2d81803f99f9468767d5538d8be7d0",
      "text": "Secondly. Because, on all those articles on which the duty is charged in the gross, such as per barrel, hogshead, hundred weight, or ton, the abolition of the duty does not admit of being divided down so as fully to relieve the consumer, who purchases by the pint, or the pound. The last duty laid on strong beer and ale was three shillings per barrel, which, if taken off, would lessen the purchase only half a farthing per pint, and consequently, would not reach to practical relief.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00809",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 435166,
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      "sha256": "ba3994c54163db884631b39efe1d2f311f26f00722bd15a8126b111d9343ace7",
      "text": "This being the condition of a great part of the taxes, it will be necessary to look for such others as are free from this embarrassment and where the relief will be direct and visible, and capable of immediate operation.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00810",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 435393,
      "end": 435919,
      "sha256": "5fa7f91cf6aedf886c5ec5367b1544d8f6b8bd9bf52a06910945dd9ab031fbcc",
      "text": "In the first place, then, the poor-rates are a direct tax which every house-keeper feels, and who knows also, to a farthing, the sum which he pays. The national amount of the whole of the poor-rates is not positively known, but can be procured. Sir John Sinclair, in his History of the Revenue has stated it at L2,100,587. A considerable part of which is expended in litigations, in which the poor, instead of being relieved, are tormented. The expense, however, is the same to the parish from whatever cause it arises.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00811",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 435923,
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      "sha256": "7eb3f6fb3e6a18df014b495090cb45ce226c27e2ebf12182c4bcf96e6076c713",
      "text": "In Birmingham, the amount of poor-rates is fourteen thousand pounds a year. This, though a large sum, is moderate, compared with the population. Birmingham is said to contain seventy thousand souls, and on a proportion of seventy thousand to fourteen thousand pounds poor-rates, the national amount of poor-rates, taking the population of England as seven millions, would be but one million four hundred thousand pounds. It is, therefore, most probable, that the population of Birmingham is over-rated. Fourteen thousand pounds is the proportion upon fifty thousand souls, taking two millions of poor-rates, as the national amount.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00812",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 436567,
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      "text": "Be it, however, what it may, it is no other than the consequence of excessive burthen of taxes, for, at the time when the taxes were very low, the poor were able to maintain themselves; and there were no poor-rates.*[34] In the present state of things a labouring man, with a wife or two or three children, does not pay less than between seven and eight pounds a year in taxes. He is not sensible of this, because it is disguised to him in the articles which he buys, and he thinks only of their dearness; but as the taxes take from him, at least, a fourth part of his yearly earnings, he is consequently disabled from providing for a family, especially, if himself, or any of them, are afflicted with sickness.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00813",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 437292,
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      "sha256": "0270a7bf0b4873106f3c53f8ec2f7a22a2c1700bc90ba6c8b97d15eea43cd7b9",
      "text": "The first step, therefore, of practical relief, would be to abolish the poor-rates entirely, and in lieu thereof, to make a remission of taxes to the poor of double the amount of the present poor-rates, viz., four millions annually out of the surplus taxes. By this measure, the poor would be benefited two millions, and the house-keepers two millions. This alone would be equal to a reduction of one hundred and twenty millions of the National Debt, and consequently equal to the whole expense of the American War.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00814",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 437818,
      "end": 437938,
      "sha256": "589a435dea3c501a7fe18e78a896849586750ea1ebb1d0909c9221edf1ed3fb7",
      "text": "It will then remain to be considered, which is the most effectual mode of distributing this remission of four millions.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00955",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 486004,
      "end": 486448,
      "sha256": "6f75fdd2f0ac513164b30f2da4c4b2cdee2dede5a771cad8e79183dfe1a282d6",
      "text": "The fraud, hypocrisy, and imposition of governments, are now beginning to be too well understood to promise them any long career. The farce of monarchy and aristocracy, in all countries, is following that of chivalry, and Mr. Burke is dressing aristocracy, in all countries, is following that of chivalry, and Mr. Burke is dressing for the funeral. Let it then pass quietly to the tomb of all other follies, and the mourners be comforted.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00956",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 486452,
      "end": 486955,
      "sha256": "18f0a60cb1a7c96503ff2fccf0a642e91aec7aa209d2690a97ea29e281a666e6",
      "text": "The time is not very distant when England will laugh at itself for sending to Holland, Hanover, Zell, or Brunswick for men, at the expense of a million a year, who understood neither her laws, her language, nor her interest, and whose capacities would scarcely have fitted them for the office of a parish constable. If government could be trusted to such hands, it must be some easy and simple thing indeed, and materials fit for all the purposes may be found in every town and village in England.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00957",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 486959,
      "end": 487374,
      "sha256": "fe5902254a007ad4a571bca5dbdc57f1c09a2b05827b70a86f17f2372ecaf745",
      "text": "When it shall be said in any country in the world, my poor are happy; neither ignorance nor distress is to be found among them; my jails are empty of prisoners, my streets of beggars; the aged are not in want, the taxes are not oppressive; the rational world is my friend, because I am the friend of its happiness: when these things can be said, then may that country boast its constitution and its government.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00958",
      "bookId": 3742,
      "start": 487378,
      "end": 488225,
      "sha256": "888b46cc70163444c3e8560604be109e3b16e1c53449727d2d2c819ddba5f5e7",
      "text": "Within the space of a few years we have seen two revolutions, those of America and France. In the former, the contest was long, and the conflict severe; in the latter, the nation acted with such a consolidated impulse, that having no foreign enemy to contend with, the revolution was complete in power the moment it appeared. From both those instances it is evident, that the greatest forces that can be brought into the field of revolutions, are reason and common interest. Where these can have the opportunity of acting, opposition dies with fear, or crumbles away by conviction. It is a great standing which they have now universally obtained; and we may hereafter hope to see revolutions, or changes in governments, produced with the same quiet operation by which any measure, determinable by reason and discussion, is accomplished.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B00959",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "sha256": "95fcc6215daf373f41ba88235ca562336555a30eafea2b4e6077409c25c484db",
      "text": "When a nation changes its opinion and habits of thinking, it is no longer to be governed as before; but it would not only be wrong, but bad policy, to attempt by force what ought to be accomplished by reason. Rebellion consists in forcibly opposing the general will of a nation, whether by a party or by a government. There ought, therefore, to be in every nation a method of occasionally ascertaining the state of public opinion with respect to government. On this point the old government of France was superior to the present government of England, because, on extraordinary occasions, recourse could be had what was then called the States General. But in England there are no such occasional bodies; and as to those who are now called Representatives, a great part of them are mere machines of the court, placemen, and dependants.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B01057",
      "bookId": 3742,
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      "sha256": "499296761ba13c03d528b6190ca42357def8a2a16dd9d779d14dc50fd0abcc13",
      "text": "[Footnote 35: Reckoning the taxes by families, five to a family, each family pays on an average L12 7s. 6d. per annum. To this sum are to be added the poor-rates. Though all pay taxes in the articles they consume, all do not pay poor-rates. About two millions are exempted: some as not being house-keepers, others as not being able, and the poor themselves who receive the relief. The average, therefore, of poor-rates on the remaining number, is forty shillings for every family of five persons, which make the whole average amount of taxes and rates L14 17s. 6d. For six persons L17 17s. For seven persons L2O 16s. 6d. The average of taxes in America, under the new or representative system of government, including the interest of the debt contracted in the war, and taking the population at four millions of souls, which it now amounts to, and it is daily increasing, is five shillings per head, men, women, and children. The difference, therefore, between the two governments is as under:",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B01058",
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      "sha256": "7f03ebe48bb55ccef8c98e9726d8821fc48f660801697981c0eb5625d28510c4",
      "text": "England America L s. d. L s. d. For a family of five persons 14 17 6 1 5 0 For a family of six persons 17 17 0 1 10 0 For a family of seven persons 20 16 6 1 15 0",
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    {
      "ref": "PG3742.B01059",
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      "sha256": "687b78682b8cd6744f162cda0d1b3b1aca9bfbdd9ddf761855f2d7a00376b90c",
      "text": "[Footnote 36: Public schools do not answer the general purpose of the poor. They are chiefly in corporation towns from which the country towns and villages are excluded, or, if admitted, the distance occasions a great loss of time. Education, to be useful to the poor, should be on the spot, and the best method, I believe, to accomplish this is to enable the parents to pay the expenses themselves. There are always persons of both sexes to be found in every village, especially when growing into years, capable of such an undertaking. Twenty children at ten shillings each (and that not more than six months each year) would be as much as some livings amount to in the remotest parts of England, and there are often distressed clergymen's widows to whom such an income would be acceptable. Whatever is given on this account to children answers two purposes. To them it is education--to those who educate them it is a livelihood.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 37: The tax on beer brewed for sale, from which the aristocracy are exempt, is almost one million more than the present commutation tax, being by the returns of 1788, L1,666,152--and, consequently, they ought to take on themselves the amount of the commutation tax, as they are already exempted from one which is almost a million greater.]",
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      "text": "[Footnote 38: See the Reports on the Corn Trade.]",
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      "text": "QUEEN. Good Hamlet, cast thy nighted colour off, And let thine eye look like a friend on Denmark. Do not for ever with thy vailed lids Seek for thy noble father in the dust. Thou know’st ’tis common, all that lives must die, Passing through nature to eternity.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Ay, madam, it is common.",
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      "text": "QUEEN. If it be, Why seems it so particular with thee?",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Seems, madam! Nay, it is; I know not seems. ’Tis not alone my inky cloak, good mother, Nor customary suits of solemn black, Nor windy suspiration of forc’d breath, No, nor the fruitful river in the eye, Nor the dejected haviour of the visage, Together with all forms, moods, shows of grief, That can denote me truly. These indeed seem, For they are actions that a man might play; But I have that within which passeth show; These but the trappings and the suits of woe.",
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      "text": "KING. ’Tis sweet and commendable in your nature, Hamlet, To give these mourning duties to your father; But you must know, your father lost a father, That father lost, lost his, and the survivor bound In filial obligation, for some term To do obsequious sorrow. But to persevere In obstinate condolement is a course Of impious stubbornness. ’Tis unmanly grief, It shows a will most incorrect to heaven, A heart unfortified, a mind impatient, An understanding simple and unschool’d; For what we know must be, and is as common As any the most vulgar thing to sense, Why should we in our peevish opposition Take it to heart? Fie, ’tis a fault to heaven, A fault against the dead, a fault to nature, To reason most absurd, whose common theme Is death of fathers, and who still hath cried, From the first corse till he that died today, ‘This must be so.’ We pray you throw to earth This unprevailing woe, and think of us As of a father; for let the world take note You are the most immediate to our throne, And with no less nobility of love Than that which dearest father bears his son Do I impart toward you. For your intent In going back to school in Wittenberg, It is most retrograde to our desire: And we beseech you bend you to remain Here in the cheer and comfort of our eye, Our chiefest courtier, cousin, and our son.",
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      "text": "QUEEN. Let not thy mother lose her prayers, Hamlet. I pray thee stay with us; go not to Wittenberg.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. I shall in all my best obey you, madam.",
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      "text": "HORATIO. Do not, my lord.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Why, what should be the fear? I do not set my life at a pin’s fee; And for my soul, what can it do to that, Being a thing immortal as itself? It waves me forth again. I’ll follow it.",
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      "text": "HORATIO. What if it tempt you toward the flood, my lord, Or to the dreadful summit of the cliff That beetles o’er his base into the sea, And there assume some other horrible form Which might deprive your sovereignty of reason, And draw you into madness? Think of it. The very place puts toys of desperation, Without more motive, into every brain That looks so many fathoms to the sea And hears it roar beneath.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. It waves me still. Go on, I’ll follow thee.",
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      "text": "MARCELLUS. You shall not go, my lord.",
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      "text": "GHOST. Ay, that incestuous, that adulterate beast, With witchcraft of his wit, with traitorous gifts,— O wicked wit, and gifts, that have the power So to seduce!—won to his shameful lust The will of my most seeming-virtuous queen. O Hamlet, what a falling off was there, From me, whose love was of that dignity That it went hand in hand even with the vow I made to her in marriage; and to decline Upon a wretch whose natural gifts were poor To those of mine. But virtue, as it never will be mov’d, Though lewdness court it in a shape of heaven; So lust, though to a radiant angel link’d, Will sate itself in a celestial bed And prey on garbage. But soft! methinks I scent the morning air; Brief let me be. Sleeping within my orchard, My custom always of the afternoon, Upon my secure hour thy uncle stole With juice of cursed hebenon in a vial, And in the porches of my ears did pour The leperous distilment, whose effect Holds such an enmity with blood of man That swift as quicksilver it courses through The natural gates and alleys of the body; And with a sudden vigour it doth posset And curd, like eager droppings into milk, The thin and wholesome blood. So did it mine; And a most instant tetter bark’d about, Most lazar-like, with vile and loathsome crust All my smooth body. Thus was I, sleeping, by a brother’s hand, Of life, of crown, of queen at once dispatch’d: Cut off even in the blossoms of my sin, Unhous’led, disappointed, unanel’d; No reckoning made, but sent to my account With all my imperfections on my head. O horrible! O horrible! most horrible! If thou hast nature in thee, bear it not; Let not the royal bed of Denmark be A couch for luxury and damned incest. But howsoever thou pursu’st this act, Taint not thy mind, nor let thy soul contrive Against thy mother aught; leave her to heaven, And to those thorns that in her bosom lodge, To prick and sting her. Fare thee well at once! The glow-worm shows the matin to be near, And ’gins to pale his uneffectual fire. Adieu, adieu, adieu. Remember me.",
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      "text": "[_Exit._]",
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      "text": "HAMLET. O all you host of heaven! O earth! What else? And shall I couple hell? O, fie! Hold, my heart; And you, my sinews, grow not instant old, But bear me stiffly up. Remember thee? Ay, thou poor ghost, while memory holds a seat In this distracted globe. Remember thee? Yea, from the table of my memory I’ll wipe away all trivial fond records, All saws of books, all forms, all pressures past, That youth and observation copied there; And thy commandment all alone shall live Within the book and volume of my brain, Unmix’d with baser matter. Yes, by heaven! O most pernicious woman! O villain, villain, smiling damned villain! My tables. Meet it is I set it down, That one may smile, and smile, and be a villain! At least I am sure it may be so in Denmark.",
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      "text": "[_Writing._]",
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      "text": "So, uncle, there you are. Now to my word; It is ‘Adieu, adieu, remember me.’ I have sworn’t.",
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      "text": "HORATIO and MARCELLUS. [_Within._] My lord, my lord.",
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      "text": "MARCELLUS. [_Within._] Lord Hamlet.",
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      "text": "GHOST. [_Beneath._] Swear.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. _Hic et ubique?_ Then we’ll shift our ground. Come hither, gentlemen, And lay your hands again upon my sword. Never to speak of this that you have heard. Swear by my sword.",
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      "text": "GHOST. [_Beneath._] Swear.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Well said, old mole! Canst work i’ th’earth so fast? A worthy pioner! Once more remove, good friends.",
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      "text": "HORATIO. O day and night, but this is wondrous strange.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. And therefore as a stranger give it welcome. There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, Than are dreamt of in your philosophy. But come, Here, as before, never, so help you mercy, How strange or odd soe’er I bear myself,— As I perchance hereafter shall think meet To put an antic disposition on— That you, at such times seeing me, never shall, With arms encumber’d thus, or this head-shake, Or by pronouncing of some doubtful phrase, As ‘Well, we know’, or ‘We could and if we would’, Or ‘If we list to speak’; or ‘There be and if they might’, Or such ambiguous giving out, to note That you know aught of me:—this not to do. So grace and mercy at your most need help you, Swear.",
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      "text": "GHOST. [_Beneath._] Swear.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Rest, rest, perturbed spirit. So, gentlemen, With all my love I do commend me to you; And what so poor a man as Hamlet is May do t’express his love and friending to you, God willing, shall not lack. Let us go in together, And still your fingers on your lips, I pray. The time is out of joint. O cursed spite, That ever I was born to set it right. Nay, come, let’s go together.",
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      "text": "[_Exeunt._]",
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      "text": "ROSENCRANTZ. Good my lord.",
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      "text": "[_Exeunt Rosencrantz and Guildenstern._]",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Ay, so, God b’ wi’ ye. Now I am alone. O what a rogue and peasant slave am I! Is it not monstrous that this player here, But in a fiction, in a dream of passion, Could force his soul so to his own conceit That from her working all his visage wan’d; Tears in his eyes, distraction in’s aspect, A broken voice, and his whole function suiting With forms to his conceit? And all for nothing! For Hecuba? What’s Hecuba to him, or he to Hecuba, That he should weep for her? What would he do, Had he the motive and the cue for passion That I have? He would drown the stage with tears And cleave the general ear with horrid speech; Make mad the guilty, and appal the free, Confound the ignorant, and amaze indeed, The very faculties of eyes and ears. Yet I, A dull and muddy-mettled rascal, peak Like John-a-dreams, unpregnant of my cause, And can say nothing. No, not for a king Upon whose property and most dear life A damn’d defeat was made. Am I a coward? Who calls me villain, breaks my pate across? Plucks off my beard and blows it in my face? Tweaks me by the nose, gives me the lie i’ th’ throat As deep as to the lungs? Who does me this? Ha! ’Swounds, I should take it: for it cannot be But I am pigeon-liver’d, and lack gall To make oppression bitter, or ere this I should have fatted all the region kites With this slave’s offal. Bloody, bawdy villain! Remorseless, treacherous, lecherous, kindless villain! Oh vengeance! Why, what an ass am I! This is most brave, That I, the son of a dear father murder’d, Prompted to my revenge by heaven and hell, Must, like a whore, unpack my heart with words And fall a-cursing like a very drab, A scullion! Fie upon’t! Foh! About, my brain! I have heard That guilty creatures sitting at a play, Have by the very cunning of the scene, Been struck so to the soul that presently They have proclaim’d their malefactions. For murder, though it have no tongue, will speak With most miraculous organ. I’ll have these players Play something like the murder of my father Before mine uncle. I’ll observe his looks; I’ll tent him to the quick. If he but blench, I know my course. The spirit that I have seen May be the devil, and the devil hath power T’assume a pleasing shape, yea, and perhaps Out of my weakness and my melancholy, As he is very potent with such spirits, Abuses me to damn me. I’ll have grounds More relative than this. The play’s the thing Wherein I’ll catch the conscience of the King.",
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      "text": "[_Exit._]",
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      "text": "ACT III",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00576",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 80973,
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      "text": "[_Exeunt King and Polonius._]",
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    {
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      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 81006,
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      "sha256": "7fff8e77d8740d2578436b59863924a53617b039d8d9a5548eb11f66f7860744",
      "text": "Enter Hamlet.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00578",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 81023,
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      "sha256": "a9977e579e389b5574c59e82c69bd2bd26b7264b7d931b5ed3fcacf078382465",
      "text": "HAMLET. To be, or not to be, that is the question: Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, And by opposing end them? To die—to sleep, No more; and by a sleep to say we end The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks That flesh is heir to: ’tis a consummation Devoutly to be wish’d. To die, to sleep. To sleep, perchance to dream—ay, there’s the rub, For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, When we have shuffled off this mortal coil, Must give us pause. There’s the respect That makes calamity of so long life. For who would bear the whips and scorns of time, The oppressor’s wrong, the proud man’s contumely, The pangs of dispriz’d love, the law’s delay, The insolence of office, and the spurns That patient merit of the unworthy takes, When he himself might his quietus make With a bare bodkin? Who would these fardels bear, To grunt and sweat under a weary life, But that the dread of something after death, The undiscover’d country, from whose bourn No traveller returns, puzzles the will, And makes us rather bear those ills we have Than fly to others that we know not of? Thus conscience does make cowards of us all, And thus the native hue of resolution Is sicklied o’er with the pale cast of thought, And enterprises of great pith and moment, With this regard their currents turn awry And lose the name of action. Soft you now, The fair Ophelia! Nymph, in thy orisons Be all my sins remember’d.",
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      "text": "OPHELIA. Good my lord, How does your honour for this many a day?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00580",
      "bookId": 1524,
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      "text": "HAMLET. I humbly thank you; well, well, well.",
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    {
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      "text": "SCENE II. A hall in the Castle.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 1524,
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      "text": "Enter Hamlet and certain Players.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 1524,
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      "text": "HAMLET. Speak the speech, I pray you, as I pronounced it to you, trippingly on the tongue. But if you mouth it, as many of your players do, I had as lief the town-crier spoke my lines. Nor do not saw the air too much with your hand, thus, but use all gently; for in the very torrent, tempest, and, as I may say, whirlwind of passion, you must acquire and beget a temperance that may give it smoothness. O, it offends me to the soul to hear a robustious periwig-pated fellow tear a passion to tatters, to very rags, to split the ears of the groundlings, who, for the most part, are capable of nothing but inexplicable dumb shows and noise. I would have such a fellow whipped for o’erdoing Termagant. It out-Herods Herod. Pray you avoid it.",
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      "text": "FIRST PLAYER. I warrant your honour.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Be not too tame neither; but let your own discretion be your tutor. Suit the action to the word, the word to the action, with this special observance, that you o’erstep not the modesty of nature; for anything so overdone is from the purpose of playing, whose end, both at the first and now, was and is, to hold as ’twere the mirror up to nature; to show virtue her own feature, scorn her own image, and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure. Now, this overdone, or come tardy off, though it make the unskilful laugh, cannot but make the judicious grieve; the censure of the which one must in your allowance o’erweigh a whole theatre of others. O, there be players that I have seen play—and heard others praise, and that highly—not to speak it profanely, that, neither having the accent of Christians, nor the gait of Christian, pagan, nor man, have so strutted and bellowed that I have thought some of Nature’s journeymen had made men, and not made them well, they imitated humanity so abominably.",
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      "text": "FIRST PLAYER. I hope we have reform’d that indifferently with us, sir.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. O reform it altogether. And let those that play your clowns speak no more than is set down for them. For there be of them that will themselves laugh, to set on some quantity of barren spectators to laugh too, though in the meantime some necessary question of the play be then to be considered. That’s villainous, and shows a most pitiful ambition in the fool that uses it. Go make you ready.",
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      "text": "[_Exeunt Players._]",
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      "text": "[_Exeunt Rosencrantz and Guildenstern._]",
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      "text": "HAMLET. What ho, Horatio!",
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      "text": "Enter Horatio.",
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      "text": "HORATIO. Here, sweet lord, at your service.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Horatio, thou art e’en as just a man As e’er my conversation cop’d withal.",
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      "text": "HORATIO. O my dear lord.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Nay, do not think I flatter; For what advancement may I hope from thee, That no revenue hast, but thy good spirits To feed and clothe thee? Why should the poor be flatter’d? No, let the candied tongue lick absurd pomp, And crook the pregnant hinges of the knee Where thrift may follow fawning. Dost thou hear? Since my dear soul was mistress of her choice, And could of men distinguish, her election Hath seal’d thee for herself. For thou hast been As one, in suffering all, that suffers nothing, A man that Fortune’s buffets and rewards Hast ta’en with equal thanks. And blessed are those Whose blood and judgement are so well co-mingled That they are not a pipe for Fortune’s finger To sound what stop she please. Give me that man That is not passion’s slave, and I will wear him In my heart’s core, ay, in my heart of heart, As I do thee. Something too much of this. There is a play tonight before the King. One scene of it comes near the circumstance Which I have told thee, of my father’s death. I prithee, when thou see’st that act a-foot, Even with the very comment of thy soul Observe mine uncle. If his occulted guilt Do not itself unkennel in one speech, It is a damned ghost that we have seen; And my imaginations are as foul As Vulcan’s stithy. Give him heedful note; For I mine eyes will rivet to his face; And after we will both our judgements join In censure of his seeming.",
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      "text": "HORATIO. Well, my lord. If he steal aught the whilst this play is playing, And ’scape detecting, I will pay the theft.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. They are coming to the play. I must be idle. Get you a place.",
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      "text": "Danish march. A flourish. Enter King, Queen, Polonius, Ophelia, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern and others.",
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      "text": "KING. How fares our cousin Hamlet?",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Excellent, i’ faith; of the chameleon’s dish: I eat the air, promise-crammed: you cannot feed capons so.",
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      "text": "KING. I have nothing with this answer, Hamlet; these words are not mine.",
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      "text": "GUILDENSTERN. Good my lord, put your discourse into some frame, and start not so wildly from my affair.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. I am tame, sir, pronounce.",
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    {
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      "text": "GUILDENSTERN. The Queen your mother, in most great affliction of spirit, hath sent me to you.",
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    {
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      "text": "HAMLET. You are welcome.",
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      "text": "GUILDENSTERN. Nay, good my lord, this courtesy is not of the right breed. If it shall please you to make me a wholesome answer, I will do your mother’s commandment; if not, your pardon and my return shall be the end of my business.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Sir, I cannot.",
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      "text": "GUILDENSTERN. What, my lord?",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Make you a wholesome answer. My wit’s diseased. But, sir, such answer as I can make, you shall command; or rather, as you say, my mother. Therefore no more, but to the matter. My mother, you say,—",
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      "text": "ROSENCRANTZ. Then thus she says: your behaviour hath struck her into amazement and admiration.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. O wonderful son, that can so stonish a mother! But is there no sequel at the heels of this mother’s admiration?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00747",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104018,
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      "sha256": "68f54c19dbb61c02c94adf7ec82500a4904f0ebd0c4a8443e71405e4f56be97e",
      "text": "HAMLET. Sir, I lack advancement.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00748",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104055,
      "end": 104162,
      "sha256": "cd457c7312f80589b13b053c7026b7f9824c2480708f9297e939da23e7e61895",
      "text": "ROSENCRANTZ. How can that be, when you have the voice of the King himself for your succession in Denmark?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00749",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104166,
      "end": 104243,
      "sha256": "544d05e7adbfb393df758dbc6fc46cca619a2b59862d794a31ff8453a46e34c1",
      "text": "HAMLET. Ay, sir, but while the grass grows—the proverb is something musty.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00750",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104247,
      "end": 104283,
      "sha256": "eb11e632c8737d22ecb3a3606adbb8cb7284803ab1636703d7722aa9c4d6b988",
      "text": "Re-enter the Players with recorders.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00751",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104287,
      "end": 104430,
      "sha256": "07382b43ec089e566e2f2314d565a53c33c2af6ba663aa52988c64d03531efd1",
      "text": "O, the recorders. Let me see one.—To withdraw with you, why do you go about to recover the wind of me, as if you would drive me into a toil?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00752",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104434,
      "end": 104510,
      "sha256": "4e7770b353f760fa3371fbc6f56d06089a85046a4032ee7222af39b62b0c66b2",
      "text": "GUILDENSTERN. O my lord, if my duty be too bold, my love is too unmannerly.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00753",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104514,
      "end": 104583,
      "sha256": "23e728c337dceb345693cd303534e1f790443dfd9845af4a57c375ca5de8b1e6",
      "text": "HAMLET. I do not well understand that. Will you play upon this pipe?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00754",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104587,
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      "sha256": "538d91b700c95c2d67e447a8e85ba1484ad361af4a115f485cc0966f3ae3d382",
      "text": "GUILDENSTERN. My lord, I cannot.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00755",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104624,
      "end": 104644,
      "sha256": "ac384645ebe4ef8902fcebf2e2298c94396070b4d09852cd6b19220730c6f8d3",
      "text": "HAMLET. I pray you.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00756",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104648,
      "end": 104684,
      "sha256": "57f583144f02f612342670e490cb54d0135fedefae3f7c72d906f6959a1cbe33",
      "text": "GUILDENSTERN. Believe me, I cannot.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00757",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104688,
      "end": 104714,
      "sha256": "d2f5dcbb11ad129ba9367aa12a886f0b46f38aeea96866461966ec2b43c62c1a",
      "text": "HAMLET. I do beseech you.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00758",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104718,
      "end": 104764,
      "sha256": "145543ffa9281bddcb67bd0f5226cb9fde8c3a1679a3fbe30be509590d19e23f",
      "text": "GUILDENSTERN. I know no touch of it, my lord.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00759",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104768,
      "end": 104959,
      "sha256": "2a6028410f3cdb94512e4cd4721be20cdb9cc93458aaa5e815e3906a1b78055d",
      "text": "HAMLET. ’Tis as easy as lying: govern these ventages with your finger and thumb, give it breath with your mouth, and it will discourse most eloquent music. Look you, these are the stops.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00760",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 104963,
      "end": 105056,
      "sha256": "7bd5b251dc76e664986ec19f70a197919ee604e8e3e111e43f6ac7c0c07498cb",
      "text": "GUILDENSTERN. But these cannot I command to any utterance of harmony. I have not the skill.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00761",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 105060,
      "end": 105539,
      "sha256": "03bd42b1e35092657acfa984d329117c33f1ebff1e436d754083fd245ca29429",
      "text": "HAMLET. Why, look you now, how unworthy a thing you make of me! You would play upon me; you would seem to know my stops; you would pluck out the heart of my mystery; you would sound me from my lowest note to the top of my compass; and there is much music, excellent voice, in this little organ, yet cannot you make it speak. ’Sblood, do you think I am easier to be played on than a pipe? Call me what instrument you will, though you can fret me, you cannot play upon me.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00762",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 105543,
      "end": 105558,
      "sha256": "c4292adf0b334ab968957402537fd8255b34d0bfdcb451f313320a639dc4efb6",
      "text": "Enter Polonius.",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00763",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 105562,
      "end": 105581,
      "sha256": "88b5f14e6a78a07a0ac1e39e6f209fd13e033c270371ef41057c407c9cca8632",
      "text": "God bless you, sir.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00787",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 108100,
      "end": 108520,
      "sha256": "72da289a8a7e1898aa501e5f78364d690506430c58f28546a58184118fbca2cc",
      "text": "POLONIUS. My lord, he’s going to his mother’s closet. Behind the arras I’ll convey myself To hear the process. I’ll warrant she’ll tax him home, And as you said, and wisely was it said, ’Tis meet that some more audience than a mother, Since nature makes them partial, should o’erhear The speech of vantage. Fare you well, my liege, I’ll call upon you ere you go to bed, And tell you what I know.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00788",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 108524,
      "end": 108552,
      "sha256": "80a506f68e255d4e77c179a3b3f16fd64a3fd246a7454d4e16b89365f24b1b2d",
      "text": "KING. Thanks, dear my lord.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00789",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 108556,
      "end": 108574,
      "sha256": "93ca04d8eda5907e518e3fdda48cdaff15fa03183428532f5dab145d582b0140",
      "text": "[_Exit Polonius._]",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00790",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 108578,
      "end": 110222,
      "sha256": "60f4c6c95668ab5c9a86a715959519f159f9810d0a47249cb06f2b815579cdd4",
      "text": "O, my offence is rank, it smells to heaven; It hath the primal eldest curse upon’t,— A brother’s murder! Pray can I not, Though inclination be as sharp as will: My stronger guilt defeats my strong intent, And, like a man to double business bound, I stand in pause where I shall first begin, And both neglect. What if this cursed hand Were thicker than itself with brother’s blood, Is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens To wash it white as snow? Whereto serves mercy But to confront the visage of offence? And what’s in prayer but this twofold force, To be forestalled ere we come to fall, Or pardon’d being down? Then I’ll look up. My fault is past. But O, what form of prayer Can serve my turn? Forgive me my foul murder! That cannot be; since I am still possess’d Of those effects for which I did the murder,— My crown, mine own ambition, and my queen. May one be pardon’d and retain th’offence? In the corrupted currents of this world Offence’s gilded hand may shove by justice, And oft ’tis seen the wicked prize itself Buys out the law. But ’tis not so above; There is no shuffling, there the action lies In his true nature, and we ourselves compell’d Even to the teeth and forehead of our faults, To give in evidence. What then? What rests? Try what repentance can. What can it not? Yet what can it, when one cannot repent? O wretched state! O bosom black as death! O limed soul, that struggling to be free, Art more engag’d! Help, angels! Make assay: Bow, stubborn knees; and heart with strings of steel, Be soft as sinews of the new-born babe. All may be well.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00791",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 110226,
      "end": 110249,
      "sha256": "d3eddbc5863863ee1b42511f30ba26f7dadfc482c37ba1d2a4cb0aa18be50ba7",
      "text": "[_Retires and kneels._]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00792",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 110253,
      "end": 110266,
      "sha256": "7fff8e77d8740d2578436b59863924a53617b039d8d9a5548eb11f66f7860744",
      "text": "Enter Hamlet.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00793",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 110270,
      "end": 111292,
      "sha256": "f850072f4d4bed9dde366de777e6ecc70da527dc676a74a8b4c46d09866caf18",
      "text": "HAMLET. Now might I do it pat, now he is praying. And now I’ll do’t. And so he goes to heaven; And so am I reveng’d. That would be scann’d: A villain kills my father, and for that I, his sole son, do this same villain send To heaven. O, this is hire and salary, not revenge. He took my father grossly, full of bread, With all his crimes broad blown, as flush as May; And how his audit stands, who knows save heaven? But in our circumstance and course of thought, ’Tis heavy with him. And am I then reveng’d, To take him in the purging of his soul, When he is fit and season’d for his passage? No. Up, sword, and know thou a more horrid hent: When he is drunk asleep; or in his rage, Or in th’incestuous pleasure of his bed, At gaming, swearing; or about some act That has no relish of salvation in’t, Then trip him, that his heels may kick at heaven, And that his soul may be as damn’d and black As hell, whereto it goes. My mother stays. This physic but prolongs thy sickly days.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00794",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 111296,
      "end": 111305,
      "sha256": "599e3539b5676fee18d4dcf848ee3a2c5dea7d5bb17cecfd41cc6b9391d06424",
      "text": "[_Exit._]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00795",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 111309,
      "end": 111337,
      "sha256": "0c2c64a2c629ddbea016605c8e7db7e3f1e3a7288f9dc2bd9d6560b8e2f40fa7",
      "text": "The King rises and advances.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00796",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 111341,
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      "sha256": "ebaaa0436b7242d2d8fdd754c48c49a9e3f5cbed7e2adf1790cb4a73aa5f4488",
      "text": "KING. My words fly up, my thoughts remain below. Words without thoughts never to heaven go.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00797",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 111438,
      "end": 111447,
      "sha256": "599e3539b5676fee18d4dcf848ee3a2c5dea7d5bb17cecfd41cc6b9391d06424",
      "text": "[_Exit._]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00798",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 111452,
      "end": 111489,
      "sha256": "92d9d35bb82af36fc00f47d5ae132c357c20aca29bd0868c6f2f3fc8b76bf1cf",
      "text": "SCENE IV. Another room in the Castle.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00816",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 112663,
      "end": 112731,
      "sha256": "da18afd24b0641e3d995982cfd7f2d8e03a21d7d36ed3bb6418f05c11f646046",
      "text": "QUEEN. What wilt thou do? Thou wilt not murder me? Help, help, ho!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00817",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 112735,
      "end": 112785,
      "sha256": "edcb2a7850548994096008ffa46c81437e866d1e09a032352e8ac57463069871",
      "text": "POLONIUS. [_Behind._] What, ho! help, help, help!",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00818",
      "bookId": 1524,
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      "sha256": "ae9099f6d26375332a4bb614e698b291dad2bce61e338d63ebb8f9ac787c6a07",
      "text": "HAMLET. How now? A rat? [_Draws._] Dead for a ducat, dead!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00819",
      "bookId": 1524,
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      "sha256": "cd2a2fe7ef1154df58937bdf55ce87a7d2d49a1eacb7006b50602464ac48622b",
      "text": "[_Makes a pass through the arras._]",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00820",
      "bookId": 1524,
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      "text": "POLONIUS. [_Behind._] O, I am slain!",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00821",
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      "end": 112952,
      "sha256": "c2d26958108fe0fb5e006eb961e2be6bb67d4390833baa7b16c18cf8d2945cf7",
      "text": "[_Falls and dies._]",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00822",
      "bookId": 1524,
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      "sha256": "5d185532608f8560275913d05bd346a0f66aa93020c855fd8d2981302b3bd40a",
      "text": "QUEEN. O me, what hast thou done?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00823",
      "bookId": 1524,
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      "text": "HAMLET. Nay, I know not. Is it the King?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00824",
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      "text": "[_Draws forth Polonius._]",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00825",
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      "sha256": "5472cec85d71110c84e59a33ede93a415550670cda4fc9e1f8ff888a7dd95a4c",
      "text": "QUEEN. O what a rash and bloody deed is this!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
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      "text": "HAMLET. A bloody deed. Almost as bad, good mother, As kill a king and marry with his brother.",
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      "text": "QUEEN. As kill a king?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00828",
      "bookId": 1524,
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      "text": "HAMLET. Ay, lady, ’twas my word.— [_To Polonius._] Thou wretched, rash, intruding fool, farewell! I took thee for thy better. Take thy fortune, Thou find’st to be too busy is some danger.— Leave wringing of your hands. Peace, sit you down, And let me wring your heart, for so I shall, If it be made of penetrable stuff; If damned custom have not braz’d it so, That it is proof and bulwark against sense.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00829",
      "bookId": 1524,
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      "text": "QUEEN. What have I done, that thou dar’st wag thy tongue In noise so rude against me?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00830",
      "bookId": 1524,
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      "text": "HAMLET. Such an act That blurs the grace and blush of modesty, Calls virtue hypocrite, takes off the rose From the fair forehead of an innocent love, And sets a blister there. Makes marriage vows As false as dicers’ oaths. O such a deed As from the body of contraction plucks The very soul, and sweet religion makes A rhapsody of words. Heaven’s face doth glow, Yea this solidity and compound mass, With tristful visage, as against the doom, Is thought-sick at the act.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00855",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 118356,
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      "sha256": "64552a244d2a855f4cf180379645a5f151bd28a1fcd3a4610359e946df32f006",
      "text": "HAMLET. Ecstasy! My pulse as yours doth temperately keep time, And makes as healthful music. It is not madness That I have utter’d. Bring me to the test, And I the matter will re-word; which madness Would gambol from. Mother, for love of grace, Lay not that flattering unction to your soul That not your trespass, but my madness speaks. It will but skin and film the ulcerous place, Whilst rank corruption, mining all within, Infects unseen. Confess yourself to heaven, Repent what’s past, avoid what is to come; And do not spread the compost on the weeds, To make them ranker. Forgive me this my virtue; For in the fatness of these pursy times Virtue itself of vice must pardon beg, Yea, curb and woo for leave to do him good.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00856",
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      "sha256": "384100d96539624271a3cdb004994aeb2b2177fb4218c7079456cee2c228b9f0",
      "text": "QUEEN. O Hamlet, thou hast cleft my heart in twain.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B00857",
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      "text": "HAMLET. O throw away the worser part of it, And live the purer with the other half. Good night. But go not to mine uncle’s bed. Assume a virtue, if you have it not. That monster custom, who all sense doth eat, Of habits evil, is angel yet in this, That to the use of actions fair and good He likewise gives a frock or livery That aptly is put on. Refrain tonight, And that shall lend a kind of easiness To the next abstinence. The next more easy; For use almost can change the stamp of nature, And either curb the devil, or throw him out With wondrous potency. Once more, good night, And when you are desirous to be bles’d, I’ll blessing beg of you. For this same lord [_Pointing to Polonius._] I do repent; but heaven hath pleas’d it so, To punish me with this, and this with me, That I must be their scourge and minister. I will bestow him, and will answer well The death I gave him. So again, good night. I must be cruel, only to be kind: Thus bad begins, and worse remains behind. One word more, good lady.",
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    },
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      "text": "QUEEN. What shall I do?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
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      "text": "HAMLET. Not this, by no means, that I bid you do: Let the bloat King tempt you again to bed, Pinch wanton on your cheek, call you his mouse, And let him, for a pair of reechy kisses, Or paddling in your neck with his damn’d fingers, Make you to ravel all this matter out, That I essentially am not in madness, But mad in craft. ’Twere good you let him know, For who that’s but a queen, fair, sober, wise, Would from a paddock, from a bat, a gib, Such dear concernings hide? Who would do so? No, in despite of sense and secrecy, Unpeg the basket on the house’s top, Let the birds fly, and like the famous ape, To try conclusions, in the basket creep And break your own neck down.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. That I can keep your counsel, and not mine own. Besides, to be demanded of a sponge—what replication should be made by the son of a king?",
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      "text": "ROSENCRANTZ. Take you me for a sponge, my lord?",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Ay, sir; that soaks up the King’s countenance, his rewards, his authorities. But such officers do the King best service in the end: he keeps them, like an ape, in the corner of his jaw; first mouthed, to be last swallowed: when he needs what you have gleaned, it is but squeezing you, and, sponge, you shall be dry again.",
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      "text": "ROSENCRANTZ. I understand you not, my lord.",
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      "sha256": "cfed40938cd5e34c5a29c0b6a114982a35307af3d34ca470da4dc2c0f603422a",
      "text": "HAMLET. I am glad of it. A knavish speech sleeps in a foolish ear.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01033",
      "bookId": 1524,
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      "text": "O heat, dry up my brains. Tears seven times salt, Burn out the sense and virtue of mine eye. By heaven, thy madness shall be paid by weight, Till our scale turn the beam. O rose of May! Dear maid, kind sister, sweet Ophelia! O heavens, is’t possible a young maid’s wits Should be as mortal as an old man’s life? Nature is fine in love, and where ’tis fine, It sends some precious instance of itself After the thing it loves.",
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      "text": "OPHELIA. [_Sings._] They bore him barefac’d on the bier, Hey non nonny, nonny, hey nonny And on his grave rain’d many a tear.— Fare you well, my dove!",
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    {
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      "text": "LAERTES. Hadst thou thy wits, and didst persuade revenge, It could not move thus.",
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      "bookId": 1524,
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      "text": "OPHELIA. You must sing ‘Down a-down, and you call him a-down-a.’ O, how the wheel becomes it! It is the false steward that stole his master’s daughter.",
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      "text": "LAERTES. This nothing’s more than matter.",
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      "text": "OPHELIA. There’s rosemary, that’s for remembrance; pray love, remember. And there is pansies, that’s for thoughts.",
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    },
    {
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      "text": "LAERTES. A document in madness, thoughts and remembrance fitted.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
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      "text": "OPHELIA. There’s fennel for you, and columbines. There’s rue for you; and here’s some for me. We may call it herb of grace o’ Sundays. O you must wear your rue with a difference. There’s a daisy. I would give you some violets, but they wither’d all when my father died. They say he made a good end. [_Sings._] For bonny sweet Robin is all my joy.",
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    },
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      "text": "LAERTES. Thought and affliction, passion, hell itself She turns to favour and to prettiness.",
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      "text": "OPHELIA. [_Sings._] And will he not come again? And will he not come again? No, no, he is dead, Go to thy death-bed, He never will come again.",
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      "text": "His beard was as white as snow, All flaxen was his poll. He is gone, he is gone, And we cast away moan. God ha’ mercy on his soul.",
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      "text": "HORATIO. You will lose this wager, my lord.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. I do not think so. Since he went into France, I have been in continual practice. I shall win at the odds. But thou wouldst not think how ill all’s here about my heart: but it is no matter.",
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      "text": "HORATIO. Nay, good my lord.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. It is but foolery; but it is such a kind of gain-giving as would perhaps trouble a woman.",
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      "text": "HORATIO. If your mind dislike anything, obey it. I will forestall their repair hither, and say you are not fit.",
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      "text": "HAMLET. Not a whit, we defy augury. There’s a special providence in the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, ’tis not to come; if it be not to come, it will be now; if it be not now, yet it will come. The readiness is all. Since no man has aught of what he leaves, what is’t to leave betimes?",
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    },
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      "text": "Enter King, Queen, Laertes, Lords, Osric and Attendants with foils &c.",
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    {
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      "text": "KING. Come, Hamlet, come, and take this hand from me.",
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      "text": "[_The King puts Laertes’s hand into Hamlet’s._]",
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    {
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      "text": "HAMLET. Give me your pardon, sir. I have done you wrong; But pardon’t as you are a gentleman. This presence knows, and you must needs have heard, How I am punish’d with sore distraction. What I have done That might your nature, honour, and exception Roughly awake, I here proclaim was madness. Was’t Hamlet wrong’d Laertes? Never Hamlet. If Hamlet from himself be ta’en away, And when he’s not himself does wrong Laertes, Then Hamlet does it not, Hamlet denies it. Who does it, then? His madness. If’t be so, Hamlet is of the faction that is wrong’d; His madness is poor Hamlet’s enemy. Sir, in this audience, Let my disclaiming from a purpos’d evil Free me so far in your most generous thoughts That I have shot my arrow o’er the house And hurt my brother.",
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      "text": "LAERTES. I am satisfied in nature, Whose motive in this case should stir me most To my revenge. But in my terms of honour I stand aloof, and will no reconcilement Till by some elder masters of known honour I have a voice and precedent of peace To keep my name ungor’d. But till that time I do receive your offer’d love like love, And will not wrong it.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01334",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 180026,
      "end": 180134,
      "sha256": "6c0336fa0d043487cd9babad51ab25d66060f8f269060d664353bb30c01ece1d",
      "text": "HAMLET. I embrace it freely, And will this brother’s wager frankly play.— Give us the foils; come on.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01335",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 180138,
      "end": 180165,
      "sha256": "6907aac7dd05d79d60fbd1f7b2e5a4b31eff5d227a402b51d9f64050052b2810",
      "text": "LAERTES. Come, one for me.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01396",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 183951,
      "end": 183998,
      "sha256": "d7814880aaead2f2b524e8aec54b4dfcb09ee40374e0a0e18e71b065b52d95cd",
      "text": "KING. O yet defend me, friends. I am but hurt.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01397",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 184002,
      "end": 184119,
      "sha256": "5a991d7616777e6cee7c9df26062bf0a400055eaf00cd8c9d97a6f5494e897b2",
      "text": "HAMLET. Here, thou incestuous, murderous, damned Dane, Drink off this potion. Is thy union here? Follow my mother.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01398",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 184123,
      "end": 184137,
      "sha256": "82f1dfe39e2a95a06092fe7b599fdc96517e749e710e3f9f190535ab6f1492e8",
      "text": "[_King dies._]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01399",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 184141,
      "end": 184325,
      "sha256": "4f26782e5ae140e22bf22c60d393e88f8a8f6481166f7bcaff825491be9d0443",
      "text": "LAERTES. He is justly serv’d. It is a poison temper’d by himself. Exchange forgiveness with me, noble Hamlet. Mine and my father’s death come not upon thee, Nor thine on me.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01400",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 184329,
      "end": 184338,
      "sha256": "fc27b07647122e05ca8c406218e8caf77774a07dd6fac9a50259e439d74d66cf",
      "text": "[_Dies._]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01401",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 184342,
      "end": 184735,
      "sha256": "9946b2dea872d79e2d5a81e1f116855940a543dc899adfc26f3aa3c905c9555e",
      "text": "HAMLET. Heaven make thee free of it! I follow thee. I am dead, Horatio. Wretched Queen, adieu. You that look pale and tremble at this chance, That are but mutes or audience to this act, Had I but time,—as this fell sergeant, death, Is strict in his arrest,—O, I could tell you,— But let it be. Horatio, I am dead, Thou liv’st; report me and my cause aright To the unsatisfied.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01402",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 184739,
      "end": 184839,
      "sha256": "27b31cf0f4484948246127a1e791db6d32fffa483d067d04f7286a0897dca715",
      "text": "HORATIO. Never believe it. I am more an antique Roman than a Dane. Here’s yet some liquor left.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01403",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 184843,
      "end": 185161,
      "sha256": "37b8a2e0174734ca39d5097852e00faf685767f867c0bd969f1097c717792e02",
      "text": "HAMLET. As th’art a man, Give me the cup. Let go; by Heaven, I’ll have’t. O good Horatio, what a wounded name, Things standing thus unknown, shall live behind me. If thou didst ever hold me in thy heart, Absent thee from felicity awhile, And in this harsh world draw thy breath in pain, To tell my story.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01404",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 185165,
      "end": 185201,
      "sha256": "253137512ffaabee1dc4060cc321e33180e723718d5c3d6410796364c0027b0d",
      "text": "[_March afar off, and shot within._]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01405",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 185205,
      "end": 185232,
      "sha256": "a5c2daca5b24eb0083f43c67f28cc63949e6774d2597e3f494ea218cd4e3efd4",
      "text": "What warlike noise is this?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1524.B01406",
      "bookId": 1524,
      "start": 185236,
      "end": 185352,
      "sha256": "8c2388230961d93a8851c7e67f07cf81760f0345fed6796ac680f87ee337bd32",
      "text": "OSRIC. Young Fortinbras, with conquest come from Poland, To the ambassadors of England gives This warlike volley.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00073",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 21710,
      "end": 21722,
      "sha256": "80668d6973882b97de1a47c5e2ada8e9237e04d4aa557cfcd901fe886bef725e",
      "text": "COMMODITIES.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00074",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 21728,
      "end": 21976,
      "sha256": "828ca8feebbb4263ea46d5266c46a28f1b94cc63d0f08c8faf4eb22e97321ef3",
      "text": "At first sight the wealth of society under the capitalist system presents itself as an immense accumulation of commodities, its unit being a single commodity. But every commodity has a twofold aspect, that of _use value_ and _exchange value_.[2]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00075",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 21980,
      "end": 22850,
      "sha256": "b4e22ed3783896bca97d8904bb590365834ef831cf4f4ad76d79e5732357b94d",
      "text": "A commodity is first of all, in the language of English economists, “any thing necessary, useful or pleasant in life,” an object of human wants, a means of existence in the broadest sense of the word. This property of commodities to serve as use-values coincides with their natural palpable existence. Wheat e. g. is a distinct use-value differing from the use-values cotton, glass, paper, etc. Use-value has a value only in use and is realized only in the process of consumption. The same use-value may be utilized in various ways. But the extent of its possible applications is circumscribed by its distinct properties. Furthermore, it is thus limited not only qualitatively but also quantitatively. According to their natural properties the various use-values have different measures, such as a bushel of wheat, a quire of paper, a yard of linen, etc.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00076",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 22854,
      "end": 24066,
      "sha256": "b30562c65fa6a0040ba26204292c3b39fc885ba3fa666c25292a9e2064773312",
      "text": "Whatever the social form of wealth may be, use-values always have a substance of their own, independent of that form. One can not tell by the taste of wheat whether it has been raised by a Russian serf, a French peasant, or an English capitalist. Although the object of social wants and, therefore, mutually connected in society, use-values do not bear any marks of the relations of social production. Suppose, we have a commodity whose use-value is that of a diamond. We can not tell by looking at the diamond that it is a commodity. When it serves as a use-value, aesthetic or mechanical, on the breast of a harlot, or in the hand of a glasscutter, it is a diamond and not a commodity. It is the necessary prerequisite of a commodity to be a use-value, but it is immaterial to the use-value whether it is a commodity or not. Use-value in this indifference to the nature of its economic destination, i. e. use-value as such lies outside the sphere of investigation of political economy.[3] It falls within the sphere of the latter only in so far as it forms its own economic destination. It forms the material basis which directly underlies a definite economic relation called _exchange value_.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00077",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 24070,
      "end": 25092,
      "sha256": "913405efb385627df2c8674e0c815967d8f114d32ba22676be365845d52329d1",
      "text": "Exchange-value appears at first sight as a _quantitative relation_, as a proportion in which use-values are exchanged for one another. In such a relation they constitute equal exchangeable quantities. Thus, a volume of Propercius and eight ounces of snuff may represent the same exchange value, in spite of the dissimilar use-values of tobacco and elegy. As exchange-value, one kind of use-value is worth as much as another kind, if only taken in right proportion. The exchange value of a palace can be expressed in a certain number of boxes of shoe-blacking. On the contrary, London manufacturers of shoe-blacking have expressed the exchange value of their many boxes of blacking, in palaces. Thus, entirely apart from their natural forms and without regard to the specific kind of wants for which they serve as use-values, commodities in certain quantities equal each other, take each other’s place in exchange, pass as equivalents, and in spite of their variegated appearance, represent the same entity.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00078",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 25096,
      "end": 25487,
      "sha256": "93967d30141b67b1028f3d24ef667c575aa6c4f11a5323e7037204d599c6ca13",
      "text": "Use-values are primarily means of existence. These means of existence, however, are themselves products of social life, the result of expended human vital power, _materialized labor_. As the embodiment of social labor, all commodities are the crystallization of the same substance. Let us now consider the nature of this substance, i. e., of labor, which is expressed in exchange value.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00079",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 25491,
      "end": 26975,
      "sha256": "5860bbfe9c74d13d86320845b1efacf721249ff0c9f6d04d5e2df7f33ad0a1b4",
      "text": "Let one ounce of gold, one ton of iron, one quarter of wheat and twenty yards of silk represent equal exchange values. As equivalents, in which the qualitative difference between their use-values has been eliminated, they represent equal volumes of the same kind of labor. The labor which is equally embodied in all of them must be uniform, homogeneous, simple labor. It matters as little in the case of labor whether it be embodied in gold, iron, wheat, or silk, as it does in the case of oxygen, whether it appears in the rust of iron, in the atmosphere, in the juice of a grape, or in the blood of a human being. But the digging of gold, the extraction of iron from a mine, the raising of wheat and the weaving of silk are so many kinds of labor, differing in quality. As a matter of fact, what in reality appears as a difference in use-values, is in the process of production, a difference in the work creating those use-values. Just as labor, which creates exchange value, is indifferent to the material of use-values, so it is to the special form of labor itself. Furthermore, the different use-values are the products of the work of different individuals, consequently the result of various kinds of labor differing individually from one another. But as exchange values, they represent the same homogeneous labor, i. e., labor from which the individuality of the workers is eliminated. Labor creating exchange value is, therefore, _abstract general labor_.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00080",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 26979,
      "end": 28955,
      "sha256": "2e9da29ff7fd534b0c64dfbd5d66fcd08f0b115aaa9f900f1632adb5e085554f",
      "text": "If one ounce of gold, one ton of iron, one quarter of wheat, and twenty yards of silk are exchange values of equal magnitude or equivalents; then one ounce of gold, half a ton of iron, three bushels of wheat and five yards of silk are exchange values of different magnitudes, and this quantitative difference is the only difference of which they are capable as exchange values. As exchange values of different magnitudes, they represent greater or smaller quantities of that simple, homogeneous, abstract, general labor, which forms the substance of exchange value. The question arises, how are these quantities to be measured? Or, rather what constitutes the substance of labor, which makes it capable of quantitative measurement, since the quantitative differences of commodities in their capacity of exchange values are but quantitative differences of labor embodied in them. Just as motion is measured by time, so is labor measured by _labor-time_. Given the quality of labor, the difference in its duration is the only property by which it can be distinguished. As labor-time, labor has the same standard of measurement as the natural time measures, viz., hours, days, weeks, etc. Labor-time is the vital substance of labor, independent of its form, composition, individuality; it is its vital substance quantitatively, having at the same time its own inherent measure. Labor-time embodied in the use-values of commodities is the substance which makes exchange values and, therefore, commodities of them and at the same time serves to measure definite quantities of their value. Corresponding quantities of different use-values, in which the same quantity of labor-time is embodied, are equivalents; or, to put it in another form, all use-values are equivalents when taken in proportions containing the same quantity of expended, materialized labor-time. As exchange values, all commodities are but definite measures of _congealed labor-time_.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00081",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 28959,
      "end": 29384,
      "sha256": "c36f962c1d8f8febdefdd6d4e95e8ea99c16b4dcfde102621e5b4adfe600bbd7",
      "text": "To understand how exchange value is determined by labor-time, the following main points must be kept in mind: The reduction of labor to simple labor, devoid of any quality, so to speak; the specific ways and means by which exchange―value-creating, i. e., commodity producing labor becomes _social labor_; finally, the difference between labor as the producer of use-values, and labor as the creator of exchange values.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00082",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 29388,
      "end": 29637,
      "sha256": "d8eb2668385b36a0740149aa28b9e2484f307b2c2a881305e439c9821e275554",
      "text": "In order to measure commodities by the labor-time contained in them, the different kinds of labor must be reduced to uniform, homogeneous, simple labor, in short, to labor which is qualitatively the same, and, therefore, differs only in quantity.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00083",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 29641,
      "end": 30835,
      "sha256": "3691056f7b5b99219a989e42bb47a925716b66af7d48ffd20e32788e1799171e",
      "text": "This reduction appears to be an abstraction; but it is an abstraction which takes place daily in the social process of production. The conversion of all commodities into labor-time is no greater abstraction nor a less real process than the chemical reduction of all organic bodies to air. Labor, thus measured by time, does not appear in reality as the labor of different individuals. but on the contrary, the various working individuals rather appear as mere organs of labor; or, in so far as labor is represented by exchange values, it may be defined as human labor in general. This abstraction of human labor in general virtually exists in the average labor which the average individual of a given society can perform―a certain productive expenditure of human muscles, nerves, brain, etc. It is unskilled labor to which the average individual can be put and which he has to perform in one way or another. The character of this average labor varies in different countries and at different stages of civilization, but appears fixed in a particular society. Unskilled labor constitutes the bulk of all labor performed in capitalist society, as may be seen from all statistics.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00084",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 30839,
      "end": 31849,
      "sha256": "c9a264c1204922b14c78f6e2994c132ba15435a7bc9ea465cc31996dac79e82c",
      "text": "It is obvious that if A spends six hours in the production of iron and six hours on linen, and B also produces iron during six hours and linen during another six hours, it is but a different application of _the same_ labor time that would be expended, if A produced iron during twelve hours, while B worked twelve hours on linen. But how about skilled labor which rises above the level of average labor by its higher intensity, by its greater specific gravity? This kind of labor resolves itself into unskilled labor composing it; it is simple labor of a higher intensity, so that one day of skilled labor, e. g., may equal three days of unskilled labor. This is not the place to consider the laws regulating this reduction. It is clear, however, that such reduction does take place, for, as exchange value, the product of the most skilled labor is, when taken in a certain proportion, equivalent to the product of unskilled average labor, or equal to a definite quantity of that unskilled labor.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00085",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 31853,
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      "sha256": "a996c06bba6076faaec0c6694f995aed85c8dc47b421d4e38d92d143bf02d24b",
      "text": "The determination of exchange-value by means of labor-time implies, further, the fact that an equal quantity of labor is embodied in any given commodity, e. g., a ton of iron, no matter whether it is the work of A or B, that is to say, various individuals expend an equal amount of labor-time for the production of the same use-value of a given quality and quantity. It is thus assumed that the labor-time contained in a commodity is the labor-time _necessary_ for its production, i. e., it is the labor-time which is required for the production of another specimen of the same commodity under the same general conditions of production.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00086",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 32502,
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      "sha256": "c9457fbe9a54b8b65586cedb6c2a2b2c46569d608b8315fc56d4a046d4e4a051",
      "text": "The conditions of labor, which creates exchange value, as shown by the analysis of the latter, are _social conditions_ of labor or conditions of _social labor_. Social, not in the ordinary, but in a special sense. It is a specific form of the social process. The homogeneous simplicity of labor means first of all _equality_ of the labors of various individuals, a reciprocal relation of equality of their labors determined by the actual reduction of all kinds of labor to uniform labor. The labor of every individual, as far as it is expressed in exchange value possesses this social character of equality and finds expression in exchange value only in so far as it is a relation of equality with the labor of all other individuals.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00087",
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      "end": 37957,
      "sha256": "7fac40a0fb0df5e3844c3fb161e4a353b39878c1c4ba51798259b34ca456d6f6",
      "text": "Furthermore, the labor-time of a single individual is directly expressed in exchange value as _universal labor-time_, and this _universal character_ of individual labor is the manifestation of its _social character_. The labor-time represented by exchange value is the labor-time of an individual, but of an individual undistinguished from other individuals in so far as they perform the same labor; therefore, the time required by one individual for the production of a certain commodity is the _necessary_ labor-time which any other individual would have to spend on the production of the same commodity. It is the labor-time of an individual, _his_ labor-time, but only as labor-time common to all, regardless as to which particular individual’s labor-time it is. As universal labor-time it is represented in a universal product, in a _universal equivalent_, in a definite quantity of materialized labor-time: the latter is indifferent as to the particular form of use-value in which it appears directly as the product of an individual, and may be turned at will into any other form of use-value to represent the product of any other individual. Only as such a _universal_ quantity, is it a _social_ quantity. In order to result in exchange value, the labor of an individual must be turned into a _universal equivalent_, i. e., the labor-time of an individual must be expressed as universal labor-time, or universal labor-time as that of an individual. It is the same as though different individuals had put together their labor-time and contributed the different quantities of labor-time at their common disposal in the form of different use-values. The labor-time of the individual is thus, in fact, the labor time which society requires for the production of a certain use-value, i. e., for the satisfaction of a certain want. But the question that interests us here is as to the specific form in which labor acquires a social character. Let us suppose that a certain quantity of labor-time of a spinner is realized in 100 lbs. of yarn. Suppose 100 yards of linen, the product of the weaver, represent the same quantity of labor-time. Inasmuch as these two products represent equal quantities of universal labor-time and, hence, are equivalents of _every_ use-value which contains the same amount of labor-time, they are also equivalent to each other. Only because the labor-time of the spinner and that of the weaver take the form of universal labor-time and their products appear as universal equivalents, is the labor of the weaver realized for the spinner, and that of the spinner, for the weaver, the labor of one takes the place of the labor of the other, i. e., the social character of their labors is realized for both. Quite different it was under the patriarchal system of production, when spinner and weaver lived under the same roof, when the female members of the family did the spinning, and the male members did the weaving to supply the wants of their own family; then yarn and linen were _social_ products, spinning and weaving were _social_ labor within the limits of the family. But their social character did not manifest itself in the fact that yarn, as a universal equivalent, could be exchanged for linen as a universal equivalent, or that one was exchanged for another, as identical and equivalent expressions of the same universal labor-time. It was rather the family organization with its natural division of labor that impressed its peculiar social stamp on the product of labor. Or, let us take the services and payments in kind of the Middle Ages. It was the specific kind of labor performed by each individual in its natural form, the particular and not the universal aspect of labor, that constituted then the social tie. Or, let us finally take labor carried on in common in its primitive natural form, as we find it at the dawn of history of all civilized races.[4] It is clear that in this case labor does not acquire its social character from the fact that the labor of the individual takes on the abstract form of universal labor or that his product assumes the form of a universal equivalent. The very nature of production under a communal system makes it impossible for the labor of the individual to be private labor and his product to be a private product; on the contrary, it makes individual labor appear as the direct function of a member of a social organism. On the contrary, labor, which is expressed in exchange value, at once appears as the labor of a separate individual. It becomes social labor only by taking on the form of its direct opposite, the form of abstract universal labor.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00088",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 37961,
      "end": 39383,
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      "text": "Labor, which creates exchange value, is, finally, characterized by the fact that even the social relations of men appear in the reversed form of a social relation of things. Only in so far as two use-values are in a mutual relation of exchange values does the labor of different persons possess the common property of being identical universal labor. Hence, if it be correct to say that exchange value is a relation between persons,[5] it must be added that it is a relation disguised under a material cover. Just as a pound of iron and a pound of gold represent the _same_ weight in spite of their different physical and chemical properties, so do two use-values, as commodities containing the same quantity of labor-time, represent the _same exchange value_. Exchange value thus appears as the natural social destination of use-values, a property which they possess by virtue of being things and in consequence of which they are exchanged for one another in definite proportions, or form equivalents, just as chemical elements combine in certain proportions, forming chemical equivalents. It is only through the habit of everyday life that we come to think it perfectly plain and commonplace, that a social relation of production should take on the form of a thing, so that the relation of persons in their work appears in the form of a mutual relation between things, and between things and persons.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00089",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 39387,
      "end": 40384,
      "sha256": "ce197cc0a9e2b5215561c69911a6d08f92fea730de33c19e6e85e88756578f3f",
      "text": "In commodities this mystification is as yet very simple. It is more or less plain to everybody that a relation of commodities as exchange values is nothing but a mutual relation between persons in their productive activity. This semblance of simplicity disappears in higher productive relations. All the illusions in regard to the monetary system are due to the fact that money is not regarded as something representing a social relation of production, but as a product of nature endowed with certain properties. The modern economists who sneer at the illusions of the monetary system, betray the same illusion as soon as they have to deal with higher economic forms, as, e. g., capital.[6] It breaks forth in their confession of naive surprise, when what they have just thought to have defined with great difficulty as a thing suddenly appears as a social relation and then reappears to tease them again as a thing, before they have barely managed to define it as a social relation.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00090",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 40388,
      "end": 42908,
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      "text": "Since the exchange value of commodities is, in fact, nothing but a mutual relation of the labors of individuals―labors which are similar and universal―nothing but a material expression of a specific social form of labor, it is a tautology to say that labor is the _only_ source of exchange value and consequently of wealth, in so far as the latter consists of exchange values. Similarly, it is a tautology to say that matter in its natural state has no exchange value, because it does not contain any labor, and that exchange value as such does not contain matter. But when William Petty calls “labor the father and earth the mother of wealth,” or when Bishop Berkeley asks “whether the four elements and man’s labour therein, be not the true source of wealth,”[7] or when the American, Thomas Cooper puts it popularly: “Take away from a piece of bread the labour bestowed by the baker on the flour, by the miller on the grain brought to him, by the farmer in ploughing, sowing, tending, gathering, threshing, cleaning and transporting the seed, and what will remain? A few grains of grass, growing wild in the woods, and unfit for any human purpose”[8]―then all these views do not refer to abstract labor as the source of exchange value, but to concrete labor as the source of material wealth; in short, to labor in so far as it produces use-values. In assuming that a commodity has use-value we assume the special usefulness and distinct fitness of the labor absorbed by it, but that is all there is to the view of labor as useful labor from the standpoint of commodity. Considering bread as a use-value, we are interested in its properties as an article of food and not at all in the different kinds of labor of the farmer, miller, baker, etc. If by some invention nineteen-twentieths of this labor could be saved, the loaf of bread would still render the same service as before. If it fell ready-made from the sky it would not lose a single atom of its use-value. While labor which creates exchange value is realized in the equality of commodities as universal equivalents, labor as a productive activity with a useful purpose is realized in the endless variety of use-values created by it. While labor which creates exchange values is _abstract_, _universal_ and _homogeneous_, labor which produces use-values is concrete and special and is made up of an endless variety of kinds of labor according to the way in which and the material to which it is applied.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00091",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 42912,
      "end": 44235,
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      "text": "It is wrong to speak of labor in so far as it is applied to the production of use-values as of _the only_ source of wealth, namely, the material wealth produced by it. Being an activity intended to adapt materials to this or that purpose, it requires matter as a prerequisite. In different use-values the proportion between labor and raw material varies greatly, but use-value always has a natural substratum. Labor, as an activity, directed to the adaptation of raw material in one form or another, is a natural condition of human existence, a condition of exchange of matter between man and nature, independent of all social forms. On the contrary, labor producing exchange value is a specifically social form of labor. Tailoring, e. g., in its material manifestation as a distinct productive activity, produces a coat, but not the exchange value of the coat. The latter is produced not by the labor of the tailor as such, but by abstract universal labor, and that belongs to a certain organization of society which has not been brought about by the tailor. Thus, the women under the ancient system of house industry made coats without producing the exchange value of the coats. Labor as a source of material wealth was known to Moses, the legislator, as well as to Adam Smith, the customs official.[9]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00092",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 44239,
      "end": 44346,
      "sha256": "89ba670f4a737433e540e243be8f08b27eb2cbff638569ab4b3be7049aa7a53c",
      "text": "Let us consider now some propositions which follow from the determination of exchange value by labor-time.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00093",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 44350,
      "end": 45157,
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      "text": "As a use-value, every commodity owes its usefulness to itself. Wheat, e. g., serves as an article of food. A machine saves labor to a certain extent. This function of a commodity by virtue of which it serves only as use-value, as an article of consumption, may be called its service, the service which it renders as use-value. But as an exchange value, a commodity is always regarded as a result; the question in this case is not as to the service which it renders, but as to the service[10] which it has been rendered in its production. Thus, the exchange value of a machine is determined not by the quantity of labor-time which it saves, but by the quantity of labor-time which has been expended on its own production and which is, therefore, required to produce a new machine of the same kind.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00094",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 45161,
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      "text": "If, therefore, the quantity of labor-time required for the production of commodities remained constant, their exchange value would remain the same. But the ease and the difficulty of production are constantly changing. If the productivity of labor increases, the same use-value will be produced in less time. If the productivity of labor declines, more time will be required for the production of the same use-value. Thus, the labor-time contained in a commodity or its exchange-value is a variable quantity, increasing or diminishing in an inverse ratio to the rise and fall of the productivity of labor. The productive power of labor which is applied in the manufacturing industry on a predetermined scale depends in the agricultural and extractive industries also on natural conditions which are beyond human control. _The same labor_ will yield a greater or less output of various metals, according to their more or less close occurrence in the earth’s crust. _The same labor_ may be embodied in two bushels of wheat in a favorable season, and only in one in an unfavorable season. In this case, scarcity or abundance, as natural conditions, seem to determine the exchange value of commodities, because they determine the productivity of certain kinds of labor which depend upon natural conditions.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00095",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 46487,
      "end": 47323,
      "sha256": "55823a37ecab69e22c4937f67ed6a89baeb249df766a008a6ae9d566ee304373",
      "text": "Unequal volumes of different use-value contain the same quantity of labor-time or the same exchange value. The smaller the volume of a use-value containing a certain quantity of labor-time as compared with other use-values, the greater its _specific exchange-value_. If we find that certain use-values, such as, e. g., gold, silver, copper and iron, or wheat, rye, barley and oats, form a series of specific exchange values which, though not retaining exactly the same numerical ratio, still retain through widely remote epochs of civilization the same rough proportion of relatively larger and smaller quantities, we may draw the conclusion that the progressive development of the productive powers of society has equally, or approximately so, affected the labor-time necessary for the production of the various commodities.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00096",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 47327,
      "end": 49036,
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      "text": "The exchange value of a commodity is not revealed in its own use-value. But, as the embodiment universal social labor-time, the use-value of one commodity bears a certain ratio to the use-values of other commodities. Thus, the exchange value of one commodity is manifested in the use-values of other commodities. An equivalent is, in fact, the exchange value of one commodity expressed in the use-value of another commodity. If I say, e. g., that one yard of linen is worth two pounds of coffee, then the exchange value of linen is expressed in terms of the use-value of coffee, viz., in a certain quantity of that use-value. This ratio being given, I can express the value of any quantity of linen in coffee. It is clear that the exchange value of one commodity, say linen, is not confined to the ratio of any one commodity, e. g. coffee, as its equivalent. The quantity of universal labor-time which is represented in one yard of linen is at the same time embodied in an endless variety of volumes of use-values of all other commodities. The use-value of any other commodity forms the equivalent of one yard of linen, in the proportion in which it represents the same quantity of labor-time as that yard of linen. The exchange value of _this single commodity_ is, therefore, fully expressed in the endless number of equations in which the use-values of all other commodities form its equivalents. Not until the exchange value of a commodity is expressed in the sum total of these equations or of the different proportions in which one commodity is exchanged for every other commodity, does it find an exhaustive expression as a _universal equivalent_; e. g., the series of equations:",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00104",
      "bookId": 46423,
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      "sha256": "d117bbb77aa30d2472e72707bd43b6f619724fbbafcfcfa8e480d56afec62623",
      "text": "_First case._ Let the labor-time required for the production of commodity B remain unchanged. In that case the exchange value of A, expressed in terms of B, rises and falls with the rise and fall of the labor-time required for the production of A.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00105",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 52874,
      "end": 53136,
      "sha256": "0c76fb5ebddc4f0616a89f6a43a11dd3d49aaea85338fe995af4667e5a973e54",
      "text": "_Second case._ Let the labor-time required for the production of commodity A remain constant. Then the exchange value of A, expressed in terms of B, falls and rises in an inverse ratio with the rise and fall of the labor-time required for the production of B.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00106",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 53140,
      "end": 53786,
      "sha256": "c265223c9298e8f25ef37b27ffd8dde2c01b2853b6ff67be5c56cd6b5813e79f",
      "text": "_Third case._ Let the labor-time required for the production of commodities A and B rise and fall in equal proportion. Then the expression of equivalence of A and B remains unchanged. If through some cause the productivity of all kinds of labor were to decline uniformly, so that the production of all commodities would require an equally increased quantity of labor-time, then the value of all commodities would rise, though the expression of their exchange values would remain unchanged, and the actual wealth of society would decrease, because it would have to expend more labor-time on the production of the same stock of use-values.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00107",
      "bookId": 46423,
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      "sha256": "19e064acb6cd741ec17cc3a93d0a20333501630abed7723aab327ee2013da73d",
      "text": "_Fourth case._ Let the labor-time required for the production of A and B rise and fall, but not uniformly; that is to say, the labor-time required for the production of A may rise, while that required for B may fall, or vice versa. All of which can be reduced to the simple case where the labor-time required for the production of one commodity remains unchanged, while that required for the other rises or falls.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00108",
      "bookId": 46423,
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      "text": "The exchange value of any commodity is expressed in the use-value of any other commodity, be it in integral units or in fractions thereof. As exchange value, every commodity is capable of subdivision, like the labor-time embodied in it. The equivalence of commodities is independent of their physical divisibility as use-values, just as the sum of the exchange values of commodities is indifferent to the change of form which use-values have to undergo when converted into a _single_ new commodity.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00189",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 144870,
      "end": 145028,
      "sha256": "68ae5fc2b9af38d83ec02226b41da79f838767e3e243b27fd3e51f36eb1217fe",
      "text": "In this chapter we are interested exclusively in the first form, i. e., in the form which serves as the direct expression of the circulation of commodities.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00190",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 145032,
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      "sha256": "e52943fcc1ecc2e50b64522a7f7de6b9deeb6074fed265ab6e282ce76838ea77",
      "text": "The process C―M―C consists of the movement C―M, the exchange of the commodity for money, or _selling_; the opposite movement M―C, exchange of money for a commodity, or _buying_; and of the unity of the two movements C―M―C, exchange of the commodity for money in order to exchange the money for a commodity, or _selling_ in order to _buy_. But the result which marks the end of the process is C―C, exchange of commodity for commodity, real interchange of matter.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00191",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 145517,
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      "text": "If we look at it from the extreme end of the first commodity, C―M―C represents its transformation into gold and its retransformation from gold into a commodity; a movement in which the commodity exists first as a particular use-value, then divests itself of that character, acquires the character of exchange value or universal equivalent, in which capacity it has nothing in common with its natural form, then throws off the last form as well to remain finally an actual use-value for the satisfaction of particular wants. In this last form it falls out of the sphere of circulation into that of consumption. The entire process of circulation C―M―C thus includes the combined series of metamorphoses, which every single commodity undergoes in order to become a direct use-value to its possessor. The first metamorphosis is accomplished in the first phase of the circulation process, C―M; the second in the last phase, M―C; and the entire process constitutes the _curriculum vitae_ of the commodity. But the process C―M―C represents the combined metamorphosis of a single commodity and constitutes at the same time the sum of certain one-sided metamorphoses of other commodities, since every metamorphosis of the first commodity constitutes its transformation into another commodity and therefore the transformation of the other commodity into it; hence it constitutes a twofold transformation which takes place at the same stage of circulation. We must then consider separately each of the two processes of exchange into which circulation C―M―C breaks up.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00192",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 147119,
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      "text": "C―M or _sale_: commodity C enters the process of circulation not only as a particular use-value, e. g., a ton of iron, but as a use-value of a certain price, say, £3 17s. 10-1/2d., or an ounce of gold. While this price is on the one hand the exponent of the quantity of labor-time contained in a ton of iron, i. e., of the magnitude of its value, it at the same time expresses the pious wish of the iron to become gold, i. e., to give to the labor-time it contains the aspect of universal social labor-time. Unless this trans-substantiation takes place, the ton of iron not only ceases to be a commodity, but even a product, for it is a commodity only because it is a non-use-value to its owner; that is to say, his labor counts as actual labor only in so far as it is labor useful to others, and the thing is useful to him only as abstract universal labor. It is, therefore, the business of iron, or of its owner, to find that point in the world of commodities where iron attracts gold. But this difficulty, the _salto mortale_ of the commodity, is overcome when the sale actually takes place, as is assumed here on the analysis of simple circulation. When the ton of iron is realized as a use-value through its alienation, i. e., by passing from the hands in which it is a non-use-value to hands in which it is a use-value, it at the same time realizes its price and from mere imaginary gold it becomes real gold. In place of the name one ounce of gold or £3 17s. 10-1/2d., an ounce of real gold has appeared, but the ton of iron has cleared that place. Not only does the commodity―which in its price had been ideally converted into gold―actually turn into gold through the sale C―M, but gold, which as a measure of value had been only ideal money and in fact figured merely as a money name of commodities―is now turned into actual money[66] by the same process. Just as gold became the ideal universal equivalent, because all commodities measured their values by it, so does it now become the absolutely alienable commodity, real money, because it is the product of the universal alienation of commodities for it―and the sale C―M is the process by means of which that universal alienation takes place. But gold becomes real money only through sale, because the exchange values of commodities were already ideal gold in their prices.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00193",
      "bookId": 46423,
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      "text": "In the sale C―M, as well as in the purchase M―C, two commodities, entities of exchange value and use-value, confront each other, but the exchange value of the commodity exists only ideally as price; while as regards gold, although it is really a use-value, its use-value is confined only to its being the bearer of exchange value and is, therefore, merely a formal use-value, having no relation to a real individual want. The antithesis of use-value and exchange value is thus distributed at the two extreme poles of C―M, so that the commodity confronts gold as a use-value which has yet to realize in gold its exchange value or its price, while gold confronts the commodity as an exchange value, whose formal use-value is yet to be realized in the commodity. Only through this duplication of the commodity as commodity and gold, and, further, through the twofold and polar relation by virtue of which each extreme represents but ideally what its opposite is in reality and is in reality what its opposite is only ideally―in short, only through the appearance of commodities as two-sided polar opposites are the contradictions solved that are inherent in the process of exchange.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00194",
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      "start": 150715,
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      "text": "So far we have considered C―M as sale, as the conversion of commodity into money. But if we look at it from the other end, the same process will assume the form M―C, or purchase, i. e., the conversion of money into commodity. Sale is necessarily its opposite at the same time; it is the former if we look at the process from one end, and the latter if we regard the process from the other end. In practice this process differs only in that the initiative in C―M originates at the commodity end or with the seller, while in M―C it comes from the money end or the buyer. In describing the first metamorphosis of the commodity, its conversion into money as a result of the completion of the first phase of circulation C―M, we assume at the same time that another commodity has been converted into money and is now in its second phase of circulation, M―C. Thus we get into a vicious circle of assumptions. Circulation itself constitutes such a vicious circle. If we did not consider M in M―C as the result of a metamorphosis of another commodity, we would thereby take exchange out of the process of circulation. But outside of the latter the form C―M disappears and only two different Cs confront each other, say iron and gold, the exchange of which does not constitute a part of the process of circulation, being direct barter. Gold, at the source of its production, is a commodity like any other commodity. Its relative value and that of iron or of any other commodity is expressed here in quantities in which they are mutually exchanged. But in the process of circulation this operation is implied, the value of gold being already given in the prices of commodities. Nothing can, therefore, be more erroneous than the idea that gold and commodity enter into the relation of direct barter _within the process of circulation_ and that their relative values are ascertained through their exchange as simple commodities. The illusion that gold is bartered as a simple commodity for other commodities in the process of circulation is due to the fact that prices represent equations in which certain quantities of commodities are made equal to certain quantities of gold, i. e., that the commodities are made to relate to gold in its capacity of money, as a universal equivalent, and, therefore, appear to be directly exchangeable for it. In so far as the price of a commodity is _realized_ in gold, it is exchanged for gold as a commodity, as a particular embodiment of labor-time; but in so far as it is the _price_ that is realized in gold, the commodity is exchanged for gold in its capacity of money and not of a commodity, i. e., it is exchanged for gold as a universal embodiment of labor-time. But in either case the quantity of gold for which the commodity is exchanged in the process of circulation is not determined by exchange, but the exchange is determined by the price of the commodity, i. e., by its exchange value estimated in gold.[67]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00195",
      "bookId": 46423,
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      "text": "Within the process of circulation gold appears in everybody’s hands as the result of sale C―M. But since C―M, sale, is at the same time M―C, purchase, it is apparent that while C, the commodity from which the process starts, is passing through its first metamorphosis, another commodity, which confronts it as the opposite pole M, is completing its second metamorphosis and is, therefore, passing through the second phase of circulation, while the first commodity is still in the first phase of its course.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00196",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 154250,
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      "text": "As a result of the first phase of circulation, the sale, we get money which is the starting point of the second phase. In place of the commodity in its first form appears its golden equivalent. This result may now form a resting point, since the commodity in this second form possesses a lasting existence of its own. The commodity, a non-use-value in the hands of its possessor, is now on hand in an always useful, since always exchangeable, form, and it depends upon circumstances when and at what point of the surface of the commodity world it will again enter circulation. Its formation into a gold chrysalis constitutes an independent period in its life which may last a greater or less length of time. While in the case of barter the exchange of one particular use-value is directly bound up with the exchange of another particular use-value, the universal character of labor which creates exchange value is manifested in the separation and lack of coincidence of acts of purchase and sale.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00197",
      "bookId": 46423,
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      "text": "_M―C, purchase_, is the inverted movement of C―M and at the same time the second or final metamorphosis of the commodity. As gold, i. e., in the form of the universal equivalent, the commodity can be directly represented in the use-values of all other commodities; the latter aspire to gold as their hereafter, but at the same time indicate in their prices the key in which it must sound in order that their bodies, their use-values, may take the place of money, while their souls, their exchange-values, may enter gold. The universal product of the alienation of commodities is the absolutely alienable commodity. There is no qualitative and only a quantitative limit to the transformation of gold into commodity, namely, the limit of its own quantity or magnitude of its value. “Everything is to be had for cash.” While in the movement C―M, the commodity, through its alienation as a use-value, realizes its own price and the use-value of somebody else’s money; it realizes in the movement M―C, through its alienation as an exchange value, its own use-value and the price of the other commodity. While through the realization of its price the commodity transforms gold into actual money, it turns gold into its merely fleeting money-form, through its own retransformation. Since the circulation of commodities implies an extensive division of labor and consequently a diversity of wants on the part of individuals, a diversity which bears an inverse ratio to the specialization of their own products, the purchase M―C may appear as an equation with one commodity equivalent or split up into a series of commodity-equivalents limited by the variety of the demands of the purchaser and by the amount of money in his possession. Just as a sale is a purchase, so is a purchase a sale. M―C is at the same time C―M, but the initiative belongs in this case to gold or the purchaser.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00237",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 219837,
      "end": 220677,
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      "text": "The rise or fall of prices of commodities following a rise or fall of the quantity of paper notes―the latter only where paper currency constitutes the exclusive medium of circulation―is thus nothing but an assertion through the process of circulation of a law mechanically violated from without; namely, that the quantity of gold in circulation is determined by the prices of commodities, and the quantity of tokens of value in circulation is determined by the quantity of gold coin which it represents. For that reason any desired number of paper notes will be absorbed and equally digested by the process of circulation, because the token of value, no matter with what gold title it may enter circulation, will be compressed within the latter to a token of that quantity of gold which could actually circulate in its place.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00238",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 220681,
      "end": 222812,
      "sha256": "113164c3c3140a84614fcde8ef556c1186b7a62f4c4f9a784352cd0649d3f30b",
      "text": "In the case of the circulation of tokens of value all laws pertaining to the circulation of real money appear to be reversed and standing on their heads. While gold circulates because it has value, paper has value because it circulates. While with a given exchange value of commodities, the quantity of gold in circulation depends on its own value, the value of paper depends on its own quantity in circulation. While the quantity of gold in circulation rises or falls with the rise or fall of prices of commodities, the prices of commodities seem to rise or fall with the change in the quantity of paper in circulation. While the circulation of commodities can absorb only a definite quantity of gold coin and as a result of that the alternating contraction and expansion of the currency appears as a necessary law, paper money seems to enter circulation in any desired amount. While the state is guilty of debasing gold and silver coin and of disturbing their function of a medium of circulation, if it turns out a coin, only 1-100 of a grain below its nominal weight; it performs a perfectly proper operation by issuing absolutely worthless paper notes which contain nothing of the metal except its mint denomination. While gold coin apparently represents the value of commodities only in so far as that value is itself estimated in gold or is expressed in price, the token of value seems to represent directly the value of commodities. It is, therefore, clear why students who examined one-sidedly the phenomena of circulation of money by confining their observations to the circulation of legal tender paper money, should have failed to grasp the intrinsic laws governing the circulation of money. As a matter of fact, these laws appear not only reversed but extinct in the circulation of tokens of value, since paper currency, if issued in the right quantity, goes through certain movements which are not in its nature as a token of value, while its proper movement instead of growing directly out of the metamorphosis of commodities, springs from the violation of its proper proportion to gold.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00239",
      "bookId": 46423,
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      "sha256": "91e6ad76e9ae6aa55e5a7a57631326da08aa07d3ab935a89be4e7624b0d72adf",
      "text": "3. MONEY.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00240",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 222831,
      "end": 223882,
      "sha256": "c93de8a2cb76600cacfa32d2f80606ce0f5c6f042fdd21c777a1e1fb30f88299",
      "text": "Money as distinguished from coin, the result of the circulation process C―M―C, forms the starting point of the circulation process M―C―M, i. e. the exchange of money for commodity in order to exchange commodity for money. In the form C―M―C, commodity forms the starting and final points of the movement; in the form M―C―M, money plays that part. In the former case money is the medium of exchange of commodities, in the latter the commodity helps money to become money. Money which appears merely as a means of circulation in the first form becomes an end in the second form; while commodity which appeared first as the end, now becomes but a means. Since money is itself the result of circulation C―M―C, the result of circulation appears at the same time as its starting point in the form M―C―M. While in the case of C―M―C the interchange of matter constituted the real import of the process, the form of the commodity resulting from this first process constitutes the import of the second process M―C―M.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00241",
      "bookId": 46423,
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      "end": 225484,
      "sha256": "f4657a3107ad57b954e6768cbcbbaa1861cd6b7557743e04cfeeff41e13eb985",
      "text": "In the form C―M―C the two extreme members are commodities of the same value, but qualitatively different use-values. Their mutual exchange C―C constitutes actual interchange of matter. In the form M―C―M the two extremes are gold and at the same time gold of equal value. To exchange gold for a commodity in order to exchange the commodity for gold, or if we consider the final result M―M, to exchange gold for gold, seems absurd. But if we translate the formula M―C―M into the expression: _to buy_ in order _to sell_, which means nothing but to exchange gold for gold through an intervening movement, we recognize at once the prevailing form of capitalist production. In actual practice, however, people do not buy in order to sell, but they buy cheap in order to sell dear. Money is exchanged for a commodity in order to exchange the same commodity for a larger amount of money, so that the extremes M, M are, if not qualitatively, then quantitatively different. Such a quantitative difference presupposes the _exchange of non-equivalents_, yet commodity and money as such are only opposite forms of the same commodity, i. e. they are different forms of the same magnitude of value. The circuit M―C―M thus conceals under the forms of money and commodity more highly developed relations of production, and is but a reflection within the sphere of simple circulation of a movement of a more advanced character. Money, as distinguished from the medium of circulation, must therefore be developed from the direct form of circulation of commodities, C―M―C.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00242",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 225488,
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      "text": "Gold, i. e., the specific commodity which serves as a measure of value and a medium of circulation, becomes money without any further assistance on the part of society. In England, where silver is neither the measure of value nor the prevailing medium of circulation, it does not become money, just as gold in Holland, as soon as it had been dethroned as a measure of value, ceased to be money. A commodity thus becomes money only in its combined capacity of a measure of value and medium of circulation; or, the unity of the measure of value and medium of circulation is money. As such a unity, however, gold has a separate existence independent of its existence in the two functions. As a measure of value it is only ideal money and ideal gold; as a mere medium of circulation it is symbolic money and symbolic gold; but in its plain metallic bodily form gold is money or money is real gold.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00268",
      "bookId": 46423,
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      "text": "As the universal means of payment money becomes the _universal commodity_ of all contracts, at first only in the sphere of circulation of commodities.[106] But with the development of this function of money, all other forms of payment are gradually converted into money payments. The extent to which money is developed as the exclusive means of payment indicates the degree to which exchange value has taken hold of production in its depth and breadth.[107]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00269",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 266314,
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      "text": "The volume of money in circulation, as a means of payment, is determined in the first place, by the amount of payments, i. e. by the sum total of the prices of the commodities alienated, but not about to be alienated, as in the case of the simple circulation of money. The quantity thus determined is subject, however, to two modifications. The first modification is due to the rapidity with which the same piece of money repeats the same function, i. e. with which the several payments succeed one another. A pays B, whereupon B pays C, and so forth. The rapidity with which the same coin repeats its function as a means of payment, depends first, upon the continuity of the relation of creditor and debtor among the owners of commodities, the same commodity owner being the creditor of one person and the debtor of another, etc., and secondly, upon the interval which separates the times of various payments. This chain of payments or of supplementary first metamorphoses of commodities is qualitatively different from the chain of metamorphoses which is formed by the circulation of money as a circulating medium. The latter not only makes its appearance gradually, but is even formed in that manner. A commodity is first converted into money, then again into a commodity, thereby enabling another commodity to become money, etc.; or, seller becomes buyer, whereby another commodity owner turns seller. This successive connection is accidentally formed in the very process of the exchange of commodities. But when the money which A has paid to B is passed on from B to C, from C to D, etc., and that, too, at intervals rapidly succeeding one another, then this external connection reveals but an already existing social connection. The same money passes through different hands not because it appears as a means of payment; it passes as a means of payment because the different hands have already clasped each other. The rapidity with which money circulates as a means of payment thus shows that individuals have been drawn into the process of circulation much deeper than would be indicated by the same rapidity of the circulation of money as coin or as a means of purchase.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00270",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 268527,
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      "text": "The sum total of prices made up by all the purchases and sales taking place at the same time, and, therefore, side by side, constitutes the limit for the substitution of the volume of coin by the rapidity of its circulation. If the payments that are to be made simultaneously are concentrated at one place―which naturally arises at first at points where the circulation of commodities is largest―the payments balance each other as negative and positive quantities: A is under obligations to pay B, while he has to be paid by C. etc. The quantity of money required as a means of payment will, therefore, be determined not by the total amount of payments which have to be made simultaneously, but by the greater or less concentration of the same and by the magnitude of the balance remaining after their mutual neutralization as negative and positive quantities. Special arrangements are made for settlements of this kind even where the credit system is not developed at all, as was the case e. g. in ancient Rome. The consideration of these arrangements, however, as well as that of the general time limits of payment, which are everywhere established among certain elements in the community, does not belong here. We may add that the specific influence which these time settlements exert on the periodic fluctuations in the quantity of money in circulation, has been scientifically investigated but lately.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00271",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 269961,
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      "text": "In so far as the payments mutually balance as positive and negative quantities, no money actually appears on the scene. It figures here only in its capacity of a measure of value: first, in the prices of commodities, and second, in the magnitude of mutual obligations. Aside from its ideal form, exchange value does not exist here independently, not even in the form of a token of value; that is to say, money plays here only the part of ideal money of account. The function of money as a means of payment thus implies a contradiction. On the one hand, in so far as payments balance, it serves only ideally as a measure of value. On the other hand, in so far as a payment has actually to be made, money enters circulation not as a transient circulating medium, but as the final resting form of the universal equivalent, as the absolute commodity, in a word, as money. Therefore, whenever such a thing as a chain of payments and an artificial system of settling them, is developed, money suddenly changes its visionary nebulous shape as a measure of value, turning into hard cash or means of payment, as soon as some shock causes a violent interruption of the flow of payments and disturbs the mechanism of their settlement. Thus, under conditions of fully developed capitalist production, where the commodity owner has long become a capitalist, knows his Adam Smith, and condescendingly laughs at the superstition that gold and silver alone constitute money or that money differs at all from other commodities as the absolute commodity, money suddenly reappears not as a medium of circulation, but as the only adequate form of exchange value, as the only form of wealth, exactly as it is looked upon by the hoarder. In its capacity of such an exclusive form of wealth, it reveals itself, unlike under the monetary system, not in mere imaginary, but in actual depreciation and worthlessness of all material wealth. That is what constitutes the particular phase of crises of the world market which is known as a money crisis. The _summum bonum_ for which everybody is crying at such times as for the only form of wealth, is cash, hard cash; and by the side of it all other commodities just because they are use-values, appear useless like so many trifles and toys, or, as our Dr. Martin Luther says, as mere objects of ornament and gluttony. This sudden reversion from a system of credit to a system of hard cash heaps theoretical fright on top of the practical panic; and the dealers by whose agency circulation is affected shudder before the impenetrable mystery in which their own economical relations are involved.[108]",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00272",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 272623,
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      "text": "Payments, in their turn, require the formation of reserve funds, the accumulation of money as a means of payment. The building up of reserve funds appears no longer as a practice carried on outside of the sphere of circulation, as in the case of hoarding; nor as a mere technical accumulation of coin, as in the case of coin reserves; on the contrary, money must now be gradually accumulated to be available on certain future dates when payments become due. While hoarding, in its abstract form as a means of enrichment, declines with the development of the capitalist system of production, that species of hoarding which is directly called for by the process of production, increases; or, to put it differently, a part of the treasure which is generally formed in the sphere of circulation of commodities, is absorbed as a reserve fund of means of payment. The more developed the capitalist system of production, the more these reserve funds are limited to the necessary minimum. Locke, in his work “On the Lowering of Interest”[109] furnishes interesting data with reference to the size of these reserve funds in his time. They show what a considerable part of the total money in circulation the reservoirs for means of payment absorbed in England just at the time when banking began to develop.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00273",
      "bookId": 46423,
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      "text": "The law as to quantity of money in circulation, as it has been formulated in the analysis of the simple circulation of money, receives an essential modification when the circulation of the means of payment is taken into account. The rapidity of the circulation of money whether as circulating medium or as means of payment―being given, the total amount of money in circulation at a given time will be determined by the sum total of the prices of commodities to be realized, _plus_ the total amount of payments falling due at the same time, _minus_ the amount of payments balancing each other. The general law that the volume of money in circulation depends on the prices of commodities is not affected by this in the least, since the extent of the payments is itself determined by the prices stipulated in contracts. What is, however, strikingly demonstrated, is that even if the rapidity of circulation and the economy of payments be assumed to remain the same, the sum total of the prices of the commodities circulating in a given period of time, say one day, and the volume of money in circulation on the same day are by no means equal, because there is a large number of commodities in circulation whose prices have yet to be realized in money at a future date, and there is a quantity of money in circulation which constitutes the payment for commodities which have long gone out of circulation. The latter amount will depend on the sum of payments falling due on the same day although contracted for at entirely different periods.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG46423.B00274",
      "bookId": 46423,
      "start": 275510,
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      "text": "We have seen that a change in the values of gold and silver does not affect their function as measures of value or money of account. But this change is of decisive importance for money as a hoard, since with the rise or fall of value of gold and silver, the total value of a gold or silver hoard will also rise or fall. Of still greater importance is the effect of this change on money as a means of payment. The payment takes place after the sale of the commodity, or the money serves in two different capacities at two different periods; first, as a measure of value, then as a means of payment corresponding to the measurement. If, during this interval, the value of the precious metals or the labor-time necessary for their production undergoes a change, the same quantity of gold or silver will be worth more or less when it appears as a means of payment than what it was when it served as a measure of value, i. e., when the contract was concluded. The function of a particular commodity, like gold or silver, to serve as money or independent exchange value comes here in conflict with the nature of the particular commodity whose magnitude of value depends on changes in the cost of its production. The great social revolution which caused the fall in value of the precious metals in Europe, is as well known as the revolution of an opposite character which had been brought about at an early period in the history of the ancient Roman republic by the rise in value of copper in terms of which the debts of the plebeians had been contracted. Without attempting here to follow any further the fluctuations of value of the precious metals and their effect on the system of bourgeois political economy, it is at once apparent that a fall in the value of the precious metals favors the debtors at the expense of the creditors, while a rise in their value favors the creditors at the expense of the debtors.",
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      "text": "_c. Exchange and Circulation._ Circulation is but a certain aspect of exchange, or it may be defined as exchange considered as a whole. Since _exchange_ is an intermediary factor between production and its dependent, distribution, on the one hand, and consumption, on the other; and since the latter appears but as a constituent of production, exchange is manifestly also a constituent part of production.",
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      "text": "In the first place, it is clear that the exchange of activities and abilities which takes place in the sphere of production falls directly within the latter and constitutes one of its essential elements. In the second place, the same is true of the exchange of products, in so far as it is a means of completing a certain product, designed for immediate consumption. To that extent exchange constitutes an act included in production. Thirdly, the so-called exchange between dealers and dealers[163] is by virtue of its organization determined by production, and is itself a species of productive activity. Exchange appears to be independent of and indifferent to production only in the last stage when products are exchanged directly for consumption. But in the first place, there is no exchange without a division of labor, whether natural or as a result of historical development; secondly, private exchange implies the existence of private production; thirdly, the intensity of exchange, as well as its extent and character are determined by the degree of development and organization of production, as e. g. exchange between city and country, exchange in the country, in the city, etc. Exchange thus appears in all its aspects to be directly included in or determined by production.",
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      "text": "The result we arrive at is not that production, distribution, exchange, and consumption are identical, but that they are all members of one entity, different sides of one unit. Production predominates not only over production itself in the opposite sense of that term, but over the other elements as well. With it the process constantly starts over again. That exchange and consumption can not be the predominating elements is self evident. The same is true of distribution in the narrow sense of distribution of products; as for distribution in the sense of distribution of the agents of production, it is itself but a factor of production. A definite [form of] production thus determines the [forms of] consumption, distribution, exchange, and _also the mutual relations between these various elements_. Of course, production _in its one-sided form_ is in its turn influenced by other elements; e. g. with the expansion of the market, i. e. of the sphere of exchange, production grows in volume and is subdivided to a greater extent.",
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      "text": "With a change in distribution, production undergoes a change; as e. g. in the case of concentration of capital, of a change in the distribution of population in city and country, etc. Finally, the demands of consumption also influence production. A mutual interaction takes place between the various elements. Such is the case with every organic body.",
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      "text": "3. THE METHOD OF POLITICAL ECONOMY.",
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      "bookId": 46423,
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      "text": "When we consider a given country from a politico-economic standpoint, we begin with its population, then analyze the latter according to its subdivision into classes, location in city, country, or by the sea, occupation in different branches of production; then we study its exports and imports, annual production and consumption, prices of commodities, etc. It seems to be the correct procedure to commence with the real and concrete aspect of conditions as they are; in the case of political economy, to commence with population which is the basis and the author of the entire productive activity of society. Yet, on closer consideration it proves to be wrong. Population is an abstraction, if we leave out e. g. the classes of which it consists. These classes, again, are but an empty word, unless we know what are the elements on which they are based, such as wage-labor, capital, etc. Those imply, in their turn, exchange, division of labor, prices, etc. Capital, e. g. does not mean anything without wage-labor, value, money, price, etc. If we start out, therefore, with population, we do so with a chaotic conception of the whole, and by closer analysis we will gradually arrive at simpler ideas; thus we shall proceed from the imaginary concrete to loss and less complex abstractions, until we get at the simplest conception. This once attained, we might start on our return journey until we would finally come back to population, but this time not as a chaotic notion of an integral whole, but as a rich aggregate of many conceptions and relations. The former method is the one which political economy had adopted in the past at its inception. The economists of the seventeenth century, e. g., always started out with the living aggregate: population, nation, state, several states, etc., but in the end they invariably arrived, by means of analysis, at certain leading, abstract general principles, such as division of labor, money, value, etc. As soon as these separate elements had been more or less established by abstract reasoning, there arose the systems of political economy which start from simple conceptions, such as labor, division of labor, demand, exchange value, and conclude with state, international exchange and world market. The latter is manifestly the scientifically correct method. The concrete is concrete, because it is a combination of many objects with different destinations, i. e. a unity of diverse elements. In our thought, it therefore appears as a process of synthesis, as a result, and not as a starting point, although it is the real starting point and, therefore, also the starting point of observation and conception. By the former method the complete conception passes into an abstract definition; by the latter, the abstract definitions lead to the reproduction of the concrete subject in the course of reasoning. Hegel fell into the error, therefore, of considering the real as the result of self-coordinating, self-absorbed, and spontaneously operating thought, while the method of advancing from the abstract to the concrete is but a way of thinking by which the concrete is grasped and is reproduced in our mind as a concrete. It is by no means, however, the process which itself generates the concrete. The simplest economic category, say, exchange value, implies the existence of population, population that is engaged in production under certain conditions; it also implies the existence of certain types of family, clan, or state, etc. It can have no other existence except as an abstract one-sided relation of an already given concrete and living aggregate.",
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      "text": "As a category, however, exchange value leads an antediluvian existence. And since our philosophic consciousness is so arranged that only the image of the man that it conceives appears to it as the real man and the world as it conceives it, as the real world; it mistakes the movement of categories for the real act of production (which unfortunately (?) receives only its impetus from outside) whose result is the world; that is true―here we have, however, again a tautology―in so far as the concrete aggregate is a thought aggregate, in so far as the concrete subject of our thought is in fact a product of thought, of comprehension; not, however, in the sense of a product of a self-emanating conception which works outside of and stands above observation and imagination, but of a mental consummation of observation and imagination. The whole, as it appears in our heads as a thought-aggregate, is the product of a thinking mind which grasps the world in the only way open to it, a way which differs from the one employed by the artistic, religious, or practical mind. The concrete subject continues to lead an independent existence after it has been grasped, as it did before, outside of the head, so long as the head contemplates it only speculatively, theoretically. So that in the employment of the theoretical method [in political economy], the subject, society, must constantly be kept in mind as the premise from which we start.",
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      "text": "But have these simple categories no independent historical or natural existence antedating the more concrete ones? _Ça depend._ For instance, in his Philosophy of Law Hegel rightly starts out with possession, as the simplest legal relation of individuals. But there is no such thing as possession before the family or the relations of lord and serf, which are a great deal more concrete relations, have come into existence. On the other hand, one would be right in saying that there are families and clans which only _possess_, but do not _own_ things. The simpler category thus appears as a relation of simple family and clan communities with respect to property. In earlier society the category appears as a simple relation of a developed organism, but the concrete substratum from which springs the relation of possession, is always implied. One can imagine an isolated savage in possession of things. But in that case possession is no legal relation. It is not true that the family came as the result of the historical evolution of possession. On the contrary, the latter always implies the existence of this “more concrete category of law.” Yet so much may be said, that the simple categories are the expression of relations in which the less developed concrete entity may have been realized without entering into the manifold relations and bearings which are mentally expressed in the concrete category; but when the concrete entity attains fuller development it will retain the same category as a subordinate relation.",
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      "text": "Money may exist and actually had existed in history before capital, or banks, or wage-labor came into existence. With that in mind, it may be said that the more simple category can serve as an expression of the predominant relations of an undeveloped whole or of the subordinate relations of a more developed whole, [relations] which had historically existed before the whole developed in the direction expressed in the more concrete category. In so far, the laws of abstract reasoning which ascends from the most simple to the complex, correspond to the actual process of history.",
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      "text": "In Slavic communities also, money, as well as exchange to which it owes its existence, does not appear at all or very little within the separate communities, but it appears on their boundaries in their inter-communal traffic; in general, it is erroneous to consider exchange as a constituent element originating within the community. It appears at first more in the mutual relations between different communities, than in those between the members of the same community. Furthermore, although money begins to play its part everywhere at an early stage, it plays in antiquity the part of a predominant element only in one-sidedly developed nations, viz. trading nations, and even in most cultured antiquity, in Greece and Rome, it attains its full development, which constitutes the prerequisite of modern bourgeois society, only in the period of their decay. Thus, this quite simple category attained its culmination in the past only at the most advanced stages of society. Even then it did not pervade (?) all economic relations; in Rome e. g. at the time of its highest development taxes and payments in kind remained the basis. As a matter of fact, the money system was fully developed there only so far as the army was concerned; it never came to dominate the entire system of labor.",
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      "text": "Thus, although the simple category may have existed historically before the more concrete one, it can attain its complete internal and external development only in complex (?) forms of society, while the more concrete category has reached its full development in a less advanced form of society.",
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      "text": "Labor is quite a simple category. The idea of labor in that sense, as labor in general, is also very old. Yet, “labor” thus simply defined by political economy is as much a modern category, as the conditions which have given rise to this simple abstraction. The monetary system, e. g. defines wealth quite objectively, as a thing (?)[164] in money. Compared with this point of view, it was a great step forward, when the industrial or commercial system came to see the source of wealth not in the object but in the activity of persons, viz. in commercial and industrial labor. But even the latter was thus considered only in the limited sense of a money producing activity. The physiocratic system [marks still further progress] in that it considers a certain form of labor, viz. agriculture, as the source of wealth, and wealth itself not in the disguise of money, but as a product in general, as the general result of labor. But corresponding to the limitations of the activity, this product is still only a natural product. Agriculture is productive, land is the source of production _par excellence_. It was a tremendous advance on the part of Adam Smith to throw aside all limitations which mark wealth-producing activity and [to define it] as labor in general, neither industrial, nor commercial, nor agricultural, or one as much as the other. Along with the universal character of wealth-creating activity we have now the universal character of the object defined as wealth, viz. product in general, or labor in general, but as past incorporated labor. How difficult and great was the transition, is evident from the way Adam Smith himself falls back from time to time into the physiocratic system. Now, it might seem as though this amounted simply to finding an abstract expression for the simplest relation into which men have been mutually entering as producers from times of yore, no matter under what form of society. In one sense this is true. In another it is not.",
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      "text": "The indifference as to the particular kind of labor implies the existence of a highly developed aggregate of different species of concrete labor, none of which is any longer the predominant one. So do the most general abstractions commonly arise only where there is the highest concrete development, where one feature appears to be jointly possessed by many, and to be common to all. Then it can not be thought of any longer in one particular form. On the other hand, this abstraction of labor is but the result of a concrete aggregate of different kinds of labor. The indifference to the particular kind of labor corresponds to a form of society in which individuals pass with ease from one kind of work to another, which makes it immaterial to them what particular kind of work may fall to their share. Labor has become here, not only categorically but really, a means of creating wealth in general and is no longer grown together with the individual into one particular destination. This state of affairs has found its highest development in the most modern of bourgeois societies, the United States. It is only here that the abstraction of the category “labor,” “labor in general,” labor _sans phrase_, the starting point of modern political economy, becomes realized in practice. Thus, the simplest abstraction which modern political economy sets up as its starting point, and which expresses a relation dating back to antiquity and prevalent under all forms of society, appears in this abstraction truly realized only as a category of the most modern society. It might be said that what appears in the United States as an historical product,―viz. the indifference as to the particular kind of labor―appears among the Russians e. g. as a natural disposition. But it makes all the difference in the world whether barbarians have a natural predisposition which makes them applicable alike to everything, or whether civilized people apply themselves to everything. And, besides, this indifference of the Russians as to the kind of work they do, corresponds to their traditional practice of remaining in the rut of a quite definite occupation until they are thrown out of it by external influences.",
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      "text": "This example of labor strikingly shows how even the most abstract categories, in spite of their applicability to all epochs―just because of their abstract character―are by the very definiteness of the abstraction a product of historical conditions as well, and are fully applicable only to and under those conditions.",
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      "text": "The bourgeois society is the most highly developed and most highly differentiated historical organization of production. The categories which serve as the expression of its conditions and the comprehension of its own organization enable it at the same time to gain an insight into the organization and the conditions of production which had prevailed under all the past forms of society, on the ruins and constituent elements of which it has arisen, and of which it still drags along some unsurmounted remnants, while what had formerly been mere intimation has now developed to complete significance. The anatomy of the human being is the key to the anatomy of the ape. But the intimations of a higher animal in lower ones can be understood only if the animal of the higher order is already known. The bourgeois economy furnishes a key to ancient economy, etc. This is, however, by no means true of the method of those economists who blot out all historical differences and see the bourgeois form in all forms of society. One can understand the nature of tribute, tithes, etc., after one has learned the nature of rent. But they must not be considered identical.",
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      "text": "Since, furthermore, bourgeois society is but a form resulting from the development of antagonistic elements, some relations belonging to earlier forms of society are frequently to be found in it but in a crippled state or as a travesty of their former self, as e. g. communal property. While it may be said, therefore, that the categories of bourgeois economy contain what is true of all other forms of society, the statement is to be taken _cum grano salis_. They may contain these in a developed, or crippled, or caricatured form, but always essentially different. The so-called historical development amounts in the last analysis to this, that the last form considers its predecessors as stages leading up to itself and perceives them always one-sidedly, since it is very seldom and only under certain conditions that it is capable of self-criticism; of course, we do not speak here of such historical periods which appear to their own contemporaries as periods of decay. The Christian religion became capable to assist us to an objective view of past mythologies as soon as it was ready for self-criticism to a certain extent, _dynamei_ so-to-say. In the same way bourgeois political economy first came to understand the feudal, the ancient, and the oriental societies as soon as the self-criticism of the bourgeois society had commenced. So far as bourgeois political economy has not gone into the mythology of purely (?) identifying the bourgeois system with the past, its criticism of the feudal system against which it still had to wage war resembled Christian criticism of the heathen religions or Protestant criticism of Catholicism.",
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      "text": "It would thus be impractical and wrong to arrange the economic categories in the order in which they were the determining factors in the course of history. Their order of sequence is rather determined by the relation which they bear to one another in modern bourgeois society, and which is the exact opposite of what seems to be their natural order or the order of their historical development. What we are interested in is not the place which economic relations occupy in the historical succession of different forms of society. Still less are we interested in the order of their succession “in idea” (_Proudhon_), which is but a hazy (?) conception of the course of history. We are interested in their organic connection within modern bourgeois society.",
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      "text": "The sharp line of demarkation (abstract precision) which so clearly distinguished the trading nations of antiquity, such as the Phenicians and the Carthagenians, was due to that very predominance of agriculture. Capital as trading or money capital appears in that abstraction, where capital does not constitute as yet the predominating element of society. The Lombardians and the Jews occupied the same position among the agricultural nations of the middle ages.",
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      "text": "As a further illustration of the fact that the same category plays different parts at different stages of society, we may mention the following: one of the latest forms of bourgeois society, viz. stock companies, appear also at its beginning in the form of the great chartered monopolistic trading companies. The conception of national wealth which is imperceptibly formed in the minds of the economists of the seventeenth century, and which partly continues to be entertained by those of the eighteenth century, is that wealth is produced solely for the state, but that the power of the latter is proportional to that wealth. It was as yet an unconsciously hypocritical way in which wealth announced itself and its own production as the aim of modern states considering the latter merely as a means to the production of wealth.",
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      "text": "The order of treatment must manifestly be as follows: first, the general abstract definitions which are more or less applicable to all forms of society, but in the sense indicated above. Second, the categories which go to make up the inner organization of bourgeois society and constitute the foundations of the principal classes; capital, wage-labor, landed property; their mutual relations; city and country; the three great social classes, the exchange between them; circulation, credit (private). Third, the organization of bourgeois society in the form of a state, considered in relation to itself; the “unproductive” classes; taxes; public debts; public credit; population; colonies; emigration. Fourth, the international organization of production; international division of labor; international exchange; import and export; rate of exchange. Fifth, the world market and crises.",
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      "text": "4. PRODUCTION, MEANS OF PRODUCTION, AND CONDITIONS OF PRODUCTION, THE RELATIONS OF PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION.[165] THE CONNECTION BETWEEN FORM OF STATE AND PROPERTY ON THE ONE HAND AND RELATIONS OF PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION(1) ON THE OTHER. LEGAL RELATIONS. FAMILY RELATIONS.",
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      "text": "Notes on the points to be mentioned here and not to be omitted:[166]",
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      "text": "“_The American Beauty Rose can be produced in its splendor and fragrance only by sacrificing the early buds which grow up around it._”",
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      "text": "J. D. ROCKEFELLER, JR., IN AN ADDRESS ON TRUSTS, TO THE STUDENTS OF BROWN UNIVERSITY.",
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      "text": "PREFACE",
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      "text": "This work is the outgrowth of an effort on the part of the editors of McClure’s Magazine to deal concretely in their pages with the trust question. In order that their readers might have a clear and succinct notion of the processes by which a particular industry passes from the control of the many to that of the few, they decided a few years ago to publish a detailed narrative of the history of the growth of a particular trust. The Standard Oil Trust was chosen for obvious reasons. It was the first in the field, and it has furnished the methods, the charter, and the traditions for its followers. It is the most perfectly developed trust in existence; that is, it satisfies most nearly the trust ideal of entire control of the commodity in which it deals. Its vast profits have led its officers into various allied interests, such as railroads, shipping, gas, copper, iron, steel, as well as into banks and trust companies, and to the acquiring and solidifying of these interests it has applied the methods used in building up the Oil Trust. It has led in the struggle against legislation directed against combinations. Its power in state and Federal government, in the press, in the college, in the pulpit, is generally recognised. The perfection of the organisation of the Standard, the ability and daring with which it has carried out its projects, make it the pre-eminent trust of the world—the one whose story is best fitted to illuminate the subject of combinations of capital.",
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      "text": "Another important consideration with the editors in deciding that the Standard Oil Trust was the best adapted to illustrate their meaning, was the fact that it is one of the very few business organisations of the country whose growth could be traced in trustworthy documents. There is in existence just such documentary material for a history of the Standard Oil Company as there is for a history of the Civil War or the French Revolution, or any other national episode which has divided men’s minds. This has come about largely from the fact that almost constantly since its organisation in 1870 the Standard Oil Company has been under investigation by the Congress of the United States and by the Legislatures of various states in which it has operated, on the suspicion that it was receiving rebates from the railroads and was practising methods in restraint of free trade. In 1872 and again in 1876 it was before Congressional committees, in 1879 it was before examiners of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and before committees appointed by the Legislatures of New York and of Ohio for investigating railroads. Its operations figured constantly in the debate which led up to the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1887, and again and again since that time the Commission has been called upon to examine directly or indirectly into its relation with the railroads.",
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      "text": "In 1888, in the Investigation of Trusts conducted by Congress and by the state of New York, the Standard Oil Company was the chief subject for examination. In the state of Ohio, between 1882 and 1892, a constant warfare was waged against the Standard in the courts and Legislature, resulting in several volumes of testimony. The Legislatures of many other states concerned themselves with it. This hostile legislation compelled the trust to separate into its component parts in 1892, but investigation did not cease; indeed, in the last great industrial inquiry, conducted by the Commission appointed by President McKinley, the Standard Oil Company was constantly under discussion, and hundreds of pages of testimony on it appear in the nineteen volumes of reports which the Commission has submitted.",
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      "text": "This mass of testimony, all of it submitted under oath it should be remembered, contains the different charters and agreements under which the Standard Oil Trust has operated, many contracts and agreements with railroads, with refineries, with pipe-lines, and it contains the experiences in business from 1872 up to 1900 of multitudes of individuals. These experiences have exactly the quality of the personal reminiscences of actors in great events, with the additional value that they were given on the witness stand, and it is fair, therefore, to suppose that they are more cautious and exact in statements than many writers of memoirs are. These investigations, covering as they do all of the important steps in the development of the trust, include full accounts of the point of view of its officers in regard to that development, as well as their explanations of many of the operations over which controversy has arisen. Hundreds of pages of sworn testimony are found in these volumes from John D. Rockefeller, William Rockefeller, Henry M. Flagler, H. H. Rogers, John D. Archbold, Daniel O’Day and other members of the concern.",
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      "text": "Aside from the great mass of sworn testimony accessible to the student there is a large pamphlet literature dealing with different phases of the subject, and there are files of the numerous daily newspapers and monthly reviews, supported by the Oil Regions, in the columns of which are to be found not only statistics but full reports of all controversies between oil men. No complete collection of this voluminous printed material has ever been made, but several small collections exist, and in one or another of these I have been able to find practically all of the important documents relating to the subject. Mrs. Roger Sherman of Titusville, Pennsylvania, owns the largest of these collections, and in it are to be found copies of the rarest pamphlets. Lewis Emery, Jr., of Bradford, the late E. G. Patterson of Titusville, the late Henry D. Lloyd, author of “Wealth _vs._ Commonwealth,” William Hasson of Oil City, and P. C. Boyle, the editor of the Oil City Derrick, have collections of value, and they have all been most generous in giving me access to their books.",
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      "text": "But the documentary sources of this work are by no means all printed. The Standard Oil Trust and its constituent companies have figured in many civil suits, the testimony of which is still in manuscript in the files of the courts where the suits were tried. These manuscripts have been examined on the ground, and in numerous instances full copies of affidavits and of important testimony have been made for permanent reference and study. I have also had access to many files of private correspondence and papers, the most important being that of the officers and counsel of the Petroleum Producers’ Union from 1878 to 1880, that covering the organisation from 1887 to 1895 of the various independent companies which resulted in the Pure Oil Company, and that containing the material prepared by Roger Sherman for the suit brought in 1897 by the United States Pipe Line against certain of the Standard companies under the Sherman anti-trust law.",
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      "text": "[Illustration:",
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      "text": "Map of Northwestern Pennsylvania, showing the relation of the Oil Regions to the railroads in 1859, when oil was “discovered.” ]",
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      "text": "The strides the firm of Rockefeller and Andrews made after the former went into it were attributed for three or four years mainly to his extraordinary capacity for bargaining and borrowing. Then its chief competitors began to suspect something. John Rockefeller might get his oil cheaper now and then, they said, but he could not do it often. He might make close contracts for which they had neither the patience nor the stomach. He might have an unusual mechanical and practical genius in his partner. But these things could not explain all. They believed they bought, on the whole, almost as cheaply as he, and they knew they made as good oil and with as great, or nearly as great, economy. He could sell at no better price than they. Where was his advantage? There was but one place where it could be, and that was in transportation. He must be getting better rates from the railroads than they were. In 1868 or 1869 a member of a rival firm long in the business, which had been prosperous from the start, and which prided itself on its methods, its economy and its energy, Alexander, Scofield and Company, went to the Atlantic and Great Western road, then under the Erie management, and complained. “You are giving others better rates than you are us,” said Mr. Alexander, the representative of the firm. “We cannot compete if you do that.” The railroad agent did not attempt to deny it—he simply agreed to give Mr. Alexander a rebate also. The arrangement was interesting. Mr. Alexander was to pay the open, or regular, rate on oil from the Oil Regions to Cleveland, which was then forty cents a barrel. At the end of each month he was to send to the railroad vouchers for the amount of oil shipped and paid for at forty cents, and was to get back from the railroad, in money, fifteen cents on each barrel. This concession applied only to oil brought from the wells. He was never able to get a rebate on oil shipped eastward.[6] According to Mr. Alexander, the Atlantic and Great Western gave the rebates on oil from the Oil Regions to Cleveland up to 1871 and the system was then discontinued. Late in 1871, however, the firm for the first time got a rebate on the Lake Shore road on oil brought from the field.",
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      "text": "Another Cleveland man, W. H. Doane, engaged in shipping crude oil, began to suspect about the same time as Mr. Alexander that the Standard was receiving rebates. Now Mr. Doane had always been opposed to the “drawback business,” but it was impossible for him to supply his customers with crude oil at as low a rate as the Standard paid if it received a rebate and he did not, and when it was first generally rumoured in Cleveland that the railroads were favouring Mr. Rockefeller he went to see the agent of the road. “I told him I did not want any drawback, unless others were getting it; I wanted it if they were getting it, and he gave me at that time ten cents drawback.” This arrangement Mr. Doane said had lasted but a short time. At the date he was speaking—the spring of 1872—he had had no drawback for two years.",
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      "text": "A still more important bit of testimony as to the time when rebates first began to be given to the Cleveland refiners and as to who first got them and why, is contained in an affidavit made in 1880 by the very man who made the discrimination.[7] This man was General J. H. Devereux, who in 1868 succeeded Amasa Stone as vice-president of the Lake Shore Railroad. General Devereux said that his experience with the oil traffic had begun with his connection with the Lake Shore; that the only written memoranda concerning oil which he found in his office on entering his new position was a book in which it was stated that the representatives of the twenty-five oil-refining firms in Cleveland had agreed to pay a cent a gallon on crude oil removed from the Oil Regions. General Devereux says that he soon found there was a deal of trouble in store for him over oil freight. The competition between the twenty-five firms was close, the Pennsylvania was “claiming a patent right” on the transportation of oil and was putting forth every effort to make Pittsburg and Philadelphia the chief refining centres. Oil Creek was boasting that it was going to be the future refining point for the world. All of this looked bad for what General Devereux speaks of as the “then very limited refining capacity of Cleveland.” This remark shows how new he was to the business, for, as we have already seen, Cleveland in 1868 had anything but a limited refining capacity. Between three and four million dollars were invested in oil refineries, and the town was receiving within 35,000 barrels of as much oil as New York City, and within 300,000 as much as Pittsburg, and it was boasting that the next year it would outstrip these competitors, which, as a matter of fact, it did.",
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      "text": "The natural point for General Devereux to consider, of course, was whether he could meet the rates the Pennsylvania were giving and increase the oil freight for the Lake Shore. The road had a branch running to Franklin, Pennsylvania, within a few miles of Oil City. This he completed, and then, as he says in his affidavit, “a sharper contest than ever was produced growing out of the opposition of the Pennsylvania Railroad in competition. Such rates and arrangements were made by the Pennsylvania Railroad that it was publicly proclaimed in the public print in Oil City, Titusville and other places that Cleveland was to be wiped out as a refining centre as with a sponge.” General Devereux goes on to say that all the refiners of the town, without exception, came to him in alarm, and expressed their fears that they would have either to abandon their business there or move to Titusville or other points in the Oil Regions; that the only exception to this decision was that offered by Rockefeller, Andrews and Flagler, who, on his assurance that the Lake Shore Railroad could and would handle oil as cheaply as the Pennsylvania Company, proposed to stand their ground at Cleveland and fight it out on that line. And so General Devereux gave the Standard the rebate on the rate which Amasa Stone had made with all the refiners. Why he should not have quieted the fears of the twenty-four or twenty-five other refiners by lowering their rate, too, does not appear in the affidavit. At all events the rebate had come, and, as we have seen, it soon was suspected and others went after it, and in some cases got it. But the rebate seems to have been granted generally only on oil brought from the Oil Regions. Mr. Alexander claims he was never able to get his rate lowered on his Eastern shipments. The railroad took the position with him that if he could ship as much oil as the Standard he could have as low a rate, but not otherwise. Now in 1870 the Standard Oil Company had a daily capacity of about 1,500 barrels of crude. The refinery was the largest in the town, though it had some close competitors. Nevertheless on the strength of its large capacity it received the special favour. It was a plausible way to get around the theory generally held then, as now, though not so definitely crystallised into law, that the railroad being a common carrier had no right to discriminate between its patrons. It remained to be seen whether the practice would be accepted by Mr. Rockefeller’s competitors without a contest, or, if contested, would be supported by the law.",
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      "text": "What the Standard’s rebate on Eastern shipments was in 1870 it is impossible to say. Mr. Alexander says he was never able to get a rate lower than $1.33 a barrel by rail, and that it was commonly believed in Cleveland that the Standard had a rate of ninety cents. Mr. Flagler, however, the only member of the firm who has been examined under oath on that point, showed, by presenting the contract of the Standard Oil Company with the Lake Shore road in 1870, that the rates varied during the year from $1.40 to $1.20 and $1.60, according to the season. When Mr. Flagler was asked if there was no drawback or rebate on this rate he answered, “None whatever.”",
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      "text": "It would seem from the above as if the one man in the Cleveland oil trade in 1870 who ought to have been satisfied was Mr. Rockefeller. His was the largest firm in the largest refining centre of the country; that is, of the 10,000 to 12,000 daily capacity divided among the twenty-five or twenty-six refiners of Cleveland he controlled 1,500 barrels. Not only was Cleveland the largest refining centre in the country, it was gaining rapidly, for where in 1868 it shipped 776,356 barrels of refined oil, in 1869 it shipped 923,933, in 1870 1,459,500, and in 1871 1,640,499.[8] Not only did Mr. Rockefeller control the largest firm in this most prosperous centre of a prosperous business, he controlled one of amazing efficiency. The combination, in 1870, of the various companies with which he was connected had brought together a group of remarkable men. Samuel Andrews, by all accounts, was the ablest mechanical superintendent in Cleveland. William Rockefeller, the brother of John D. Rockefeller, was not only an energetic and intelligent business man, he was a man whom people liked. He was open-hearted, jolly, a good story-teller, a man who knew and liked a good horse—not too pious, as some of John’s business associates thought him, not a man to suspect or fear, as many a man did John. Old oil men will tell you on the creek to-day how much they liked him in the days when he used to come to Oil City buying oil for the Cleveland firm. The personal quality of William Rockefeller was, and always has been, a strong asset of the Standard Oil Company. Probably the strongest man in the firm after John D. Rockefeller was Henry M. Flagler. He was, like the others, a young man, and one who, like the head of the firm, had the passion for money, and in a hard self-supporting experience, begun when but a boy, had learned, as well as his chief, some of the principles of making it. He was untiring in his efforts to increase the business, quick to see an advantage, as quick to take it. He had no scruples to make him hesitate over the ethical quality of a contract which was advantageous. Success, that is, making money, was its own justification. He was not a secretive man, like John D. Rockefeller, not a dreamer, but he could keep his mouth shut when necessary and he knew the worth of a financial dream when it was laid before him. It must have been evident to every business man who came in contact with the young Standard Oil Company that it would go far. The firm itself must have known it would go far. Indeed nothing could have stopped the Standard Oil Company in 1870—the oil business being what it was—but an entire change in the nature of the members of the firm, and they were not the kind of material which changes.",
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      "text": "With such a set of associates, with his organisation complete from his buyers on the creek to his exporting agent in New York, with the transportation advantages which none of his competitors had had the daring or the persuasive power to get, certainly Mr. Rockefeller should have been satisfied in 1870. But Mr. Rockefeller was far from satisfied. He was a brooding, cautious, secretive man, seeing all the possible dangers as well as all the possible opportunities in things, and he studied, as a player at chess, all the possible combinations which might imperil his supremacy. These twenty-five Cleveland rivals of his—how could he at once and forever put them out of the game? He and his partners had somehow conceived a great idea—the advantages of combination. What might they not do if they could buy out and absorb the big refineries now competing with them in Cleveland? The possibilities of the idea grew as they discussed it. Finally they began tentatively to sound some of their rivals. But there were other rivals than these at home. There were the creek refiners! They were there at the mouth of the wells. What might not this geographical advantage do in time? Refining was going on there on an increasing scale; the capacity of the Oil Regions had indeed risen to nearly 10,000 barrels a day—equal to that of New York, exceeding that of Pittsburg by nearly 4,000 barrels, and almost equalling that of Cleveland. The men of the oil country loudly declared that they meant to refine for the world. They boasted of an oil kingdom which eventually should handle the entire business and compel Cleveland and Pittsburg either to abandon their works or bring them to the oil country. In this boastful ambition they were encouraged particularly by the Pennsylvania Railroad, which naturally handled the largest percentage of the oil. How long could the Standard Oil Company stand against this competition?",
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      "text": "COMMODORE CORNELIUS VANDERBILT",
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      "text": "President of the New York Central Railroad when the contract with the South Improvement Company was signed. ]",
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      "text": "The work of persuasion went on swiftly. By the 18th of January the president of the Pennsylvania road, J. Edgar Thompson, had put his signature to the contract, and soon after Mr. Vanderbilt and Mr. Clark signed for the Central system, and Jay Gould and General McClellan for the Erie. The contracts to which these gentlemen put their names fixed gross rates of freight from all _common points_, as the leading shipping points within the Oil Regions were called, to all the great refining and shipping centres—New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburg and Cleveland. For example, the open rate on crude to New York was put at $2.56. On this price the South Improvement Company was allowed a rebate of $1.06 for its shipments; but it got not only this rebate, it was given in cash a like amount on each barrel of crude shipped by parties outside the combination.",
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      "text": "The open rate from Cleveland to New York was two dollars, and fifty cents of this was turned over to the South Improvement Company, which at the same time received a rebate enabling it to ship for $1.50. Again, an independent refiner in Cleveland paid eighty cents a barrel to get his crude from the Oil Regions to his works, and the railroad sent forty cents of this money to the South Improvement Company. At the same time it cost the Cleveland refiner in the combination but forty cents to get his crude oil. Like drawbacks and rebates were given for all points—Pittsburg, Philadelphia, Boston and Baltimore.",
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      "text": "An interesting provision in the contracts was that full way-bills of all petroleum shipped over the roads should each day be sent to the South Improvement Company. This, of course, gave them knowledge of just who was doing business outside of their company—of how much business he was doing, and with whom he was doing it. Not only were they to have full knowledge of the business of all shippers—they were to have access to all books of the railroads.",
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      "text": "The parties to the contracts agreed that if anybody appeared in the business offering an equal amount of transportation, and having equal facilities for doing business with the South Improvement Company, the railroads might give them equal advantages in drawbacks and rebates, but to make such a miscarriage of the scheme doubly improbable each railroad was bound to co-operate as “far as it legally might to maintain the business of the South Improvement Company against injury by competition, and lower or raise the gross rates of transportation for such times and to such extent as might be necessary to overcome the competition. The rebates and drawbacks to be varied _pari passu_ with the gross rates.”[11]",
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      "text": "The reason given by the railroads in the contract for granting these extraordinary privileges was that the “magnitude and extent of the business and operations” purposed to be carried on by the South Improvement Company would greatly promote the interest of the railroads and make it desirable for them to encourage their undertaking. The evident advantages received by the railroad were a regular amount of freight,—the Pennsylvania was to have forty-five per cent. of the East-bound shipments, the Erie and Central each 27½ per cent., while West-bound freight was to be divided equally between them—fixed rates, and freedom from the system of cutting which they had all found so harassing and disastrous. That is, the South Improvement Company, which was to include the entire refining capacity of the company, was to act as the evener of the oil business.[12]",
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      "bookId": 60692,
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      "text": "It was on the second of January, 1872, that the organisation of the South Improvement Company was completed. The day before the Standard Oil Company of Cleveland increased its capital from $1,000,000 to $2,500,000, “all the stockholders of the company being present and voting therefor.”[13] These stockholders were greater by five than in 1870, the names of O. B. Jennings, Benjamin Brewster, Truman P. Handy, Amasa Stone, and Stillman Witt having been added. The last three were officers and stockholders in one or more of the railroads centring in Cleveland. Three weeks after this increase of capital Mr. Rockefeller had the charter and contracts of the South Improvement Company in hand, and was ready to see what they would do in helping him carry out his idea of wholesale combination in Cleveland. There were at that time some twenty-six refineries in the town—some of them very large plants. All of them were feeling more or less the discouraging effects of the last three or four years of railroad discriminations in favour of the Standard Oil Company. To the owners of these refineries Mr. Rockefeller now went one by one, and explained the South Improvement Company. “You see,” he told them, “this scheme is bound to work. It means an absolute control by us of the oil business. There is no chance for anyone outside. But we are going to give everybody a chance to come in. You are to turn over your refinery to my appraisers, and I will give you Standard Oil Company stock or cash, as you prefer, for the value we put upon it. I advise you to take the stock. It will be for your good.” Certain refiners objected. They did not want to sell. They did want to keep and manage their business. Mr. Rockefeller was regretful, but firm. It was useless to resist, he told the hesitating; they would certainly be crushed if they did not accept his offer, and he pointed out in detail, and with gentleness, how beneficent the scheme really was—preventing the creek refiners from destroying Cleveland, ending competition, keeping up the price of refined oil, and eliminating speculation. Really a wonderful contrivance for the good of the oil business.",
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      "text": "That such was Mr. Rockefeller’s argument is proved by abundant testimony from different individuals who succumbed to the pressure. Mr. Rockefeller’s own brother, Frank Rockefeller, gave most definite evidence on this point in 1876 when he and others were trying to interest Congress in a law regulating interstate commerce.",
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      "text": "The committee were not convinced, however, that a scheme which began by adding four cents to the price of a gallon of oil could be to the good of the consumer. Nor did anything appear in the contracts which showed how the fluctuations in the price of oil were to be avoided. These fluctuations were due to the rise and fall in the crude market, and that depended on the amount of crude coming from the ground. The South Improvement Company might assert that they meant to bring the producers into their scheme and persuade them to keep down the amount of production in the same way they meant to keep down refined, so that the price could be kept steadily high, but they had nothing to prove that they were sincere in the intention, nothing to prove that they had thought of the producer seriously until the trouble in the Oil Regions began. It looked very much to the committee as if the real intention of the company was to keep up the price of refined to a certain figure by limiting the output, and that there was nothing to show that it would not go up with crude though it might not go down with it! Under these circumstances it seemed as if a fluctuating market which gave a moderate average was better for the consumer than the steady high price which Mr. Watson thought so good for the public. Thirty-two cents a gallon was the ideal price they had in view, though refined had not sold for that since 1869, the average price in 1870 being 26⅜ and in 1871 24¼. The refiner who in 1871 sold his oil at 24¼ cents a gallon cleared easily fifty-two cents a barrel—a large profit on his investment,—but the refiners in the early stages of this new industry had made much larger profits. It was to perpetuate these early profits that they had gone into the South Improvement Company.",
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      "text": "It did not take the full exposition of the objects of the South Improvement Company, brought out by the Congressional Investigating Committee, with the publication of charters and contracts, to convince the country at large that the Oil Regions were right in their opposition. From the first the sympathy of the press and the people were with the oil men. It was evident to everybody that if the railroads had made the contracts as charged (and it daily became more evident they had done so), nothing but an absolute monopoly of the whole oil business by this combination could result. It was robbery, cried the newspapers all over the land. “Under the thin guise of assisting in the development of oil-refining in Pittsburg and Cleveland,” said the New York Tribune, “this corporation has simply laid its hand upon the throat of the oil traffic with a demand to ‘stand and deliver.’” And if this could be done in the oil business, what was to prevent its being done in any other industry? Why should not a company be formed to control wheat or beef or iron or steel, as well as oil? If the railroads would do this for one company, why not for another? The South Improvement Company, men agreed, was a menace to the free trade of the country. If the oil men yielded now, all industries must suffer from their weakness. The railroads must be taught a lesson as well as would-be monopolists.",
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      "text": "The oil men had no thought of yielding. With every day of the war their backbone grew stiffer. The men were calmer, too, for their resistance had found a ground which seemed impregnable to them, and arguments against the South Improvement Company now took the place of denunciations. On all sides men said, This is a transportation question, and now is the time to put an end once and forever to the rebates. The sentiment against discrimination on account of amount of freight or for any other reason had been strong in the country since its beginning, and it now crystallised immediately. The country so buzzed with discussion on the duties of the railroads that reporters sent from the Eastern newspapers commented on it. Nothing was commoner, indeed, on the trains which ran the length of the region and were its real forums, than to hear a man explaining that the railways derived their existence and power from the people, that their charters were contracts with the people, that a fundamental provision of these contracts was that there should be no discriminating in favour of one person or one town, that such a discrimination was a violation of charter, that therefore the South Improvement Company was founded on fraud, and the courts must dissolve it if the railways did not abandon it. The Petroleum Producers’ Union which had been formed to grapple with the “Monster” actually demanded interstate regulation, for in a circular sent out to newspapers and boards of trade asking their aid against the conspiracy they included this paragraph: “We urge you to exert all your influence with your representatives in Congress to support such measures offered there as will prohibit for all future time any monopoly of railroads or other transportation companies from laying embargoes upon the trade between states by a system of excessive freights or unjust discrimination against buyers or shippers in any trade by the allowance of rebates or drawbacks to any persons whatever. This is a matter of national importance, and only the most decided action can protect you and us from the scheming strength of these monopolies.”",
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      "text": "How the whole question appeared to an intelligent oil man, one, too, who had had the courage to resist in the attack on the trade in Cleveland, and who still was master of his own refinery, is shown by the following letter to the Cleveland Herald:",
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      "text": "EDS. HERALD: As I understand, the financial success of this South Improvement Company is based upon contracts made with the officers (either individually or otherwise) of all the railroads leading out of the Oil Region, by which they (the South Improvement Company) receive as a drawback certain excess of freights, not only on every barrel of oil shipped out of the Oil Regions by or to themselves, but also on every barrel of oil shipped out of the Oil Regions by or to other refiners, or dealers, or consumers.",
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      "text": "We saw Mr. Scott on the 18th of March, 1872, in Philadelphia, and he said to us that he was very much surprised to hear of this agitation in the Oil Regions; that the object of the railroads in making this contract with the South Improvement Company was to obtain an evener to pool the freight—pool the oil freights among the different roads; that they had been cutting each other on oil freights for a number of years, and had not made any money out of it, although it was a freight they should have made money from; that they had endeavoured to make an arrangement among themselves, but had always failed; he said that they supposed that the gentlemen representing the South Improvement Company represented the petroleum trade, but as he was now convinced they did not, he would be very glad to make an arrangement with this committee, who undoubtedly did represent the petroleum trade; the committee told him that they could not make any such contract; that they had no legal authority to do so; he said that could be easily fixed, because the Legislature was then in session, and by going to Harrisburg a charter could be obtained in a very few days; the committee still said that they would not agree to any such arrangement, that they did not think the South Improvement Company’s contract was a good one, and they were instructed to have it broken, and so they did not feel that they could accept a similar one, even if they had the power.",
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      "text": "Leaving Colonel Scott the committee went on to New York, where they stayed for about a week, closely watched by the newspapers, all of which treated the “Oil War” as a national affair. Their first interview of importance in New York was with Commodore Vanderbilt, who said to them very frankly at the beginning of their talk: “I told Billy (W. H. Vanderbilt) not to have anything to do with that scheme.” The committee in its report said that the Commodore fully agreed with them upon the justice of their claims, and frequently asserted his objections to any combination seeking a monopoly of other men’s property and interests. He told them that if what they asked was that the railroads should fix a tariff which, while giving them a paying rate, would secure the oil men against drawbacks, rebates, or variations in the tariff, he would willingly co-operate. The Commodore ended his amiable concessions by reading the committee a letter just received from the South Improvement Company offering to co-operate with the producers and refiners or to compromise existing differences. The oil men told the Commodore emphatically that they would not treat with the South Improvement Company or with anyone interested in it nor would they recognise its existence. And this stand they kept throughout their negotiations though repeated efforts were made by the railroad men, particularly those of the Central system, to persuade them to a compromise.",
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      "text": "At the meeting with the officials of the Erie and the Atlantic and Great Western the committee was incensed by being offered a contract similar to that of the South Improvement Company—on consideration that the original be allowed to stand. It seemed impossible to the railroad men that the oil men really meant what they said and would make no terms save on the basis of no discriminations of any kind to anybody. They evidently believed that if the committee had a chance to sign a contract as profitable as that of the South Improvement Company, all their fair talk of “fair play”—“the duty of the common carrier”—“equal chance to all in transportation”—would at once evaporate. They failed utterly at first to comprehend that the Oil War of 1872 was an uprising against an injustice, and that the moral wrong of the thing had taken so deep a hold of the oil country that the people as a whole had combined to restore right. General McClellan of the Atlantic and Great Western and Mr. Diven, one of the Erie’s directors, were the only ones who gave the committee any support in their position.",
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      "ref": "PG60692.B00381",
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      "text": "The final all-important conference with the railroad men was held on March 25, at the Erie offices. Horace Clark, president of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railroad, was chairman of this meeting, and, according to H. H. Rogers’ testimony before the Hepburn Committee, in 1879, there were present, besides the oil men, Colonel Scott, General McClellan, Director Diven, William H. Vanderbilt, Mr. Stebbins, and George Hall. The meeting had not been long in session before Mr. Watson, president of the South Improvement Company, and John D. Rockefeller presented themselves for admission. Up to this time Mr. Rockefeller had kept well out of sight in the affair. He had given no interviews, offered no explanations. He had allowed the president of the company to wrestle with the excitement in his own way, but things were now in such critical shape that he came forward in a last attempt to save the organisation by which he had been able to concentrate in his own hands the refining interests of Cleveland. With Mr. Watson he knocked for admission to the council going on in the Erie offices. The oil men flatly refused to let them in. A dramatic scene followed, Mr. Clark, the chairman, protesting in agitated tones against shutting out his “lifelong friend, Watson.” The oil men were obdurate. They would have nothing to do with anybody concerned with the South Improvement Company. So determined were they that although Mr. Watson came in he was obliged at once to withdraw. A Times reporter who witnessed the little scene between the two supporters of the tottering company after its president was turned out of the meeting remarked sympathetically that Mr. Rockefeller soon went away, “looking pretty blue.”",
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      "text": "The acquiescence of the “railroad kings” in the refusal of the oil men to recognise representatives of the South Improvement Company was followed by an unwilling promise to break the contracts with the company. Another strong effort was made to persuade the independents to make the same contracts on condition that they shipped as much oil, but they would not hear of it. They demanded open rates, with no rebates to anyone. Horace Clark and W. H. Vanderbilt particularly stuck for this arrangement. Their opposition to the oil men’s position was so strong that the latter in reporting it to the Union said: “We feel it proper to say that we are in no wise indebted to these gentlemen for any courtesy or consideration received at their hands.” So well did the committee fight its battle and so strongly were they supported by the New York refiners that the railroads were finally obliged to consent to revoke the contracts and to make a new one embodying the views of the Oil Regions. The contract finally signed at this meeting by H. F. Clark for the Lake Shore road, O. H. P. Archer for the Erie, W. H. Vanderbilt for the Central, George B. McClellan for the Atlantic and Great Western, and Thomas A. Scott for the Pennsylvania, agreed that all shipping of oil should be made on “a basis of perfect equality to all shippers, producers, and refiners, and that no rebates, drawbacks, or other arrangements of any character shall be made or allowed that will give any party the slightest difference in rates or discriminations of any character whatever.”[24] It was also agreed that the rates should not be liable to change either for increase or decrease without first giving William Hasson, president of the Producers’ Union, at least ninety days’ notice.",
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      "text": "TO CAPTAIN WILLIAM HASSON: In answer to your telegram, this company holds no contract with the railroad companies or any of them, or with the South Improvement Company. The contracts between the South Improvement Company and the railroads have been cancelled, and I am informed you have been so advised by telegram. I state unqualifiedly that reports circulated in the Oil Region and elsewhere, that this company, or any member of it, threatened to depress oil, are false.",
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      "text": "JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER, _President_.",
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      "text": "After reading all the telegrams the committee submitted its report. The gist of it was that since they had official assurance that the hated contracts were cancelled, and that since they had secured from all the trunk lines a “fair rate of freight, equal to all shippers and producers, great or small, with an abolition of the system of rebates and drawbacks,” the time had arrived “to open the channels of trade to all parties desiring to purchase or deal in oil on terms of equality.” The report was received with “approbation and delight” and put an official end to the “Oil War.”",
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      "text": "But no number of resolutions could wipe out the memory of the forty days of terrible excitement and loss which the region had suffered. No triumph could stifle the suspicion and the bitterness which had been sown broadcast through the region. Every particle of independent manhood in these men whose very life was independent action had been outraged. Their sense of fair play, the saving force of the region in the days before law and order had been established, had been violated. These were things which could not be forgotten. There henceforth could be no trust in those who had devised a scheme which, the producers believed, was intended to rob them of their property.",
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      "text": "It was inevitable that under the pressure of their indignation and resentment some person or persons should be fixed upon as responsible, and should be hated accordingly. Before the lifting of the embargo this responsibility had been fixed. It was the Standard Oil Company of Cleveland, so the Oil Regions decided, which was at the bottom of the business, and the “Mephistopheles of the Cleveland company,” as they put it, was John D. Rockefeller. Even the Cleveland Herald acknowledged this popular judgment. “Whether justly or unjustly,” the editor wrote, “Cleveland has the odium of having originated the scheme.” This opinion gained ground as the days passed. The activity of the president of the Standard in New York, in trying to save the contracts with the railroads, and his constant appearance with Mr. Watson, and the fact brought out by the Congressional Investigation that a larger block of the South Improvement Company’s stock was owned in the Standard than in any other firm, strengthened the belief. But what did more than anything else to fix the conviction was what they had learned of the career of the Standard Oil Company in Cleveland. Before the Oil War the company had been known simply as one of several successful firms in that city. It drove close bargains, but it paid promptly, and was considered a desirable customer. Now the Oil Regions learned for the first time of the sudden and phenomenal expansion of the company. Where there had been at the beginning of 1872 twenty-six refining firms in Cleveland, there were but six left. In three months before and during the Oil War the Standard had absorbed twenty plants. It was generally charged by the Cleveland refiners that Mr. Rockefeller had used the South Improvement scheme to persuade or compel his rivals to sell to him. “Why,” cried the oil men, “the Standard Oil Company has done already in Cleveland what the South Improvement Company set out to do for the whole country, and it has done it by the same means.”",
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      "text": "A prominent Cleveland member of what was the South Improvement Company had said within two days: “The business _now_ will be done by the Standard Oil Company. We have a rate of freight by water from Cleveland to New York at seventy cents. No man in the trade shall make a dollar this year. We purpose to manipulating the market as to run the price of crude on the creek as low as two and a half. We mean to show the world that the South Improvement Company was organised for business and means business in spite of opposition. The same thing has been said in substance by the leading Philadelphia member.”",
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      "text": "“The trade here regards the Standard Oil Company as simply taking the place of the South Improvement Company and as being ready at any moment to make the same attempt to control the trade as its progenitors did,” said the New York Bulletin about the middle of April. And the Cleveland Herald discussed the situation under the heading, “South Improvement Company _alias_ Standard Oil Company.” The effect of these reports in the Oil Regions was most disastrous. Their open war became a kind of guerilla opposition. Those who sold oil to the Standard were ostracised, and its president was openly scorned.",
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      "text": "If Mr. Rockefeller had been an ordinary man the outburst of popular contempt and suspicion which suddenly poured on his head would have thwarted and crushed him. But he was no ordinary man. He had the powerful imagination to see what might be done with the oil business if it could be centered in his hands—the intelligence to analyse the problem into its elements and to find the key to control. He had the essential element of all great achievement, a steadfastness to a purpose once conceived which nothing can crush. The Oil Regions might rage, call him a conspirator, and all those who sold him oil, traitors; the railroads might withdraw their contracts and the Legislature annul his charter; undisturbed and unresting he kept at his great purpose. Even if his nature had not been such as to forbid him to abandon an enterprise in which he saw promise of vast profits, even if he had not had a mind which, stopped by a wall, burrows under or creeps around, he would nevertheless have been forced to desperate efforts to keep up his business. He had increased his refining capacity in Cleveland to 10,000 barrels on the strength of the South Improvement Company contracts. These contracts were annulled, and in their place was one signed by officials of all the oil-shipping roads refusing rebates to everybody. His geographical position was such that it cost him under these new contracts fifty cents more to get oil from the wells to New York than it did his rivals on the creek. True, he had many counterbalancing advantages—a growing Western market almost entirely in his hands, lake traffic, close proximity to all sorts of accessories to his manufacturing, but this contract put him on a level with his rivals. By his size he should have better terms than they. What did he do?",
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      "text": "He got a rebate. Seven years later Mr. Rockefeller’s partner, H. M. Flagler, was called before a commission of the Ohio State Legislature appointed to investigate railroads. He was asked for the former contracts between his company and the railroads, and among others he presented one showing that from “the first of April until the middle of November, 1872,” their East-bound rate was $1.25, twenty-five cents less than that set by the agreement of March 25th, between the oil men and the railroads.[25] The discrepancy between the date Mr. Flagler gives for this contract and that of Mr. Vanderbilt’s telegram to Mr. Hasson stating that his road had no contract with the Standard Oil Company, April 6, and of Mr. Rockefeller’s own telegram stating he had no contracts with the railroads, April 8, the writer is unable to explain. How had Mr. Rockefeller been able to get this rebate? Simply as he had always done—by virtue of the quantity he shipped. He was able to say to Mr. Vanderbilt, I can make a contract to ship sixty car-loads of oil a day over your road—nearly 4,800 barrels; I cannot give this to you regularly unless you will make me a concession; and Mr. Vanderbilt made the concession while he was signing the contract with the oil men. Of course the rate was secret, and Mr. Rockefeller probably understood now, as he had not two months before, how essential it was that he keep it secret. His task was more difficult now, for he had an enemy active, clamorous, contemptuous, whose suspicions had reached that acute point where they could believe nothing but evil of him—the producers and independent refiners of the Oil Regions. It was utterly impossible that he should ever silence this enemy, for their points of view were diametrically opposed.",
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      "text": "They believed in independent effort—every man for himself and fair play for all. They wanted competition, loved open fight. They considered that all business should be done openly; that the railways were bound as public carriers to give equal rates; that any combination which favoured one firm or one locality at the expense of another was unjust and illegal. This belief long held by many of the oil men had been crystallised by the uprising into a common sentiment. It had become the moral code of the region.",
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      "text": "Mr. Rockefeller’s point of view was different. He believed that the “good of all” was in a combination which would control the business as the South Improvement Company proposed to control it. Such a combination would end at once all the abuses the business suffered. As rebates and special rates were essential to this control, he favoured them. Of course Mr. Rockefeller must have known that the railroad was a common carrier, and that the common law forbade discrimination. But he knew that the railroads had not obeyed the laws governing them, that they had regularly granted special rates and rebates to those who had large amounts of freight. That is, you were able to bargain with the railroads as you did with a man carrying on a strictly private business depending in no way on a public franchise. Moreover, Mr. Rockefeller probably believed that, in spite of the agreements, if he did not get rebates somebody else would; that they were for the wariest, the shrewdest, the most persistent. If somebody was to get rebates, why not he? This point of view was no uncommon one. Many men held it and felt a sort of scorn, as practical men always do for theorists, when it was contended that the shipper was as wrong in taking rates as the railroads in granting them.",
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      "text": "Thus, on one hand there was an exaggerated sense of personal independence, on the other a firm belief in combination; on one hand a determination to root out the vicious system of rebates practised by the railway, on the other a determination to keep it alive and profit by it. Those theories which the body of oil men held as vital and fundamental Mr. Rockefeller and his associates either did not comprehend or were deaf to. This lack of comprehension by many men of what seems to other men to be the most obvious principles of justice is not rare. Many men who are widely known as good, share it. Mr. Rockefeller was “good.” There was no more faithful Baptist in Cleveland than he. Every enterprise of that church he had supported liberally from his youth. He gave to its poor. He visited its sick. He wept with its suffering. Moreover, he gave unostentatiously to many outside charities of whose worthiness he was satisfied. He was simple and frugal in his habits. He never went to the theatre, never drank wine. He gave much time to the training of his children, seeking to develop in them his own habits of economy and of charity. Yet he was willing to strain every nerve to obtain for himself special and unjust privileges from the railroads which were bound to ruin every man in the oil business not sharing them with him. He was willing to array himself against the combined better sentiment of a whole industry, to oppose a popular movement aimed at righting an injustice, so revolting to one’s sense of fair play as that of railroad discriminations. Religious emotion and sentiments of charity, propriety and self-denial seem to have taken the place in him of notions of justice and regard for the rights of others.",
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      "text": "Unhampered, then, by any ethical consideration, undismayed by the clamour of the Oil Regions, believing firmly as ever that relief for the disorders in the oil business lay in combining and controlling the entire refining interest, this man of vast patience and foresight took up his work. That work now was to carry out some kind of a scheme which would limit the output of refined oil. He had put his competitors in Cleveland out of the way. He had secured special privileges in transportation, but there were still too many refineries at work to make it possible to put up the price of oil four cents a gallon. It was certain, too, that no scheme could be worked to do that unless the Oil Regions could be mollified. That now was Mr. Rockefeller’s most important business. Just how he began is not known. It is only certain that the day after the newspapers of the Oil Regions printed the report of the Congressional Committee on Commerce denouncing the South Improvement Company as “one of the most gigantic and dangerous conspiracies ever attempted,” and declaring that if it had not been checked in time it “would have resulted in the absorption and arbitrary control of trade in all the great interests of the country.”[26] Mr. Rockefeller and several other members of the South Improvement Company appeared in the Oil Regions. They had come, they explained, to present a new plan of co-operation, and to show the oil men that it was to their interest to go into it. Whether they would be able to obtain by persuasion what they had failed to obtain by assault was now an interesting uncertainty.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER FOUR “AN UNHOLY ALLIANCE”",
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      "text": "JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER IN 1880",
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      "text": "FROM A PHOTOGRAPH BY SARONY ]",
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      "text": "The process of organisation seems to have been natural and highly intelligent. The entire country was buying refined oil for illumination. Many refiners had their own agents out looking for markets; others sold to wholesale dealers, or jobbers, who placed trade with local dealers, usually grocers. Mr. Rockefeller’s business was to replace independent agents and jobbers by his own employees. The United States was mapped out and agents appointed over these great divisions. Thus, a certain portion of the Southwest—including Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas and Texas—the Waters-Pierce Oil Company, of St. Louis, Missouri, had charge of; a portion of the South—including Kentucky, Tennessee and Mississippi—Chess, Carley and Company, of Louisville, Kentucky, had charge of. These companies in turn divided their territory into sections, and put the subdivisions in the charge of local agents. These local agents had stations where oil was received and stored, and from which they and their salesmen carried on their campaigns. This system, inaugurated in the seventies, has been developed until now the Standard Oil Company of each state has its own marketing department, whose territory is divided and watched over in the above fashion. The entire oil-buying territory of the country is thus covered by local agents reporting to division headquarters. These report in turn to the head of the state marketing department, and his reports go to the general marketing headquarters in New York.",
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      "text": "To those who know anything of the way in which Mr. Rockefeller does business, it will go without saying that this marketing department was conducted from the start with the greatest efficiency and economy. Its aim was to make every local station as nearly perfect in its service as it could be. The buyer must receive his oil promptly, in good condition, and of the grade he desired. If a customer complained, the case received prompt attention and the cause was found and corrected. He did not only receive oil; he could have proper lamps and wicks and burners, and directions about using them.",
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      "text": "The local stations from which the dealer is served to-day are models of their kind, and one can easily believe they have always been so. Oil, even refined, is a difficult thing to handle without much disagreeable odour and stain, but the local stations of the Standard Oil Company, like its refineries, are kept orderly and clean by a rigid system of inspection. Every two or three months an inspector goes through each station and reports to headquarters on a multitude of details—whether barrels are properly bunged, filled, stencilled, painted, glued; whether tank wagons, buckets, faucets, pipes, are leaking; whether the glue trough is clean, the ground around the tanks dry, the locks in good condition; the horses properly cared for; the weeds cut in the yard. The time the agent gets around in the morning and the time he takes for lunch are reported. The prices he pays for feed for his horses, for coal, for repairs, are noted. In fact, the condition of every local station, at any given period, can be accurately known at marketing headquarters, if desired. All of this tends, of course, to the greatest economy and efficiency in the local agents.",
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      "text": "But the Standard Oil agents were not sent into a territory back in the seventies simply to sell all the oil they could by efficient service and aggressive pushing; they were sent there to sell all the oil that was bought. “The coal-oil business belongs to us,” was Mr. Rockefeller’s motto, and from the beginning of his campaign in the markets his agents accepted and acted on that principle. If a dealer bought but a barrel of oil a year, it must be from Mr. Rockefeller. This ambition made it necessary that the agents have accurate knowledge of all outside transactions in oil, however small, made in their field. How was this possible? The South Improvement scheme provided perfectly for this, for it bound the railroad to send daily to the principal office of the company reports of all oil shipped, the name of shipper, the quantity and kind of oil, the name of consignee, with the destination and the cost of freight.[91] Having such knowledge as this, an agent could immediately locate each shipment of the independent refiner, and take the proper steps to secure the trade. But the South Improvement scheme never went into operation. It remained only as a beautiful ideal, to be worked out as time and opportunity permitted. The exact process by which this was done it is impossible to trace. The work was delicate and involved operations of which it was wise for the operator to say nothing. It is only certain that little by little a secret bureau for securing information was built up until it is a fact that information concerning the business of his competitors, almost as full as that which Mr. Rockefeller hoped to get when he signed the South Improvement Company contracts, is his to-day. Probably the best way to get an idea of how Mr. Rockefeller built up this department, as well as others of his marketing bureau, is to examine it as it stands to-day. First, then, as to the methods of securing information which are in operation.",
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      "text": "Naturally and properly the local agents of the Standard Oil Company are watchful of the condition of competition in their districts, and naturally and properly they report what they learn. “We ask our salesmen and our agents to keep their eyes open and keep us informed of the situation in their respective fields,” a Standard agent told the Industrial Commission in 1898. “We ask our agents, as they visit the trade, to make reports to us of whom the different parties are buying; principally to know whether our agents are attending to their business or not. If they are letting too much business get away from them, it looks as if they were not attending to their business. They get it from what they see as they go around selling goods.” But there is no such generality about this part of the agent’s or salesman’s business as this statement would lead one to believe. As a matter of fact it is a thoroughly scientific operation. The gentleman who made the above statement, for instance, sends his local agents a blank like the following to be made out each month:",
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      "text": "[Illustration:",
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      "text": "EXHIBIT “B—R.”[92] ]",
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      "text": "“But another reason exists which seems to make it desirable to dissolve this trust. Some two years ago a _quo warranto_ issued in the name of the state of Ohio against the Standard Oil Company, a corporation of the state of Ohio, setting forth this trust agreement and alleging that that corporation, by becoming a party thereto, had done an act beyond its power, and thereby had forfeited its charter. The defendant corporation denied that it was a party to the agreement, and alleged that the agreement was on its face, and plainly, an agreement only between individuals, owners of corporate stocks, relating to their personal property, and was neither made by the corporation nor for the corporation. The court, however, held that the agreement was a corporate agreement, and decreed, among other things, that the corporation must cease to permit trustees to vote upon stocks held in trust.",
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      "text": "“As this agreement was not entered into as a corporate agreement, and as this decision gives it an effect quite different from the intent of the parties who entered into it, it seems better to end it.”[132]",
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      "text": "It is probable that Mr. Dodd had foreseen from the first just such an attack on his agreement as had come, for he had put into that instrument a paragraph providing for a dissolution, and it was in accordance with that article that the trust was now dissolved. The trustees were to continue to exist—under a new name: “Liquidating trustees.” The property they had to take care of was vastly in excess of what it had been ten years before. Then the capital of the thirty-nine constituent companies was $70,000,000. These companies had been combined until they had been reduced to twenty, and their combined capital was now $102,233,700.[133] Property of about $20,000,000 in excess of the capital was held by the trustees. Mr. Dodd’s resolution provided for the division of this property, and for the transfer of the trust certificates back to the corporations to which they belonged. The individual holders of the trust certificates were to get in exchange a proportionate share in each of the twenty companies. “A will not get stock in one corporation and B in another; each will get his due proportion in the stocks of all,” said Mr. Dodd. All of this change would make no difference with the management of affairs. Mr. Dodd assured the stockholders: “Your interests will be the same as now. The various corporations will continue to do the same business as heretofore, and your proportion of the earnings will not be changed.”",
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      "text": "The trustees went about liquidating at once, but it was not until the following November that the immense number of certificates held by them personally were exchanged. The process followed can be easily illustrated by Mr. Rockefeller’s case. When the trust was ordered dissolved Mr. Rockefeller held 256,854 of the 972,500 shares of Standard Oil Trust which were out. He turned over to an attorney an assignment of this amount, with instructions to secure from each of twenty companies in the trust stock certificates for the portion belonging to him. The corporate stocks were turned over to Mr. Rockefeller, and the assignment of certificate, a properly framed and numbered document, was turned over to the liquidating trustees. This assignment of legal title, for all practical purposes, was the same thing as the trust certificate. It enabled the trustees to collect dividends from the various companies and pay them just as they had before. The documents showing the formal procedure in the case of Mr. Rockefeller’s stocks are printed in the Appendix.[134]",
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      "text": "At the end of the first year, after the dissolution of the trust, 477,881 shares were uncancelled. At the end of the second year it was the same; at the end of the third, 477,881 were still out. At the end of the fourth, 477,881. The dissolution of the trust seemed to have come to a stand-still. Mr. Dodd was right; things were going on as they did before; dividends were issued exactly as before. Nor was there any indication of an intention on the part of the liquidating trustees to change this state of things. If the monopolistic power of the Standard Oil Trust was to be broken, it was evidently not to be by any order of dissolution by the courts. Something more powerful than the courts was at work, however. The spirit of individualism was beginning to reassert itself in the oil industry—a new war for independence had been begun, was indeed well under way even before the state of Ohio made the dissolution of the trust necessary.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER FIFTEEN A MODERN WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE",
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      "text": "PRODUCERS’ PROTECTIVE ASSOCIATION FORMED—A SECRET INDEPENDENT ORGANIZATION INTENDED TO HANDLE ITS OWN OIL—AGREEMENT MADE WITH STANDARD TO CUT DOWN PRODUCTION—RESULTS OF AGREEMENT NOT AS BENEFICIAL TO PRODUCERS AS EXPECTED—PRODUCERS PROCEED TO ORGANISE PRODUCERS’ OIL COMPANY, LIMITED—INDEPENDENT REFINERS AGREE TO SUPPORT MOVEMENT—PRODUCERS AND REFINERS’ COMPANY FORMED—LEWIS EMERY, JR.’S, FIGHT FOR SEABOARD PIPE-LINE—THE UNITED STATES PIPE LINE—STANDARD’S DESPERATE OPPOSITION—INDEPENDENT REFINERS ALMOST WORN OUT—THEY ARE RELIEVED BY FORMATION OF PURE OIL COMPANY—PURE OIL COMPANY FINALLY BECOMES HEAD OF INDEPENDENT CONSOLIDATION—INDEPENDENCE POSSIBLE, BUT COMPETITION NOT RESTORED.",
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      "text": "“The quantity of crude oil consumed by the Standard manufacturing interests in 1889 was 896,250,325 gallons, or 20,339,293 barrels, an increase over the previous year of 119,073,589 gallons, or 2,835,085 barrels, an increase of 15.3 percent.",
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      "text": "“The sales of crude oil by our interests for purposes other than their own manufacture were 135,788,959 gallons, or 3,232,832 barrels, an increase of 43¼ per cent. over the previous year, making the total consumption of crude oil through our interests 1,032,029,284 gallons, or 24,572,126 barrels, an increase over 1888 of 3,809,917 barrels, or 18.35 per cent., and exceeding the consumption of 1887, which was the largest of any previous year, by 12.7 per cent.",
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      "text": "“The quantity of refined oil produced was 666,742,547 gallons, or 13,334,851 barrels of 50 gallons each; of lubricating paraffine and compounded oils 43,862,795 gallons, or 877,256 barrels, and of other products 160,712,183 gallons, or 3,214,243 barrels, making a total of all products of 871,371,525 gallons, or 17,426,350 barrels, valued at over $46,000,000.",
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      "text": "“The average cost of the crude consumed in refining was .211 of a cent more than in 1888, while the average price realised per gallon of crude was .090 of a cent less, showing a decrease in the margin between the crude and finished product of .301 of a cent. This represents a saving to the consumer over what the finished products would have cost him if the same margin had been maintained on the increased price of crude of $2,697,000. This has been done without a corresponding loss to our interests by a decrease in cost of manufacturing and marketing, and by the increased quantity handled .204 of a cent, effecting a saving of $1,860,000, and the difference has been more than made up by further reductions of cost of marketing by our distributing interests, as well as in the increased quantity handled. Although the average price of crude has been the highest this year of any of the last five years, the increase over the price of 1887 (when the price on both crude and refined was the lowest for that period) being about 22¼ per cent., the average price of products has increased but 12¼ per cent., showing a saving to the consumer of 10 per cent. We have therefore continued to make good the claim that the Standard has heretofore maintained of cheapening the cost of the products to the consumers by giving them the benefits of the saving in costs effected by consolidation of interests.”[151]",
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      "text": "This certainly sounds just—even philanthropic. It is exactly what the consumer claims is his due—to have a share of the economies which undoubtedly may be effected by such complete and intelligent consolidation as Mr. Rockefeller has effected. But was it combination that caused this falling of the margin? As a matter of fact this lowering of the margin was the direct result of competition. In 1888 a German firm, located in New York City, erected large oil plants in Rotterdam and Bremerhaven. They put up storage tanks at each place of 90,000 barrels’ capacity. They also established a storage depot of 30,000 barrels at Mannheim, and took steps to extend their supply stations in Germany and Switzerland. They built tank steamers in order to ship their oil in bulk. These oil importers allied themselves with certain independent refiners, and interested themselves also in the co-operative movement which the producers of Pennsylvania were striving to get into operation at this time. The extent of the undertaking threatened serious competition. In the same year imports of Russian oil into the markets of Western Europe began for the first time to assume serious proportions. Russian oil had, from the beginning, been a possible menace to American petroleum, for the wonderful fields on the Caspian were known long before oil was “struck” in Pennsylvania. They did not begin to be exploited in a way to threaten competition until late in the eighties. In 1885 consuls at European ports began to report its appearance—fifty barrels were landed at Bremen that year as against 180,855 of American oil. In this year, too, the first Russian oil went to Asia Minor, where “Pratt” oil had long held sway. The first cargo reported at Antwerp was in March, 1886. In April, 1890, the consul at Rotterdam, in calling attention to the independent American competition, said of Russian oil: “It is no longer a serious competitor for the petroleum trade of Western Continental Europe.” The consul said that while the American oil shipments to the five principal continental ports were fully 4,000,000 barrels per year, those of Russian were less than a tenth of that number. However, a growth of 400,000 barrels in five years was something, and the Standard Oil Trust was the last to underestimate such a growth. Prices of export oil immediately fell. There was nothing in the world that gave oil consumers the benefit of the Standard’s savings by economies in 1889 but the competition threatened by Russia and the American and German independent alliance. The Standard, to offset it, not only lowered its price, but it followed the German company to Rotterdam in order to put up an oil plant similar to the one which had been erected by those independents. They also purchased at this time the great oil establishments at Bremen and Hamburg which had hitherto been owned and operated by Germans. A full account of this new development in the oil trade was reported by the American consul at Rotterdam in April of 1890, and is to be found in the consular reports of that year.",
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      "text": "[Illustration:",
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      "text": "1890 TO 1904.",
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      "text": "Fragment of chart, showing relation between crude and refined oil in the last fourteen years. Notice effect on margin from 1890 to 1894 of rise of strong competitive forces. Notice also how margin between price of crude and of domestic oil increased in the winter of 1903–1904, during the coal famine. ]",
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      "text": "CHAPTER SEVENTEEN THE LEGITIMATE GREATNESS OF THE STANDARD OIL COMPANY",
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      "text": "CENTRALISATION OF AUTHORITY—ROCKEFELLER AND EIGHT OTHER TRUSTEES MANAGING THINGS LIKE PARTNERS IN A BUSINESS—NEWS-GATHERING ORGANIZATION FOR COLLECTING ALL INFORMATION OF VALUE TO THE TRUSTEES—ROCKEFELLER GETS PICKED MEN FOR EVERY POST AND CONTRIVES TO MAKE THEM COMPETE WITH EACH OTHER—PLANTS WISELY LOCATED—THE SMALLEST DETAILS IN EXPENSE LOOKED OUT FOR—QUICK ADAPTABILITY TO NEW CONDITIONS AS THEY ARISE—ECONOMY INTRODUCED BY THE MANUFACTURE OF SUPPLIES—A PROFIT PAID TO NOBODY—PROFITABLE EXTENSION OF PRODUCTS AND BY-PRODUCTS—A GENERAL CAPACITY FOR SEEING BIG THINGS AND ENOUGH DARING TO LAY HOLD OF THEM.",
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      "text": "While there can be no doubt that the determining factor in the success of the Standard Oil Company in securing a practical monopoly of the oil industry has been the special privileges it has enjoyed since the beginning of its career, it is equally true that those privileges alone will not account for its success. Something besides illegal advantages has gone into the making of the Standard Oil Trust. Had it possessed only the qualities which the general public has always attributed to it, its overthrow would have come before this. But this huge bulk, blackened by commercial sin, has always been strong in all great business qualities—in energy, in intelligence, in dauntlessness. It has always been rich in youth as well as greed, in brains as well as unscrupulousness. If it has played its great game with contemptuous indifference to fair play, and to nice legal points of view, it has played it with consummate ability, daring and address. The silent, patient, all-seeing man who has led it in its transportation raids has led it no less successfully in what may be called its legitimate work. Nobody has appreciated more fully than he those qualities which alone make for permanent stability and growth in commercial ventures. He has insisted on these qualities, and it is because of this insistence that the Standard Oil Trust has always been something besides a fine piece of brigandage, with the fate of brigandage before it, that it has been a thing with life and future.",
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      "text": "If one attempts to analyse what may be called the legitimate greatness of Mr. Rockefeller’s creation in distinction to its illegitimate greatness, he will find at the foundation the fact that it is as perfectly centralised as the Catholic church or the Napoleonic government. As was pointed out in a former chapter, the entire business was placed in 1882 in the hands of nine trustees, of whom Mr. Rockefeller was president. These trustees have always acted exactly as if they were nine partners in a business, and the only persons concerned in it. They met daily, giving their whole time to the management and development of the concern, as the partners in a dry-goods house would. Anything in the oil world might come under their ken, from a smoking wick in Oshkosh to the competition of Russian oil in China. Everything; but nothing came unless it was necessary; for below them, and sifting things for their eyes, were committees which dealt with the various departments of the business. There was a Crude Committee which considered the subject of crude oil, the world over; a Manufacturing Committee which studied the making of refined, the utilisation of waste, the development of new products; a Marketing Committee which considered the markets. Before each of these committees was laid daily all the information to be found on earth concerning its particular field; not only were there reports made to it of what was doing in its line in the Standard Oil Trust, but information came of everything connected with such work everywhere by everybody. These committees not only knew all about their own business, they knew all about everybody else’s. The Manufacturing Committee knew just what each of the feeble independent refiners still existing was doing—what its resources and advantages were; the Transportation Committee knew what rates it got; the Marketing Committee knew its market. Thus the fullest information about new developments of crude, new openings for refined, new processes of manufacture, was always at the command of the nine trustees of the trust.",
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      "text": "[Illustration:",
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      "text": "S. C. T. DODD",
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      "text": "Chief counsel of the Standard Oil Company. Framer of the Trust agreement of 1882. ]",
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      "text": "CHAPTER EIGHTEEN CONCLUSION",
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      "text": "CONTEMPT PROCEEDINGS BEGUN AGAINST THE STANDARD IN OHIO IN 1897 FOR NOT OBEYING THE COURT’S ORDER OF 1892 TO DISSOLVE THE TRUST—SUITS BEGUN TO OUST FOUR OF THE STANDARD’S CONSTITUENT COMPANIES FOR VIOLATION OF OHIO ANTI-TRUST LAWS—ALL SUITS DROPPED BECAUSE OF EXPIRATION OF ATTORNEY-GENERAL MONNETT’S TERM—STANDARD PERSUADED THAT ITS ONLY CORPORATE REFUGE IS NEW JERSEY—CAPITAL OF THE STANDARD OIL COMPANY OF NEW JERSEY INCREASED, AND ALL STANDARD OIL BUSINESS TAKEN INTO NEW ORGANISATION—RESTRICTION OF NEW JERSEY LAW SMALL—PROFITS ARE GREAT AND STANDARD’S CONTROL OF OIL BUSINESS IS ALMOST ABSOLUTE—STANDARD OIL COMPANY ESSENTIALLY A REALISATION OF THE SOUTH IMPROVEMENT COMPANY’S PLANS—THE CRUCIAL QUESTION NOW, AS ALWAYS, IS A TRANSPORTATION QUESTION—THE TRUST QUESTION WILL GO UNSOLVED SO LONG AS THE TRANSPORTATION QUESTION GOES UNSOLVED—THE ETHICAL QUESTIONS INVOLVED.",
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      "text": "Few men in either the political or industrial life of this country can point to an achievement carried out in more exact accord with its first conception than John D. Rockefeller, for both in purpose and methods the Standard Oil Company is and always has been a form of the South Improvement Company, by which Mr. Rockefeller first attracted general attention in the oil industry. The original scheme has suffered many modifications. Its most offensive feature, the drawback on other people’s shipments, has been cut off. Nevertheless, to-day, as at the start, the purpose of the Standard Oil Company is the purpose of the South Improvement Company—the regulation of the price of crude and refined oil by the control of the output; and the chief means for sustaining this purpose is still that of the original scheme—a control of oil transportation giving special privileges in rates.",
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      "text": "[Illustration:",
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      "text": "JOHN D. ROCKEFELLER",
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      "text": "From a photograph by Allen Ayrault Green, taken about 1892. ]",
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      "text": "It is now thirty-two years since Mr. Rockefeller applied the fruitful idea of the South Improvement Company to the Standard Oil Company of Ohio, a prosperous oil refinery of Cleveland, with a capital of $1,000,000 and a daily capacity for handling 1,500 barrels of crude oil. And what have we as a result? What is the Standard Oil Company to-day? First, what is its organisation? It is no longer a trust. As we have seen, the trust was obliged to liquidate in 1892. It became a “trust in liquidation,” and there it remained for some five years. It seemed to have come into a state of stationary liquidation, for at the end of 1892 477,881 shares were uncancelled; at the end of 1896 the same number were out. The situation of the great corporation was indeed curious. There began to be comments on it, for complications arose—one over taxes. In 1893 an auditor in Ohio tried to collect taxes on 225 shares of the Standard Oil Trust. The owner refused to pay and took the case into court. He won it. The Standard Oil Trust is an unlawful organisation, said the court. Its certificates have no validity. It would seem strange that a certificate which was void to all purpose would still be valid as to taxable purposes.[162] Here was an anomaly indeed. The certificates were drawing big quarterly dividends, had a big market value, but were illegal. Owners of small certificates naturally refused to exchange. In 1897 it took 194½ shares in the Standard Oil Trust to bring back one share in each of the twenty companies. Thus one share in the Standard Oil Company of Ohio was worth twenty-seven shares in the Standard Oil Trust. If a man owned twenty-five shares he got only fractional parts of a share in each company. On these fractional parts he received no dividends, it not being considered practical to consider such small sums. To raise his twenty-five shares to 194, and so secure dividends, took a good sum of money, since Standard Oil Trust shares were worth at least 340 then. But why should he trouble? He received his quarterly dividends promptly, and they were large! He paid no taxes, for his stock was illegal! The trustees were not pushing him to liquidate. Besides, it was doubtful if they could do anything. Joseph Choate said they could not. On May 3, 1894, before the attorney-general of New York, in an application for the forfeiture of the charter of the Standard Oil Company of New York, Mr. Choate said:",
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      "text": "“I happen to own 100 shares in the Standard Oil Trust, and I have never gone forward and claimed my aliquot share. Why not? Because I would get ten in one company, and ten in another company, and two and three-fifths in another company.",
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      "text": "The naphthas made from the Borneo oil have largely taken the place of American naphtha in many parts of Europe. One load of Borneo benzine even made its appearance in the American market in 1904. It is a sign of what well may happen in the future with an intelligent development of these Russian and Oriental oils—the Standard’s domestic market invaded. It will be interesting to see to what further extent the American government will protect the Standard Oil Company by tariff on foreign oils if such a time does come. It has done very well already. The aggressive marketing of the “Shell” and its allies in Europe has led to a recent Oil War of great magnitude. For several months in 1904 American export oil was sold at a lower price in New York than the crude oil it takes to make it costs there. For instance, on August 13, 1904, the New York export price was 4.80 cents per gallon for Standard-white in bulk. Crude sold at the well for $1.50 a barrel of forty-two gallons, and it costs sixty cents to get it to seaboard by pipe-line; that is, forty-two gallons of crude oil costs $2.10, or five cents a gallon in New York—twenty points loss on a gallon of the raw material! But this low price for export affects the local market little or none. The tank-wagon price keeps up to ten and eleven cents in New York. Of course crude is depressed as much as possible to help carry this competition. For many months now there has been the abnormal situation of a declining crude price in face of declining stocks. The truth is the Standard Oil Company is trying to meet the competition of the low-grade Oriental and Russian oils with high-grade American oil—the crude being kept as low as possible, and the domestic market being made to pay for the foreign cutting. It seems a lack of foresight surprising in the Standard to have allowed itself to be found in such a dilemma. Certainly, for over two years the company has been making every effort to escape by getting hold of a supply of low-grade oil which would enable it to meet the competition of the foreigner. There have been more or less short-lived arrangements in Russia. An oil territory in Galicia was secured not long ago by them, and an expert refiner with a full refining plant was sent over. Various hindrances have been met in the undertaking, and the works are not yet in operation. Two years ago the Standard attempted to get hold of the rich Burma oil fields. The press of India fought them out of the country, and their weapon was the Standard Oil Company’s own record for hard dealings! The Burma fields are in the hands of a monopoly of the closest sort which has never properly developed the territory, but the people and government prefer their own monopoly to one of the American type!",
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      "text": "Altogether the most important question concerning the Standard Oil Company to-day is how far it is sustaining its power by the employment of the peculiar methods of the South Improvement Company. It should never be forgotten that Mr. Rockefeller never depended on these methods alone for securing power in the oil trade. From the beginning the Standard Oil Company has studied thoroughly everything connected with the oil business. It has known, not guessed at conditions. It has had a keen authoritative sight. It has applied itself to its tasks with indefatigable zeal. It has been as courageous as it has been cautious. Nothing has been too big to undertake, as nothing has been too small to neglect. These facts have been repeatedly pointed out in this narrative. But these are the American industrial qualities. They are common enough in all sorts of business. They have made our railroads, built up our great department stores, opened our mines. The Standard Oil Company has no monopoly in business ability. It is the thing for which American men are distinguished to-day in the world.",
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      "text": "These qualities alone would have made a great business, and unquestionably it would have been along the line of combination, for when Mr. Rockefeller undertook to work out the good of the oil business the tendency to combination was marked throughout the industry, but it would not have been the combination whose history we have traced. To the help of these qualities Mr. Rockefeller proposed to bring the peculiar aids of the South Improvement Company. He secured an alliance with the railroads to drive out rivals. For fifteen years he received rebates of varying amounts on at least the greater part of his shipments, and for at least a portion of that time he collected drawbacks of the oil other people shipped; at the same time he worked with the railroads to prevent other people getting oil to manufacture, or if they got it he worked with the railroads to prevent the shipment of the product. If it reached a dealer, he did his utmost to bully or wheedle him to countermand his order. If he failed in that, he undersold until the dealer, losing on his purchase, was glad enough to buy thereafter of Mr. Rockefeller. How much of this system remains in force to-day? The spying on independent shipments, the effort to have orders countermanded, the predatory competition prevailing, are well enough known. Contemporaneous documents, showing how these practices have been worked into a very perfect and practically universal system, have already been printed in this work.[174] As for the rebates and drawbacks, if they do not exist in the forms practised up to 1887, as the Standard officials have repeatedly declared, it is not saying that the Standard enjoys no special transportation privileges. As has been pointed out, it controls the great pipe-line handling all but perhaps ten per cent. of the oil produced in the Eastern fields. This system is fully 35,000 miles long. It goes to the wells of every producer, gathers his oil into its storage tanks, and from there transports it to Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York, Chicago, Buffalo, Cleveland, or any other refining point where it is needed. This pipe-line is a common carrier by virtue of its use of the right of eminent domain, and, as a common carrier, is theoretically obliged to carry and deliver the oil of all comers, but in practice this does not always work. It has happened more than once in the history of the Standard pipes that they have refused to gather or deliver oil. Pipes have been taken up from wells belonging to individuals running or working with independent refiners. Oil has been refused delivery at points practical for independent refiners. For many years the supply of oil has been so great that the Standard could not refuse oil to the independent refiner on the ground of scarcity. However, a shortage in Pennsylvania oil occurred in 1903. A very interesting situation arose as a result. There are in Ohio and Pennsylvania several independent refiners who, for a number of years, have depended on the Standard lines (the National Transit Company) for their supply of crude. In the fall of 1903 these refiners were informed that thereafter the Standard could furnish them with only fifty per cent. of their refining capacity. It was a serious matter to the independents, who had their own markets, and some of whom were increasing their plants. Supposing we buy oil directly from the producers, they asked one another, must not the Standard as a common carrier gather and deliver it? The experienced in the business said: “Yes. But what will happen? The producer rash enough to sell you oil may be cut off by the National Transit Company. Of course, if he wants to fight in the courts he may eventually force the Standard to reconnect, but they could delay the suit until he was ruined. Also, if you go over Mr. Seep’s head”—Mr. Seep is the Standard Oil buyer, and all oil going into the National Transit system goes through his hands—“you will antagonise him.” Now, “antagonize” in Standard circles may mean a variety of things. The independent refiners decided to compromise, and an agreement terminable by either party at short notice was made between them and the Standard, by which the members of the former were each to have eighty per cent. of their capacity of crude oil, and were to give to the Standard all of their export oil to market. As a matter of fact, the Standard’s ability to cut off crude supplies from the outside refiners is much greater than in the days before the Interstate Commerce Bill, when it depended on its alliance with the railroads to prevent its rival getting oil. It goes without saying that this is an absurd power to allow in the hands of any manufacturer of a great necessity of life. It is exactly as if one corporation aiming at manufacturing all the flour of the country owned all but ten per cent. of the entire railroad system collecting and transporting wheat. They could, of course, in time of shortage, prevent any would-be competitor from getting grain to grind, and they could and would make it difficult and expensive at all times for him to get it.",
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      "text": "It is not only in the power of the Standard to cut off outsiders from it, it is able to keep up transportation prices. Mr. Rockefeller owns the pipe system—a common carrier—and the refineries of the Standard Oil Company pay in the final accounting cost for transporting their oil, while outsiders pay just what they paid twenty-five years ago. There are lawyers who believe that if this condition were tested in the courts, the National Transit Company would be obliged to give the same rates to others as the Standard refineries ultimately pay. It would be interesting to see the attempt made.",
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      "text": "Not only are outside refiners at just as great disadvantage in securing crude supply to-day as before the Interstate Commerce Commission was formed; they still suffer severe discrimination on the railroads in marketing their product. There are many ways of doing things. What but discrimination is the situation which exists in the comparative rates for oil freight between Chicago and New Orleans, and Cleveland and New Orleans? All, or nearly all, of the refined oil sold by the Standard Oil Company through the Mississippi Valley and the West is manufactured at Whiting, Indiana, close to Chicago, and is shipped on Chicago rates. There are no important independent oil works at Chicago. Now at Cleveland, Ohio, there are independent refiners and jobbers contending for the market of the Mississippi Valley. See how prettily it is managed. The rates between the two Northern cities and New Orleans in the case of nearly all commodities is about two cents per hundred pounds in favour of Chicago. For example, the rate on flour from Chicago is 23 cents per 100 pounds; from Cleveland, 25 cents per 100 pounds; on canned goods the rates are 33 and 35; on lumber, 31 and 33; on meats, 51 and 54; on all sorts of iron and steel, 26 and 29; but on petroleum and its products they are 23 and 33!",
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      "text": "In the case of Atlanta, Georgia, a similar vagary of rates exists. Thus Cleveland has, as a rule, about two cents advantage per 100 pounds over Chicago. Flour is shipped from Chicago to Atlanta at 34 cents, and from Cleveland at 32½; lumber at 32 and 28½; but Cleveland refiners actually pay 48 cents to Atlanta, while the Standard only pays 45 from Whiting.",
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      "text": "There is a curious rule in the Boston and Maine Railroad in regard to petroleum shipments. On all commodities except petroleum, what is known as the Boston rate applies, but oil does not get this. For instance, the Boston rate applies to Salem, Massachusetts, on all traffic except petroleum, and that pays four cents more per 100 pounds to Salem than to Boston.",
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      "text": "Behold what is for many people in the world, for scholars getting their first notions of physics, the origin of scientific certitude. This is what they suppose to be the rôle of experimentation and mathematics. This same conception, a hundred years ago, was held by many savants who dreamed of constructing the world with as little as possible taken from experiment.",
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      "text": "On a little more reflection it was perceived how great a place hypothesis occupies; that the mathematician can not do without it, still less the experimenter. And then it was doubted if all these constructions were really solid, and believed that a breath would overthrow them. To be skeptical in this fashion is still to be superficial. To doubt everything and to believe everything are two equally convenient solutions; each saves us from thinking.",
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      "text": "Instead of pronouncing a summary condemnation, we ought therefore to examine with care the rôle of hypothesis; we shall then recognize, not only that it is necessary, but that usually it is legitimate. We shall also see that there are several sorts of hypotheses; that some are verifiable, and once confirmed by experiment become fruitful truths; that others, powerless to lead us astray, may be useful to us in fixing our ideas; that others, finally, are hypotheses only in appearance and are reducible to disguised definitions or conventions.",
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      "text": "These last are met with above all in mathematics and the related sciences. Thence precisely it is that these sciences get their rigor; these conventions are the work of the free activity of our mind, which, in this domain, recognizes no obstacle. Here our mind can affirm, since it decrees; but let us understand that while these decrees are imposed upon _our_ science, which, without them, would be impossible, they are not imposed upon nature. Are they then arbitrary? No, else were they sterile. Experiment leaves us our freedom of choice, but it guides us by aiding us to discern the easiest way. Our decrees are therefore like those of a prince, absolute but wise, who consults his council of state.",
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      "text": "Some people have been struck by this character of free convention recognizable in certain fundamental principles of the sciences. They have wished to generalize beyond measure, and, at the same time, they have forgotten that liberty is not license. Thus they have reached what is called _nominalism_, and have asked themselves if the savant is not the dupe of his own definitions and if the world he thinks he discovers is not simply created by his own caprice.[1] Under these conditions science would be certain, but deprived of significance.",
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      "text": "[1] See Le Roy, 'Science et Philosophie,' _Revue de Métaphysique et de Morale_, 1901.",
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      "text": "If this were so, science would be powerless. Now every day we see it work under our very eyes. That could not be if it taught us nothing of reality. Still, the things themselves are not what it can reach, as the naïve dogmatists think, but only the relations between things. Outside of these relations there is no knowable reality.",
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      "text": "Such is the conclusion to which we shall come, but for that we must review the series of sciences from arithmetic and geometry to mechanics and experimental physics.",
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      "text": "What is the nature of mathematical reasoning? Is is really deductive, as is commonly supposed? A deeper analysis shows us that it is not, that it partakes in a certain measure of the nature of inductive reasoning, and just because of this is it so fruitful. None the less does it retain its character of rigor absolute; this is the first thing that had to be shown.",
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      "text": "Knowing better now one of the instruments which mathematics puts into the hands of the investigator, we had to analyze another fundamental notion, that of mathematical magnitude. Do we find it in nature, or do we ourselves introduce it there? And, in this latter case, do we not risk marring everything? Comparing the rough data of our senses with that extremely complex and subtile concept which mathematicians call magnitude, we are forced to recognize a difference; this frame into which we wish to force everything is of our own construction; but we have not made it at random. We have made it, so to speak, by measure and therefore we can make the facts fit into it without changing what is essential in them.",
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      "text": "Another frame which we impose on the world is space. Whence come the first principles of geometry? Are they imposed on us by logic? Lobachevski has proved not, by creating non-Euclidean geometry. Is space revealed to us by our senses? Still no, for the space our senses could show us differs absolutely from that of the geometer. Is experience the source of geometry? A deeper discussion will show us it is not. We therefore conclude that the first principles of geometry are only conventions; but these conventions are not arbitrary and if transported into another world (that I call the non-Euclidean world and seek to imagine), then we should have been led to adopt others.",
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      "text": "In mechanics we should be led to analogous conclusions, and should see that the principles of this science, though more directly based on experiment, still partake of the conventional character of the geometric postulates. Thus far nominalism triumphs; but now we arrive at the physical sciences, properly so called. Here the scene changes; we meet another sort of hypotheses and we see their fertility. Without doubt, at first blush, the theories seem to us fragile, and the history of science proves to us how ephemeral they are; yet they do not entirely perish, and of each of them something remains. It is this something we must seek to disentangle, since there and there alone is the veritable reality.",
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      "text": "The method of the physical sciences rests on the induction which makes us expect the repetition of a phenomenon when the circumstances under which it first happened are reproduced. If _all_ these circumstances could be reproduced at once, this principle could be applied without fear; but that will never happen; some of these circumstances will always be lacking. Are we absolutely sure they are unimportant? Evidently not. That may be probable, it can not be rigorously certain. Hence the important rôle the notion of probability plays in the physical sciences. The calculus of probabilities is therefore not merely a recreation or a guide to players of baccarat, and we must seek to go deeper with its foundations. Under this head I have been able to give only very incomplete results, so strongly does this vague instinct which lets us discern probability defy analysis.",
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      "text": "After a study of the conditions under which the physicist works, I have thought proper to show him at work. For that I have taken instances from the history of optics and of electricity. We shall see whence have sprung the ideas of Fresnel, of Maxwell, and what unconscious hypotheses were made by Ampère and the other founders of electrodynamics.",
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      "text": "PART I",
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      "text": "NUMBER AND MAGNITUDE",
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      "text": "CHAPTER I",
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      "text": "ON THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICAL REASONING",
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      "text": "Then try to escape from that and, denying this proposition, try to found a false arithmetic analogous to non-Euclidean geometry--it can not be done; one would even be tempted at first blush to regard these judgments as analytic.",
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      "text": "Moreover, resuming our fiction of animals without thickness, we can hardly admit that these beings, if their minds are like ours, would adopt the Euclidean geometry which would be contradicted by all their experience.",
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      "text": "Should we therefore conclude that the axioms of geometry are experimental verities? But we do not experiment on ideal straights or circles; it can only be done on material objects. On what then could be based experiments which should serve as foundation for geometry? The answer is easy.",
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      "text": "We have seen above that we constantly reason as if the geometric figures behaved like solids. What geometry would borrow from experience would therefore be the properties of these bodies. The properties of light and its rectilinear propagation have also given rise to some of the propositions of geometry, and in particular those of projective geometry, so that from this point of view one would be tempted to say that metric geometry is the study of solids, and projective, that of light.",
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      "text": "But a difficulty remains, and it is insurmountable. If geometry were an experimental science, it would not be an exact science, it would be subject to a continual revision. Nay, it would from this very day be convicted of error, since we know that there is no rigorously rigid solid.",
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      "text": "The _axioms of geometry therefore are neither synthetic_ a priori _judgments nor experimental facts_.",
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      "text": "They are _conventions_; our choice among all possible conventions is _guided_ by experimental facts; but it remains _free_ and is limited only by the necessity of avoiding all contradiction. Thus it is that the postulates can remain _rigorously_ true even though the experimental laws which have determined their adoption are only approximative.",
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      "text": "In other words, _the axioms of geometry_ (I do not speak of those of arithmetic) _are merely disguised definitions_.",
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      "text": "Then what are we to think of that question: Is the Euclidean geometry true?",
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      "text": "It has no meaning.",
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      "text": "As well ask whether the metric system is true and the old measures false; whether Cartesian coordinates are true and polar coordinates false. One geometry can not be more true than another; it can only be _more convenient_.",
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      "text": "Now, Euclidean geometry is, and will remain, the most convenient:",
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      "text": "1º Because it is the simplest; and it is so not only in consequence of our mental habits, or of I know not what direct intuition that we may have of Euclidean space; it is the simplest in itself, just as a polynomial of the first degree is simpler than one of the second; the formulas of spherical trigonometry are more complicated than those of plane trigonometry, and they would still appear so to an analyst ignorant of their geometric signification.",
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      "text": "2º Because it accords sufficiently well with the properties of natural solids, those bodies which our hands and our eyes compare and with which we make our instruments of measure.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER IV",
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      "text": "SPACE AND GEOMETRY",
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      "text": "NATURE",
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      "text": "CHAPTER IX",
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      "text": "HYPOTHESES IN PHYSICS",
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      "text": "THE RÔLE OF EXPERIMENT AND GENERALIZATION.--Experiment is the sole source of truth. It alone can teach us anything new; it alone can give us certainty. These are two points that can not be questioned.",
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      "text": "But then, if experiment is everything, what place will remain for mathematical physics? What has experimental physics to do with such an aid, one which seems useless and perhaps even dangerous?",
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      "text": "And yet mathematical physics exists, and has done unquestionable service. We have here a fact that must be explained.",
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      "text": "The explanation is that merely to observe is not enough. We must use our observations, and to do that we must generalize. This is what men always have done; only as the memory of past errors has made them more and more careful, they have observed more and more, and generalized less and less.",
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      "text": "Every age has ridiculed the one before it, and accused it of having generalized too quickly and too naïvely. Descartes pitied the Ionians; Descartes, in his turn, makes us smile. No doubt our children will some day laugh at us.",
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      "text": "But can we not then pass over immediately to the goal? Is not this the means of escaping the ridicule that we foresee? Can we not be content with just the bare experiment?",
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      "text": "No, that is impossible; it would be to mistake utterly the true nature of science. The scientist must set in order. Science is built up with facts, as a house is with stones. But a collection of facts is no more a science than a heap of stones is a house.",
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      "text": "And above all the scientist must foresee. Carlyle has somewhere said something like this: \"Nothing but facts are of importance. John Lackland passed by here. Here is something that is admirable. Here is a reality for which I would give all the theories in the world.\" Carlyle was a fellow countryman of Bacon; but Bacon would not have said that. That is the language of the historian. The physicist would say rather: \"John Lackland passed by here; that makes no difference to me, for he never will pass this way again.\"",
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      "text": "We all know that there are good experiments and poor ones. The latter will accumulate in vain; though one may have made a hundred or a thousand, a single piece of work by a true master, by a Pasteur, for example, will suffice to tumble them into oblivion. Bacon would have well understood this; it is he who invented the phrase _Experimentum crucis_. But Carlyle would not have understood it. A fact is a fact. A pupil has read a certain number on his thermometer; he has taken no precaution; no matter, he has read it, and if it is only the fact that counts, here is a reality of the same rank as the peregrinations of King John Lackland. Why is the fact that this pupil has made this reading of no interest, while the fact that a skilled physicist had made another reading might be on the contrary very important? It is because from the first reading we could not infer anything. What then is a good experiment? It is that which informs us of something besides an isolated fact; it is that which enables us to foresee, that is, that which enables us to generalize.",
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      "text": "For without generalization foreknowledge is impossible. The circumstances under which one has worked will never reproduce themselves all at once. The observed action then will never recur; the only thing that can be affirmed is that under analogous circumstances an analogous action will be produced. In order to foresee, then, it is necessary to invoke at least analogy, that is to say, already then to generalize.",
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      "text": "There was a time when the simplicity of Mariotte's law was an argument invoked in favor of its accuracy; when Fresnel himself, after having said in a conversation with Laplace that nature was not concerned about analytical difficulties, felt himself obliged to make explanations, in order not to strike too hard at prevailing opinion.",
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      "text": "To-day ideas have greatly changed; and yet, those who do not believe that natural laws have to be simple, are still often obliged to act as if they did. They could not entirely avoid this necessity without making impossible all generalization, and consequently all science.",
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      "ref": "PG39713.B01047",
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      "text": "It is clear that any fact can be generalized in an infinity of ways, and it is a question of choice. The choice can be guided only by considerations of simplicity. Let us take the most commonplace case, that of interpolation. We pass a continuous line, as regular as possible, between the points given by observation. Why do we avoid points making angles and too abrupt turns? Why do we not make our curve describe the most capricious zig-zags? It is because we know beforehand, or believe we know, that the law to be expressed can not be so complicated as all that.",
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      "text": "We may calculate the mass of Jupiter from either the movements of its satellites, or the perturbations of the major planets, or those of the minor planets. If we take the averages of the determinations obtained by these three methods, we find three numbers very close together, but different. We might interpret this result by supposing that the coefficient of gravitation is not the same in the three cases. The observations would certainly be much better represented. Why do we reject this interpretation? Not because it is absurd, but because it is needlessly complicated. We shall only accept it when we are forced to, and that is not yet.",
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      "text": "To sum up, ordinarily every law is held to be simple till the contrary is proved.",
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      "text": "This custom is imposed upon physicists by the causes that I have just explained. But how shall we justify it in the presence of discoveries that show us every day new details that are richer and more complex? How shall we even reconcile it with the belief in the unity of nature? For if everything depends on everything, relationships where so many diverse factors enter can no longer be simple.",
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      "text": "If we study the history of science, we see happen two inverse phenomena, so to speak. Sometimes simplicity hides under complex appearances; sometimes it is the simplicity which is apparent, and which disguises extremely complicated realities.",
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      "text": "What is more complicated than the confused movements of the planets? What simpler than Newton's law? Here nature, making sport, as Fresnel said, of analytical difficulties, employs only simple means, and by combining them produces I know not what inextricable tangle. Here it is the hidden simplicity which must be discovered.",
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      "text": "Examples of the opposite abound. In the kinetic theory of gases, one deals with molecules moving with great velocities, whose paths, altered by incessant collisions, have the most capricious forms and traverse space in every direction. The observable result is Mariotte's simple law. Every individual fact was complicated. The law of great numbers has reestablished simplicity in the average. Here the simplicity is merely apparent, and only the coarseness of our senses prevents our perceiving the complexity.",
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      "text": "Many phenomena obey a law of proportionality. But why? Because in these phenomena there is something very small. The simple law observed, then, is only a result of the general analytical rule that the infinitely small increment of a function is proportional to the increment of the variable. As in reality our increments are not infinitely small, but very small, the law of proportionality is only approximate, and the simplicity is only apparent. What I have just said applies to the rule of the superposition of small motions, the use of which is so fruitful, and which is the basis of optics.",
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      "text": "And Newton's law itself? Its simplicity, so long undetected, is perhaps only apparent. Who knows whether it is not due to some complicated mechanism, to the impact of some subtile matter animated by irregular movements, and whether it has not become simple only through the action of averages and of great numbers? In any case, it is difficult not to suppose that the true law contains complementary terms, which would become sensible at small distances. If in astronomy they are negligible as modifying Newton's law, and if the law thus regains its simplicity, it would be only because of the immensity of celestial distances.",
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      "text": "No doubt, if our means of investigation should become more and more penetrating, we should discover the simple under the complex, then the complex under the simple, then again the simple under the complex, and so on, without our being able to foresee what will be the last term.",
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      "text": "We must stop somewhere, and that science may be possible we must stop when we have found simplicity. This is the only ground on which we can rear the edifice of our generalizations. But this simplicity being only apparent, will the ground be firm enough? This is what must be investigated.",
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      "text": "For that purpose, let us see what part is played in our generalizations by the belief in simplicity. We have verified a simple law in a good many particular cases; we refuse to admit that this agreement, so often repeated, is simply the result of chance, and conclude that the law must be true in the general case.",
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      "text": "Kepler notices that a planet's positions, as observed by Tycho, are all on one ellipse. Never for a moment does he have the thought that by a strange play of chance Tycho never observed the heavens except at a moment when the real orbit of the planet happened to cut this ellipse.",
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      "text": "What does it matter then whether the simplicity be real, or whether it covers a complex reality? Whether it is due to the influence of great numbers, which levels down individual differences, or to the greatness or smallness of certain quantities, which allows us to neglect certain terms, in no case is it due to chance. This simplicity, real or apparent, always has a cause. We can always follow, then, the same course of reasoning, and if a simple law has been observed in several particular cases, we can legitimately suppose that it will still be true in analogous cases. To refuse to do this would be to attribute to chance an inadmissible rôle.",
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      "text": "There is, however, a difference. If the simplicity were real and essential, it would resist the increasing precision of our means of measure. If then we believe nature to be essentially simple, we must, from a simplicity that is approximate, infer a simplicity that is rigorous. This is what was done formerly; and this is what we no longer have a right to do.",
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      "text": "The simplicity of Kepler's laws, for example, is only apparent. That does not prevent their being applicable, very nearly, to all systems analogous to the solar system; but it does prevent their being rigorously exact.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 39713,
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      "text": "THE RÔLE OF HYPOTHESIS.--All generalization is a hypothesis. Hypothesis, then, has a necessary rôle that no one has ever contested. Only, it ought always, as soon as possible and as often as possible, to be subjected to verification. And, of course, if it does not stand this test, it ought to be abandoned without reserve. This is what we generally do, but sometimes with rather an ill humor.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG39713.B01064",
      "bookId": 39713,
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      "text": "Well, even this ill humor is not justified. The physicist who has just renounced one of his hypotheses ought, on the contrary, to be full of joy; for he has found an unexpected opportunity for discovery. His hypothesis, I imagine, had not been adopted without consideration; it took account of all the known factors that it seemed could enter into the phenomenon. If the test does not support it, it is because there is something unexpected and extraordinary; and because there is going to be something found that is unknown and new.",
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      "ref": "PG39713.B01065",
      "bookId": 39713,
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      "text": "Has the discarded hypothesis, then, been barren? Far from that, it may be said it has rendered more service than a true hypothesis. Not only has it been the occasion of the decisive experiment, but, without having made the hypothesis, the experiment would have been made by chance, so that nothing would have been derived from it. One would have seen nothing extraordinary; only one fact the more would have been catalogued without deducing from it the least consequence.",
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      "text": "Now on what condition is the use of hypothesis without danger?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG39713.B02088",
      "bookId": 39713,
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      "text": "It should not even be said that action is the goal of science; should we condemn studies of the star Sirius, under pretext that we shall probably never exercise any influence on that star? To my eyes, on the contrary, it is the knowledge which is the end, and the action which is the means. If I felicitate myself on the industrial development, it is not alone because it furnishes a facile argument to the advocates of science; it is above all because it gives to the scientist faith in himself and also because it offers him an immense field of experience where he clashes against forces too colossal to be tampered with. Without this ballast, who knows whether he would not quit solid ground, seduced by the mirage of some scholastic novelty, or whether he would not despair, believing he had fashioned only a dream?",
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      "text": "3. _The Crude Fact and the Scientific Fact_",
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      "bookId": 39713,
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      "text": "What was most paradoxical in M. LeRoy's thesis was that affirmation that _the scientist creates the fact_; this was at the same time its essential point and it is one of those which have been most discussed.",
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      "ref": "PG39713.B02091",
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      "text": "Perhaps, says he (I well believe that this was a concession), it is not the scientist that creates the fact in the rough; it is at least he who creates the scientific fact.",
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      "ref": "PG39713.B02092",
      "bookId": 39713,
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      "text": "This distinction between the fact in the rough and the scientific fact does not by itself appear to me illegitimate. But I complain first that the boundary has not been traced either exactly or precisely; and then that the author has seemed to suppose that the crude fact, not being scientific, is outside of science.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "Finally, I can not admit that the scientist creates without restraint the scientific fact, since it is the crude fact which imposes it upon him.",
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      "text": "The examples given by M. LeRoy have greatly astonished me. The first is taken from the notion of atom. The atom chosen as example of fact! I avow that this choice has so disconcerted me that I prefer to say nothing about it. I have evidently misunderstood the author's thought and I could not fruitfully discuss it.",
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      "text": "The second case taken as example is that of an eclipse where the crude phenomenon is a play of light and shadow, but where the astronomer can not intervene without introducing two foreign elements, to wit, a clock and Newton's law.",
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      "text": "Finally, M. LeRoy cites the rotation of the earth; it has been answered: but this is not a fact, and he has replied: it was one for Galileo, who affirmed it, as for the inquisitor, who denied it. It always remains that this is not a fact in the same sense as those just spoken of and that to give them the same name is to expose one's self to many confusions.",
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      "text": "Here then are four degrees:",
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      "text": "1º. It grows dark, says the clown.",
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      "text": "2º. The eclipse happened at nine o'clock, says the astronomer.",
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      "text": "3º. The eclipse happened at the time deducible from the tables constructed according to Newton's law, says he again.",
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      "text": "4º. That results from the earth's turning around the sun, says Galileo finally.",
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      "text": "Where then is the boundary between the fact in the rough and the scientific fact? To read M. LeRoy one would believe that it is between the first and the second stage, but who does not see that there is a greater distance from the second to the third, and still more from the third to the fourth.",
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      "ref": "PG39713.B02103",
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      "text": "Allow me to cite two examples which perhaps will enlighten us a little.",
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      "ref": "PG39713.B02104",
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      "text": "I observe the deviation of a galvanometer by the aid of a movable mirror which projects a luminous image or spot on a divided scale. The crude fact is this: I see the spot displace itself on the scale, and the scientific fact is this: a current passes in the circuit.",
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      "ref": "PG39713.B02105",
      "bookId": 39713,
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      "text": "Or again: when I make an experiment I should subject the result to certain corrections, because I know I must have made errors. These errors are of two kinds, some are accidental and these I shall correct by taking the mean; the others are systematic and I shall be able to correct those only by a thorough study of their causes. The first result obtained is then the fact in the rough, while the scientific fact is the final result after the finished corrections.",
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      "ref": "PG39713.B02106",
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      "text": "Reflecting on this latter example, we are led to subdivide our second stage, and in place of saying:",
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      "ref": "PG39713.B02107",
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      "text": "2. The eclipse happened at nine o'clock, we shall say:",
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      "text": "2_a_. The eclipse happened when my clock pointed to nine, and",
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      "ref": "PG39713.B02109",
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      "text": "2_b_. My clock being ten minutes slow, the eclipse happened at ten minutes past nine.",
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    {
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      "text": "And this is not all: the first stage also should be subdivided, and not between these two subdivisions will be the least distance; it is necessary to distinguish between the impression of obscurity felt by one witnessing an eclipse, and the affirmation: It grows dark, which this impression extorts from him. In a sense it is the first which is the only true fact in the rough, and the second is already a sort of scientific fact.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG39713.B02111",
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      "text": "Now then our scale has six stages, and even though there is no reason for halting at this figure, there we shall stop.",
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      "ref": "PG39713.B02112",
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      "text": "What strikes me at the start is this. At the first of our six stages, the fact, still completely in the rough, is, so to speak, individual, it is completely distinct from all other possible facts. From the second stage, already it is no longer the same. The enunciation of the fact would suit an infinity of other facts. So soon as language intervenes, I have at my command only a finite number of terms to express the shades, in number infinite, that my impressions might cover. When I say: It grows dark, that well expresses the impressions I feel in being present at an eclipse; but even in obscurity a multitude of shades could be imagined, and if, instead of that actually realized, had happened a slightly different shade, yet I should still have enunciated this _other_ fact by saying: It grows dark.",
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      "ref": "PG39713.B02113",
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      "text": "Second remark: even at the second stage, the enunciation of a fact can only be _true or false_. This is not so of any proposition; if this proposition is the enunciation of a convention, it can not be said that this enunciation is _true_, in the proper sense of the word, since it could not be true apart from me and is true only because I wish it to be.",
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      "text": "When, for instance, I say the unit for length is the meter, this is a decree that I promulgate, it is not something ascertained which forces itself upon me. It is the same, as I think I have elsewhere shown, when it is a question, for example, of Euclid's postulate.",
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      "text": "SCIENCE AND THE SCIENTIST",
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      "text": "CHAPTER I",
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      "text": "THE CHOICE OF FACTS",
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      "text": "Tolstoi somewhere explains why 'science for its own sake' is in his eyes an absurd conception. We can not know _all_ facts, since their number is practically infinite. It is necessary to choose; then we may let this choice depend on the pure caprice of our curiosity; would it not be better to let ourselves be guided by utility, by our practical and above all by our moral needs; have we nothing better to do than to count the number of lady-bugs on our planet?",
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      "text": "It is clear the word utility has not for him the sense men of affairs give it, and following them most of our contemporaries. Little cares he for industrial applications, for the marvels of electricity or of automobilism, which he regards rather as obstacles to moral progress; utility for him is solely what can make man better.",
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      "text": "For my part, it need scarce be said, I could never be content with either the one or the other ideal; I want neither that plutocracy grasping and mean, nor that democracy goody and mediocre, occupied solely in turning the other cheek, where would dwell sages without curiosity, who, shunning excess, would not die of disease, but would surely die of ennui. But that is a matter of taste and is not what I wish to discuss.",
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      "text": "The question nevertheless remains and should fix our attention; if our choice can only be determined by caprice or by immediate utility, there can be no science for its own sake, and consequently no science. But is that true? That a choice must be made is incontestable; whatever be our activity, facts go quicker than we, and we can not catch them; while the scientist discovers one fact, there happen milliards of milliards in a cubic millimeter of his body. To wish to comprise nature in science would be to want to put the whole into the part.",
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      "text": "But scientists believe there is a hierarchy of facts and that among them may be made a judicious choice. They are right, since otherwise there would be no science, yet science exists. One need only open the eyes to see that the conquests of industry which have enriched so many practical men would never have seen the light, if these practical men alone had existed and if they had not been preceded by unselfish devotees who died poor, who never thought of utility, and yet had a guide far other than caprice.",
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      "text": "As Mach says, these devotees have spared their successors the trouble of thinking. Those who might have worked solely in view of an immediate application would have left nothing behind them, and, in face of a new need, all must have been begun over again. Now most men do not love to think, and this is perhaps fortunate when instinct guides them, for most often, when they pursue an aim which is immediate and ever the same, instinct guides them better than reason would guide a pure intelligence. But instinct is routine, and if thought did not fecundate it, it would no more progress in man than in the bee or ant. It is needful then to think for those who love not thinking, and, as they are numerous, it is needful that each of our thoughts be as often useful as possible, and this is why a law will be the more precious the more general it is.",
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      "text": "This shows us how we should choose: the most interesting facts are those which may serve many times; these are the facts which have a chance of coming up again. We have been so fortunate as to be born in a world where there are such. Suppose that instead of 60 chemical elements there were 60 milliards of them, that they were not some common, the others rare, but that they were uniformly distributed. Then, every time we picked up a new pebble there would be great probability of its being formed of some unknown substance; all that we knew of other pebbles would be worthless for it; before each new object we should be as the new-born babe; like it we could only obey our caprices or our needs. Biologists would be just as much at a loss if there were only individuals and no species and if heredity did not make sons like their fathers.",
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      "text": "In such a world there would be no science; perhaps thought and even life would be impossible, since evolution could not there develop the preservational instincts. Happily it is not so; like all good fortune to which we are accustomed, this is not appreciated at its true worth.",
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      "text": "Which then are the facts likely to reappear? They are first the simple facts. It is clear that in a complex fact a thousand circumstances are united by chance, and that only a chance still much less probable could reunite them anew. But are there any simple facts? And if there are, how recognize them? What assurance is there that a thing we think simple does not hide a dreadful complexity? All we can say is that we ought to prefer the facts which _seem_ simple to those where our crude eye discerns unlike elements. And then one of two things: either this simplicity is real, or else the elements are so intimately mingled as not to be distinguishable. In the first case there is chance of our meeting anew this same simple fact, either in all its purity or entering itself as element in a complex manifold. In the second case this intimate mixture has likewise more chances of recurring than a heterogeneous assemblage; chance knows how to mix, it knows not how to disentangle, and to make with multiple elements a well-ordered edifice in which something is distinguishable, it must be made expressly. The facts which appear simple, even if they are not so, will therefore be more easily revived by chance. This it is which justifies the method instinctively adopted by the scientist, and what justifies it still better, perhaps, is that oft-recurring facts appear to us simple, precisely because we are used to them.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER III",
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      "text": "MATHEMATICAL CREATION",
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      "text": "The genesis of mathematical creation is a problem which should intensely interest the psychologist. It is the activity in which the human mind seems to take least from the outside world, in which it acts or seems to act only of itself and on itself, so that in studying the procedure of geometric thought we may hope to reach what is most essential in man's mind.",
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      "text": "This has long been appreciated, and some time back the journal called _L'enseignement mathématique_, edited by Laisant and Fehr, began an investigation of the mental habits and methods of work of different mathematicians. I had finished the main outlines of this article when the results of that inquiry were published, so I have hardly been able to utilize them and shall confine myself to saying that the majority of witnesses confirm my conclusions; I do not say all, for when the appeal is to universal suffrage unanimity is not to be hoped.",
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      "text": "A first fact should surprise us, or rather would surprise us if we were not so used to it. How does it happen there are people who do not understand mathematics? If mathematics invokes only the rules of logic, such as are accepted by all normal minds; if its evidence is based on principles common to all men, and that none could deny without being mad, how does it come about that so many persons are here refractory?",
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      "text": "That not every one can invent is nowise mysterious. That not every one can retain a demonstration once learned may also pass. But that not every one can understand mathematical reasoning when explained appears very surprising when we think of it. And yet those who can follow this reasoning only with difficulty are in the majority: that is undeniable, and will surely not be gainsaid by the experience of secondary-school teachers.",
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      "text": "And further: how is error possible in mathematics? A sane mind should not be guilty of a logical fallacy, and yet there are very fine minds who do not trip in brief reasoning such as occurs in the ordinary doings of life, and who are incapable of following or repeating without error the mathematical demonstrations which are longer, but which after all are only an accumulation of brief reasonings wholly analogous to those they make so easily. Need we add that mathematicians themselves are not infallible?",
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      "text": "The answer seems to me evident. Imagine a long series of syllogisms, and that the conclusions of the first serve as premises of the following: we shall be able to catch each of these syllogisms, and it is not in passing from premises to conclusion that we are in danger of deceiving ourselves. But between the moment in which we first meet a proposition as conclusion of one syllogism, and that in which we reencounter it as premise of another syllogism occasionally some time will elapse, several links of the chain will have unrolled; so it may happen that we have forgotten it, or worse, that we have forgotten its meaning. So it may happen that we replace it by a slightly different proposition, or that, while retaining the same enunciation, we attribute to it a slightly different meaning, and thus it is that we are exposed to error.",
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      "text": "Often the mathematician uses a rule. Naturally he begins by demonstrating this rule; and at the time when this proof is fresh in his memory he understands perfectly its meaning and its bearing, and he is in no danger of changing it. But subsequently he trusts his memory and afterward only applies it in a mechanical way; and then if his memory fails him, he may apply it all wrong. Thus it is, to take a simple example, that we sometimes make slips in calculation because we have forgotten our multiplication table.",
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      "text": "How to make this choice I have before explained; the mathematical facts worthy of being studied are those which, by their analogy with other facts, are capable of leading us to the knowledge of a mathematical law just as experimental facts lead us to the knowledge of a physical law. They are those which reveal to us unsuspected kinship between other facts, long known, but wrongly believed to be strangers to one another.",
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      "text": "Among chosen combinations the most fertile will often be those formed of elements drawn from domains which are far apart. Not that I mean as sufficing for invention the bringing together of objects as disparate as possible; most combinations so formed would be entirely sterile. But certain among them, very rare, are the most fruitful of all.",
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      "text": "To invent, I have said, is to choose; but the word is perhaps not wholly exact. It makes one think of a purchaser before whom are displayed a large number of samples, and who examines them, one after the other, to make a choice. Here the samples would be so numerous that a whole lifetime would not suffice to examine them. This is not the actual state of things. The sterile combinations do not even present themselves to the mind of the inventor. Never in the field of his consciousness do combinations appear that are not really useful, except some that he rejects but which have to some extent the characteristics of useful combinations. All goes on as if the inventor were an examiner for the second degree who would only have to question the candidates who had passed a previous examination.",
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      "text": "But what I have hitherto said is what may be observed or inferred in reading the writings of the geometers, reading reflectively.",
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      "text": "It is time to penetrate deeper and to see what goes on in the very soul of the mathematician. For this, I believe, I can do best by recalling memories of my own. But I shall limit myself to telling how I wrote my first memoir on Fuchsian functions. I beg the reader's pardon; I am about to use some technical expressions, but they need not frighten him, for he is not obliged to understand them. I shall say, for example, that I have found the demonstration of such a theorem under such circumstances. This theorem will have a barbarous name, unfamiliar to many, but that is unimportant; what is of interest for the psychologist is not the theorem but the circumstances.",
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      "text": "For fifteen days I strove to prove that there could not be any functions like those I have since called Fuchsian functions. I was then very ignorant; every day I seated myself at my work table, stayed an hour or two, tried a great number of combinations and reached no results. One evening, contrary to my custom, I drank black coffee and could not sleep. Ideas rose in crowds; I felt them collide until pairs interlocked, so to speak, making a stable combination. By the next morning I had established the existence of a class of Fuchsian functions, those which come from the hypergeometric series; I had only to write out the results, which took but a few hours.",
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      "text": "Then I wanted to represent these functions by the quotient of two series; this idea was perfectly conscious and deliberate, the analogy with elliptic functions guided me. I asked myself what properties these series must have if they existed, and I succeeded without difficulty in forming the series I have called theta-Fuchsian.",
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      "text": "Just at this time I left Caen, where I was then living, to go on a geologic excursion under the auspices of the school of mines. The changes of travel made me forget my mathematical work. Having reached Coutances, we entered an omnibus to go some place or other. At the moment when I put my foot on the step the idea came to me, without anything in my former thoughts seeming to have paved the way for it, that the transformations I had used to define the Fuchsian functions were identical with those of non-Euclidean geometry. I did not verify the idea; I should not have had time, as, upon taking my seat in the omnibus, I went on with a conversation already commenced, but I felt a perfect certainty. On my return to Caen, for conscience' sake I verified the result at my leisure.",
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      "text": "Then I turned my attention to the study of some arithmetical questions apparently without much success and without a suspicion of any connection with my preceding researches. Disgusted with my failure, I went to spend a few days at the seaside, and thought of something else. One morning, walking on the bluff, the idea came to me, with just the same characteristics of brevity, suddenness and immediate certainty, that the arithmetic transformations of indeterminate ternary quadratic forms were identical with those of non-Euclidean geometry.",
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      "text": "Returned to Caen, I meditated on this result and deduced the consequences. The example of quadratic forms showed me that there were Fuchsian groups other than those corresponding to the hypergeometric series; I saw that I could apply to them the theory of theta-Fuchsian series and that consequently there existed Fuchsian functions other than those from the hypergeometric series, the ones I then knew. Naturally I set myself to form all these functions. I made a systematic attack upon them and carried all the outworks, one after another. There was one however that still held out, whose fall would involve that of the whole place. But all my efforts only served at first the better to show me the difficulty, which indeed was something. All this work was perfectly conscious.",
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      "text": "Thereupon I left for Mont-Valérien, where I was to go through my military service; so I was very differently occupied. One day, going along the street, the solution of the difficulty which had stopped me suddenly appeared to me. I did not try to go deep into it immediately, and only after my service did I again take up the question. I had all the elements and had only to arrange them and put them together. So I wrote out my final memoir at a single stroke and without difficulty.",
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      "text": "I shall limit myself to this single example; it is useless to multiply them. In regard to my other researches I would have to say analogous things, and the observations of other mathematicians given in _L'enseignement mathématique_ would only confirm them.",
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      "text": "Most striking at first is this appearance of sudden illumination, a manifest sign of long, unconscious prior work. The rôle of this unconscious work in mathematical invention appears to me incontestable, and traces of it would be found in other cases where it is less evident. Often when one works at a hard question, nothing good is accomplished at the first attack. Then one takes a rest, longer or shorter, and sits down anew to the work. During the first half-hour, as before, nothing is found, and then all of a sudden the decisive idea presents itself to the mind. It might be said that the conscious work has been more fruitful because it has been interrupted and the rest has given back to the mind its force and freshness. But it is more probable that this rest has been filled out with unconscious work and that the result of this work has afterward revealed itself to the geometer just as in the cases I have cited; only the revelation, instead of coming during a walk or a journey, has happened during a period of conscious work, but independently of this work which plays at most a rôle of excitant, as if it were the goad stimulating the results already reached during rest, but remaining unconscious, to assume the conscious form.",
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      "text": "There is another remark to be made about the conditions of this unconscious work: it is possible, and of a certainty it is only fruitful, if it is on the one hand preceded and on the other hand followed by a period of conscious work. These sudden inspirations (and the examples already cited sufficiently prove this) never happen except after some days of voluntary effort which has appeared absolutely fruitless and whence nothing good seems to have come, where the way taken seems totally astray. These efforts then have not been as sterile as one thinks; they have set agoing the unconscious machine and without them it would not have moved and would have produced nothing.",
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      "text": "The need for the second period of conscious work, after the inspiration, is still easier to understand. It is necessary to put in shape the results of this inspiration, to deduce from them the immediate consequences, to arrange them, to word the demonstrations, but above all is verification necessary. I have spoken of the feeling of absolute certitude accompanying the inspiration; in the cases cited this feeling was no deceiver, nor is it usually. But do not think this a rule without exception; often this feeling deceives us without being any the less vivid, and we only find it out when we seek to put on foot the demonstration. I have especially noticed this fact in regard to ideas coming to me in the morning or evening in bed while in a semi-hypnagogic state.",
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      "text": "Such are the realities; now for the thoughts they force upon us. The unconscious, or, as we say, the subliminal self plays an important rôle in mathematical creation; this follows from what we have said. But usually the subliminal self is considered as purely automatic. Now we have seen that mathematical work is not simply mechanical, that it could not be done by a machine, however perfect. It is not merely a question of applying rules, of making the most combinations possible according to certain fixed laws. The combinations so obtained would be exceedingly numerous, useless and cumbersome. The true work of the inventor consists in choosing among these combinations so as to eliminate the useless ones or rather to avoid the trouble of making them, and the rules which must guide this choice are extremely fine and delicate. It is almost impossible to state them precisely; they are felt rather than formulated. Under these conditions, how imagine a sieve capable of applying them mechanically?",
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      "text": "A first hypothesis now presents itself: the subliminal self is in no way inferior to the conscious self; it is not purely automatic; it is capable of discernment; it has tact, delicacy; it knows how to choose, to divine. What do I say? It knows better how to divine than the conscious self, since it succeeds where that has failed. In a word, is not the subliminal self superior to the conscious self? You recognize the full importance of this question. Boutroux in a recent lecture has shown how it came up on a very different occasion, and what consequences would follow an affirmative answer. (See also, by the same author, _Science et Religion_, pp. 313 ff.)",
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      "text": "Is this affirmative answer forced upon us by the facts I have just given? I confess that, for my part, I should hate to accept it. Reexamine the facts then and see if they are not compatible with another explanation.",
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      "text": "It is certain that the combinations which present themselves to the mind in a sort of sudden illumination, after an unconscious working somewhat prolonged, are generally useful and fertile combinations, which seem the result of a first impression. Does it follow that the subliminal self, having divined by a delicate intuition that these combinations would be useful, has formed only these, or has it rather formed many others which were lacking in interest and have remained unconscious?",
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      "text": "In this second way of looking at it, all the combinations would be formed in consequence of the automatism of the subliminal self, but only the interesting ones would break into the domain of consciousness. And this is still very mysterious. What is the cause that, among the thousand products of our unconscious activity, some are called to pass the threshold, while others remain below? Is it a simple chance which confers this privilege? Evidently not; among all the stimuli of our senses, for example, only the most intense fix our attention, unless it has been drawn to them by other causes. More generally the privileged unconscious phenomena, those susceptible of becoming conscious, are those which, directly or indirectly, affect most profoundly our emotional sensibility.",
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      "text": "It may be surprising to see emotional sensibility invoked _à propos_ of mathematical demonstrations which, it would seem, can interest only the intellect. This would be to forget the feeling of mathematical beauty, of the harmony of numbers and forms, of geometric elegance. This is a true esthetic feeling that all real mathematicians know, and surely it belongs to emotional sensibility.",
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      "text": "Now, what are the mathematic entities to which we attribute this character of beauty and elegance, and which are capable of developing in us a sort of esthetic emotion? They are those whose elements are harmoniously disposed so that the mind without effort can embrace their totality while realizing the details. This harmony is at once a satisfaction of our esthetic needs and an aid to the mind, sustaining and guiding; And at the same time, in putting under our eyes a well-ordered whole, it makes us foresee a mathematical law. Now, as we have said above, the only mathematical facts worthy of fixing our attention and capable of being useful are those which can teach us a mathematical law. So that we reach the following conclusion: The useful combinations are precisely the most beautiful, I mean those best able to charm this special sensibility that all mathematicians know, but of which the profane are so ignorant as often to be tempted to smile at it.",
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      "text": "What happens then? Among the great numbers of combinations blindly formed by the subliminal self, almost all are without interest and without utility; but just for that reason they are also without effect upon the esthetic sensibility. Consciousness will never know them; only certain ones are harmonious, and, consequently, at once useful and beautiful. They will be capable of touching this special sensibility of the geometer of which I have just spoken, and which, once aroused, will call our attention to them, and thus give them occasion to become conscious.",
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      "text": "This is only a hypothesis, and yet here is an observation which may confirm it: when a sudden illumination seizes upon the mind of the mathematician, it usually happens that it does not deceive him, but it also sometimes happens, as I have said, that it does not stand the test of verification; well, we almost always notice that this false idea, had it been true, would have gratified our natural feeling for mathematical elegance.",
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      "text": "Thus it is this special esthetic sensibility which plays the rôle of the delicate sieve of which I spoke, and that sufficiently explains why the one lacking it will never be a real creator.",
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      "text": "Yet all the difficulties have not disappeared. The conscious self is narrowly limited, and as for the subliminal self we know not its limitations, and this is why we are not too reluctant in supposing that it has been able in a short time to make more different combinations than the whole life of a conscious being could encompass. Yet these limitations exist. Is it likely that it is able to form all the possible combinations, whose number would frighten the imagination? Nevertheless that would seem necessary, because if it produces only a small part of these combinations, and if it makes them at random, there would be small chance that the _good_, the one we should choose, would be found among them.",
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      "text": "Perhaps we ought to seek the explanation in that preliminary period of conscious work which always precedes all fruitful unconscious labor. Permit me a rough comparison. Figure the future elements of our combinations as something like the hooked atoms of Epicurus. During the complete repose of the mind, these atoms are motionless, they are, so to speak, hooked to the wall; so this complete rest may be indefinitely prolonged without the atoms meeting, and consequently without any combination between them.",
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      "text": "On the other hand, during a period of apparent rest and unconscious work, certain of them are detached from the wall and put in motion. They flash in every direction through the space (I was about to say the room) where they are enclosed, as would, for example, a swarm of gnats or, if you prefer a more learned comparison, like the molecules of gas in the kinematic theory of gases. Then their mutual impacts may produce new combinations.",
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      "text": "Surely they have need of it, for they are and remain in spite of all very hypothetical: the interest of the questions is so great that I do not repent of having submitted them to the reader.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER IV",
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      "text": "CHANCE",
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      "text": "I",
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      "text": "\"How dare we speak of the laws of chance? Is not chance the antithesis of all law?\" So says Bertrand at the beginning of his _Calcul des probabiltités_. Probability is opposed to certitude; so it is what we do not know and consequently it seems what we could not calculate. Here is at least apparently a contradiction, and about it much has already been written.",
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      "text": "And first, what is chance? The ancients distinguished between phenomena seemingly obeying harmonious laws, established once for all, and those which they attributed to chance; these were the ones unpredictable because rebellious to all law. In each domain the precise laws did not decide everything, they only drew limits between which chance might act. In this conception the word chance had a precise and objective meaning; what was chance for one was also chance for another and even for the gods.",
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      "text": "But this conception is not ours to-day. We have become absolute determinists, and even those who want to reserve the rights of human free will let determinism reign undividedly in the inorganic world at least. Every phenomenon, however minute, has a cause; and a mind infinitely powerful, infinitely well-informed about the laws of nature, could have foreseen it from the beginning of the centuries. If such a mind existed, we could not play with it at any game of chance; we should always lose.",
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      "text": "In fact for it the word chance would not have any meaning, or rather there would be no chance. It is because of our weakness and our ignorance that the word has a meaning for us. And, even without going beyond our feeble humanity, what is chance for the ignorant is not chance for the scientist. Chance is only the measure of our ignorance. Fortuitous phenomena are, by definition, those whose laws we do not know.",
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      "text": "But is this definition altogether satisfactory? When the first Chaldean shepherds followed with their eyes the movements of the stars, they knew not as yet the laws of astronomy; would they have dreamed of saying that the stars move at random? If a modern physicist studies a new phenomenon, and if he discovers its law Tuesday, would he have said Monday that this phenomenon was fortuitous? Moreover, do we not often invoke what Bertrand calls the laws of chance, to predict a phenomenon? For example, in the kinetic theory of gases we obtain the known laws of Mariotte and of Gay-Lussac by means of the hypothesis that the velocities of the molecules of gas vary irregularly, that is to say at random. All physicists will agree that the observable laws would be much less simple if the velocities were ruled by any simple elementary law whatsoever, if the molecules were, as we say, _organized_, if they were subject to some discipline. It is due to chance, that is to say, to our ignorance, that we can draw our conclusions; and then if the word chance is simply synonymous with ignorance what does that mean? Must we therefore translate as follows?",
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      "text": "\"You ask me to predict for you the phenomena about to happen. If, unluckily, I knew the laws of these phenomena I could make the prediction only by inextricable calculations and would have to renounce attempting to answer you; but as I have the good fortune not to know them, I will answer you at once. And what is most surprising, my answer will be right.\"",
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      "text": "So it must well be that chance is something other than the name we give our ignorance, that among phenomena whose causes are unknown to us we must distinguish fortuitous phenomena about which the calculus of probabilities will provisionally give information, from those which are not fortuitous and of which we can say nothing so long as we shall not have determined the laws governing them. For the fortuitous phenomena themselves, it is clear that the information given us by the calculus of probabilities will not cease to be true upon the day when these phenomena shall be better known.",
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      "text": "The director of a life insurance company does not know when each of the insured will die, but he relies upon the calculus of probabilities and on the law of great numbers, and he is not deceived, since he distributes dividends to his stockholders. These dividends would not vanish if a very penetrating and very indiscreet physician should, after the policies were signed, reveal to the director the life chances of the insured. This doctor would dissipate the ignorance of the director, but he would have no influence on the dividends, which evidently are not an outcome of this ignorance.",
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      "text": "II",
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      "text": "To find a better definition of chance we must examine some of the facts which we agree to regard as fortuitous, and to which the calculus of probabilities seems to apply; we then shall investigate what are their common characteristics.",
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      "text": "The first example we select is that of unstable equilibrium; if a cone rests upon its apex, we know well that it will fall, but we do not know toward what side; it seems to us chance alone will decide. If the cone were perfectly symmetric, if its axis were perfectly vertical, if it were acted upon by no force other than gravity, it would not fall at all. But the least defect in symmetry will make it lean slightly toward one side or the other, and if it leans, however little, it will fall altogether toward that side. Even if the symmetry were perfect, a very slight tremor, a breath of air could make it incline some seconds of arc; this will be enough to determine its fall and even the sense of its fall which will be that of the initial inclination.",
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      "text": "A very slight cause, which escapes us, determines a considerable effect which we can not help seeing, and then we say this effect is due to chance. If we could know exactly the laws of nature and the situation of the universe at the initial instant, we should be able to predict exactly the situation of this same universe at a subsequent instant. But even when the natural laws should have no further secret for us, we could know the initial situation only _approximately_. If that permits us to foresee the subsequent situation _with the same degree of approximation_, this is all we require, we say the phenomenon has been predicted, that it is ruled by laws. But this is not always the case; it may happen that slight differences in the initial conditions produce very great differences in the final phenomena; a slight error in the former would make an enormous error in the latter. Prediction becomes impossible and we have the fortuitous phenomenon.",
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      "text": "Our second example will be very analogous to the first and we shall take it from meteorology. Why have the meteorologists such difficulty in predicting the weather with any certainty? Why do the rains, the tempests themselves seem to us to come by chance, so that many persons find it quite natural to pray for rain or shine, when they would think it ridiculous to pray for an eclipse? We see that great perturbations generally happen in regions where the atmosphere is in unstable equilibrium. The meteorologists are aware that this equilibrium is unstable, that a cyclone is arising somewhere; but where they can not tell; one-tenth of a degree more or less at any point, and the cyclone bursts here and not there, and spreads its ravages over countries it would have spared. This we could have foreseen if we had known that tenth of a degree, but the observations were neither sufficiently close nor sufficiently precise, and for this reason all seems due to the agency of chance. Here again we find the same contrast between a very slight cause, unappreciable to the observer, and important effects, which are sometimes tremendous disasters.",
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      "text": "Let us pass to another example, the distribution of the minor planets on the zodiac. Their initial longitudes may have been any longitudes whatever; but their mean motions were different and they have revolved for so long a time that we may say they are now distributed _at random_ along the zodiac. Very slight initial differences between their distances from the sun, or, what comes to the same thing, between their mean motions, have ended by giving enormous differences between their present longitudes. An excess of the thousandth of a second in the daily mean motion will give in fact a second in three years, a degree in ten thousand years, an entire circumference in three or four million years, and what is that to the time which has passed since the minor planets detached themselves from the nebula of Laplace? Again therefore we see a slight cause and a great effect; or better, slight differences in the cause and great differences in the effect.",
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      "text": "The game of roulette does not take us as far as might seem from the preceding example. Assume a needle to be turned on a pivot over a dial divided into a hundred sectors alternately red and black. If it stops on a red sector I win; if not, I lose. Evidently all depends upon the initial impulse I give the needle. The needle will make, suppose, ten or twenty turns, but it will stop sooner or not so soon, according as I shall have pushed it more or less strongly. It suffices that the impulse vary only by a thousandth or a two thousandth to make the needle stop over a black sector or over the following red one. These are differences the muscular sense can not distinguish and which elude even the most delicate instruments. So it is impossible for me to foresee what the needle I have started will do, and this is why my heart throbs and I hope everything from luck. The difference in the cause is imperceptible, and the difference in the effect is for me of the highest importance, since it means my whole stake.",
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      "text": "III",
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      "text": "I. THE STORY OF MY LIFE",
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      "text": "CHAPTER I",
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      "text": "It is with a kind of fear that I begin to write the history of my life. I have, as it were, a superstitious hesitation in lifting the veil that clings about my childhood like a golden mist. The task of writing an autobiography is a difficult one. When I try to classify my earliest impressions, I find that fact and fancy look alike across the years that link the past with the present. The woman paints the child's experiences in her own fantasy. A few impressions stand out vividly from the first years of my life; but \"the shadows of the prison-house are on the rest.\" Besides, many of the joys and sorrows of childhood have lost their poignancy; and many incidents of vital importance in my early education have been forgotten in the excitement of great discoveries. In order, therefore, not to be tedious I shall try to present in a series of sketches only the episodes that seem to me to be the most interesting and important.",
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      "text": "I was born on June 27, 1880, in Tuscumbia, a little town of northern Alabama.",
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      "text": "The family on my father's side is descended from Caspar Keller, a native of Switzerland, who settled in Maryland. One of my Swiss ancestors was the first teacher of the deaf in Zurich and wrote a book on the subject of their education--rather a singular coincidence; though it is true that there is no king who has not had a slave among his ancestors, and no slave who has not had a king among his.",
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      "text": "My grandfather, Caspar Keller's son, \"entered\" large tracts of land in Alabama and finally settled there. I have been told that once a year he went from Tuscumbia to Philadelphia on horseback to purchase supplies for the plantation, and my aunt has in her possession many of the letters to his family, which give charming and vivid accounts of these trips.",
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      "text": "My Grandmother Keller was a daughter of one of Lafayette's aides, Alexander Moore, and granddaughter of Alexander Spotswood, an early Colonial Governor of Virginia. She was also second cousin to Robert E. Lee.",
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      "text": "Thus I came up out of Egypt and stood before Sinai, and a power divine touched my spirit and gave it sight, so that I beheld many wonders. And from the sacred mountain I heard a voice which said, \"Knowledge is love and light and vision.\"",
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      "text": "CHAPTER IV",
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      "text": "The most important day I remember in all my life is the one on which my teacher, Anne Mansfield Sullivan, came to me. I am filled with wonder when I consider the immeasurable contrasts between the two lives which it connects. It was the third of March, 1887, three months before I was seven years old.",
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      "text": "On the afternoon of that eventful day, I stood on the porch, dumb, expectant. I guessed vaguely from my mother's signs and from the hurrying to and fro in the house that something unusual was about to happen, so I went to the door and waited on the steps. The afternoon sun penetrated the mass of honeysuckle that covered the porch, and fell on my upturned face. My fingers lingered almost unconsciously on the familiar leaves and blossoms which had just come forth to greet the sweet southern spring. I did not know what the future held of marvel or surprise for me. Anger and bitterness had preyed upon me continually for weeks and a deep languor had succeeded this passionate struggle.",
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      "text": "Have you ever been at sea in a dense fog, when it seemed as if a tangible white darkness shut you in, and the great ship, tense and anxious, groped her way toward the shore with plummet and sounding-line, and you waited with beating heart for something to happen? I was like that ship before my education began, only I was without compass or sounding-line, and had no way of knowing how near the harbour was. \"Light! give me light!\" was the wordless cry of my soul, and the light of love shone on me in that very hour.",
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      "text": "I felt approaching footsteps, I stretched out my hand as I supposed to my mother. Some one took it, and I was caught up and held close in the arms of her who had come to reveal all things to me, and, more than all things else, to love me.",
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      "text": "The morning after my teacher came she led me into her room and gave me a doll. The little blind children at the Perkins Institution had sent it and Laura Bridgman had dressed it; but I did not know this until afterward. When I had played with it a little while, Miss Sullivan slowly spelled into my hand the word \"d-o-l-l.\" I was at once interested in this finger play and tried to imitate it. When I finally succeeded in making the letters correctly I was flushed with childish pleasure and pride. Running downstairs to my mother I held up my hand and made the letters for doll. I did not know that I was spelling a word or even that words existed; I was simply making my fingers go in monkey-like imitation. In the days that followed I learned to spell in this uncomprehending way a great many words, among them pin, hat, cup and a few verbs like sit, stand and walk. But my teacher had been with me several weeks before I understood that everything has a name.",
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      "text": "One day, while I was playing with my new doll, Miss Sullivan put my big rag doll into my lap also, spelled \"d-o-l-l\" and tried to make me understand that \"d-o-l-l\" applied to both. Earlier in the day we had had a tussle over the words \"m-u-g\" and \"w-a-t-e-r.\" Miss Sullivan had tried to impress it upon me that \"m-u-g\" is mug and that \"w-a-t-e-r\" is water, but I persisted in confounding the two. In despair she had dropped the subject for the time, only to renew it at the first opportunity. I became impatient at her repeated attempts and, seizing the new doll, I dashed it upon the floor. I was keenly delighted when I felt the fragments of the broken doll at my feet. Neither sorrow nor regret followed my passionate outburst. I had not loved the doll. In the still, dark world in which I lived there was no strong sentiment or tenderness. I felt my teacher sweep the fragments to one side of the hearth, and I had a sense of satisfaction that the cause of my discomfort was removed. She brought me my hat, and I knew I was going out into the warm sunshine. This thought, if a wordless sensation may be called a thought, made me hop and skip with pleasure.",
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      "text": "We walked down the path to the well-house, attracted by the fragrance of the honeysuckle with which it was covered. Some one was drawing water and my teacher placed my hand under the spout. As the cool stream gushed over one hand she spelled into the other the word water, first slowly, then rapidly. I stood still, my whole attention fixed upon the motions of her fingers. Suddenly I felt a misty consciousness as of something forgotten--a thrill of returning thought; and somehow the mystery of language was revealed to me. I knew then that \"w-a-t-e-r\" meant the wonderful cool something that was flowing over my hand. That living word awakened my soul, gave it light, hope, joy, set it free! There were barriers still, it is true, but barriers that could in time be swept away.",
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      "text": "I left the well-house eager to learn. Everything had a name, and each name gave birth to a new thought. As we returned to the house every object which I touched seemed to quiver with life. That was because I saw everything with the strange, new sight that had come to me. On entering the door I remembered the doll I had broken. I felt my way to the hearth and picked up the pieces. I tried vainly to put them together. Then my eyes filled with tears; for I realized what I had done, and for the first time I felt repentance and sorrow.",
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      "text": "I learned a great many new words that day. I do not remember what they all were; but I do know that mother, father, sister, teacher were among them--words that were to make the world blossom for me, \"like Aaron's rod, with flowers.\" It would have been difficult to find a happier child than I was as I lay in my crib at the close of that eventful day and lived over the joys it had brought me, and for the first time longed for a new day to come.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER V",
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      "text": "I recall many incidents of the summer of 1887 that followed my soul's sudden awakening. I did nothing but explore with my hands and learn the name of every object that I touched; and the more I handled things and learned their names and uses, the more joyous and confident grew my sense of kinship with the rest of the world.",
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      "text": "After this experience it was a long time before I climbed another tree. The mere thought filled me with terror. It was the sweet allurement of the mimosa tree in full bloom that finally overcame my fears. One beautiful spring morning when I was alone in the summer-house, reading, I became aware of a wonderful subtle fragrance in the air. I started up and instinctively stretched out my hands. It seemed as if the spirit of spring had passed through the summer-house. \"What is it?\" I asked, and the next minute I recognized the odour of the mimosa blossoms. I felt my way to the end of the garden, knowing that the mimosa tree was near the fence, at the turn of the path. Yes, there it was, all quivering in the warm sunshine, its blossom-laden branches almost touching the long grass. Was there ever anything so exquisitely beautiful in the world before! Its delicate blossoms shrank from the slightest earthly touch; it seemed as if a tree of paradise had been transplanted to earth. I made my way through a shower of petals to the great trunk and for one minute stood irresolute; then, putting my foot in the broad space between the forked branches, I pulled myself up into the tree. I had some difficulty in holding on, for the branches were very large and the bark hurt my hands. But I had a delicious sense that I was doing something unusual and wonderful so I kept on climbing higher and higher, until I reached a little seat which somebody had built there so long ago that it had grown part of the tree itself. I sat there for a long, long time, feeling like a fairy on a rosy cloud. After that I spent many happy hours in my tree of paradise, thinking fair thoughts and dreaming bright dreams.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER VI",
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      "text": "I had now the key to all language, and I was eager to learn to use it. Children who hear acquire language without any particular effort; the words that fall from others' lips they catch on the wing, as it were, delightedly, while the little deaf child must trap them by a slow and often painful process. But whatever the process, the result is wonderful. Gradually from naming an object we advance step by step until we have traversed the vast distance between our first stammered syllable and the sweep of thought in a line of Shakespeare.",
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      "text": "At first, when my teacher told me about a new thing I asked very few questions. My ideas were vague, and my vocabulary was inadequate; but as my knowledge of things grew, and I learned more and more words, my field of inquiry broadened, and I would return again and again to the same subject, eager for further information. Sometimes a new word revived an image that some earlier experience had engraved on my brain.",
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      "text": "I remember the morning that I first asked the meaning of the word, \"love.\" This was before I knew many words. I had found a few early violets in the garden and brought them to my teacher. She tried to kiss me; but at that time I did not like to have any one kiss me except my mother. Miss Sullivan put her arm gently round me and spelled into my hand, \"I love Helen.\"",
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      "text": "\"What is love?\" I asked.",
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      "text": "She drew me closer to her and said, \"It is here,\" pointing to my heart, whose beats I was conscious of for the first time. Her words puzzled me very much because I did not then understand anything unless I touched it.",
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      "text": "I smelt the violets in her hand and asked, half in words, half in signs, a question which meant, \"Is love the sweetness of flowers?\"",
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      "text": "\"No,\" said my teacher.",
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      "text": "Again I thought. The warm sun was shining on us.",
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      "text": "\"Is this not love?\" I asked, pointing in the direction from which the heat came. \"Is this not love?\"",
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      "text": "It seemed to me that there could be nothing more beautiful than the sun, whose warmth makes all things grow. But Miss Sullivan shook her head, and I was greatly puzzled and disappointed. I thought it strange that my teacher could not show me love.",
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      "text": "A day or two afterward I was stringing beads of different sizes in symmetrical groups--two large beads, three small ones, and so on. I had made many mistakes, and Miss Sullivan had pointed them out again and again with gentle patience. Finally I noticed a very obvious error in the sequence and for an instant I concentrated my attention on the lesson and tried to think how I should have arranged the beads. Miss Sullivan touched my forehead and spelled with decided emphasis, \"Think.\"",
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      "text": "In a flash I knew that the word was the name of the process that was going on in my head. This was my first conscious perception of an abstract idea.",
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      "text": "For a long time I was still--I was not thinking of the beads in my lap, but trying to find a meaning for \"love\" in the light of this new idea. The sun had been under a cloud all day, and there had been brief showers; but suddenly the sun broke forth in all its southern splendour.",
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      "text": "Again I asked my teacher, \"Is this not love?\"",
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      "text": "\"Love is something like the clouds that were in the sky before the sun came out,\" she replied. Then in simpler words than these, which at that time I could not have understood, she explained: \"You cannot touch the clouds, you know; but you feel the rain and know how glad the flowers and the thirsty earth are to have it after a hot day. You cannot touch love either; but you feel the sweetness that it pours into everything. Without love you would not be happy or want to play.\"",
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      "text": "The beautiful truth burst upon my mind--I felt that there were invisible lines stretched between my spirit and the spirits of others.",
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      "text": "From the beginning of my education Miss Sullivan made it a practice to speak to me as she would speak to any hearing child; the only difference was that she spelled the sentences into my hand instead of speaking them. If I did not know the words and idioms necessary to express my thoughts she supplied them, even suggesting conversation when I was unable to keep up my end of the dialogue.",
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      "text": "This process was continued for several years; for the deaf child does not learn in a month, or even in two or three years, the numberless idioms and expressions used in the simplest daily intercourse. The little hearing child learns these from constant repetition and imitation. The conversation he hears in his home stimulates his mind and suggests topics and calls forth the spontaneous expression of his own thoughts. This natural exchange of ideas is denied to the deaf child. My teacher, realizing this, determined to supply the kinds of stimulus I lacked. This she did by repeating to me as far as possible, verbatim, what she heard, and by showing me how I could take part in the conversation. But it was a long time before I ventured to take the initiative, and still longer before I could find something appropriate to say at the right time.",
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      "text": "The deaf and the blind find it very difficult to acquire the amenities of conversation. How much more this difficulty must be augmented in the case of those who are both deaf and blind! They cannot distinguish the tone of the voice or, without assistance, go up and down the gamut of tones that give significance to words; nor can they watch the expression of the speaker's face, and a look is often the very soul of what one says.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER VII",
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      "text": "The next important step in my education was learning to read.",
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      "text": "This question surprised me very much; for I had not the faintest recollection of having had it read to me. I spoke up and said, \"Oh, no, it is my story, and I have written it for Mr. Anagnos.\"",
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      "text": "Accordingly I copied the story and sent it to him for his birthday. It was suggested that I should change the title from \"Autumn Leaves\" to \"The Frost King,\" which I did. I carried the little story to the post-office myself, feeling as if I were walking on air. I little dreamed how cruelly I should pay for that birthday gift.",
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      "text": "Mr. Anagnos was delighted with \"The Frost King,\" and published it in one of the Perkins Institution reports. This was the pinnacle of my happiness, from which I was in a little while dashed to earth. I had been in Boston only a short time when it was discovered that a story similar to \"The Frost King,\" called \"The Frost Fairies\" by Miss Margaret T. Canby, had appeared before I was born in a book called \"Birdie and His Friends.\" The two stories were so much alike in thought and language that it was evident Miss Canby's story had been read to me, and that mine was--a plagiarism. It was difficult to make me understand this; but when I did understand I was astonished and grieved. No child ever drank deeper of the cup of bitterness than I did. I had disgraced myself; I had brought suspicion upon those I loved best. And yet how could it possibly have happened? I racked my brain until I was weary to recall anything about the frost that I had read before I wrote \"The Frost King\"; but I could remember nothing, except the common reference to Jack Frost, and a poem for children, \"The Freaks of the Frost,\" and I knew I had not used that in my composition.",
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      "text": "At first Mr. Anagnos, though deeply troubled, seemed to believe me. He was unusually tender and kind to me, and for a brief space the shadow lifted. To please him I tried not to be unhappy, and to make myself as pretty as possible for the celebration of Washington's birthday, which took place very soon after I received the sad news.",
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      "text": "I was to be Ceres in a kind of masque given by the blind girls. How well I remember the graceful draperies that enfolded me, the bright autumn leaves that wreathed my head, and the fruit and grain at my feet and in my hands, and beneath all the piety of the masque the oppressive sense of coming ill that made my heart heavy.",
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      "text": "The night before the celebration, one of the teachers of the Institution had asked me a question connected with \"The Frost King,\" and I was telling her that Miss Sullivan had talked to me about Jack Frost and his wonderful works. Something I said made her think she detected in my words a confession that I did remember Miss Canby's story of \"The Frost Fairies,\" and she laid her conclusions before Mr. Anagnos, although I had told her most emphatically that she was mistaken.",
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      "text": "Mr. Anagnos, who loved me tenderly, thinking that he had been deceived, turned a deaf ear to the pleadings of love and innocence. He believed, or at least suspected, that Miss Sullivan and I had deliberately stolen the bright thoughts of another and imposed them on him to win his admiration. I was brought before a court of investigation composed of the teachers and officers of the Institution, and Miss Sullivan was asked to leave me. Then I was questioned and cross-questioned with what seemed to me a determination on the part of my judges to force me to acknowledge that I remembered having had \"The Frost Fairies\" read to me. I felt in every question the doubt and suspicion that was in their minds, and I felt, too, that a loved friend was looking at me reproachfully, although I could not have put all this into words. The blood pressed about my thumping heart, and I could scarcely speak, except in monosyllables. Even the consciousness that it was only a dreadful mistake did not lessen my suffering, and when at last I was allowed to leave the room, I was dazed and did not notice my teacher's caresses, or the tender words of my friends, who said I was a brave little girl and they were proud of me.",
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      "text": "As I lay in my bed that night, I wept as I hope few children have wept. I felt so cold, I imagined I should die before morning, and the thought comforted me. I think if this sorrow had come to me when I was older, it would have broken my spirit beyond repairing. But the angel of forgetfulness has gathered up and carried away much of the misery and all the bitterness of those sad days.",
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      "text": "Miss Sullivan had never heard of \"The Frost Fairies\" or of the book in which it was published. With the assistance of Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, she investigated the matter carefully, and at last it came out that Mrs. Sophia C. Hopkins had a copy of Miss Canby's \"Birdie and His Friends\" in 1888, the year that we spent the summer with her at Brewster. Mrs. Hopkins was unable to find her copy; but she has told me that at that time, while Miss Sullivan was away on a vacation, she tried to amuse me by reading from various books, and although she could not remember reading \"The Frost Fairies\" any more than I, yet she felt sure that \"Birdie and His Friends\" was one of them. She explained the disappearance of the book by the fact that she had a short time before sold her house and disposed of many juvenile books, such as old schoolbooks and fairy tales, and that \"Birdie and His Friends\" was probably among them.",
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      "text": "The stories had little or no meaning for me then; but the mere spelling of the strange words was sufficient to amuse a little child who could do almost nothing to amuse herself; and although I do not recall a single circumstance connected with the reading of the stories, yet I cannot help thinking that I made a great effort to remember the words, with the intention of having my teacher explain them when she returned. One thing is certain, the language was ineffaceably stamped upon my brain, though for a long time no one knew it, least of all myself.",
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      "text": "When Miss Sullivan came back, I did not speak to her about \"The Frost Fairies,\" probably because she began at once to read \"Little Lord Fauntleroy,\" which filled my mind to the exclusion of everything else. But the fact remains that Miss Canby's story was read to me once, and that long after I had forgotten it, it came back to me so naturally that I never suspected that it was the child of another mind.",
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      "text": "In my trouble I received many messages of love and sympathy. All the friends I loved best, except one, have remained my own to the present time.",
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      "text": "Miss Canby herself wrote kindly, \"Some day you will write a great story out of your own head, that will be a comfort and help to many.\" But this kind prophecy has never been fulfilled. I have never played with words again for the mere pleasure of the game. Indeed, I have ever since been tortured by the fear that what I write is not my own. For a long time, when I wrote a letter, even to my mother, I was seized with a sudden feeling of terror, and I would spell the sentences over and over, to make sure that I had not read them in a book. Had it not been for the persistent encouragement of Miss Sullivan, I think I should have given up trying to write altogether.",
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      "text": "I have read \"The Frost Fairies\" since, also the letters I wrote in which I used other ideas of Miss Canby's. I find in one of them, a letter to Mr. Anagnos, dated September 29, 1891, words and sentiments exactly like those of the book. At the time I was writing \"The Frost King,\" and this letter, like many others, contains phrases which show that my mind was saturated with the story. I represent my teacher as saying to me of the golden autumn leaves, \"Yes, they are beautiful enough to comfort us for the flight of summer\"--an idea direct from Miss Canby's story.",
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      "text": "This habit of assimilating what pleased me and giving it out again as my own appears in much of my early correspondence and my first attempts at writing. In a composition which I wrote about the old cities of Greece and Italy, I borrowed my glowing descriptions, with variations, from sources I have forgotten. I knew Mr. Anagnos's great love of antiquity and his enthusiastic appreciation of all beautiful sentiments about Italy and Greece. I therefore gathered from all the books I read every bit of poetry or of history that I thought would give him pleasure. Mr. Anagnos, in speaking of my composition on the cities, has said, \"These ideas are poetic in their essence.\" But I do not understand how he ever thought a blind and deaf child of eleven could have invented them. Yet I cannot think that because I did not originate the ideas, my little composition is therefore quite devoid of interest. It shows me that I could express my appreciation of beautiful and poetic ideas in clear and animated language.",
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      "text": "Those early compositions were mental gymnastics. I was learning, as all young and inexperienced persons learn, by assimilation and imitation, to put ideas into words. Everything I found in books that pleased me I retained in my memory, consciously or unconsciously, and adapted it. The young writer, as Stevenson has said, instinctively tries to copy whatever seems most admirable, and he shifts his admiration with astonishing versatility. It is only after years of this sort of practice that even great men have learned to marshal the legion of words which come thronging through every byway of the mind.",
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      "text": "I am afraid I have not yet completed this process. It is certain that I cannot always distinguish my own thoughts from those I read, because what I read becomes the very substance and texture of my mind. Consequently, in nearly all that I write, I produce something which very much resembles the crazy patchwork I used to make when I first learned to sew. This patchwork was made of all sorts of odds and ends--pretty bits of silk and velvet; but the coarse pieces that were not pleasant to touch always predominated. Likewise my compositions are made up of crude notions of my own, inlaid with the brighter thoughts and riper opinions of the authors I have read. It seems to me that the great difficulty of writing is to make the language of the educated mind express our confused ideas, half feelings, half thoughts, when we are little more than bundles of instinctive tendencies. Trying to write is very much like trying to put a Chinese puzzle together. We have a pattern in mind which we wish to work out in words; but the words will not fit the spaces, or, if they do, they will not match the design. But we keep on trying because we know that others have succeeded, and we are not willing to acknowledge defeat.",
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      "text": "\"There is no way to become original, except to be born so,\" says Stevenson, and although I may not be original, I hope sometime to outgrow my artificial, periwigged compositions. Then, perhaps, my own thoughts and experiences will come to the surface. Meanwhile I trust and hope and persevere, and try not to let the bitter memory of \"The Frost King\" trammel my efforts.",
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      "text": "So this sad experience may have done me good and set me thinking on some of the problems of composition. My only regret is that it resulted in the loss of one of my dearest friends, Mr. Anagnos.",
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      "text": "Since the publication of \"The Story of My Life\" in the Ladies' Home Journal, Mr. Anagnos has made a statement, in a letter to Mr. Macy, that at the time of the \"Frost King\" matter, he believed I was innocent. He says, the court of investigation before which I was brought consisted of eight people: four blind, four seeing persons. Four of them, he says, thought I knew that Miss Canby's story had been read to me, and the others did not hold this view. Mr. Anagnos states that he cast his vote with those who were favourable to me.",
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      "text": "But, however the case may have been, with whichever side he may have cast his vote, when I went into the room where Mr. Anagnos had so often held me on his knee and, forgetting his many cares, had shared in my frolics, and found there persons who seemed to doubt me, I felt that there was something hostile and menacing in the very atmosphere, and subsequent events have borne out this impression. For two years he seems to have held the belief that Miss Sullivan and I were innocent. Then he evidently retracted his favourable judgment, why I do not know. Nor did I know the details of the investigation. I never knew even the names of the members of the \"court\" who did not speak to me. I was too excited to notice anything, too frightened to ask questions. Indeed, I could scarcely think what I was saying, or what was being said to me.",
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      "text": "I have given this account of the \"Frost King\" affair because it was important in my life and education; and, in order that there might be no misunderstanding, I have set forth all the facts as they appear to me, without a thought of defending myself or of laying blame on any one.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XV",
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      "text": "The summer and winter following the \"Frost King\" incident I spent with my family in Alabama. I recall with delight that home-going. Everything had budded and blossomed. I was happy. \"The Frost King\" was forgotten.",
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      "text": "In October, 1898, we returned to Boston. For eight months Mr. Keith gave me lessons five times a week, in periods of about an hour. He explained each time what I did not understand in the previous lesson, assigned new work, and took home with him the Greek exercises which I had written during the week on my typewriter, corrected them fully, and returned them to me.",
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      "text": "In this way my preparation for college went on without interruption. I found it much easier and pleasanter to be taught by myself than to receive instruction in class. There was no hurry, no confusion. My tutor had plenty of time to explain what I did not understand, so I got on faster and did better work than I ever did in school. I still found more difficulty in mastering problems in mathematics than I did in any other of my studies. I wish algebra and geometry had been half as easy as the languages and literature. But even mathematics Mr. Keith made interesting; he succeeded in whittling problems small enough to get through my brain. He kept my mind alert and eager, and trained it to reason clearly, and to seek conclusions calmly and logically, instead of jumping wildly into space and arriving nowhere. He was always gentle and forbearing, no matter how dull I might be, and believe me, my stupidity would often have exhausted the patience of Job.",
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      "text": "On the 29th and 30th of June, 1899, I took my final examinations for Radcliffe College. The first day I had Elementary Greek and Advanced Latin, and the second day Geometry, Algebra and Advanced Greek.",
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      "text": "The college authorities did not allow Miss Sullivan to read the examination papers to me; so Mr. Eugene C. Vining, one of the instructors at the Perkins Institution for the Blind, was employed to copy the papers for me in American braille. Mr. Vining was a stranger to me, and could not communicate with me, except by writing braille. The proctor was also a stranger, and did not attempt to communicate with me in any way.",
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      "text": "The braille worked well enough in the languages, but when it came to geometry and algebra, difficulties arose. I was sorely perplexed, and felt discouraged wasting much precious time, especially in algebra. It is true that I was familiar with all literary braille in common use in this country--English, American, and New York Point; but the various signs and symbols in geometry and algebra in the three systems are very different, and I had used only the English braille in my algebra.",
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      "text": "Two days before the examinations, Mr. Vining sent me a braille copy of one of the old Harvard papers in algebra. To my dismay I found that it was in the American notation. I sat down immediately and wrote to Mr. Vining, asking him to explain the signs. I received another paper and a table of signs by return mail, and I set to work to learn the notation. But on the night before the algebra examination, while I was struggling over some very complicated examples, I could not tell the combinations of bracket, brace and radical. Both Mr. Keith and I were distressed and full of forebodings for the morrow; but we went over to the college a little before the examination began, and had Mr. Vining explain more fully the American symbols.",
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      "text": "In geometry my chief difficulty was that I had always been accustomed to read the propositions in line print, or to have them spelled into my hand; and somehow, although the propositions were right before me, I found the braille confusing, and could not fix clearly in my mind what I was reading. But when I took up algebra I had a harder time still. The signs, which I had so lately learned, and which I thought I knew, perplexed me. Besides, I could not see what I wrote on my typewriter. I had always done my work in braille or in my head. Mr. Keith had relied too much on my ability to solve problems mentally, and had not trained me to write examination papers. Consequently my work was painfully slow, and I had to read the examples over and over before I could form any idea of what I was required to do. Indeed, I am not sure now that I read all the signs correctly. I found it very hard to keep my wits about me.",
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      "text": "But I do not blame any one. The administrative board of Radcliffe did not realize how difficult they were making my examinations, nor did they understand the peculiar difficulties I had to surmount. But if they unintentionally placed obstacles in my way, I have the consolation of knowing that I overcame them all.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER XX",
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      "text": "The struggle for admission to college was ended, and I could now enter Radcliffe whenever I pleased. Before I entered college, however, it was thought best that I should study another year under Mr. Keith. It was not, therefore, until the fall of 1900 that my dream of going to college was realized.",
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      "text": "The one I felt and still feel most is lack of time. I used to have time to think, to reflect, my mind and I. We would sit together of an evening and listen to the inner melodies of the spirit, which one hears only in leisure moments when the words of some loved poet touch a deep, sweet chord in the soul that until then had been silent. But in college there is no time to commune with one's thoughts. One goes to college to learn, it seems, not to think. When one enters the portals of learning, one leaves the dearest pleasures--solitude, books and imagination--outside with the whispering pines. I suppose I ought to find some comfort in the thought that I am laying up treasures for future enjoyment, but I am improvident enough to prefer present joy to hoarding riches against a rainy day.",
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      "text": "My studies the first year were French, German, history, English composition and English literature. In the French course I read some of the works of Corneille, Moliere, Racine, Alfred de Musset and Sainte-Beuve, and in the German those of Goethe and Schiller. I reviewed rapidly the whole period of history from the fall of the Roman Empire to the eighteenth century, and in English literature studied critically Milton's poems and \"Areopagitica.\"",
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      "text": "I am frequently asked how I overcome the peculiar conditions under which I work in college. In the classroom I am of course practically alone. The professor is as remote as if he were speaking through a telephone. The lectures are spelled into my hand as rapidly as possible, and much of the individuality of the lecturer is lost to me in the effort to keep in the race. The words rush through my hand like hounds in pursuit of a hare which they often miss. But in this respect I do not think I am much worse off than the girls who take notes. If the mind is occupied with the mechanical process of hearing and putting words on paper at pell-mell speed, I should not think one could pay much attention to the subject under consideration or the manner in which it is presented. I cannot make notes during the lectures, because my hands are busy listening. Usually I jot down what I can remember of them when I get home. I write the exercises, daily themes, criticisms and hour-tests, the mid-year and final examinations, on my typewriter, so that the professors have no difficulty in finding out how little I know. When I began the study of Latin prosody, I devised and explained to my professor a system of signs indicating the different meters and quantities.",
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      "text": "I use the Hammond typewriter. I have tried many machines, and I find the Hammond is the best adapted to the peculiar needs of my work. With this machine movable type shuttles can be used, and one can have several shuttles, each with a different set of characters--Greek, French, or mathematical, according to the kind of writing one wishes to do on the typewriter. Without it, I doubt if I could go to college.",
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      "text": "Very few of the books required in the various courses are printed for the blind, and I am obliged to have them spelled into my hand. Consequently I need more time to prepare my lessons than other girls. The manual part takes longer, and I have perplexities which they have not. There are days when the close attention I must give to details chafes my spirit, and the thought that I must spend hours reading a few chapters, while in the world without other girls are laughing and singing and dancing, makes me rebellious; but I soon recover my buoyancy and laugh the discontent out of my heart. For, after all, every one who wishes to gain true knowledge must climb the Hill Difficulty alone, and since there is no royal road to the summit, I must zigzag it in my own way. I slip back many times, I fall, I stand still, I run against the edge of hidden obstacles, I lose my temper and find it again and keep it better, I trudge on, I gain a little, I feel encouraged, I get more eager and climb higher and begin to see the widening horizon. Every struggle is a victory. One more effort and I reach the luminous cloud, the blue depths of the sky, the uplands of my desire. I am not always alone, however, in these struggles. Mr. William Wade and Mr. E. E. Allen, Principal of the Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind, get for me many of the books I need in raised print. Their thoughtfulness has been more of a help and encouragement to me than they can ever know.",
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      "text": "Last year, my second year at Radcliffe, I studied English composition, the Bible as English composition, the governments of America and Europe, the Odes of Horace, and Latin comedy. The class in composition was the pleasantest. It was very lively. The lectures were always interesting, vivacious, witty; for the instructor, Mr. Charles Townsend Copeland, more than any one else I have had until this year, brings before you literature in all its original freshness and power. For one short hour you are permitted to drink in the eternal beauty of the old masters without needless interpretation or exposition. You revel in their fine thoughts. You enjoy with all your soul the sweet thunder of the Old Testament, forgetting the existence of Jahweh and Elohim; and you go home feeling that you have had \"a glimpse of that perfection in which spirit and form dwell in immortal harmony; truth and beauty bearing a new growth on the ancient stem of time.\"",
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      "text": "This year is the happiest because I am studying subjects that especially interest me, economics, Elizabethan literature, Shakespeare under Professor George L. Kittredge, and the History of Philosophy under Professor Josiah Royce. Through philosophy one enters with sympathy of comprehension into the traditions of remote ages and other modes of thought, which erewhile seemed alien and without reason.",
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      "text": "But college is not the universal Athens I thought it was. There one does not meet the great and the wise face to face; one does not even feel their living touch. They are there, it is true; but they seem mummified. We must extract them from the crannied wall of learning and dissect and analyze them before we can be sure that we have a Milton or an Isaiah, and not merely a clever imitation. Many scholars forget, it seems to me, that our enjoyment of the great works of literature depends more upon the depth of our sympathy than upon our understanding. The trouble is that very few of their laborious explanations stick in the memory. The mind drops them as a branch drops its overripe fruit. It is possible to know a flower, root and stem and all, and all the processes of growth, and yet to have no appreciation of the flower fresh bathed in heaven's dew. Again and again I ask impatiently, \"Why concern myself with these explanations and hypotheses?\" They fly hither and thither in my thought like blind birds beating the air with ineffectual wings. I do not mean to object to a thorough knowledge of the famous works we read. I object only to the interminable comments and bewildering criticisms that teach but one thing: there are as many opinions as there are men. But when a great scholar like Professor Kittredge interprets what the master said, it is \"as if new sight were given the blind.\" He brings back Shakespeare, the poet.",
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      "text": "There are, however, times when I long to sweep away half the things I am expected to learn; for the overtaxed mind cannot enjoy the treasure it has secured at the greatest cost. It is impossible, I think, to read in one day four or five different books in different languages and treating of widely different subjects, and not lose sight of the very ends for which one reads. When one reads hurriedly and nervously, having in mind written tests and examinations, one's brain becomes encumbered with a lot of choice bric-a-brac for which there seems to be little use. At the present time my mind is so full of heterogeneous matter that I almost despair of ever being able to put it in order. Whenever I enter the region that was the kingdom of my mind I feel like the proverbial bull in the china shop. A thousand odds and ends of knowledge come crashing about my head like hailstones, and when I try to escape them, theme-goblins and college nixies of all sorts pursue me, until I wish--oh, may I be forgiven the wicked wish!--that I might smash the idols I came to worship.",
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      "text": "But the examinations are the chief bugbears of my college life. Although I have faced them many times and cast them down and made them bite the dust, yet they rise again and menace me with pale looks, until like Bob Acres I feel my courage oozing out at my finger ends. The days before these ordeals take place are spent in cramming your mind with mystic formula and indigestible dates--unpalatable diets, until you wish that books and science and you were buried in the depths of the sea.",
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      "text": "At last the dreaded hour arrives, and you are a favoured being indeed if you feel prepared, and are able at the right time to call to your standard thoughts that will aid you in that supreme effort. It happens too often that your trumpet call is unheeded. It is most perplexing and exasperating that just at the moment when you need your memory and a nice sense of discrimination, these faculties take to themselves wings and fly away. The facts you have garnered with such infinite trouble invariably fail you at a pinch.",
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      "text": "Well, I must confess, I do not like the sign-language, and I do not think it would be of much use to the deaf-blind. I find it very difficult to follow the rapid motions made by the deaf-mutes, and besides, signs seem a great hindrance to them in acquiring the power of using language easily and freely. Why, I find it hard to understand them sometimes when they spell on their fingers. On the whole, if they cannot be taught articulation, the manual alphabet seems the best and most convenient means of communication. At any rate, I am sure the deaf-blind cannot learn to use signs with any degree of facility.",
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      "text": "The other day, I met a deaf Norwegian gentleman, who knows Ragnhild Kaata and her teacher very well, and we had a very interesting conversation about her. He said she was very industrious and happy. She spins, and does a great deal of fancy work, and reads, and leads a pleasant, useful life. Just think, she cannot use the manual alphabet! She reads the lips well, and if she cannot understand a phrase, her friends write it in her hand, and in this way she converses with strangers. I cannot make out anything written in my hand, so you see, Ragnhild has got ahead of me in some things. I do hope I shall see her sometime...",
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      "text": "TO MRS. LAURENCE HUTTON Wrentham, July 29, 1899. ...I passed in all the subjects I offered, and with credit in advanced Latin.... But I must confess, I had a hard time on the second day of my examinations. They would not allow Teacher to read any of the papers to me; so the papers were copied for me in braille. This arrangement worked very well in the languages, but not nearly so well in the Mathematics. Consequently, I did not do so well as I should have done, if Teacher had been allowed to read the Algebra and Geometry to me. But you must not think I blame any one. Of course they did not realize how difficult and perplexing they were making the examinations for me. How could they--they can see and hear, and I suppose they could not understand matters from my point of view....",
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      "text": "Thus far my summer has been sweeter than anything I can remember. My mother, and sister and little brother have been here five weeks, and our happiness knows no bounds. Not only do we enjoy being together; but we also find our little home most delightful. I do wish you could see the view of the beautiful lake from our piazza, the islands looking like little emerald peaks in the golden sunlight, and the canoes flitting here and there, like autumn leaves in the gentle breeze, and breathe in the peculiarly delicious fragrance of the woods, which comes like a murmur from an unknown clime. I cannot help wondering if it is the same fragrance that greeted the Norsemen long ago, when, according to tradition, they visited our shores--an odorous echo of many centuries of silent growth and decay in flower and tree....",
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      "text": "TO MRS. SAMUEL RICHARD FULLER Wrentham, October 20, 1899. ...I suppose it is time for me to tell you something about our plans for the winter. You know it has long been my ambition to go to Radcliffe, and receive a degree, as many other girls have done; but Dean Irwin of Radcliffe, has persuaded me to take a special course for the present. She said I had already shown the world that I could do the college work, by passing all my examinations successfully, in spite of many obstacles. She showed me how very foolish it would be for me to pursue a four years' course of study at Radcliffe, simply to be like other girls, when I might better be cultivating whatever ability I had for writing. She said she did not consider a degree of any real value, but thought it was much more desirable to do something original than to waste one's energies only for a degree. Her arguments seemed so wise and practical, that I could not but yield. I found it hard, very hard, to give up the idea of going to college; it had been in my mind ever since I was a little girl; but there is no use doing a foolish thing, because one has wanted to do it a long time, is there?",
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      "text": "But, while we were discussing plans for the winter, a suggestion which Dr. Hale had made long ago flashed across Teacher's mind--that I might take courses somewhat like those offered at Radcliffe, under the instruction of the professors in these courses. Miss Irwin seemed to have no objection to this proposal, and kindly offered to see the professors and find out if they would give me lessons. If they will be so good as to teach me and if we have money enough to do as we have planned, my studies this year will be English, English Literature of the Elizabethan period, Latin and German....",
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      "text": "TO MR. JOHN HITZ 138 Brattle St., Cambridge, Nov. 11, 1899. ...As to the braille question, I cannot tell how deeply it distresses me to hear that my statement with regard to the examinations has been doubted. Ignorance seems to be at the bottom of all these contradictions. Why, you yourself seem to think that I taught you American braille, when you do not know a single letter in the system! I could not help laughing when you said you had been writing to me in American braille--and there you were writing your letter in English braille!",
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      "text": "The facts about the braille examinations are as follows:",
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      "text": "How I passed my Entrance Examinations for Radcliffe College.",
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      "text": "On the 29th and 30th of June, 1899, I took my examinations for Radcliffe College. The first day I had elementary Greek and advanced Latin, and the second day Geometry, Algebra and advanced Greek.",
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      "text": "The college authorities would not permit Miss Sullivan to read the examination papers to me; so Mr. Eugene C. Vining, one of the instructors at the Perkins Institution for the Blind, was employed to copy the papers for me in braille. Mr. Vining was a perfect stranger to me, and could not communicate with me except by writing in braille. The Proctor also was a stranger, and did not attempt to communicate with me in any way; and, as they were both unfamiliar with my speech, they could not readily understand what I said to them.",
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      "text": "However, the braille worked well enough in the languages; but when it came to Geometry and Algebra, it was different. I was sorely perplexed, and felt quite discouraged, and wasted much precious time, especially in Algebra. It is true that I am perfectly familiar with all literary braille--English, American, and New York Point; but the method of writing the various signs used in Geometry and Algebra in the three systems is very different, and two days before the examinations I knew only the English method. I had used it all through my school work, and never any other system.",
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      "text": "In Geometry, my chief difficulty was, that I had always been accustomed to reading the propositions in Line Print, or having them spelled into my hand; and somehow, although the propositions were right before me, yet the braille confused me, and I could not fix in my mind clearly what I was reading. But, when I took up Algebra, I had a harder time still--I was terribly handicapped by my imperfect knowledge of the notation. The signs, which I had learned the day before, and which I thought I knew perfectly, confused me. Consequently my work was painfully slow, and I was obliged to read the examples over and over before I could form a clear idea what I was required to do. Indeed, I am not sure now that I read all the signs correctly, especially as I was much distressed, and found it very hard to keep my wits about me....",
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      "text": "Now there is one more fact, which I wish to state very plainly, in regard to what Mr. Gilman wrote to you. I never received any direct instruction in the Gilman School. Miss Sullivan always sat beside me, and told me what the teachers said. I did teach Miss Hall, my teacher in Physics, how to write the American braille, but she never gave me any instruction by means of it, unless a few problems written for practice, which made me waste much precious time deciphering them, can be called instruction. Dear Frau Grote learned the manual alphabet, and used to teach me herself; but this was in private lessons, which were paid for by my friends. In the German class Miss Sullivan interpreted to me as well as she could what the teacher said.",
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      "text": "III: A SUPPLEMENTARY ACCOUNT OF HELEN KELLER'S LIFE AND EDUCATION",
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      "text": "CHAPTER I. The Writing of the Book",
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      "text": "It is fitting that Miss Keller's \"Story of My Life\" should appear at this time. What is remarkable in her career is already accomplished, and whatever she may do in the future will be but a relatively slight addition to the success which distinguishes her now. That success has just been assured, for it is her work at Radcliffe during the last two years which has shown that she can carry her education as far as if she were studying under normal conditions. Whatever doubts Miss Keller herself may have had are now at rest.",
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      "text": "Several passages of her autobiography, as it appeared in serial form, have been made the subject of a grave editorial in a Boston newspaper, in which the writer regretted Miss Keller's apparent disillusionment in regard to the value of her college life. He quoted the passages in which she explains that college is not the \"universal Athens\" she had hoped to find, and cited the cases of other remarkable persons whose college life had proved disappointing. But it is to be remembered that Miss Keller has written many things in her autobiography for the fun of writing them, and the disillusion, which the writer of the editorial took seriously, is in great part humorous. Miss Keller does not suppose her views to be of great importance, and when she utters her opinions on important matters she takes it for granted that her reader will receive them as the opinions of a junior in college, not of one who writes with the wisdom of maturity. For instance, it surprised her that some people were annoyed at what she said about the Bible, and she was amused that they did not see, what was plain enough, that she had been obliged to read the whole Bible in a course in English literature, not as a religious duty put upon her by her teacher or her parents.",
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      "text": "I ought to apologize to the reader and to Miss Keller for presuming to say what her subject matter is worth, but one more explanation is necessary. In her account of her early education Miss Keller is not giving a scientifically accurate record of her life, nor even of the important events. She cannot know in detail how she was taught, and her memory of her childhood is in some cases an idealized memory of what she has learned later from her teacher and others. She is less able to recall events of fifteen years ago than most of us are to recollect our childhood. That is why her teacher's records may be found to differ in some particulars from Miss Keller's account.",
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      "text": "The way in which Miss Keller wrote her story shows, as nothing else can show, the difficulties she had to overcome. When we write, we can go back over our work, shuffle the pages, interline, rearrange, see how the paragraphs look in proof, and so construct the whole work before the eye, as an architect constructs his plans. When Miss Keller puts her work in typewritten form, she cannot refer to it again unless some one reads it to her by means of the manual alphabet.",
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      "text": "This difficulty is in part obviated by the use of her braille machine, which makes a manuscript that she can read; but as her work must be put ultimately in typewritten form, and as a braille machine is somewhat cumbersome, she has got into the habit of writing directly on her typewriter. She depends so little on her braille manuscript, that, when she began to write her story more than a year ago and had put in braille a hundred pages of material and notes, she made the mistake of destroying these notes before she had finished her manuscript. Thus she composed much of her story on the typewriter, and in constructing it as a whole depended on her memory to guide her in putting together the detached episodes, which Miss Sullivan read over to her.",
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      "text": "Last July, when she had finished under great pressure of work her final chapter, she set to work to rewrite the whole story. Her good friend, Mr. William Wade, had a complete braille copy made for her from the magazine proofs. Then for the first time she had her whole manuscript under her finger at once. She saw imperfections in the arrangement of paragraphs and the repetition of phrases. She saw, too, that her story properly fell into short chapters and redivided it.",
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      "text": "Partly from temperament, partly from the conditions of her work, she has written rather a series of brilliant passages than a unified narrative; in point of fact, several paragraphs of her story are short themes written in her English courses, and the small unit sometimes shows its original limits.",
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      "text": "In rewriting the story, Miss Keller made corrections on separate pages on her braille machine. Long corrections she wrote out on her typewriter, with catch-words to indicate where they belonged. Then she read from her braille copy the entire story, making corrections as she read, which were taken down on the manuscript that went to the printer. During this revision she discussed questions of subject matter and phrasing. She sat running her finger over the braille manuscript, stopping now and then to refer to the braille notes on which she had indicated her corrections, all the time reading aloud to verify the manuscript.",
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      "text": "She listened to criticism just as any author listens to his friends or his editor. Miss Sullivan, who is an excellent critic, made suggestions at many points in the course of composition and revision. One newspaper suggested that Miss Keller had been led into writing the book and had been influenced to put certain things into it by zealous friends. As a matter of fact, most of the advice she has received and heeded has led to excisions rather than to additions. The book is Miss Keller's and is final proof of her independent power.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER II. PERSONALITY",
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      "text": "Mark Twain has said that the two most interesting characters of the nineteenth century are Napoleon and Helen Keller. The admiration with which the world has regarded her is more than justified by what she has done. No one can tell any great truth about her which has not already been written, and all that I can do is to give a few more facts about Miss Keller's work and add a little to what is known of her personality.",
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      "text": "We almost live in the garden, where everything is growing and blooming and glowing. After breakfast we go out and watch the men at work. Helen loves to dig and play in the dirt like any other child. This morning she planted her doll and showed me that she expected her to grow as tall as I. You must see that she is very bright, but you have no idea how cunning she is.",
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      "text": "At ten we come in and string beads for a few minutes. She can make a great many combinations now, and often invents new ones herself. Then I let her decide whether she will sew or knit or crochet. She learned to knit very quickly, and is making a wash-cloth for her mother. Last week she made her doll an apron, and it was done as well as any child of her age could do it. But I am always glad when this work is over for the day. Sewing and crocheting are inventions of the devil, I think. I'd rather break stones on the king's highway than hem a handkerchief. At eleven we have gymnastics. She knows all the free-hand movements and the \"Anvil Chorus\" with the dumb-bells. Her father says he is going to fit up a gymnasium for her in the pump-house; but we both like a good romp better than set exercises. The hour from twelve to one is devoted to the learning of new words. BUT YOU MUSTN'T THINK THIS IS THE ONLY TIME I SPELL TO HELEN; FOR I SPELL IN HER HAND EVERYTHING WE DO ALL DAY LONG, ALTHOUGH SHE HAS NO IDEA AS YET WHAT THE SPELLING MEANS. After dinner I rest for an hour, and Helen plays with her dolls or frolics in the yard with the little darkies, who were her constant companions before I came. Later I join them, and we make the rounds of the outhouses. We visit the horses and mules in their stalls and hunt for eggs and feed the turkeys. Often, when the weather is fine, we drive from four to six, or go to see her aunt at Ivy Green or her cousins in the town. Helen's instincts are decidedly social; she likes to have people about her and to visit her friends, partly, I think, because they always have things she likes to eat. After supper we go to my room and do all sorts of things until eight, when I undress the little woman and put her to bed. She sleeps with me now. Mrs. Keller wanted to get a nurse for her, but I concluded I'd rather be her nurse than look after a stupid, lazy negress. Besides, I like to have Helen depend on me for everything, AND I FIND IT MUCH EASIER TO TEACH HER THINGS AT ODD MOMENTS THAN AT SET TIMES.",
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      "text": "On March 31st I found that Helen knew eighteen nouns and three verbs. Here is a list of the words. Those with a cross after them are words she asked for herself: DOLL, MUG, PIN, KEY, DOG, HAT, CUP, BOX, WATER, MILK, CANDY, EYE (X), FINGER (X), TOE (X), HEAD (X), CAKE, BABY, MOTHER, SIT, STAND, WALK. On April 1st she learned the nouns KNIFE, FORK, SPOON, SAUCER, TEA, PAPA, BED, and the verb RUN.",
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      "text": "April 5, 1887.",
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      "text": "I must write you a line this morning because something very important has happened. Helen has taken the second great step in her education. She has learned that EVERYTHING HAS A NAME, AND THAT THE MANUAL ALPHABET IS THE KEY TO EVERYTHING SHE WANTS TO KNOW.",
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      "text": "In a previous letter I think I wrote you that \"mug\" and \"milk\" had given Helen more trouble than all the rest. She confused the nouns with the verb \"drink.\" She didn't know the word for \"drink,\" but went through the pantomime of drinking whenever she spelled \"mug\" or \"milk.\" This morning, while she was washing, she wanted to know the name for \"water.\" When she wants to know the name of anything, she points to it and pats my hand. I spelled \"w-a-t-e-r\" and thought no more about it until after breakfast. Then it occurred to me that with the help of this new word I might succeed in straightening out the \"mug-milk\" difficulty. We went out to the pump-house, and I made Helen hold her mug under the spout while I pumped. As the cold water gushed forth, filling the mug, I spelled \"w-a-t-e-r\" in Helen's free hand. The word coming so close upon the sensation of cold water rushing over her hand seemed to startle her. She dropped the mug and stood as one transfixed. A new light came into her face. She spelled \"water\" several times. Then she dropped on the ground and asked for its name and pointed to the pump and the trellis, and suddenly turning round she asked for my name. I spelled \"Teacher.\" Just then the nurse brought Helen's little sister into the pump-house, and Helen spelled \"baby\" and pointed to the nurse. All the way back to the house she was highly excited, and learned the name of every object she touched, so that in a few hours she had adDED THIRTY NEW WORDS TO HER VOCABULARY. HERE ARE SOME OF THEM: DOOR, OPEN, SHUT, GIVE, GO, COME, and a great many more.",
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      "text": "P.S.--I didn't finish my letter in time to get it posted last night; so I shall add a line. Helen got up this morning like a radiant fairy. She has flitted from object to object, asking the name of everything and kissing me for very gladness. Last night when I got in bed, she stole into my arms of her own accord and kissed me for the first time, and I thought my heart would burst, so full was it of joy.",
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      "text": "April 10, 1887.",
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      "text": "I see an improvement in Helen day to day, almost from hour to hour. Everything must have a name now. Wherever we go, she asks eagerly for the names of things she has not learned at home. She is anxious for her friends to spell, and eager to teach the letters to every one she meets. She drops the signs and pantomime she used before, as soon as she has words to supply their place, and the acquirement of a new word affords her the liveliest pleasure. And we notice that her face grows more expressive each day.",
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      "text": "I HAVE DECIDED NOT TO TRY TO HAVE REGULAR LESSONS FOR THE PRESENT. I AM GOING TO TREAT HELEN EXACTLY LIKE A TWO-YEAR-OLD CHILD. IT OCCURRED TO ME THE OTHER DAY THAT IT IS ABSURD TO REQUIRE A CHILD TO COME TO A CERTAIN PLACE AT A CERTAIN TIME AND RECITE CERTAIN LESSONS, WHEN HE HAS NOT YET ACQUIRED A WORKING VOCABULARY. I sent Helen away and sat down to think. I asked myself, \"How does a normal child learn language?\" The answer was simple, \"By imitation.\" The child comes into the world with the ability to learn, and he learns of himself, provided he is supplied with sufficient outward stimulus. He sees people do things, and he tries to do them. He hears others speak, and he tried to speak. BUT LONG BEFORE HE UTTERS HIS FIRST WORD, HE UNDERSTANDS WHAT IS SAID TO HIM. I have been observing Helen's little cousin lately. She is about fifteen months old, and already understands a great deal. In response to questions she points out prettily her nose, mouth, eye, chin, cheek, ear. If I say, \"Where is baby's other ear?\" she points it out correctly. If I hand her a flower, and say, \"Give it to mamma,\" she takes it to her mother. If I say, \"Where is the little rogue?\" she hides behind her mother's chair, or covers her face with her hands and peeps out at me with an expression of genuine roguishness. She obeys many commands like these: \"Come,\" \"Kiss,\" \"Go to papa,\" \"Shut the door,\" \"Give me the biscuit.\" But I have not heard her try to say any of these words, although they have been repeated hundreds of times in her hearing, and it is perfectly evident that she understands them. These observations have given me a clue to the method to be followed in teaching Helen language.I SHALL TALK INTO HER HAND AS WE TALK INTO THE BABY'S EARS. I shall assume that she has the normal child's capacity of assimilation and imitation. I SHALL USE COMPLETE SENTENCES IN TALKING TO HER, and fill out the meaning with gestures and her descriptive signs when necessity requires it; but I shall not try to keep her mind fixed on any one thing. I shall do all I can to interest and stimulate it, and wait for results.",
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      "text": "April 24, 1887.",
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      "text": "\"I first tried to ascertain what had suggested to Helen's mind the particular fancies which made her story seem like a reproduction of one written by Miss Margaret Canby. Helen told me that for a long time she had thought of Jack Frost as a king, because of the many treasures which he possessed. Such rich treasures must be kept in a safe place, and so she had imagined them stored in jars and vases in one part of the royal palace. She said that one autumn day her teacher told her as they were walking together in the woods, about the many beautiful colours of the leaves, and she had thought that such beauty must make people very happy, and very grateful to King Frost. I asked Helen what stories she had read about Jack Frost. In answer to my question she recited a part of the poem called 'Freaks of the Frost,' and she referred to a little piece about winter, in one of the school readers. She could not remember that any one had ever read to her any stories about King Frost, but said she had talked with her teacher about Jack Frost and the wonderful things he did.\"",
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      "text": "The only person that we supposed might possibly have read the story to Helen was her friend, Mrs. Hopkins, whom she was visiting at the time in Brewster. I asked Miss Sullivan to go at once to see Mrs. Hopkins and ascertain the facts in the matter. The result of her investigation is embodied in the printed note herewith enclosed. [This note is a statement of the bare facts and an apology, which Mr. Anagnos inserted in his report of the Perkins Institute.]",
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      "text": "I have scarcely any doubt that Miss Canby's little book was read to Helen, by Mrs. Hopkins, in the summer of 1888. But the child has no recollection whatever of this fact. On Miss Sullivan's return to Brewster, she read to Helen the story of \"Little Lord Fauntleroy,\" which she had purchased in Boston for the purpose. The child was at once fascinated and absorbed with the charming story, which evidently made a deeper impression upon her mind than any previously read to her, as was shown in the frequent reference to it, both in her conversation and letters, for many months afterward. Her intense interest in Fauntleroy must have buried all remembrance of \"Frost Fairies,\" and when, more than three years later, she had acquired a fuller knowledge and use of language, and was told of Jack Frost and his work, the seed so long buried sprang up into new thoughts and fancies. This may explain the reason why Helen claims persistently that \"The Frost King\" is her own story. She seems to have some idea of the difference between original composition and reproduction. She did not know the meaning of the word \"plagiarism\" until quite recently, when it was explained to her. She is absolutely truthful. Veracity is the strongest element of her character. She was very much surprised and grieved when she was told that her composition was an adaptation of Miss Canby's story of \"Frost Fairies.\" She could not keep back her tears, and the chief cause of her pain seemed to be the fear lest people should doubt her truthfulness. She said, with great intensity of feeling, \"I love the beautiful truth.\" A most rigid examination of the child of about two hours' duration, at which eight persons were present and asked all sorts of questions with perfect freedom, failed to elicit in the least any testimony convicting either her teacher or any one else of the intention or attempt to practice deception.",
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      "text": "In view of these facts I cannot but think that Helen, while writing \"The Frost King,\" was entirely unconscious of ever having had the story of \"Frost Fairies\" read to her, and that her memory has been accompanied by such a loss of associations that she herself honestly believed her composition to be original. This theory is shared by many persons who are perfectly well acquainted with the child and who are able to rise above the clouds of a narrow prejudice.",
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      "text": "Very sincerely yours, M. ANAGNOS. Director of the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts School for the Blind.",
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      "text": "The episode had a deadening effect on Helen Keller and on Miss Sullivan, who feared that she had allowed the habit of imitation, which has in truth made Miss Keller a writer, to go too far. Even to-day, when Miss Keller strikes off a fine phrase, Miss Sullivan says in humorous despair, \"I wonder where she got that?\" But she knows now, since she has studied with her pupil in college the problems of composition, under the wise advice of Mr. Charles T. Copeland, that the style of every writer and indeed, of every human being, illiterate or cultivated, is a composite reminiscence of all that he has read and heard. Of the sources of his vocabulary he is, for the most part, as unaware as he is of the moment when he ate the food which makes a bit of his thumbnail. With most of us the contributions from different sources are blended, crossed and confused. A child with but few sources may keep distinct what he draws from each. In this case Helen Keller held almost intact in her mind, unmixed with other ideas, the words of a story which at the time it was read to her she did not fully understand. The importance of this cannot be overestimated. It shows how the child-mind gathers into itself words it has heard, and how they lurk there ready to come out when the key that releases the spring is touched. The reason that we do not observe this process in ordinary children is, because we seldom observe them at all, and because they are fed from so many sources that the memories are confused and mutually destructive. The story of \"The Frost King\" did not, however, come from Helen Keller's mind intact, but had taken to itself the mould of the child's temperament and had drawn on a vocabulary that to some extent had been supplied in other ways. The style of her version is in some respects even better than the style of Miss Canby's story. It has the imaginative credulity of a primitive folktale; whereas Miss Canby's story is evidently told for children by an older person, who adopts the manner of a fairy tale and cannot conceal the mature mood which allows such didactic phrases as \"Jack Frost as he is sometimes called,\" \"Noon, at which time Mr. Sun is strongest.\" Most people will feel the superior imaginative quality of Helen Keller's opening paragraph. Surely the writer must become as a little child to see things like that. \"Twelve soldierly-looking white bears\" is a stroke of genius, and there is beauty of rhythm throughout the child's narrative. It is original in the same way that a poet's version of an old story is original.",
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      "text": "This little story calls into life all the questions of language and the philosophy of style. Some conclusions may be briefly suggested.",
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      "text": "All use of language is imitative, and one's style is made up of all other styles that one has met.",
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      "text": "The way to write good English is to read it and hear it. Thus it is that any child may be taught to use correct English by not being allowed to read or hear any other kind. In a child, the selection of the better from the worse is not conscious; he is the servant of his word experience.",
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      "bookId": 2397,
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      "text": "The ordinary man will never be rid of the fallacy that words obey thought, that one thinks first and phrases afterward. There must first, it is true, be the intention, the desire to utter something, but the idea does not often become specific, does not take shape until it is phrased; certainly an idea is a different thing by virtue of being phrased. Words often make the thought, and the master of words will say things greater than are in him. A remarkable example is a paragraph from Miss Keller's sketch in the Youth's Companion. Writing of the moment when she learned that everything has a name, she says: \"We met the nurse carrying my little cousin; and teacher spelled 'baby.' AND FOR THE FIRST TIME I was impressed with the smallness and helplessness of a little baby, and mingled with the thought there was another one of myself, and I was glad I was myself, and not a baby.\" It was a word that created these thoughts in her mind. So the master of words is master of thoughts which the words create, and says things greater than he could otherwise know. Helen Keller writing \"The Frost King\" was building better than she knew and saying more than she meant.",
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      "bookId": 2397,
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      "text": "Whoever makes a sentence of words utters not his wisdom, but the wisdom of the race whose life is in the words, though they have never been so grouped before. The man who can write stories thinks of stories to write. The medium calls forth the thing it conveys, and the greater the medium the deeper the thoughts.",
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      "bookId": 2397,
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      "text": "The educated man is the man whose expression is educated. The substance of thought is language, and language is the one thing to teach the deaf child and every other child. Let him get language and he gets the very stuff that language is made of, the thought and the experience of his race. The language must be one used by a nation, not an artificial thing. Volapük is a paradox, unless one has French or English or German or some other language that has grown up in a nation. The deaf child who has only the sign language of De l'Epee is an intellectual Philip Nolan, an alien from all races, and his thoughts are not the thoughts of an Englishman, or a Frenchman, or a Spaniard. The Lord's prayer in signs is not the Lord's prayer in English.",
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      "start": 6385,
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      "text": "PART I",
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      "sha256": "a83ca5f8518e2ea19fbee9b91b8d8fb8283a44b932507529e6bb248174ad1cfc",
      "text": "The Special Theory of Relativity",
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      "start": 6431,
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      "text": "[Contents]",
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      "start": 6446,
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      "text": "I",
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      "text": "Physical Meaning of Geometrical Propositions",
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    {
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      "bookId": 5001,
      "start": 6505,
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      "text": "In your schooldays most of you who read this book made acquaintance with the noble building of Euclid’s geometry, and you remember—perhaps with more respect than love—the magnificent structure, on the lofty staircase of which you were chased about for uncounted hours by conscientious teachers. By reason of our past experience, you would certainly regard everyone with disdain who should pronounce even the most out-of-the-way proposition of this science to be untrue. But perhaps this feeling of proud certainty would leave you immediately if some one were to ask you: “What, then, do you mean by the assertion that these propositions are true?” Let us proceed to give this question a little consideration.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5001.B00084",
      "bookId": 5001,
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      "text": "Geometry sets out form certain conceptions such as “plane,” “point,” and “straight line,” with which we are able to associate more or less definite ideas, and from certain simple propositions (axioms) which, in virtue of these ideas, we are inclined to accept as “true.” Then, on the basis of a logical process, the justification of which we feel ourselves compelled to admit, all remaining propositions are shown to follow from those axioms, i.e. they are proven. A proposition is then correct (“true”) when it has been derived in the recognised manner from the axioms. The question of “truth” of the individual geometrical propositions is thus reduced to one of the “truth” of the axioms. Now it has long been known that the last question is not only unanswerable by the methods of geometry, but that it is in itself entirely without meaning. We cannot ask whether it is true that only one straight line goes through two points. We can only say that Euclidean geometry deals with things called “straight lines,” to each of which is ascribed the property of being uniquely determined by two points situated on it. The concept “true” does not tally with the assertions of pure geometry, because by the word “true” we are eventually in the habit of designating always the correspondence with a “real” object; geometry, however, is not concerned with the relation of the ideas involved in it to objects of experience, but only with the logical connection of these ideas among themselves.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 5001,
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      "text": "It is not difficult to understand why, in spite of this, we feel constrained to call the propositions of geometry “true.” Geometrical ideas correspond to more or less exact objects in nature, and these last are undoubtedly the exclusive cause of the genesis of those ideas. Geometry ought to refrain from such a course, in order to give to its structure the largest possible logical unity. The practice, for example, of seeing in a “distance” two marked positions on a practically rigid body is something which is lodged deeply in our habit of thought. We are accustomed further to regard three points as being situated on a straight line, if their apparent positions can be made to coincide for observation with one eye, under suitable choice of our place of observation.",
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      "ref": "PG5001.B00086",
      "bookId": 5001,
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      "text": "If, in pursuance of our habit of thought, we now supplement the propositions of Euclidean geometry by the single proposition that two points on a practically rigid body always correspond to the same distance (line-interval), independently of any changes in position to which we may subject the body, the propositions of Euclidean geometry then resolve themselves into propositions on the possible relative position of practically rigid bodies.1 Geometry which has been supplemented in this way is then to be treated as a branch of physics. We can now legitimately ask as to the “truth” of geometrical propositions interpreted in this way, since we are justified in asking whether these propositions are satisfied for those real things we have associated with the geometrical ideas. In less exact terms we can express this by saying that by the “truth” of a geometrical proposition in this sense we understand its validity for a construction with rule and compasses.",
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      "text": "Of course the conviction of the “truth” of geometrical propositions in this sense is founded exclusively on rather incomplete experience. For the present we shall assume the “truth” of the geometrical propositions, then at a later stage (in the general theory of relativity) we shall see that this “truth” is limited, and we shall consider the extent of its limitation.",
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      "text": "1 It follows that a natural object is associated also with a straight line. Three points A, B and C on a rigid body thus lie in a straight line when the points A and C being given, B is chosen such that the sum of the distances AB and BC is as short as possible. This incomplete suggestion will suffice for the present purpose. ↑",
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      "text": "[Contents]",
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      "text": "II",
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      "text": "The System of Co-ordinates",
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      "ref": "PG5001.B00092",
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      "text": "On the basis of the physical interpretation of distance which has been indicated, we are also in a position to establish the distance between two points on a rigid body by means of measurements. For this purpose we require a “distance” (rod S) which is to be used once and for all, and which we employ as a standard measure. If, now, A and B are two points on a rigid body, we can construct the line joining them according to the rules of geometry; then, starting from A, we can mark off the distance S time after time until we reach B. The number of these operations required is the numerical measure of the distance AB. This is the basis of all measurement of length.1",
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      "ref": "PG5001.B00093",
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      "text": "Every description of the scene of an event or of the position of an object in space is based on the specification of the point on a rigid body (body of reference) with which that event or object coincides. This applies not only to scientific description, but also to everyday life. If I analyse the place specification “Times Square, New York,”2 I arrive at the following result. The earth is the rigid body to which the specification of place refers; “Times Square, New York,” is a well-defined point, to which a name has been assigned, and with which the event coincides in space.3",
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      "ref": "PG5001.B00094",
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      "text": "This primitive method of place specification deals only with places on the surface of rigid bodies, and is dependent on the existence of points on this surface which are distinguishable from each other. But we can free ourselves from both of these limitations without altering the nature of our specification of position. If, for instance, a cloud is hovering over Times Square, then we can determine its position relative to the surface of the earth by erecting a pole perpendicularly on the Square, so that it reaches the cloud. The length of the pole measured with the standard measuring-rod, combined with the specification of the position of the foot of the pole, supplies us with a complete place specification. On the basis of this illustration, we are able to see the manner in which a refinement of the conception of position has been developed.",
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      "text": "(a) We imagine the rigid body, to which the place specification is referred, supplemented in such a manner that the object whose position we require is reached by the completed rigid body.",
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      "text": "(b) In locating the position of the object, we make use of a number (here the length of the pole measured with the measuring-rod) instead of designated points of reference.",
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      "ref": "PG5001.B00097",
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      "text": "We speak of the height of the cloud even when the pole which reaches the cloud has not been erected. By means of optical observations of the cloud from different positions on the ground, and taking into account the properties of the propagation of light, we determine the length of the pole we should have required in order to reach the cloud.",
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      "ref": "PG5001.B00098",
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      "text": "From this consideration we see that it will be advantageous if, in the description of position, it should be possible by means of numerical measures to make ourselves independent of the existence of marked positions (possessing names) on the rigid body of reference. In the physics of measurement this is attained by the application of the Cartesian system of co-ordinates.",
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      "ref": "PG5001.B00099",
      "bookId": 5001,
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      "text": "This consists of three plane surfaces perpendicular to each other and rigidly attached to a rigid body. Referred to a system of co-ordinates, the scene of any event will be determined (for the main part) by the specification of the lengths of the three perpendiculars or co-ordinates [image: ] which can be dropped from the scene of the event to those three plane surfaces. The lengths of these three perpendiculars can be determined by a series of manipulations with rigid measuring-rods performed according to the rules and methods laid down by Euclidean geometry.",
      "sourceFile": "derived-reading.txt",
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      "text": "In practice, the rigid surfaces which constitute the system of co-ordinates are generally not available; furthermore, the magnitudes of the co-ordinates are not actually determined by constructions with rigid rods, but by indirect means. If the results of physics and astronomy are to maintain their clearness, the physical meaning of specifications of position must always be sought in accordance with the above considerations.4",
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      "text": "We thus obtain the following result: Every description of events in space involves the use of a rigid body to which such events have to be referred. The resulting relationship takes for granted that the laws of Euclidean geometry hold for “distances;” the “distance” being represented physically by means of the convention of two marks on a rigid body.",
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      "text": "1 Here we have assumed that there is nothing left over i.e. that the measurement gives a whole number. This difficulty is got over by the use of divided measuring-rods, the introduction of which does not demand any fundamentally new method. ↑",
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      "text": "2 Einstein used “Potsdamer Platz, Berlin” in the original text. In the authorised translation this was supplemented with “Trafalgar Square, London”. We have changed this to “Times Square, New York”, as this is the best known location to English speakers in the present day. ↑",
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      "text": "Space and Time in Classical Mechanics",
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      "text": "The purpose of mechanics is to describe how bodies change their position in space with “time.” I should load my conscience with grave sins against the sacred spirit of lucidity were I to formulate the aims of mechanics in this way, without serious reflection and detailed explanations. Let us proceed to disclose these sins.",
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      "text": "It is not clear what is to be understood here by “position” and “space.” I stand at the window of a railway carriage which is travelling uniformly, and drop a stone on the embankment, without throwing it. Then, disregarding the influence of the air resistance, I see the stone descend in a straight line. A pedestrian who observes the misdeed from the footpath notices that the stone falls to earth in a parabolic curve. I now ask: Do the “positions” traversed by the stone lie “in reality” on a straight line or on a parabola? Moreover, what is meant here by motion “in space”? From the considerations of the previous section the answer is self-evident. In the first place we entirely shun the vague word “space,” of which, we must honestly acknowledge, we cannot form the slightest conception, and we replace it by “motion relative to a practically rigid body of reference.” The positions relative to the body of reference (railway carriage or embankment) have already been defined in detail in the preceding section. If instead of “body of reference” we insert “system of co-ordinates,” which is a useful idea for mathematical description, we are in a position to say: The stone traverses a straight line relative to a system of co-ordinates rigidly attached to the carriage, but relative to a system of co-ordinates rigidly attached to the ground (embankment) it describes a parabola. With the aid of this example it is clearly seen that there is no such thing as an independently existing trajectory (lit. “path-curve”1), but only a trajectory relative to a particular body of reference.",
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      "text": "In order to have a complete description of the motion, we must specify how the body alters its position with time; i.e. for every point on the trajectory it must be stated at what time the body is situated there. These data must be supplemented by such a definition of time that, in virtue of this definition, these time-values can be regarded essentially as magnitudes (results of measurements) capable of observation. If we take our stand on the ground of classical mechanics, we can satisfy this requirement for our illustration in the following manner. We imagine two clocks of identical construction; the man at the railway-carriage window is holding one of them, and the man on the footpath the other. Each of the observers determines the position on his own reference-body occupied by the stone at each tick of the clock he is holding in his hand. In this connection we have not taken account of the inaccuracy involved by the finiteness of the velocity of propagation of light. With this and with a second difficulty prevailing here we shall have to deal in detail later.",
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      "text": "1 That is, a curve along which the body moves. ↑",
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      "text": "[Contents]",
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      "text": "IV",
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      "text": "The Galileian System of Co-ordinates",
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      "text": "As is well known, the fundamental law of the mechanics of Galilei-Newton, which is known as the law of inertia, can be stated thus: A body removed sufficiently far from other bodies continues in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line. This law not only says something about the motion of the bodies, but it also indicates the reference-bodies or systems of coordinates, permissible in mechanics, which can be used in mechanical description. The visible fixed stars are bodies for which the law of inertia certainly holds to a high degree of approximation. Now if we use a system of co-ordinates which is rigidly attached to the earth, then, relative to this system, every fixed star describes a circle of immense radius in the course of an astronomical day, a result which is opposed to the statement of the law of inertia. So that if we adhere to this law we must refer these motions only to systems of coordinates relative to which the fixed stars do not move in a circle. A system of co-ordinates of which the state of motion is such that the law of inertia holds relative to it is called a “Galileian system of co-ordinates.” The laws of the mechanics of Galilei-Newton can be regarded as valid only for a Galileian system of co-ordinates.",
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      "text": "[Contents]",
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      "text": "V",
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      "text": "The Principle of Relativity in the Restricted Sense",
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      "text": "In order to attain the greatest possible clearness, let us return to our example of the railway carriage supposed to be travelling uniformly. We call its motion a uniform translation (“uniform” because it is of constant velocity and direction, “translation” because although the carriage changes its position relative to the embankment yet it does not rotate in so doing). Let us imagine a raven flying through the air in such a manner that its motion, as observed from the embankment, is uniform and in a straight line. If we were to observe the flying raven from the moving railway carriage. we should find that the motion of the raven would be one of different velocity and direction, but that it would still be uniform and in a straight line. Expressed in an abstract manner we may say: If a mass m is moving uniformly in a straight line with respect to a co-ordinate system K, then it will also be moving uniformly and in a straight line relative to a second co-ordinate system K′ provided that the latter is executing a uniform translatory motion with respect to K. In accordance with the discussion contained in the preceding section, it follows that:",
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      "text": "If K is a Galileian co-ordinate system. then every other co-ordinate system K′ is a Galileian one, when, in relation to K, it is in a condition of uniform motion of translation. Relative to K′ the mechanical laws of Galilei-Newton hold good exactly as they do with respect to K.",
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      "text": "We advance a step farther in our generalisation when we express the tenet thus: If, relative to K, K′ is a uniformly moving co-ordinate system devoid of rotation, then natural phenomena run their course with respect to K′ according to exactly the same general laws as with respect to K. This statement is called the principle of relativity (in the restricted sense).",
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      "text": "As long as one was convinced that all natural phenomena were capable of representation with the help of classical mechanics, there was no need to doubt the validity of this principle of relativity. But in view of the more recent development of electrodynamics and optics it became more and more evident that classical mechanics affords an insufficient foundation for the physical description of all natural phenomena. At this juncture the question of the validity of the principle of relativity became ripe for discussion, and it did not appear impossible that the answer to this question might be in the negative.",
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      "text": "Nevertheless, there are two general facts which at the outset speak very much in favour of the validity of the principle of relativity. Even though classical mechanics does not supply us with a sufficiently broad basis for the theoretical presentation of all physical phenomena, still we must grant it a considerable measure of “truth,” since it supplies us with the actual motions of the heavenly bodies with a delicacy of detail little short of wonderful. The principle of relativity must therefore apply with great accuracy in the domain of mechanics. But that a principle of such broad generality should hold with such exactness in one domain of phenomena, and yet should be invalid for another, is a priori not very probable.",
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      "text": "VIII",
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      "text": "On the Idea of Time in Physics",
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      "text": "Lightning has struck the rails on our railway embankment at two places A and B far distant from each other. I make the additional assertion that these two lightning flashes occurred simultaneously. If I ask you whether there is sense in this statement, you will answer my question with a decided “Yes.” But if I now approach you with the request to explain to me the sense of the statement more precisely, you find after some consideration that the answer to this question is not so easy as it appears at first sight.",
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      "text": "After some time perhaps the following answer would occur to you: “The significance of the statement is clear in itself and needs no further explanation; of course it would require some consideration if I were to be commissioned to determine by observations whether in the actual case the two events took place simultaneously or not.” I cannot be satisfied with this answer for the following reason. Supposing that as a result of ingenious considerations an able meteorologist were to discover that the lightning must always strike the places A and B simultaneously, then we should be faced with the task of testing whether or not this theoretical result is in accordance with the reality. We encounter the same difficulty with all physical statements in which the conception “simultaneous” plays a part. The concept does not exist for the physicist until he has the possibility of discovering whether or not it is fulfilled in an actual case. We thus require a definition of simultaneity such that this definition supplies us with the method by means of which, in the present case, he can decide by experiment whether or not both the lightning strokes occurred simultaneously. As long as this requirement is not satisfied, I allow myself to be deceived as a physicist (and of course the same applies if I am not a physicist), when I imagine that I am able to attach a meaning to the statement of simultaneity. (I would ask the reader not to proceed farther until he is fully convinced on this point.)",
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      "text": "After thinking the matter over for some time you then offer the following suggestion with which to test simultaneity. By measuring along the rails, the connecting line AB should be measured up and an observer placed at the mid-point M of the distance AB. This observer should be supplied with an arrangement (e.g. two mirrors inclined at [image: ] ) which allows him visually to observe both places A and B at the same time. If the observer perceives the two flashes of lightning at the same time, then they are simultaneous.",
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      "text": "I am very pleased with this suggestion, but for all that I cannot regard the matter as quite settled, because I feel constrained to raise the following objection:",
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      "text": "“Your definition would certainly be right, if only I knew that the light by means of which the observer at M perceives the lightning flashes travels along the length [image: ] with the same velocity as along the length [image: ] . But an examination of this supposition would only be possible if we already had at our disposal the means of measuring time. It would thus appear as though we were moving here in a logical circle.”",
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      "text": "After further consideration you cast a somewhat disdainful glance at me—and rightly so—and you declare:",
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      "text": "“I maintain my previous definition nevertheless, because in reality it assumes absolutely nothing about light. There is only one demand to be made of the definition of simultaneity, namely, that in every real case it must supply us with an empirical decision as to whether or not the conception that has to be defined is fulfilled. That my definition satisfies this demand is indisputable. That light requires the same time to traverse the path [image: ] as for the path [image: ] is in reality neither a supposition nor a hypothesis about the physical nature of light, but a stipulation which I can make of my own freewill in order to arrive at a definition of simultaneity.”",
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      "text": "It is clear that this definition can be used to give an exact meaning not only to two events, but to as many events as we care to choose, and independently of the positions of the scenes of the events with respect to the body of reference1 (here the railway embankment). We are thus led also to a definition of “time” in physics. For this purpose we suppose that clocks of identical construction are placed at the points A, B, and C of the railway line (co-ordinate system) and that they are set in such a manner that the positions of their pointers are simultaneously (in the above sense) the same. Under these conditions we understand by the “time” of an event the reading (position of the hands) of that one of these clocks which is in the immediate vicinity (in space) of the event. In this manner a time-value is associated with every event which is essentially capable of observation.",
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      "text": "This stipulation contains a further physical hypothesis, the validity of which will hardly be doubted without empirical evidence to the contrary. It has been assumed that all these clocks go at the same rate if they are of identical construction. Stated more exactly: When two clocks arranged at rest in different places of a reference-body are set in such a manner that a particular position of the pointers of the one clock is simultaneous (in the above sense) with the same position, of the pointers of the other clock, then identical “settings” are always simultaneous (in the sense of the above definition).",
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      "text": "1 We suppose further, that, when three events A, B, and C occur in different places in such a manner that A is simultaneous with B, and B is simultaneous with C (simultaneous in the sense of the above definition), then the criterion for the simultaneity of the pair of events [image: ] is also satisfied. This assumption is a physical hypothesis about the the of propagation of light: it must certainly be fulfilled if we are to maintain the law of the constancy of the velocity of light in vacuo. ↑",
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      "text": "[Contents]",
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      "text": "IX",
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      "text": "[image: Fig. 1.]",
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      "text": "Fig. 1.",
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      "text": "Are two events (e.g. the two strokes of lightning A and B) which are simultaneous with reference to the railway embankment also simultaneous relatively to the train? We shall show directly that the answer must be in the negative.",
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      "text": "When we say that the lightning strokes A and B are simultaneous with respect to be embankment, we mean: the rays of light emitted at the places A and B, where the lightning occurs, meet each other at the mid-point M of the length [image: ] of the embankment. But the events A and B also correspond to positions A and B on the train. Let M′ be the mid-point of the distance [image: ] on the travelling train. Just when the flashes1 of lightning occur, this point M′ naturally coincides with the point M but it moves towards the right in the diagram with the velocity v of the train. If an observer sitting in the position M′ in the train did not possess this velocity, then he would remain permanently at M, and the light rays emitted by the flashes of lightning A and B would reach him simultaneously, i.e. they would meet just where he is situated. Now in reality (considered with reference to the railway embankment) he is hastening towards the beam of light coming from B, whilst he is riding on ahead of the beam of light coming from A. Hence the observer will see the beam of light emitted from B earlier than he will see that emitted from A. Observers who take the railway train as their reference-body must therefore come to the conclusion that the lightning flash B took place earlier than the lightning flash A. We thus arrive at the important result:",
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      "text": "Events which are simultaneous with reference to the embankment are not simultaneous with respect to the train, and vice versa (relativity of simultaneity). Every reference-body (co-ordinate system) has its own particular time; unless we are told the reference-body to which the statement of time refers, there is no meaning in a statement of the time of an event.",
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      "text": "Now before the advent of the theory of relativity it had always tacitly been assumed in physics that the statement of time had an absolute significance, i.e. that it is independent of the state of motion of the body of reference. But we have just seen that this assumption is incompatible with the most natural definition of simultaneity; if we discard this assumption, then the conflict between the law of the propagation of light in vacuo and the principle of relativity (developed in Section VII) disappears.",
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      "text": "We were led to that conflict by the considerations of Section VI, which are now no longer tenable. In that section we concluded that the man in the carriage, who traverses the distance w per second relative to the carriage, traverses the same distance also with respect to the embankment in each second of time. But, according to the foregoing considerations, the time required by a particular occurrence with respect to the carriage must not be considered equal to the duration of the same occurrence as judged from the embankment (as reference-body). Hence it cannot be contended that the man in walking travels the distance w relative to the railway line in a time which is equal to one second as judged from the embankment.",
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      "text": "Moreover, the considerations of Section VI are based on yet a second assumption, which, in the light of a strict consideration, appears to be arbitrary, although it was always tacitly made even before the introduction of the theory of relativity.",
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      "text": "1 As judged from the embankment. ↑",
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      "text": "[Contents]",
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      "text": "X",
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      "text": "On the Relativity of the Conception of Distance",
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      "text": "Let us consider two particular points on the train1 travelling along the embankment with the velocity v, and inquire as to their distance apart. We already know that it is necessary to have a body of reference for the measurement of a distance, with respect to which body the distance can be measured up. It is the simplest plan to use the train itself as reference-body (co-ordinate system). An observer in the train measures the interval by marking off his measuring-rod in a straight line (e.g. along the floor of the carriage) as many times as is necessary to take him from the one marked point to the other. Then the number which tells us how often the rod has to be laid down is the required distance.",
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      "text": "It is a different matter when the distance has to be judged from the railway line. Here the following method suggests itself. If we call A′ and B′ the two points on the train whose distance apart is required, then both of these points are moving with the velocity v along the embankment. In the first place we require to determine the points A and B of the embankment which are just being passed by the two points A′ and B′ at a particular time t—judged from the embankment. These points A and B of the embankment can be determined by applying the definition of time given in Section VIII. The distance between these points A and B is then measured by repeated application of the measuring-rod along the embankment.",
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      "text": "A priori it is by no means certain that this last measurement will supply us with the same result as the first. Thus the length of the train as measured from the embankment may be different from that obtained by measuring in the train itself. This circumstance leads us to a second objection which must be raised against the apparently obvious consideration of Section VI. Namely, if the man in the carriage covers the distance w in a unit of time—measured from the train,—then this distance—as measured from the embankment—is not necessarily also equal to w.",
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      "text": "1 e.g. the middle of the first and of the hundredth carriage. ↑",
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      "text": "[Contents]",
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      "text": "In (a) the embankment, in (b) the carriage, serves as the body of reference in our statement of the motion taking place. If it is simply a question of detecting or of describing the motion involved, it is in principle immaterial to what reference-body we refer the motion. As already mentioned, this is self-evident, but it must not be confused with the much more comprehensive statement called “the principle of relativity,” which we have taken as the basis of our investigations.",
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      "text": "The principle we have made use of not only maintains that we may equally well choose the carriage or the embankment as our reference-body for the description of any event (for this, too, is self-evident). Our principle rather asserts what follows: If we formulate the general laws of nature as they are obtained from experience, by making use of",
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      "text": "(a) the embankment as reference-body,",
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      "text": "(b) the railway carriage as reference-body,",
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      "text": "then these general laws of nature (e.g. the laws of mechanics or the law of the propagation of light in vacuo) have exactly the same form in both cases. This can also be expressed as follows: For the physical description of natural processes, neither of the reference bodies K, K′ is unique (lit. “specially marked out”) as compared with the other. Unlike the first, this latter statement need not of necessity hold a priori; it is not contained in the conceptions of “motion” and “reference-body” and derivable from them; only experience can decide as to its correctness or incorrectness.",
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      "text": "Up to the present, however, we have by no means maintained the equivalence of all bodies of reference K in connection with the formulation of natural laws. Our course was more on the following lines. In the first place, we started out from the assumption that there exists a reference-body K, whose condition of motion is such that the Galileian law holds with respect to it: A particle left to itself and sufficiently far removed from all other particles moves uniformly in a straight line. With reference to K (Galileian reference-body) the laws of nature were to be as simple as possible. But in addition to K, all bodies of reference K′ should be given preference in this sense, and they should be exactly equivalent to K for the formulation of natural laws, provided that they are in a state of uniform rectilinear and non-rotary motion with respect to K; all these bodies of reference are to be regarded as Galileian reference-bodies. The validity of the principle of relativity was assumed only for these reference-bodies, but not for others (e.g. those possessing motion of a different kind). In this sense we speak of the special principle of relativity, or special theory of relativity.",
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      "text": "In contrast to this we wish to understand by the “general principle of relativity” the following statement: All bodies of reference K, K′, etc., are equivalent for the description of natural phenomena (formulation of the general laws of nature), whatever may be their state of motion. But before proceeding farther, it ought to be pointed out that this formulation must be replaced later by a more abstract one, for reasons which will become evident at a later stage.",
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      "text": "Since the introduction of the special principle of relativity has been justified, every intellect which strives after generalisation must feel the temptation to venture the step towards the general principle of relativity. But a simple and apparently quite reliable consideration seems to suggest that, for the present at any rate, there is little hope of success in such an attempt; Let us imagine ourselves transferred to our old friend the railway carriage, which is travelling at a uniform rate. As long as it is moving uniformly, the occupant of the carriage is not sensible of its motion, and it is for this reason that he can without reluctance interpret the facts of the case as indicating that the carriage is at rest, but the embankment in motion. Moreover, according to the special principle of relativity, this interpretation is quite justified also from a physical point of view.",
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      "text": "If the motion of the carriage is now changed into a non-uniform motion, as for instance by a powerful application of the brakes, then the occupant of the carriage experiences a correspondingly powerful jerk forwards. The retarded motion is manifested in the mechanical behaviour of bodies relative to the person in the railway carriage. The mechanical behaviour is different from that of the case previously considered, and for this reason it would appear to be impossible that the same mechanical laws hold relatively to the non-uniformly moving carriage, as hold with reference to the carriage when at rest or in uniform motion. At all events it is clear that the Galileian law does not hold with respect to the non-uniformly moving carriage. Because of this, we feel compelled at the present juncture to grant a kind of absolute physical reality to non-uniform motion, in opposition to the general principle of relativity. But in what follows we shall soon see that this conclusion cannot be maintained.",
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      "text": "[Contents]",
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      "text": "XIX",
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      "text": "The Gravitational Field",
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      "text": "“If we pick up a stone and then let it go, why does it fall to the ground?” The usual answer to this question is: “Because it is attracted by the earth.” Modern physics formulates the answer rather differently for the following reason. As a result of the more careful study of electromagnetic phenomena, we have come to regard action at a distance as a process impossible without the intervention of some intermediary medium. If, for instance, a magnet attracts a piece of iron, we cannot be content to regard this as meaning that the magnet acts directly on the iron through the intermediate empty space, but we are constrained to imagine—after the manner of Faraday—that the magnet always calls into being something physically real in the space around it, that something being what we call a “magnetic field.” In its turn this magnetic field operates on the piece of iron, so that the latter strives to move towards the magnet. We shall not discuss here the justification for this incidental conception, which is indeed a somewhat arbitrary one. We shall only mention that with its aid electromagnetic phenomena can be theoretically represented much more satisfactorily than without it, and this applies particularly to the transmission of electromagnetic waves. The effects of gravitation also are regarded in an analogous manner.",
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      "text": "The action of the earth on the stone takes place indirectly. The earth produces in its surrounding a gravitational field, which acts on the stone and produces its motion of fall. As we know from experience, the intensity of the action on a body diminishes according to a quite definite law, as we proceed farther and farther away from the earth. From our point of view this means: The law governing the properties of the gravitational field in space must be a perfectly definite one, in order correctly to represent the diminution of gravitational action with the distance from operative bodies. It is something like this: The body (e.g. the earth) produces a field in its immediate neighbourhood directly; the intensity and direction of the field at points farther removed from the body are thence determined by the law which governs the properties in space of the gravitational fields themselves.",
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      "text": "In contrast to electric and magnetic fields, the gravitational field exhibits a most remarkable property, which is of fundamental importance for what follows. Bodies which are moving under the sole influence of a gravitational field receive an acceleration, which does not in the least depend either on the material or on the physical state of the body. For instance, a piece of lead and a piece of wood fall in exactly the same manner in a gravitational field (in vacuo), when they start off from rest or with the same initial velocity. This law, which holds most accurately, can be expressed in a different form in the light of the following consideration.",
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      "text": "According to Newton’s law of motion, we have",
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      "text": "(Force) = (inertial mass) [image: ] (acceleration),",
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      "text": "where the “inertial mass” is a characteristic constant of the accelerated body. If now gravitation is the cause of the acceleration, we then have",
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      "text": "(Force) = (gravitational mass) [image: ] (intensity of the gravitational field),",
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      "text": "where the “gravitational mass” is likewise a characteristic constant for the body. From these two relations follows: [image: ]",
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      "text": "If now, as we find from experience, the acceleration is to be independent of the nature and the condition of the body and always the same for a given gravitational field, then the ratio of the gravitational to the inertial mass must likewise be the same for all bodies. By a suitable choice of units we can thus make this ratio equal to unity. We then have the following law: The gravitational mass of a body is equal to its inertial mass.",
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      "text": "It is true that this important law had hitherto been recorded in mechanics, but it had not been interpreted. A satisfactory interpretation can be obtained only if we recognise the following fact: The same quality of a body manifests itself according to circumstances as “inertia” or as “weight” (lit. “heaviness”). In the following section we shall show to what extent this is actually the case, and how this question is connected with the general postulate of relativity.",
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      "text": "[Contents]",
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      "text": "XX",
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      "text": "The Equality of Inertial and Gravitational Mass as an Argument for the General Postulate of Relativity",
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      "text": "We imagine a large portion of empty space, so far removed from stars and other appreciable masses, that we have before us approximately the conditions required by the fundamental law of Galilei. It is then possible to choose a Galileian reference-body for this part of space (world), relative to which points at rest remain at rest and points in motion continue permanently in uniform rectilinear motion. As reference-body let us imagine a spacious chest resembling a room with an observer inside who is equipped with apparatus. Gravitation naturally does not exist for this observer. He must fasten himself with strings to the floor, otherwise the slightest impact against the floor will cause him to rise slowly towards the ceiling of the room.",
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      "text": "To the middle of the lid of the chest is fixed externally a hook with rope attached, and now a “being” (what kind of a being is immaterial to us) begins pulling at this with a constant force. The chest together with the observer then begin to move “upwards” with a uniformly accelerated motion. In course of time their velocity will reach unheard-of values—provided that we are viewing all this from another reference-body which is not being pulled with a rope.",
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      "text": "But how does the man in the chest regard the process? The acceleration of the chest will be transmitted to him by the reaction of the floor of the chest. He must therefore take up this pressure by means of his legs if he does not wish to be laid out full length on the floor. He is then standing in the chest in exactly the same way as anyone stands in a room of a home on our earth. If he releases a body which he previously had in his hand, the acceleration of the chest will no longer be transmitted to this body, and for this reason the body will approach the floor of the chest with an accelerated relative motion. The observer will further convince himself that the acceleration of the body towards the floor of the chest is always of the same magnitude, whatever kind of body he may happen to use for the experiment.",
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      "text": "Relying on his knowledge of the gravitational field (as it was discussed in the preceding section), the man in the chest will thus come to the conclusion that he and the chest are in a gravitational field which is constant with regard to time. Of course he will be puzzled for a moment as to why the chest does not fall in this gravitational field. Just then, however, he discovers the hook in the middle of the lid of the chest and the rope which is attached to it, and he consequently comes to the conclusion that the chest is suspended at rest in the gravitational field.",
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      "text": "Ought we to smile at the man and say that he errs in his conclusion? I do not believe we ought to if we wish to remain consistent; we must rather admit that his mode of grasping the situation violates neither reason nor known mechanical laws. Even though it is being accelerated with respect to the “Galileian space” first considered, we can nevertheless regard the chest as being at rest. We have thus good grounds for extending the principle of relativity to include bodies of reference which are accelerated with respect to each other, and as a result we have gained a powerful argument for a generalised postulate of relativity.",
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      "text": "We must note carefully that the possibility of this mode of interpretation rests on the fundamental property of the gravitational field of giving all bodies the same acceleration, or, what comes to the same thing, on the law of the equality of inertial and gravitational mass. If this natural law did not exist, the man in the accelerated chest would not be able to interpret the behaviour of the bodies around him on the supposition of a gravitational field, and he would not be justified on the grounds of experience in supposing his reference-body to be “at rest.”",
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      "text": "Suppose that the man in the chest fixes a rope to the inner side of the lid, and that he attaches a body to the free end of the rope. The result of this will be to stretch the rope so that it will hang “vertically” downwards. If we ask for an opinion of the cause of tension in the rope, the man in the chest will say: “The suspended body experiences a downward force in the gravitational field, and this is neutralised by the tension of the rope; what determines the magnitude of the tension of the rope is the gravitational mass of the suspended body.” On the other hand, an observer who is poised freely in space will interpret the condition of things thus: “The rope must perforce take part in the accelerated motion of the chest, and it transmits this motion to the body attached to it. The tension of the rope is just large enough to effect the acceleration of the body. That which determines the magnitude of the tension of the rope is the inertial mass of the body.” Guided by this example, we see that our extension of the principle of relativity implies the necessity of the law of the equality of inertial and gravitational mass. Thus we have obtained a physical interpretation of this law.",
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      "text": "From our consideration of the accelerated chest we see that a general theory of relativity must yield important results on the laws of gravitation. In point of fact, the systematic pursuit of the general idea of relativity has supplied the laws satisfied by the gravitational field. Before proceeding farther, however, I must warn the reader against a misconception suggested by these considerations. A gravitational field exists for the man in the chest, despite the fact that there was no such field for the co-ordinate system first chosen. Now we might easily suppose that the existence of a gravitational field is always only an apparent one. We might also think that, regardless of the kind of gravitational field which may be present, we could always choose another reference-body such that no gravitational field exists with reference to it. This is by no means true for all gravitational fields, but only for those of quite special form. It is, for instance, impossible to choose a body of reference such that, as judged from it, the gravitational field of the earth (in its entirety) vanishes.",
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      "text": "We can now appreciate why that argument is not convincing, which we brought forward against the general principle of relativity at the end of Section XVIII. It is certainly true that the observer in the railway carriage experiences a jerk forwards as a result of the application of the brake, and that he recognises, in this the non-uniformity of motion (retardation) of the carriage. But he is compelled by nobody to refer this jerk to a “real “acceleration (retardation) of the carriage. He might also interpret his experience thus: “My body of reference (the carriage) remains permanently at rest. With reference to it, however, there exists (during the period of application of the brakes) a gravitational field which is directed forwards and which is variable with respect to time. Under the influence of this field, the embankment together with the earth moves non-uniformly in such a manner that their original velocity in the backwards direction is continuously reduced.”",
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      "text": "[Contents]",
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      "text": "XXI",
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      "text": "In What Respects Are the Foundations of Classical Mechanics and of the Special Theory of Relativity Unsatisfactory?",
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      "text": "We have already stated several times that classical mechanics starts out from the following law: Material particles sufficiently far removed from other material particles continue to move uniformly in a straight line or continue in a state of rest. We have also repeatedly emphasised that this fundamental law can only be valid for bodies of reference K which possess certain unique states of motion, and which are in uniform translational motion relative to each other. Relative to other reference-bodies K the law is not valid. Both in classical mechanics and in the special theory of relativity we therefore differentiate between reference-bodies K relative to which the recognised “laws of nature” can be said to hold, and reference-bodies K relative to which these laws do not hold.",
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      "text": "But no person whose mode of thought is logical can rest satisfied with this condition of things. He asks: “How does it come that certain reference-bodies (or their states of motion) are given priority over other reference-bodies (or their states of motion)? What is the reason for this preference?” In order to show clearly what I mean by this question, I shall make use of a comparison.",
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      "text": "XXVII",
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      "text": "The Space-Time Continuum of the General Theory of Relativity is Not a Euclidean Continuum",
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      "text": "In the first part of this book we were able to make use of space-time co-ordinates which allowed of a simple and direct physical interpretation, and which, according to Section XXVI, can be regarded as four-dimensional Cartesian co-ordinates. This was possible on the basis of the law of the constancy of the velocity of light. But according to Section XXI the general theory of relativity cannot retain this law. On the contrary, we arrived at the result that according to this latter theory the velocity of light must always depend on the co-ordinates when a gravitational field is present. In connection with a specific illustration in Section XXIII, we found that the presence of a gravitational field invalidates the definition of the coordinates and the time, which led us to our objective in the special theory of relativity.",
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      "text": "In view of the results of these considerations we are led to the conviction that, according to the general principle of relativity, the space-time continuum cannot be regarded as a Euclidean one, but that here we have the general case, corresponding to the marble slab with local variations of temperature, and with which we made acquaintance as an example of a two-dimensional continuum. Just as it was there impossible to construct a Cartesian co-ordinate system from equal rods, so here it is impossible to build up a system (reference-body) from rigid bodies and clocks, which shall be of such a nature that measuring-rods and clocks, arranged rigidly with respect to one another, shall indicate position and time directly. Such was the essence of the difficulty with which we were confronted in Section XXIII.",
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      "text": "But the considerations of Sections XXV and XXVI show us the way to surmount this difficulty. We refer the four-dimensional space-time continuum in an arbitrary manner to Gauss co-ordinates. We assign to every point of the continuum (event) four numbers, [image: ] (co-ordinates), which have not the least direct physical significance, but only serve the purpose of numbering the points of the continuum in a definite but arbitrary manner. This arrangement does not even need to be of such a kind that we must regard [image: ] , as “space” co-ordinates and [image: ] , as a “time” co-ordinate.",
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      "text": "The reader may think that such a description of the world would be quite inadequate. What does it mean to assign to an event the particular co-ordinates [image: ] , if in themselves these co-ordinates have no significance? More careful consideration shows, however, that this anxiety is unfounded. Let us consider, for instance, a material point with any kind of motion. If this point had only a momentary existence without duration, then it would to described in space-time by a single system of values [image: ] . Thus its permanent existence must be characterised by an infinitely large number of such systems of values, the co-ordinate values of which are so close together as to give continuity; corresponding to the material point, we thus have a (uni-dimensional) line in the four-dimensional continuum. In the same way, any such lines in our continuum correspond to many points in motion. The only statements having regard to these points which can claim a physical existence are in reality the statements about their encounters. In our mathematical treatment, such an encounter is expressed in the fact that the two lines which represent the motions of the points in question have a particular system of co-ordinate values, [image: ] , in common. After mature consideration the reader will doubtless admit that in reality such encounters constitute the only actual evidence of a time-space nature with which we meet in physical statements.",
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      "text": "When we were describing the motion of a material point relative to a body of reference, we stated nothing more than the encounters of this point with particular points of the reference-body. We can also determine the corresponding values of the time by the observation of encounters of the body with clocks, in conjunction with the observation of the encounter of the hands of clocks with particular points on the dials. It is just the same in the case of space-measurements by means of measuring-rods, as a little consideration will show.",
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      "text": "The following statements hold generally: Every physical description resolves itself into a number of statements, each of which refers to the space-time coincidence of two events A and B. In terms of Gaussian co-ordinates, every such statement is expressed by the agreement of their four co-ordinates [image: ] . Thus in reality, the description of the time-space continuum by means of Gauss co-ordinates completely replaces the description with the aid of a body of reference, without suffering from the defects of the latter mode of description; it is not tied down to the Euclidean character of the continuum which has to be represented.",
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      "text": "[Contents]",
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      "text": "XXVIII",
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      "text": "The Solution of the Problem of Gravitation on the Basis of the General Principle of Relativity",
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      "text": "If the reader has followed all our previous considerations, he will have no further difficulty in understanding the methods leading to the solution of the problem of gravitation.",
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      "text": "We start off on a consideration of a Galileian domain, i.e. a domain in which there is no gravitational field relative to the Galileian reference-body K. The behaviour of measuring-rods and clocks with reference to K is known from the special theory of relativity, likewise the behaviour of “isolated” material points; the latter move uniformly and in straight lines.",
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      "text": "Now let us refer this domain to a random Gauss coordinate system or to a “mollusc” as reference-body K′. Then with respect to K′ there is a gravitational field G (of a particular kind). We learn the behavior of measuring-rods and clocks and also of freely-moving material points with reference to K′ simply by mathematical transformation. We interpret this behaviour as the behaviour of measuring-rods, docks and material points u nder the influence of the gravitational field G. Hereupon we introduce a hypothesis: that the influence of the gravitational field on measuring-rods, clocks and freely-moving material points continues to take place according to the same laws, even in the case where the prevailing gravitational field is not derivable from the Galileian special case, simply by means of a transformation of co-ordinates.",
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      "text": "The next step is to investigate the space-time behaviour of the gravitational field G, which was derived from the Galileian special case simply by transformation of the coordinates. This behaviour is formulated in a law, which is always valid, no matter how the reference-body (mollusc) used in the description may be chosen.",
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      "text": "This law is not yet the general law of the gravitational field, since the gravitational field under consideration is of a special kind. In order to find out the general law-of-field of gravitation we still require to obtain a generalisation of the law as found above. This can be obtained without caprice, however, by taking into consideration the following demands:",
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      "text": "(a) The required generalisation must likewise satisfy the general postulate of relativity.",
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      "text": "(b) If there is any matter in the domain under consideration, only its inertial mass, and thus according to Section XV only its energy is of importance for its effect in exciting a field.",
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      "text": "(c) Gravitational field and matter together must satisfy the law of the conservation of energy (and of impulse).",
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      "text": "Finally, the general principle of relativity permits us to determine the influence of the gravitational field on the course of all those processes which take place according to known laws when a gravitational field is absent i.e. which have already been fitted into the frame of the special theory of relativity. In this connection we proceed in principle according to the method which has already been explained for measuring-rods, clocks and freely moving material points.",
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      "text": "The theory of gravitation derived in this way from the general postulate of relativity excels not only in its beauty; nor in removing the defect attaching to classical mechanics which was brought to light in Section XXI; nor in interpreting the empirical law of the equality of inertial and gravitational mass; but it has also already explained a result of observation in astronomy, against which classical mechanics is powerless.",
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      "text": "If we confine the application of the theory to the case where the gravitational fields can be regarded as being weak, and in which all masses move with respect to the coordinate system with velocities which are small compared with the velocity of light, we then obtain as a first approximation the Newtonian theory. Thus the latter theory is obtained here without any particular assumption, whereas Newton had to introduce the hypothesis that the force of attraction between mutually attracting material points is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. If we increase the accuracy of the calculation, deviations from the theory of Newton make their appearance, practically all of which must nevertheless escape the test of observation owing to their smallness.",
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      "text": "We must draw attention here to one of these deviations. According to Newton’s theory, a planet moves round the sun in an ellipse, which would permanently maintain its position with respect to the fixed stars, if we could disregard the motion of the fixed stars themselves and the action of the other planets under consideration. Thus, if we correct the observed motion of the planets for these two influences, and if Newton’s theory be strictly correct, we ought to obtain for the orbit of the planet an ellipse, which is fixed with reference to the fixed stars. This deduction, which can be tested with great accuracy, has been confirmed for all the planets save one, with the precision that is capable of being obtained by the delicacy of observation attainable at the present time. The sole exception is Mercury, the planet which lies nearest the sun. Since the time of Leverrier, it has been known that the ellipse corresponding to the orbit of Mercury, after it has been corrected for the influences mentioned above, is not stationary with respect to the fixed stars, but that it rotates exceedingly slowly in the plane of the orbit and in the sense of the orbital motion. The value obtained for this rotary movement of the orbital ellipse was 43 seconds of arc per century, an amount ensured to be correct to within a few seconds of arc. This effect can be explained by means of classical mechanics only on the assumption of hypotheses which have little probability, and which were devised solely for this purpose.",
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      "text": "On the basis of the general theory of relativity, it is found that the ellipse of every planet round the sun must necessarily rotate in the manner indicated above; that for all the planets, with the exception of Mercury, this rotation is too small to be detected with the delicacy of observation possible at the present time; but that in the case of Mercury it must amount to 43 seconds of arc per century, a result which is strictly in agreement with observation.",
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      "text": "Apart from this one, it has hitherto been possible to make only two deductions from the theory which admit of being tested by observation, to wit, the curvature of light rays by the gravitational field of the sun1, and a displacement of the spectral lines of light reaching us from large stars, as compared with the corresponding lines for light produced in an analogous manner terrestrially (i.e. by the same kind of atom)2. These two deductions from the theory have both been confirmed.",
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      "text": "1 First observed by Eddington and others in 1919. (Cf. Appendix III, pp. 126–129). ↑",
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      "text": "2 Established by Adams in 1924. (Cf. p. 132) ↑",
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      "text": "The Possibility of a “Finite” and yet “Unbounded” Universe",
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      "text": "But speculations on the structure of the universe also move in quite another direction. The development of non-Euclidean geometry led to the recognition of the fact, that we can cast doubt on the infiniteness of our space without coming into conflict with the laws of thought or with experience (Riemann, Helmholtz). These questions have already been treated in detail and with unsurpassable lucidity by Helmholtz and Poincaré, whereas I can only touch on them briefly here.",
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      "text": "In the first place, we imagine an existence in two dimensional space. Flat beings with flat implements, and in particular flat rigid measuring-rods, are free to move in a plane. For them nothing exists outside of this plane: that which they observe to happen to themselves and to their flat “things” is the all-inclusive reality of their plane. In particular, the constructions of plane Euclidean geometry can be carried out by means of the rods e.g. the lattice construction, considered in Section XXIV. In contrast to ours, the universe of these beings is two-dimensional; but, like ours, it extends to infinity. In their universe there is room for an infinite number of identical squares made up of rods, i.e. its volume (surface) is infinite. If these beings say their universe is “plane,” there is sense in the statement, because they mean that they can perform the constructions of plane Euclidean geometry with their rods. In this connection the individual rods always represent the same distance, independently of their position.",
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      "text": "Let us consider now a second two-dimensional existence, but this time on a spherical surface instead of on a plane. The flat beings with their measuring-rods and other objects fit exactly on this surface and they are unable to leave it. Their whole universe of observation extends exclusively over the surface of the sphere. Are these beings able to regard the geometry of their universe as being plane geometry and their rods withal as the realisation of “distance”? They cannot do this. For if they attempt to realise a straight line, they will obtain a curve, which we “three-dimensional beings” designate as a great circle, i.e. a self-contained line of definite finite length, which can be measured up by means of a measuring-rod. Similarly, this universe has a finite area that can be compared with the area, of a square constructed with rods. The great charm resulting from this consideration lies in the recognition of the fact that the universe of these beings is finite and yet has no limits.",
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      "text": "But the spherical-surface beings do not need to go on a world-tour in order to perceive that they are not living in a Euclidean universe. They can convince themselves of this on every part of their “world,” provided they do not use too small a piece of it. Starting from a point, they draw “straight lines” (arcs of circles as judged in three dimensional space) of equal length in all directions. They will call the line joining the free ends of these lines a “circle.” For a plane surface, the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, both lengths being measured with the same rod, is, according to Euclidean geometry of the plane, equal to a constant value [image: ] , which is independent of the diameter of the circle. On their spherical surface our flat beings would find for this ratio the value [image: ] i.e. a smaller value than [image: ] , the difference being the more considerable, the greater is the radius of the circle in comparison with the radius R of the “world-sphere.” By means of this relation the spherical beings can determine the radius of their universe (“world”), even when only a relatively small part of their world-sphere is available for their measurements. But if this part is very small indeed, they will no longer be able to demonstrate that they are on a spherical “world” and not on a Euclidean plane, for a small part of a spherical surface differs only slightly from a piece of a plane of the same size.",
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      "text": "Thus if the spherical surface beings are living on a planet of which the solar system occupies only a negligibly small part of the spherical universe, they have no means of determining whether they are living in a finite or in an infinite universe, because the “piece of universe” to which they have access is in both cases practically plane, or Euclidean. It follows directly from this discussion, that for our sphere-beings the circumference of a circle first increases with the radius until the “circumference of the universe” is reached, and that it thenceforward gradually decreases to zero for still further increasing values of the radius. During this process the area of the circle continues to increase more and more, until finally it becomes equal to the total area of the whole “world-sphere.”",
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      "text": "Perhaps the reader will wonder why we have placed our “beings” on a sphere rather than on another closed surface. But this choice has its justification in the fact that, of all closed surfaces, the sphere is unique in possessing the property that all points on it are equivalent. I admit that the ratio of the circumference c of a circle to its radius r depends on r, but for a given value of r it is the same for all points of the “world-sphere”; in other words, the “world-sphere” is a “surface of constant curvature.”",
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      "text": "To this two-dimensional sphere-universe there is a three-dimensional analogy, namely, the three-dimensional spherical space which was discovered by Riemann. Its points are likewise all equivalent. It possesses a finite volume, which is determined by its “radius” ( [image: ] ). Is it possible to imagine a spherical space? To imagine a space means nothing else than that we imagine an epitome of our “space” experience, i.e. of experience that we can have in the movement of “rigid” bodies. In this sense we can imagine a spherical space.",
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      "text": "Suppose we draw lines or stretch strings in all directions from a point, and mark off from each of these the distance r with a measuring-rod. All the free end-points of these lengths lie on a spherical surface. We can specially measure up the area (F) of this surface by means of a square made up of measuring-rods. If the universe is Euclidean, then [image: ] ; if it is spherical, then F is always less than [image: ] . With increasing values of r, F increases from zero up to a maximum value which is determined by the “world-radius,” but for still further increasing values of r, the area gradually diminishes to zero. At first, the straight lines which radiate from the starting point diverge farther and farther from one another, but later they approach each other, and finally they run together again at a “counter-point” to the starting point. Under such conditions they have traversed the whole spherical space. It is easily seen that the three-dimensional spherical space is quite analogous to the two-dimensional spherical surface. It is finite (i.e. of finite volume), and has no bounds.",
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      "text": "In point of fact, astronomers have found that the theory of Newton does not suffice to calculate the observed motion of Mercury with an exactness corresponding to that of the delicacy of observation attainable at the present time. After taking account of all the disturbing influences exerted on Mercury by the remaining planets, it was found (Leverrier: 1859; and Newcomb: 1895) that an unexplained perihelial movement of the orbit of Mercury remained over, the amount of which does not differ sensibly from the above mentioned +43 seconds of arc per century. The uncertainty of the empirical result amounts to a few seconds only.",
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      "text": "[Contents]",
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      "text": "(b) Deflection of Light by a Gravitational Field",
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      "text": "In Section XXII it has been already mentioned that according to the general theory of relativity, a ray of light will experience a curvature of its path when passing through a gravitational field, this curvature being similar to that experienced by the path of a body which is projected through a gravitational field. As a result of this theory, we should expect that a ray of light which is passing close to a heavenly body would be deviated towards the latter. For a ray of light which passes the sun at a distance of [image: ] sun-radii from its centre, the angle of deflection (a) should amount to [image: ]",
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      "text": "It may be added that, according to the theory, half of Figure 05 this deflection is produced by the Newtonian field of attraction of the sun, and the other half by the geometrical modification (“curvature”) of space caused by the sun.",
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      "text": "[image: Fig. 5]",
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      "text": "Fig. 5",
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      "bookId": 5001,
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      "text": "This result admits of an experimental test by means of the photographic registration of stars during a total eclipse of the sun. The only reason why we must wait for a total eclipse is because at every other time the atmosphere is so strongly illuminated by the light from the sun that the stars situated near the sun’s disc are invisible. The predicted effect can be seen clearly from the accompanying diagram. If the sun (S) were not present, a star which is practically infinitely distant would be seen in the direction [image: ] , as observed from the earth. But as a consequence of the deflection of light from the star by the sun, the star will be seen in the direction [image: ] , i.e. at a somewhat greater distance from the centre of the sun than corresponds to its real position.",
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      "bookId": 5001,
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      "text": "In practice, the question is tested in the following way. The stars in the neighborhood of the sun are photographed during a solar eclipse. In addition, a second photograph of the same stars is taken when the sun is situated at another position in the sky, i.e. a few months earlier or later. As compared with the standard photograph, the positions of the stars on the eclipse-photograph ought to appear displaced radially outwards (away from the centre of the sun) by an amount corresponding to the angle a.",
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      "text": "We are indebted to the [British] Royal Society and to the Royal Astronomical Society for the investigation of this important deduction. Undaunted by the [first world] war and by difficulties of both a material and a psychological nature aroused by the war, these societies equipped two expeditions—to Sobral (Brazil), and to the island of Principe (West Africa)—and sent several of Britain’s most celebrated astronomers (Eddington, Cottingham, Crommelin, Davidson), in order to obtain photographs of the solar eclipse of 29th May, 1919. The relative discrepancies to be expected between the stellar photographs obtained during the eclipse and the comparison photographs amounted to a few hundredths of a millimetre only. Thus great accuracy was necessary in making the adjustments required for the taking of the photographs, and in their subsequent measurement.",
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      "text": "The results of the measurements confirmed the theory in a thoroughly satisfactory manner. The rectangular components of the observed and of the calculated deviations of the stars (in seconds of arc) are set forth in the following table of results:",
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      "text": "Number of the Star. First Co-ordinate. Second Co-ordinate.",
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      "text": "Observed. Calculated. Observed. Calculated.",
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      "ref": "PG5427.B00023",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "The second consideration depends upon certain given conditions in particular cases; these conditions are accidental and therefore variable; they may vary indefinitely. Thus one kind of education would be possible in Switzerland and not in France; another would be adapted to the middle classes but not to the nobility. The scheme can be carried out, with more or less success, according to a multitude of circumstances, and its results can only be determined by its special application to one country or another, to this class or that. Now all these particular applications are not essential to my subject, and they form no part of my scheme. It is enough for me that, wherever men are born into the world, my suggestions with regard to them may be carried out, and when you have made them what I would have them be, you have done what is best for them and best for other people. If I fail to fulfil this promise, no doubt I am to blame; but if I fulfil my promise, it is your own fault if you ask anything more of me, for I have promised you nothing more.",
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      "sha256": "b93d3cfc64ab87ddc4d33cfb6d6d51038341f84c20a980eeacba257a7bd075ac",
      "text": "BOOK I",
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      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "God makes all things good; man meddles with them and they become evil. He forces one soil to yield the products of another, one tree to bear another's fruit. He confuses and confounds time, place, and natural conditions. He mutilates his dog, his horse, and his slave. He destroys and defaces all things; he loves all that is deformed and monstrous; he will have nothing as nature made it, not even man himself, who must learn his paces like a saddle-horse, and be shaped to his master's taste like the trees in his garden. Yet things would be worse without this education, and mankind cannot be made by halves. Under existing conditions a man left to himself from birth would be more of a monster than the rest. Prejudice, authority, necessity, example, all the social conditions into which we are plunged, would stifle nature in him and put nothing in her place. She would be like a sapling chance sown in the midst of the highway, bent hither and thither and soon crushed by the passers-by.",
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      "text": "Tender, anxious mother, [Footnote: The earliest education is most important and it undoubtedly is woman's work. If the author of nature had meant to assign it to men he would have given them milk to feed the child. Address your treatises on education to the women, for not only are they able to watch over it more closely than men, not only is their influence always predominant in education, its success concerns them more nearly, for most widows are at the mercy of their children, who show them very plainly whether their education was good or bad. The laws, always more concerned about property than about people, since their object is not virtue but peace, the laws give too little authority to the mother. Yet her position is more certain than that of the father, her duties are more trying; the right ordering of the family depends more upon her, and she is usually fonder of her children. There are occasions when a son may be excused for lack of respect for his father, but if a child could be so unnatural as to fail in respect for the mother who bore him and nursed him at her breast, who for so many years devoted herself to his care, such a monstrous wretch should be smothered at once as unworthy to live. You say mothers spoil their children, and no doubt that is wrong, but it is worse to deprave them as you do. The mother wants her child to be happy now. She is right, and if her method is wrong, she must be taught a better. Ambition, avarice, tyranny, the mistaken foresight of fathers, their neglect, their harshness, are a hundredfold more harmful to the child than the blind affection of the mother. Moreover, I must explain what I mean by a mother and that explanation follows.] I appeal to you. You can remove this young tree from the highway and shield it from the crushing force of social conventions. Tend and water it ere it dies. One day its fruit will reward your care. From the outset raise a wall round your child's soul; another may sketch the plan, you alone should carry it into execution.",
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      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "Plants are fashioned by cultivation, man by education. If a man were born tall and strong, his size and strength would be of no good to him till he had learnt to use them; they would even harm him by preventing others from coming to his aid; [Footnote: Like them in externals, but without speech and without the ideas which are expressed by speech, he would be unable to make his wants known, while there would be nothing in his appearance to suggest that he needed their help.] left to himself he would die of want before he knew his needs. We lament the helplessness of infancy; we fail to perceive that the race would have perished had not man begun by being a child.",
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      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "We are born weak, we need strength; helpless, we need aid; foolish, we need reason. All that we lack at birth, all that we need when we come to man's estate, is the gift of education.",
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      "text": "This education comes to us from nature, from men, or from things. The inner growth of our organs and faculties is the education of nature, the use we learn to make of this growth is the education of men, what we gain by our experience of our surroundings is the education of things.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "Thus we are each taught by three masters. If their teaching conflicts, the scholar is ill-educated and will never be at peace with himself; if their teaching agrees, he goes straight to his goal, he lives at peace with himself, he is well-educated.",
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      "text": "Now of these three factors in education nature is wholly beyond our control, things are only partly in our power; the education of men is the only one controlled by us; and even here our power is largely illusory, for who can hope to direct every word and deed of all with whom the child has to do.",
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      "text": "Viewed as an art, the success of education is almost impossible, since the essential conditions of success are beyond our control. Our efforts may bring us within sight of the goal, but fortune must favour us if we are to reach it.",
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      "text": "What is this goal? As we have just shown, it is the goal of nature. Since all three modes of education must work together, the two that we can control must follow the lead of that which is beyond our control. Perhaps this word Nature has too vague a meaning. Let us try to define it.",
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      "text": "Nature, we are told, is merely habit. What does that mean? Are there not habits formed under compulsion, habits which never stifle nature? Such, for example, are the habits of plants trained horizontally. The plant keeps its artificial shape, but the sap has not changed its course, and any new growth the plant may make will be vertical. It is the same with a man's disposition; while the conditions remain the same, habits, even the least natural of them, hold good; but change the conditions, habits vanish, nature reasserts herself. Education itself is but habit, for are there not people who forget or lose their education and others who keep it? Whence comes this difference? If the term nature is to be restricted to habits conformable to nature we need say no more.",
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      "text": "We are born sensitive and from our birth onwards we are affected in various ways by our environment. As soon as we become conscious of our sensations we tend to seek or shun the things that cause them, at first because they are pleasant or unpleasant, then because they suit us or not, and at last because of judgments formed by means of the ideas of happiness and goodness which reason gives us. These tendencies gain strength and permanence with the growth of reason, but hindered by our habits they are more or less warped by our prejudices. Before this change they are what I call Nature within us.",
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      "text": "Everything should therefore be brought into harmony with these natural tendencies, and that might well be if our three modes of education merely differed from one another; but what can be done when they conflict, when instead of training man for himself you try to train him for others? Harmony becomes impossible. Forced to combat either nature or society, you must make your choice between the man and the citizen, you cannot train both.",
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      "text": "The smaller social group, firmly united in itself and dwelling apart from others, tends to withdraw itself from the larger society. Every patriot hates foreigners; they are only men, and nothing to him.[Footnote: Thus the wars of republics are more cruel than those of monarchies. But if the wars of kings are less cruel, their peace is terrible; better be their foe than their subject.] This defect is inevitable, but of little importance. The great thing is to be kind to our neighbours. Among strangers the Spartan was selfish, grasping, and unjust, but unselfishness, justice, and harmony ruled his home life. Distrust those cosmopolitans who search out remote duties in their books and neglect those that lie nearest. Such philosophers will love the Tartars to avoid loving their neighbour.",
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      "text": "The natural man lives for himself; he is the unit, the whole, dependent only on himself and on his like. The citizen is but the numerator of a fraction, whose value depends on its denominator; his value depends upon the whole, that is, on the community. Good social institutions are those best fitted to make a man unnatural, to exchange his independence for dependence, to merge the unit in the group, so that he no longer regards himself as one, but as a part of the whole, and is only conscious of the common life. A citizen of Rome was neither Caius nor Lucius, he was a Roman; he ever loved his country better than his life. The captive Regulus professed himself a Carthaginian; as a foreigner he refused to take his seat in the Senate except at his master's bidding. He scorned the attempt to save his life. He had his will, and returned in triumph to a cruel death. There is no great likeness between Regulus and the men of our own day.",
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      "text": "The Spartan Pedaretes presented himself for admission to the council of the Three Hundred and was rejected; he went away rejoicing that there were three hundred Spartans better than himself. I suppose he was in earnest; there is no reason to doubt it. That was a citizen.",
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      "text": "A Spartan mother had five sons with the army. A Helot arrived; trembling she asked his news. \"Your five sons are slain.\" \"Vile slave, was that what I asked thee?\" \"We have won the victory.\" She hastened to the temple to render thanks to the gods. That was a citizen.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00041",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 17493,
      "end": 17839,
      "sha256": "e41df75354ddac6b1dae59863c860fd337e276709771550fd3cabd94c5998c46",
      "text": "He who would preserve the supremacy of natural feelings in social life knows not what he asks. Ever at war with himself, hesitating between his wishes and his duties, he will be neither a man nor a citizen. He will be of no use to himself nor to others. He will be a man of our day, a Frenchman, an Englishman, one of the great middle class.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00047",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 19087,
      "end": 19948,
      "sha256": "bb526147197d4be9ec42c1eaf9bae7f488e4510ab6d66776c2e885918bcb19ac",
      "text": "I do not consider our ridiculous colleges [Footnote: There are teachers dear to me in many schools and especially in the University of Paris, men for whom I have a great respect, men whom I believe to be quite capable of instructing young people, if they were not compelled to follow the established custom. I exhort one of them to publish the scheme of reform which he has thought out. Perhaps people would at length seek to cure the evil if they realised that there was a remedy.] as public institutes, nor do I include under this head a fashionable education, for this education facing two ways at once achieves nothing. It is only fit to turn out hypocrites, always professing to live for others, while thinking of themselves alone. These professions, however, deceive no one, for every one has his share in them; they are so much labour wasted.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00048",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 19952,
      "end": 20262,
      "sha256": "3362af21b1c2faef6e44f5cfad0c7aa11bcd17d88f74a396ec8df75fce18f0bc",
      "text": "Our inner conflicts are caused by these contradictions. Drawn this way by nature and that way by man, compelled to yield to both forces, we make a compromise and reach neither goal. We go through life, struggling and hesitating, and die before we have found peace, useless alike to ourselves and to others.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00049",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 20266,
      "end": 20806,
      "sha256": "c5f047e915bfbda37172f10b45408f51fee8854f36e411c14e6fa7b23502441f",
      "text": "There remains the education of the home or of nature; but how will a man live with others if he is educated for himself alone? If the twofold aims could be resolved into one by removing the man's self-contradictions, one great obstacle to his happiness would be gone. To judge of this you must see the man full-grown; you must have noted his inclinations, watched his progress, followed his steps; in a word you must really know a natural man. When you have read this work, I think you will have made some progress in this inquiry.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00050",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 20810,
      "end": 21146,
      "sha256": "486836c09554f72c2c9f25ddc9983ed7300f137b0a9ecb7dec010d74e8016b1f",
      "text": "What must be done to train this exceptional man! We can do much, but the chief thing is to prevent anything being done. To sail against the wind we merely follow one tack and another; to keep our position in a stormy sea we must cast anchor. Beware, young pilot, lest your boat slip its cable or drag its anchor before you know it.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00051",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 21154,
      "end": 21731,
      "sha256": "615985067be71b67f893a980178271b516f7d6892581f93316a2565d245a5e1b",
      "text": "In the social order where each has his own place a man must be educated for it. If such a one leave his own station he is fit for nothing else. His education is only useful when fate agrees with his parents' choice; if not, education harms the scholar, if only by the prejudices it has created. In Egypt, where the son was compelled to adopt his father's calling, education had at least a settled aim; where social grades remain fixed, but the men who form them are constantly changing, no one knows whether he is not harming his son by educating him for his own class.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00052",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 21735,
      "end": 23202,
      "sha256": "cb44a4ed56761fc0ca3bef39400cdcb99bf497d79739f97dab7564f2a2a41318",
      "text": "In the natural order men are all equal and their common calling is that of manhood, so that a well-educated man cannot fail to do well in that calling and those related to it. It matters little to me whether my pupil is intended for the army, the church, or the law. Before his parents chose a calling for him nature called him to be a man. Life is the trade I would teach him. When he leaves me, I grant you, he will be neither a magistrate, a soldier, nor a priest; he will be a man. All that becomes a man he will learn as quickly as another. In vain will fate change his station, he will always be in his right place. \"Occupavi te, fortuna, atque cepi; omnes-que aditus tuos interclusi, ut ad me aspirare non posses.\" The real object of our study is man and his environment. To my mind those of us who can best endure the good and evil of life are the best educated; hence it follows that true education consists less in precept than in practice. We begin to learn when we begin to live; our education begins with ourselves, our first teacher is our nurse. The ancients used the word \"Education\" in a different sense, it meant \"Nurture.\" \"Educit obstetrix,\" says Varro. \"Educat nutrix, instituit paedagogus, docet magister.\" Thus, education, discipline, and instruction are three things as different in their purpose as the dame, the usher, and the teacher. But these distinctions are undesirable and the child should only follow one guide.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00053",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 23206,
      "end": 24220,
      "sha256": "2ed31ba62c20719e3c75d214a86e2dabb9f6470eec50418002fbd7927457d58e",
      "text": "We must therefore look at the general rather than the particular, and consider our scholar as man in the abstract, man exposed to all the changes and chances of mortal life. If men were born attached to the soil of our country, if one season lasted all the year round, if every man's fortune were so firmly grasped that he could never lose it, then the established method of education would have certain advantages; the child brought up to his own calling would never leave it, he could never have to face the difficulties of any other condition. But when we consider the fleeting nature of human affairs, the restless and uneasy spirit of our times, when every generation overturns the work of its predecessor, can we conceive a more senseless plan than to educate a child as if he would never leave his room, as if he would always have his servants about him? If the wretched creature takes a single step up or down he is lost. This is not teaching him to bear pain; it is training him to feel it.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00054",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 24224,
      "end": 25004,
      "sha256": "c43476ccd3bd499fb8870c475f2ae96826fd5fd973fe5552ce62617327a42313",
      "text": "People think only of preserving their child's life; this is not enough, he must be taught to preserve his own life when he is a man, to bear the buffets of fortune, to brave wealth and poverty, to live at need among the snows of Iceland or on the scorching rocks of Malta. In vain you guard against death; he must needs die; and even if you do not kill him with your precautions, they are mistaken. Teach him to live rather than to avoid death: life is not breath, but action, the use of our senses, our mind, our faculties, every part of ourselves which makes us conscious of our being. Life consists less in length of days than in the keen sense of living. A man maybe buried at a hundred and may never have lived at all. He would have fared better had he died young.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00055",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 25008,
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      "sha256": "b59e3bfec8b63f9b951fab229b0d5555521089ea35502aa5793f043761dd8afc",
      "text": "Our wisdom is slavish prejudice, our customs consist in control, constraint, compulsion. Civilised man is born and dies a slave. The infant is bound up in swaddling clothes, the corpse is nailed down in his coffin. All his life long man is imprisoned by our institutions.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00056",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 25287,
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      "sha256": "6e13be2ce5784700c6ddd8954ca59013adabe079372ce8cae106356f634406bf",
      "text": "I am told that many midwives profess to improve the shape of the infant's head by rubbing, and they are allowed to do it. Our heads are not good enough as God made them, they must be moulded outside by the nurse and inside by the philosopher. The Caribs are better off than we are. The child has hardly left the mother's womb, it has hardly begun to move and stretch its limbs, when it is deprived of its freedom. It is wrapped in swaddling bands, laid down with its head fixed, its legs stretched out, and its arms by its sides; it is wound round with linen and bandages of all sorts so that it cannot move. It is fortunate if it has room to breathe, and it is laid on its side so that water which should flow from its mouth can escape, for it is not free to turn its head on one side for this purpose.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00224",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 129819,
      "end": 130264,
      "sha256": "2a79e1ba3f77803f4432c0657be50f57e99a29515583a7bcd08c1474ea87a35f",
      "text": "Let us not forget what befits our present state in the pursuit of vain fancies. Mankind has its place in the sequence of things; childhood has its place in the sequence of human life; the man must be treated as a man and the child as a child. Give each his place, and keep him there. Control human passions according to man's nature; that is all we can do for his welfare. The rest depends on external forces, which are beyond our control.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00225",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 130268,
      "end": 130845,
      "sha256": "5edf36e1dabec6648ef9724a97044b4a87933c15d98b976274f993e5ce0514d5",
      "text": "Absolute good and evil are unknown to us. In this life they are blended together; we never enjoy any perfectly pure feeling, nor do we remain for more than a moment in the same state. The feelings of our minds, like the changes in our bodies, are in a continual flux. Good and ill are common to all, but in varying proportions. The happiest is he who suffers least; the most miserable is he who enjoys least. Ever more sorrow than joy--this is the lot of all of us. Man's happiness in this world is but a negative state; it must be reckoned by the fewness of his ills.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00226",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 130849,
      "end": 131207,
      "sha256": "70c73e645d8d84510bffba805ccd3779086143ab74cdcb78a6ad838332f59b8b",
      "text": "Every feeling of hardship is inseparable from the desire to escape from it; every idea of pleasure from the desire to enjoy it. All desire implies a want, and all wants are painful; hence our wretchedness consists in the disproportion between our desires and our powers. A conscious being whose powers were equal to his desires would be perfectly happy.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00227",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 131211,
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      "sha256": "d4d9edbc0550f9b7ffdf1b241051559c126386d4850e20649257bcf650be77a3",
      "text": "What then is human wisdom? Where is the path of true happiness? The mere limitation of our desires is not enough, for if they were less than our powers, part of our faculties would be idle, and we should not enjoy our whole being; neither is the mere extension of our powers enough, for if our desires were also increased we should only be the more miserable. True happiness consists in decreasing the difference between our desires and our powers, in establishing a perfect equilibrium between the power and the will. Then only, when all its forces are employed, will the soul be at rest and man will find himself in his true position.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00228",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 131860,
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      "sha256": "252313bd85ec3fc887f36cf7514dce553ee7a023d8451fee275e84b7cb7e68d4",
      "text": "In this condition, nature, who does everything for the best, has placed him from the first. To begin with, she gives him only such desires as are necessary for self-preservation and such powers as are sufficient for their satisfaction. All the rest she has stored in his mind as a sort of reserve, to be drawn upon at need. It is only in this primitive condition that we find the equilibrium between desire and power, and then alone man is not unhappy. As soon as his potential powers of mind begin to function, imagination, more powerful than all the rest, awakes, and precedes all the rest. It is imagination which enlarges the bounds of possibility for us, whether for good or ill, and therefore stimulates and feeds desires by the hope of satisfying them. But the object which seemed within our grasp flies quicker than we can follow; when we think we have grasped it, it transforms itself and is again far ahead of us. We no longer perceive the country we have traversed, and we think nothing of it; that which lies before us becomes vaster and stretches still before us. Thus we exhaust our strength, yet never reach our goal, and the nearer we are to pleasure, the further we are from happiness.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00229",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 133084,
      "end": 133415,
      "sha256": "3b430a04c4dab91b1bfa81930fed553f1509d0a7c94d40b99038980cb387cdb8",
      "text": "On the other hand, the more nearly a man's condition approximates to this state of nature the less difference is there between his desires and his powers, and happiness is therefore less remote. Lacking everything, he is never less miserable; for misery consists, not in the lack of things, but in the needs which they inspire.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00230",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 133419,
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      "sha256": "4cdf1553d9af25245ece72d9c8d03ff94611bfc769fdcc62fd9fff68ed0d9c7c",
      "text": "The world of reality has its bounds, the world of imagination is boundless; as we cannot enlarge the one, let us restrict the other; for all the sufferings which really make us miserable arise from the difference between the real and the imaginary. Health, strength, and a good conscience excepted, all the good things of life are a matter of opinion; except bodily suffering and remorse, all our woes are imaginary. You will tell me this is a commonplace; I admit it, but its practical application is no commonplace, and it is with practice only that we are now concerned.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00231",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 134004,
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      "sha256": "3ba2c4b41257dadabee50551aa1db933ec3e8d43900b27c7655f66ca8fb0b904",
      "text": "What do you mean when you say, \"Man is weak\"? The term weak implies a relation, a relation of the creature to whom it is applied. An insect or a worm whose strength exceeds its needs is strong; an elephant, a lion, a conqueror, a hero, a god himself, whose needs exceed his strength is weak. The rebellious angel who fought against his own nature was weaker than the happy mortal who is living at peace according to nature. When man is content to be himself he is strong indeed; when he strives to be more than man he is weak indeed. But do not imagine that you can increase your strength by increasing your powers. Not so; if your pride increases more rapidly your strength is diminished. Let us measure the extent of our sphere and remain in its centre like the spider in its web; we shall have strength sufficient for our needs, we shall have no cause to lament our weakness, for we shall never be aware of it.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00243",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 145179,
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      "text": "The wise man can keep his own place; but the child who does not know what his place is, is unable to keep it. There are a thousand ways out of it, and it is the business of those who have charge of the child to keep him in his place, and this is no easy task. He should be neither beast nor man, but a child. He must feel his weakness, but not suffer through it; he must be dependent, but he must not obey; he must ask, not command. He is only subject to others because of his needs, and because they see better than he what he really needs, what may help or hinder his existence. No one, not even his father, has the right to bid the child do what is of no use to him.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00244",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 145862,
      "end": 146899,
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      "text": "When our natural tendencies have not been interfered with by human prejudice and human institutions, the happiness alike of children and of men consists in the enjoyment of their liberty. But the child's liberty is restricted by his lack of strength. He who does as he likes is happy provided he is self-sufficing; it is so with the man who is living in a state of nature. He who does what he likes is not happy if his desires exceed his strength; it is so with a child in like conditions. Even in a state of nature children only enjoy an imperfect liberty, like that enjoyed by men in social life. Each of us, unable to dispense with the help of others, becomes so far weak and wretched. We were meant to be men, laws and customs thrust us back into infancy. The rich and great, the very kings themselves are but children; they see that we are ready to relieve their misery; this makes them childishly vain, and they are quite proud of the care bestowed on them, a care which they would never get if they were grown men.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00245",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 146903,
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      "text": "These are weighty considerations, and they provide a solution for all the conflicting problems of our social system. There are two kinds of dependence: dependence on things, which is the work of nature; and dependence on men, which is the work of society. Dependence on things, being non-moral, does no injury to liberty and begets no vices; dependence on men, being out of order, [Footnote: In my PRINCIPLES OF POLITICAL LAW it is proved that no private will can be ordered in the social system.] gives rise to every kind of vice, and through this master and slave become mutually depraved. If there is any cure for this social evil, it is to be found in the substitution of law for the individual; in arming the general will with a real strength beyond the power of any individual will. If the laws of nations, like the laws of nature, could never be broken by any human power, dependence on men would become dependence on things; all the advantages of a state of nature would be combined with all the advantages of social life in the commonwealth. The liberty which preserves a man from vice would be united with the morality which raises him to virtue.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00246",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "Keep the child dependent on things only. By this course of education you will have followed the order of nature. Let his unreasonable wishes meet with physical obstacles only, or the punishment which results from his own actions, lessons which will be recalled when the same circumstances occur again. It is enough to prevent him from wrong doing without forbidding him to do wrong. Experience or lack of power should take the place of law. Give him, not what he wants, but what he needs. Let there be no question of obedience for him or tyranny for you. Supply the strength he lacks just so far as is required for freedom, not for power, so that he may receive your services with a sort of shame, and look forward to the time when he may dispense with them and may achieve the honour of self-help.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00247",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "Nature provides for the child's growth in her own fashion, and this should never be thwarted. Do not make him sit still when he wants to run about, nor run when he wants to be quiet. If we did not spoil our children's wills by our blunders their desires would be free from caprice. Let them run, jump, and shout to their heart's content. All their own activities are instincts of the body for its growth in strength; but you should regard with suspicion those wishes which they cannot carry out for themselves, those which others must carry out for them. Then you must distinguish carefully between natural and artificial needs, between the needs of budding caprice and the needs which spring from the overflowing life just described.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00248",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "I have already told you what you ought to do when a child cries for this thing or that. I will only add that as soon as he has words to ask for what he wants and accompanies his demands with tears, either to get his own way quicker or to over-ride a refusal, he should never have his way. If his words were prompted by a real need you should recognise it and satisfy it at once; but to yield to his tears is to encourage him to cry, to teach him to doubt your kindness, and to think that you are influenced more by his importunity than your own good-will. If he does not think you kind he will soon think you unkind; if he thinks you weak he will soon become obstinate; what you mean to give must be given at once. Be chary of refusing, but, having refused, do not change your mind.",
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    {
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      "end": 151372,
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      "text": "Above all, beware of teaching the child empty phrases of politeness, which serve as spells to subdue those around him to his will, and to get him what he wants at once. The artificial education of the rich never fails to make them politely imperious, by teaching them the words to use so that no one will dare to resist them. Their children have neither the tone nor the manner of suppliants; they are as haughty or even more haughty in their entreaties than in their commands, as though they were more certain to be obeyed. You see at once that \"If you please\" means \"It pleases me,\" and \"I beg\" means \"I command.\" What a fine sort of politeness which only succeeds in changing the meaning of words so that every word is a command! For my own part, I would rather Emile were rude than haughty, that he should say \"Do this\" as a request, rather than \"Please\" as a command. What concerns me is his meaning, not his words.",
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    },
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      "ref": "PG5427.B00250",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 151376,
      "end": 152060,
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      "text": "There is such a thing as excessive severity as well as excessive indulgence, and both alike should be avoided. If you let children suffer you risk their health and life; you make them miserable now; if you take too much pains to spare them every kind of uneasiness you are laying up much misery for them in the future; you are making them delicate and over-sensitive; you are taking them out of their place among men, a place to which they must sooner or later return, in spite of all your pains. You will say I am falling into the same mistake as those bad fathers whom I blamed for sacrificing the present happiness of their children to a future which may never be theirs.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00285",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 168472,
      "end": 168805,
      "sha256": "4762cc861ec56cd9687c19f43fac74fac55060682de5d1a4fd95efc7330c1cd9",
      "text": "Give your scholar no verbal lessons; he should be taught by experience alone; never punish him, for he does not know what it is to do wrong; never make him say, \"Forgive me,\" for he does not know how to do you wrong. Wholly unmoral in his actions, he can do nothing morally wrong, and he deserves neither punishment nor reproof.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00286",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 168809,
      "end": 169737,
      "sha256": "603d76067b2138409de99741ea5b27868f5601c86cf43607f537465e6cd9f9c1",
      "text": "Already I see the frightened reader comparing this child with those of our time; he is mistaken. The perpetual restraint imposed upon your scholars stimulates their activity; the more subdued they are in your presence, the more boisterous they are as soon as they are out of your sight. They must make amends to themselves in some way or other for the harsh constraint to which you subject them. Two schoolboys from the town will do more damage in the country than all the children of the village. Shut up a young gentleman and a young peasant in a room; the former will have upset and smashed everything before the latter has stirred from his place. Why is that, unless that the one hastens to misuse a moment's licence, while the other, always sure of freedom, does not use it rashly. And yet the village children, often flattered or constrained, are still very far from the state in which I would have them kept.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00287",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 169741,
      "end": 170588,
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      "text": "Let us lay it down as an incontrovertible rule that the first impulses of nature are always right; there is no original sin in the human heart, the how and why of the entrance of every vice can be traced. The only natural passion is self-love or selfishness taken in a wider sense. This selfishness is good in itself and in relation to ourselves; and as the child has no necessary relations to other people he is naturally indifferent to them; his self-love only becomes good or bad by the use made of it and the relations established by its means. Until the time is ripe for the appearance of reason, that guide of selfishness, the main thing is that the child shall do nothing because you are watching him or listening to him; in a word, nothing because of other people, but only what nature asks of him; then he will never do wrong.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00288",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 170592,
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      "text": "I do not mean to say that he will never do any mischief, never hurt himself, never break a costly ornament if you leave it within his reach. He might do much damage without doing wrong, since wrong-doing depends on the harmful intention which will never be his. If once he meant to do harm, his whole education would be ruined; he would be almost hopelessly bad.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00289",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 170963,
      "end": 171546,
      "sha256": "edc7c0213fa6c7f033635e7df46b15f60cb6ed998ad448c7a8515838d30c3657",
      "text": "Greed considers some things wrong which are not wrong in the eyes of reason. When you leave free scope to a child's heedlessness, you must put anything he could spoil out of his way, and leave nothing fragile or costly within his reach. Let the room be furnished with plain and solid furniture; no mirrors, china, or useless ornaments. My pupil Emile, who is brought up in the country, shall have a room just like a peasant's. Why take such pains to adorn it when he will be so little in it? I am mistaken, however; he will ornament it for himself, and we shall soon see how.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00290",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 171550,
      "end": 171953,
      "sha256": "6bcb743b331685eede24e04268e8fa6964d68828d949266c4f66b760e50a57c5",
      "text": "But if, in spite of your precautions, the child contrives to do some damage, if he breaks some useful article, do not punish him for your carelessness, do not even scold him; let him hear no word of reproval, do not even let him see that he has vexed you; behave just as if the thing had come to pieces of itself; you may consider you have done great things if you have managed to hold your tongue.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00291",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 171957,
      "end": 173026,
      "sha256": "101a102a34183d12b6c5c2dd1ba00f112390923d0ad86c6d8e88429fd3595779",
      "text": "May I venture at this point to state the greatest, the most important, the most useful rule of education? It is: Do not save time, but lose it. I hope that every-day readers will excuse my paradoxes; you cannot avoid paradox if you think for yourself, and whatever you may say I would rather fall into paradox than into prejudice. The most dangerous period in human life lies between birth and the age of twelve. It is the time when errors and vices spring up, while as yet there is no means to destroy them; when the means of destruction are ready, the roots have gone too deep to be pulled up. If the infant sprang at one bound from its mother's breast to the age of reason, the present type of education would be quite suitable, but its natural growth calls for quite a different training. The mind should be left undisturbed till its faculties have developed; for while it is blind it cannot see the torch you offer it, nor can it follow through the vast expanse of ideas a path so faintly traced by reason that the best eyes can scarcely follow it.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00292",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 173030,
      "end": 173755,
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      "text": "Therefore the education of the earliest years should be merely negative. It consists, not in teaching virtue or truth, but in preserving the heart from vice and from the spirit of error. If only you could let well alone, and get others to follow your example; if you could bring your scholar to the age of twelve strong and healthy, but unable to tell his right hand from his left, the eyes of his understanding would be open to reason as soon as you began to teach him. Free from prejudices and free from habits, there would be nothing in him to counteract the effects of your labours. In your hands he would soon become the wisest of men; by doing nothing to begin with, you would end with a prodigy of education.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00293",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 173759,
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      "text": "Reverse the usual practice and you will almost always do right. Fathers and teachers who want to make the child, not a child but a man of learning, think it never too soon to scold, correct, reprove, threaten, bribe, teach, and reason. Do better than they; be reasonable, and do not reason with your pupil, more especially do not try to make him approve what he dislikes; for if reason is always connected with disagreeable matters, you make it distasteful to him, you discredit it at an early age in a mind not yet ready to understand it. Exercise his body, his limbs, his senses, his strength, but keep his mind idle as long as you can. Distrust all opinions which appear before the judgment to discriminate between them. Restrain and ward off strange impressions; and to prevent the birth of evil do not hasten to do well, for goodness is only possible when enlightened by reason. Regard all delays as so much time gained; you have achieved much, you approach the boundary without loss. Leave childhood to ripen in your children. In a word, beware of giving anything they need to-day if it can be deferred without danger to to-morrow.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00294",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 174917,
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      "text": "There is another point to be considered which confirms the suitability of this method: it is the child's individual bent, which must be thoroughly known before we can choose the fittest moral training. Every mind has its own form, in accordance with which it must be controlled; and the success of the pains taken depends largely on the fact that he is controlled in this way and no other. Oh, wise man, take time to observe nature; watch your scholar well before you say a word to him; first leave the germ of his character free to show itself, do not constrain him in anything, the better to see him as he really is. Do you think this time of liberty is wasted? On the contrary, your scholar will be the better employed, for this is the way you yourself will learn not to lose a single moment when time is of more value. If, however, you begin to act before you know what to do, you act at random; you may make mistakes, and must retrace your steps; your haste to reach your goal will only take you further from it. Do not imitate the miser who loses much lest he should lose a little. Sacrifice a little time in early childhood, and it will be repaid you with usury when your scholar is older. The wise physician does not hastily give prescriptions at first sight, but he studies the constitution of the sick man before he prescribes anything; the treatment is begun later, but the patient is cured, while the hasty doctor kills him.",
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      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "But where shall we find a place for our child so as to bring him up as a senseless being, an automaton? Shall we keep him in the moon, or on a desert island? Shall we remove him from human society? Will he not always have around him the sight and the pattern of the passions of other people? Will he never see children of his own age? Will he not see his parents, his neighbours, his nurse, his governess, his man-servant, his tutor himself, who after all will not be an angel? Here we have a real and serious objection. But did I tell you that an education according to nature would be an easy task? Oh, men! is it my fault that you have made all good things difficult? I admit that I am aware of these difficulties; perhaps they are insuperable; but nevertheless it is certain that we do to some extent avoid them by trying to do so. I am showing what we should try to attain, I do not say we can attain it, but I do say that whoever comes nearest to it is nearest to success.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00396",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "What a host of details! but much more would be needed for the analysis of all the ideas in this fable and their reduction to the simple and elementary ideas of which each is composed. But who thinks this analysis necessary to make himself intelligible to children? Who of us is philosopher enough to be able to put himself in the child's place? Let us now proceed to the moral.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00397",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "Should we teach a six-year-old child that there are people who flatter and lie for the sake of gain? One might perhaps teach them that there are people who make fools of little boys and laugh at their foolish vanity behind their backs. But the whole thing is spoilt by the cheese. You are teaching them how to make another drop his cheese rather than how to keep their own. This is my second paradox, and it is not less weighty than the former one.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00398",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "Watch children learning their fables and you will see that when they have a chance of applying them they almost always use them exactly contrary to the author's meaning; instead of being on their guard against the fault which you would prevent or cure, they are disposed to like the vice by which one takes advantage of another's defects. In the above fable children laugh at the crow, but they all love the fox. In the next fable you expect them to follow the example of the grasshopper. Not so, they will choose the ant. They do not care to abase themselves, they will always choose the principal part--this is the choice of self-love, a very natural choice. But what a dreadful lesson for children! There could be no monster more detestable than a harsh and avaricious child, who realised what he was asked to give and what he refused. The ant does more; she teaches him not merely to refuse but to revile.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00399",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "In all the fables where the lion plays a part, usually the chief part, the child pretends to be the lion, and when he has to preside over some distribution of good things, he takes care to keep everything for himself; but when the lion is overthrown by the gnat, the child is the gnat. He learns how to sting to death those whom he dare not attack openly.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00400",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "From the fable of the sleek dog and the starving wolf he learns a lesson of licence rather than the lesson of moderation which you profess to teach him. I shall never forget seeing a little girl weeping bitterly over this tale, which had been told her as a lesson in obedience. The poor child hated to be chained up; she felt the chain chafing her neck; she was crying because she was not a wolf.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00406",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 247720,
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      "text": "People make a great fuss about discovering the beat way to teach children to read. They invent \"bureaux\" [Footnote: Translator's note.--The \"bureau\" was a sort of case containing letters to be put together to form words. It was a favourite device for the teaching of reading and gave its name to a special method, called the bureau-method, of learning to read.] and cards, they turn the nursery into a printer's shop. Locke would have them taught to read by means of dice. What a fine idea! And the pity of it! There is a better way than any of those, and one which is generally overlooked--it consists in the desire to learn. Arouse this desire in your scholar and have done with your \"bureaux\" and your dice--any method will serve.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00407",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 248468,
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      "sha256": "60e0e461a9ae9bc1c6578ee1720edf9acf05f5084bdd53b5b6a4b65087dc4ccd",
      "text": "Present interest, that is the motive power, the only motive power that takes us far and safely. Sometimes Emile receives notes of invitation from his father or mother, his relations or friends; he is invited to a dinner, a walk, a boating expedition, to see some public entertainment. These notes are short, clear, plain, and well written. Some one must read them to him, and he cannot always find anybody when wanted; no more consideration is shown to him than he himself showed to you yesterday. Time passes, the chance is lost. The note is read to him at last, but it is too late. Oh! if only he had known how to read! He receives other notes, so short, so interesting, he would like to try to read them. Sometimes he gets help, sometimes none. He does his best, and at last he makes out half the note; it is something about going to-morrow to drink cream--Where? With whom? He cannot tell--how hard he tries to make out the rest! I do not think Emile will need a \"bureau.\" Shall I proceed to the teaching of writing? No, I am ashamed to toy with these trifles in a treatise on education.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00408",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 249579,
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      "sha256": "e25041fe4a3baacbb3eac527e567587e1bbc56f442565578531a698aa12f2920",
      "text": "I will just add a few words which contain a principle of great importance. It is this--What we are in no hurry to get is usually obtained with speed and certainty. I am pretty sure Emile will learn to read and write before he is ten, just because I care very little whether he can do so before he is fifteen; but I would rather he never learnt to read at all, than that this art should be acquired at the price of all that makes reading useful. What is the use of reading to him if he always hates it? \"Id imprimis cavere oportebit, ne studia, qui amare nondum potest, oderit, et amaritudinem semel perceptam etiam ultra rudes annos reformidet.\"--Quintil.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00409",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "The more I urge my method of letting well alone, the more objections I perceive against it. If your pupil learns nothing from you, he will learn from others. If you do not instil truth he will learn falsehoods; the prejudices you fear to teach him he will acquire from those about him, they will find their way through every one of his senses; they will either corrupt his reason before it is fully developed or his mind will become torpid through inaction, and will become engrossed in material things. If we do not form the habit of thinking as children, we shall lose the power of thinking for the rest of our life.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00410",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "I fancy I could easily answer that objection, but why should I answer every objection? If my method itself answers your objections, it is good; if not, it is good for nothing. I continue my explanation.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00418",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "As for my pupil, or rather Nature's pupil, he has been trained from the outset to be as self-reliant as possible, he has not formed the habit of constantly seeking help from others, still less of displaying his stores of learning. On the other hand, he exercises discrimination and forethought, he reasons about everything that concerns himself. He does not chatter, he acts. Not a word does he know of what is going on in the world at large, but he knows very thoroughly what affects himself. As he is always stirring he is compelled to notice many things, to recognise many effects; he soon acquires a good deal of experience. Nature, not man, is his schoolmaster, and he learns all the quicker because he is not aware that he has any lesson to learn. So mind and body work together. He is always carrying out his own ideas, not those of other people, and thus he unites thought and action; as he grows in health and strength he grows in wisdom and discernment. This is the way to attain later on to what is generally considered incompatible, though most great men have achieved it, strength of body and strength of mind, the reason of the philosopher and the vigour of the athlete.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00419",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "Young teacher, I am setting before you a difficult task, the art of controlling without precepts, and doing everything without doing anything at all. This art is, I confess, beyond your years, it is not calculated to display your talents nor to make your value known to your scholar's parents; but it is the only road to success. You will never succeed in making wise men if you do not first make little imps of mischief. This was the education of the Spartans; they were not taught to stick to their books, they were set to steal their dinners. Were they any the worse for it in after life? Ever ready for victory, they crushed their foes in every kind of warfare, and the prating Athenians were as much afraid of their words as of their blows.",
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    {
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      "start": 257900,
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      "sha256": "276a17af65c458cf718248f2d1e303ba3f044db4a21daf5949c7e3160cc92382",
      "text": "When education is most carefully attended to, the teacher issues his orders and thinks himself master, but it is the child who is really master. He uses the tasks you set him to obtain what he wants from you, and he can always make you pay for an hour's industry by a week's complaisance. You must always be making bargains with him. These bargains, suggested in your fashion, but carried out in his, always follow the direction of his own fancies, especially when you are foolish enough to make the condition some advantage he is almost sure to obtain, whether he fulfils his part of the bargain or not. The child is usually much quicker to read the master's thoughts than the master to read the child's feelings. And that is as it should be, for all the sagacity which the child would have devoted to self-preservation, had he been left to himself, is now devoted to the rescue of his native freedom from the chains of his tyrant; while the latter, who has no such pressing need to understand the child, sometimes finds that it pays him better to leave him in idleness or vanity.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00421",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 259003,
      "end": 259738,
      "sha256": "8ba1c2d9ccf6b918418c41ef3d26085f82db4913836e271cab02772dc5801284",
      "text": "Take the opposite course with your pupil; let him always think he is master while you are really master. There is no subjection so complete as that which preserves the forms of freedom; it is thus that the will itself is taken captive. Is not this poor child, without knowledge, strength, or wisdom, entirely at your mercy? Are you not master of his whole environment so far as it affects him? Cannot you make of him what you please? His work and play, his pleasure and pain, are they not, unknown to him, under your control? No doubt he ought only to do what he wants, but he ought to want to do nothing but what you want him to do. He should never take a step you have not foreseen, nor utter a word you could not foretell.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00422",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 259742,
      "end": 260641,
      "sha256": "8a368dee6442928e2b206a4d570a8f452627be0ecf80cda6b8777b551a02307f",
      "text": "Then he can devote himself to the bodily exercises adapted to his age without brutalising his mind; instead of developing his cunning to evade an unwelcome control, you will then find him entirely occupied in getting the best he can out of his environment with a view to his present welfare, and you will be surprised by the subtlety of the means he devises to get for himself such things as he can obtain, and to really enjoy things without the aid of other people's ideas. You leave him master of his own wishes, but you do not multiply his caprices. When he only does what he wants, he will soon only do what he ought, and although his body is constantly in motion, so far as his sensible and present interests are concerned, you will find him developing all the reason of which he is capable, far better and in a manner much better fitted for him than in purely theoretical studies.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00423",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 260645,
      "end": 261012,
      "sha256": "cabd8f46dfc587af274c2edca8503aa64e55390800ea131d6615d79841514f08",
      "text": "Thus when he does not find you continually thwarting him, when he no longer distrusts you, no longer has anything to conceal from you, he will neither tell you lies nor deceive you; he will show himself fearlessly as he really is, and you can study him at your ease, and surround him with all the lessons you would have him learn, without awaking his suspicions.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00424",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 261016,
      "end": 261819,
      "sha256": "09d5bc5f2ccc9be06675522bc664d92919db3f54ab41cbddaddd814f5f629ee4",
      "text": "Neither will he keep a curious and jealous eye on your own conduct, nor take a secret delight in catching you at fault. It is a great thing to avoid this. One of the child's first objects is, as I have said, to find the weak spots in its rulers. Though this leads to spitefulness, it does not arise from it, but from the desire to evade a disagreeable control. Overburdened by the yoke laid upon him, he tries to shake it off, and the faults he finds in his master give him a good opportunity for this. Still the habit of spying out faults and delighting in them grows upon people. Clearly we have stopped another of the springs of vice in Emile's heart. Having nothing to gain from my faults, he will not be on the watch for them, nor will he be tempted to look out for the faults of others.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00425",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 261823,
      "end": 262335,
      "sha256": "22dd24c9dbc9bfc6014d172f74a26a4cc13f98d530063a7fd101c60d85b3f37f",
      "text": "All these methods seem difficult because they are new to us, but they ought not to be really difficult. I have a right to assume that you have the knowledge required for the business you have chosen; that you know the usual course of development of the human thought, that you can study mankind and man, that you know beforehand the effect on your pupil's will of the various objects suited to his age which you put before him. You have the tools and the art to use them; are you not master of your trade?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00426",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 262339,
      "end": 264514,
      "sha256": "4f73fc9178eb2442e3b4523d71ef491f72f3e1a798a4716f13c8a58776243ba8",
      "text": "You speak of childish caprice; you are mistaken. Children's caprices are never the work of nature, but of bad discipline; they have either obeyed or given orders, and I have said again and again, they must do neither. Your pupil will have the caprices you have taught him; it is fair you should bear the punishment of your own faults. \"But how can I cure them?\" do you say? That may still be done by better conduct on your own part and great patience. I once undertook the charge of a child for a few weeks; he was accustomed not only to have his own way, but to make every one else do as he pleased; he was therefore capricious. The very first day he wanted to get up at midnight, to try how far he could go with me. When I was sound asleep he jumped out of bed, got his dressing-gown, and waked me up. I got up and lighted the candle, which was all he wanted. After a quarter of an hour he became sleepy and went back to bed quite satisfied with his experiment. Two days later he repeated it, with the same success and with no sign of impatience on my part. When he kissed me as he lay down, I said to him very quietly, \"My little dear, this is all very well, but do not try it again.\" His curiosity was aroused by this, and the very next day he did not fail to get up at the same time and woke me to see whether I should dare to disobey him. I asked what he wanted, and he told me he could not sleep. \"So much the worse for you,\" I replied, and I lay quiet. He seemed perplexed by this way of speaking. He felt his way to the flint and steel and tried to strike a light. I could not help laughing when I heard him strike his fingers. Convinced at last that he could not manage it, he brought the steel to my bed; I told him I did not want it, and I turned my back to him. Then he began to rush wildly about the room, shouting, singing, making a great noise, knocking against chairs and tables, but taking, however, good care not to hurt himself seriously, but screaming loudly in the hope of alarming me. All this had no effect, but I perceived that though he was prepared for scolding or anger, he was quite unprepared for indifference.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00427",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 264518,
      "end": 265129,
      "sha256": "51523220727dab86150ab8a3c23fc3903d14ac672571ac3a2b1f76fa73972a50",
      "text": "However, he was determined to overcome my patience with his own obstinacy, and he continued his racket so successfully that at last I lost my temper. I foresaw that I should spoil the whole business by an unseemly outburst of passion. I determined on another course. I got up quietly, went to the tinder box, but could not find it; I asked him for it, and he gave it me, delighted to have won the victory over me. I struck a light, lighted the candle, took my young gentleman by the hand and led him quietly into an adjoining dressing-room with the shutters firmly fastened, and nothing he could break.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00598",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 405360,
      "end": 405749,
      "sha256": "f3c75471f10f97c6f9cabbba7b8293138a9cfde97d259d05b85fc595aa2f49c2",
      "text": "Let us transform our sensations into ideas, but do not let us jump all at once from the objects of sense to objects of thought. The latter are attained by means of the former. Let the senses be the only guide for the first workings of reason. No book but the world, no teaching but that of fact. The child who reads ceases to think, he only reads. He is acquiring words not knowledge.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00599",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 405753,
      "end": 406265,
      "sha256": "99749bf3b8cf11d0e8acfffbfa2ac74e7e63eb3e2cf278f3983946d0e3a3c957",
      "text": "Teach your scholar to observe the phenomena of nature; you will soon rouse his curiosity, but if you would have it grow, do not be in too great a hurry to satisfy this curiosity. Put the problems before him and let him solve them himself. Let him know nothing because you have told him, but because he has learnt it for himself. Let him not be taught science, let him discover it. If ever you substitute authority for reason he will cease to reason; he will be a mere plaything of other people's thoughts.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00600",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 406269,
      "end": 406530,
      "sha256": "2e34aea0cf8ea3312f01c7ad8fa620be5406cd0be45d57390601341e2b5299d7",
      "text": "You wish to teach this child geography and you provide him with globes, spheres, and maps. What elaborate preparations! What is the use of all these symbols; why not begin by showing him the real thing so that he may at least know what you are talking about?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00601",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 406534,
      "end": 407812,
      "sha256": "c21fe053d3e219be807260a72142df8b9a287e2833d3c7bd83a3d653949edceb",
      "text": "One fine evening we are walking in a suitable place where the wide horizon gives us a full view of the setting sun, and we note the objects which mark the place where it sets. Next morning we return to the same place for a breath of fresh air before sun-rise. We see the rays of light which announce the sun's approach; the glow increases, the east seems afire, and long before the sun appears the light leads us to expect its return. Every moment you expect to see it. There it is at last! A shining point appears like a flash of lightning and soon fills the whole space; the veil of darkness rolls away, man perceives his dwelling place in fresh beauty. During the night the grass has assumed a fresher green; in the light of early dawn, and gilded by the first rays of the sun, it seems covered with a shining network of dew reflecting the light and colour. The birds raise their chorus of praise to greet the Father of life, not one of them is mute; their gentle warbling is softer than by day, it expresses the langour of a peaceful waking. All these produce an impression of freshness which seems to reach the very soul. It is a brief hour of enchantment which no man can resist; a sight so grand, so fair, so delicious, that none can behold it unmoved.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00602",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 407816,
      "end": 409042,
      "sha256": "9147507a100f4569ee502ff372bb1343286fad8683b2706835bbc92dcdc24fa1",
      "text": "Fired with this enthusiasm, the master wishes to impart it to the child. He expects to rouse his emotion by drawing attention to his own. Mere folly! The splendour of nature lives in man's heart; to be seen, it must be felt. The child sees the objects themselves, but does not perceive their relations, and cannot hear their harmony. It needs knowledge he has not yet acquired, feelings he has not yet experienced, to receive the complex impression which results from all these separate sensations. If he has not wandered over arid plains, if his feet have not been scorched by the burning sands of the desert, if he has not breathed the hot and oppressive air reflected from the glowing rocks, how shall he delight in the fresh air of a fine morning. The scent of flowers, the beauty of foliage, the moistness of the dew, the soft turf beneath his feet, how shall all these delight his senses. How shall the song of the birds arouse voluptuous emotion if love and pleasure are still unknown to him? How shall he behold with rapture the birth of this fair day, if his imagination cannot paint the joys it may bring in its track? How can he feel the beauty of nature, while the hand that formed it is unknown?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00645",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 438545,
      "end": 439522,
      "sha256": "0a4252bb1ea891d078aa16edf83f55bffaf6a3501062acfd9c4dc81fde32b4f0",
      "text": "A man must know many things which seem useless to a child, but need the child learn, or can he indeed learn, all that the man must know? Try to teach the child what is of use to a child and you will find that it takes all his time. Why urge him to the studies of an age he may never reach, to the neglect of those studies which meet his present needs? \"But,\" you ask, \"will it not be too late to learn what he ought to know when the time comes to use it?\" I cannot tell; but this I do know, it is impossible to teach it sooner, for our real teachers are experience and emotion, and man will never learn what befits a man except under its own conditions. A child knows he must become a man; all the ideas he may have as to man's estate are so many opportunities for his instruction, but he should remain in complete ignorance of those ideas which are beyond his grasp. My whole book is one continued argument in support of this fundamental principle of education.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00646",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 439526,
      "end": 440116,
      "sha256": "c4a18edce58b7569fb4bcf41cc46baf6f001fe3148b9261fc279f62a525a40f1",
      "text": "As soon as we have contrived to give our pupil an idea of the word \"Useful,\" we have got an additional means of controlling him, for this word makes a great impression on him, provided that its meaning for him is a meaning relative to his own age, and provided he clearly sees its relation to his own well-being. This word makes no impression on your scholars because you have taken no pains to give it a meaning they can understand, and because other people always undertake to supply their needs so that they never require to think for themselves, and do not know what utility is.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00647",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 440120,
      "end": 440788,
      "sha256": "e58697469dd668a7b927d5255d49999af0cddfa76a4f6da6e0ecaf37bc637c21",
      "text": "\"What is the use of that?\" In future this is the sacred formula, the formula by which he and I test every action of our lives. This is the question with which I invariably answer all his questions; it serves to check the stream of foolish and tiresome questions with which children weary those about them. These incessant questions produce no result, and their object is rather to get a hold over you than to gain any real advantage. A pupil, who has been really taught only to want to know what is useful, questions like Socrates; he never asks a question without a reason for it, for he knows he will be required to give his reason before he gets an answer.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00648",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 440792,
      "end": 441321,
      "sha256": "c202ccf70a57b7c2c392db6b4d3d58934d31906b9aad12e6ad8751e2b2e8e18a",
      "text": "See what a powerful instrument I have put into your hands for use with your pupil. As he does not know the reason for anything you can reduce him to silence almost at will; and what advantages do your knowledge and experience give you to show him the usefulness of what you suggest. For, make no mistake about it, when you put this question to him, you are teaching him to put it to you, and you must expect that whatever you suggest to him in the future he will follow your own example and ask, \"What is the use of this?\"",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00649",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 441325,
      "end": 442142,
      "sha256": "fef3320a5dfebc4526ca4d0b3d2a7c2e279803a8275a8d3e483fa30d5cc6a54d",
      "text": "Perhaps this is the greatest of the tutor's difficulties. If you merely try to put the child off when he asks a question, and if you give him a single reason he is not able to understand, if he finds that you reason according to your own ideas, not his, he will think what you tell him is good for you but not for him; you will lose his confidence and all your labour is thrown away. But what master will stop short and confess his faults to his pupil? We all make it a rule never to own to the faults we really have. Now I would make it a rule to admit even the faults I have not, if I could not make my reasons clear to him; as my conduct will always be intelligible to him, he will never doubt me and I shall gain more credit by confessing my imaginary faults than those who conceal their real defects.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00650",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 442146,
      "end": 443131,
      "sha256": "d6bb3519736038774cdcf4f4c9937a9960e1df7db813a5cac9eac8db374d0dc6",
      "text": "In the first place do not forget that it is rarely your business to suggest what he ought to learn; it is for him to want to learn, to seek and to find it. You should put it within his reach, you should skilfully awaken the desire and supply him with means for its satisfaction. So your questions should be few and well-chosen, and as he will always have more questions to put to you than you to him, you will always have the advantage and will be able to ask all the oftener, \"What is the use of that question?\" Moreover, as it matters little what he learns provided he understands it and knows how to use it, as soon as you cannot give him a suitable explanation give him none at all. Do not hesitate to say, \"I have no good answer to give you; I was wrong, let us drop the subject.\" If your teaching was really ill-chosen there is no harm in dropping it altogether; if it was not, with a little care you will soon find an opportunity of making its use apparent to him.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00651",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 443135,
      "end": 443375,
      "sha256": "994a3b3317fa2abcd85a96b81e2b51df6d39679a9fdb40981a11d587d9b7805b",
      "text": "I do not like verbal explanations. Young people pay little heed to them, nor do they remember them. Things! Things! I cannot repeat it too often. We lay too much stress upon words; we teachers babble, and our scholars follow our example.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00652",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 443379,
      "end": 444642,
      "sha256": "7b4eea0313da527ff50c2e86572c8e22f74f29d6ee89865450e6c1f17731952d",
      "text": "Suppose we are studying the course of the sun and the way to find our bearings, when all at once Emile interrupts me with the question, \"What is the use of that?\" what a fine lecture I might give, how many things I might take occasion to teach him in reply to his question, especially if there is any one there. I might speak of the advantages of travel, the value of commerce, the special products of different lands and the peculiar customs of different nations, the use of the calendar, the way to reckon the seasons for agriculture, the art of navigation, how to steer our course at sea, how to find our way without knowing exactly where we are. Politics, natural history, astronomy, even morals and international law are involved in my explanation, so as to give my pupil some idea of all these sciences and a great wish to learn them. When I have finished I shall have shown myself a regular pedant, I shall have made a great display of learning, and not one single idea has he understood. He is longing to ask me again, \"What is the use of taking one's bearings?\" but he dare not for fear of vexing me. He finds it pays best to pretend to listen to what he is forced to hear. This is the practical result of our fine systems of education.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00653",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 444646,
      "end": 445007,
      "sha256": "f499640c6f08a29cedbdd6df734a54ebfab70c15b76395d40b68c5dd58a876ab",
      "text": "But Emile is educated in a simpler fashion. We take so much pains to teach him a difficult idea that he will have heard nothing of all this. At the first word he does not understand, he will run away, he will prance about the room, and leave me to speechify by myself. Let us seek a more commonplace explanation; my scientific learning is of no use to him.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00822",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 549633,
      "end": 549984,
      "sha256": "dfa376cf291459c26680cc4b464a2f393241a35fd505ac697494521fa037779c",
      "text": "Let your answers be always grave, brief, decided, and without trace of hesitation. I need not add that they should be true. We cannot teach children the danger of telling lies to men without realising, on the man's part, the danger of telling lies to children. A single untruth on the part of the master will destroy the results of his education.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00823",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 549988,
      "end": 550651,
      "sha256": "6eb28a41c71e4aedbf74aba8575a5969318fb68e244d7ad9727a158ba66207fd",
      "text": "Complete ignorance with regard to certain matters is perhaps the best thing for children; but let them learn very early what it is impossible to conceal from them permanently. Either their curiosity must never be aroused, or it must be satisfied before the age when it becomes a source of danger. Your conduct towards your pupil in this respect depends greatly on his individual circumstances, the society in which he moves, the position in which he may find himself, etc. Nothing must be left to chance; and if you are not sure of keeping him in ignorance of the difference between the sexes till he is sixteen, take care you teach him before he is ten.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00824",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 550655,
      "end": 551089,
      "sha256": "71ddcb01a3b38583727a96a6735ff911120b18acec4110ff82822aeac9c52b12",
      "text": "I do not like people to be too fastidious in speaking with children, nor should they go out of their way to avoid calling a spade a spade; they are always found out if they do. Good manners in this respect are always perfectly simple; but an imagination soiled by vice makes the ear over-sensitive and compels us to be constantly refining our expressions. Plain words do not matter; it is lascivious ideas which must be avoided.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00825",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "end": 551687,
      "sha256": "e2ffa5602a4ab395944964824f06b028ba957e674f3829c283ecff7246b5ff06",
      "text": "Although modesty is natural to man, it is not natural to children. Modesty only begins with the knowledge of evil; and how should children without this knowledge of evil have the feeling which results from it? To give them lessons in modesty and good conduct is to teach them that there are things shameful and wicked, and to give them a secret wish to know what these things are. Sooner or later they will find out, and the first spark which touches the imagination will certainly hasten the awakening of the senses. Blushes are the sign of guilt; true innocence is ashamed of nothing.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00826",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 551691,
      "end": 552191,
      "sha256": "399bf5bc02099ee6aad091b56c54b0a3f3608d92f45fc5c53cf06a7cd18fbea4",
      "text": "Children have not the same desires as men; but they are subject like them to the same disagreeable needs which offend the senses, and by this means they may receive the same lessons in propriety. Follow the mind of nature which has located in the same place the organs of secret pleasures and those of disgusting needs; she teaches us the same precautions at different ages, sometimes by means of one idea and sometimes by another; to the man through modesty, to the child through cleanliness.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00827",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 552195,
      "end": 553528,
      "sha256": "2bd2efd1e127c318aca2ecfc13cde86e4715b270091d641e703ba1fa421c1633",
      "text": "I can only find one satisfactory way of preserving the child's innocence, to surround him by those who respect and love him. Without this all our efforts to keep him in ignorance fail sooner or later; a smile, a wink, a careless gesture tells him all we sought to hide; it is enough to teach him to perceive that there is something we want to hide from him. The delicate phrases and expressions employed by persons of politeness assume a knowledge which children ought not to possess, and they are quite out of place with them, but when we truly respect the child's innocence we easily find in talking to him the simple phrases which befit him. There is a certain directness of speech which is suitable and pleasing to innocence; this is the right tone to adopt in order to turn the child from dangerous curiosity. By speaking simply to him about everything you do not let him suspect there is anything left unsaid. By connecting coarse words with the unpleasant ideas which belong to them, you quench the first spark of imagination; you do not forbid the child to say these words or to form these ideas; but without his knowing it you make him unwilling to recall them. And how much confusion is spared to those who speaking from the heart always say the right thing, and say it as they themselves have felt it!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00828",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 553532,
      "end": 554374,
      "sha256": "8fd55e46307c9c45b020f5fa5324e4a5a05335a32d3cc0db7b51cc8c6796e804",
      "text": "\"Where do little children come from?\" This is an embarrassing question, which occurs very naturally to children, one which foolishly or wisely answered may decide their health and their morals for life. The quickest way for a mother to escape from it without deceiving her son is to tell him to hold his tongue. That will serve its turn if he has always been accustomed to it in matters of no importance, and if he does not suspect some mystery from this new way of speaking. But the mother rarely stops there. \"It is the married people's secret,\" she will say, \"little boys should not be so curious.\" That is all very well so far as the mother is concerned, but she may be sure that the little boy, piqued by her scornful manner, will not rest till he has found out the married people's secret, which will very soon be the case.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00842",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 564048,
      "end": 564766,
      "sha256": "8b00c73b8c6188ef305671ad5583c6425b6bde1f945182f2eac73079600a87b1",
      "text": "Man's weakness makes him sociable. Our common sufferings draw our hearts to our fellow-creatures; we should have no duties to mankind if we were not men. Every affection is a sign of insufficiency; if each of us had no need of others, we should hardly think of associating with them. So our frail happiness has its roots in our weakness. A really happy man is a hermit; God only enjoys absolute happiness; but which of us has any idea what that means? If any imperfect creature were self-sufficing, what would he have to enjoy? To our thinking he would be wretched and alone. I do not understand how one who has need of nothing could love anything, nor do I understand how he who loves nothing can be happy.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00843",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 564770,
      "end": 566065,
      "sha256": "e8d55429aad559c96000125ed2dca250e57e1a3f6f441f10e2f158b21b06e3f6",
      "text": "Hence it follows that we are drawn towards our fellow-creatures less by our feeling for their joys than for their sorrows; for in them we discern more plainly a nature like our own, and a pledge of their affection for us. If our common needs create a bond of interest our common sufferings create a bond of affection. The sight of a happy man arouses in others envy rather than love, we are ready to accuse him of usurping a right which is not his, of seeking happiness for himself alone, and our selfishness suffers an additional pang in the thought that this man has no need of us. But who does not pity the wretch when he beholds his sufferings? who would not deliver him from his woes if a wish could do it? Imagination puts us more readily in the place of the miserable man than of the happy man; we feel that the one condition touches us more nearly than the other. Pity is sweet, because, when we put ourselves in the place of one who suffers, we are aware, nevertheless, of the pleasure of not suffering like him. Envy is bitter, because the sight of a happy man, far from putting the envious in his place, inspires him with regret that he is not there. The one seems to exempt us from the pains he suffers, the other seems to deprive us of the good things he enjoys.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00844",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 566069,
      "end": 566786,
      "sha256": "75ab119aea99ff0899b123b77e0a2becb62a5ceb3cb254bd7e8493c68040d9c4",
      "text": "Do you desire to stimulate and nourish the first stirrings of awakening sensibility in the heart of a young man, do you desire to incline his disposition towards kindly deed and thought, do not cause the seeds of pride, vanity, and envy to spring up in him through the misleading picture of the happiness of mankind; do not show him to begin with the pomp of courts, the pride of palaces, the delights of pageants; do not take him into society and into brilliant assemblies; do not show him the outside of society till you have made him capable of estimating it at its true worth. To show him the world before he is acquainted with men, is not to train him, but to corrupt him; not to teach, but to mislead.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00845",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 566790,
      "end": 567222,
      "sha256": "9776651744883e6788941e519dec5fd4b68cda0d14cd6725df1eb4eeb95cbc7f",
      "text": "By nature men are neither kings, nobles, courtiers, nor millionaires. All men are born poor and naked, all are liable to the sorrows of life, its disappointments, its ills, its needs, its suffering of every kind; and all are condemned at length to die. This is what it really means to be a man, this is what no mortal can escape. Begin then with the study of the essentials of humanity, that which really constitutes mankind.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00846",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "end": 567861,
      "sha256": "df73aedc27858003c0120ec60445f417a3c3f35b2b86c9ba4ceb4cc0d8480270",
      "text": "At sixteen the adolescent knows what it is to suffer, for he himself has suffered; but he scarcely realises that others suffer too; to see without feeling is not knowledge, and as I have said again and again the child who does not picture the feelings of others knows no ills but his own; but when his imagination is kindled by the first beginnings of growing sensibility, he begins to perceive himself in his fellow-creatures, to be touched by their cries, to suffer in their sufferings. It is at this time that the sorrowful picture of suffering humanity should stir his heart with the first touch of pity he has ever known.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00847",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "sha256": "03b311a3616d5470813452bdd0968e533cc7425928c0c9942cfb0b07c5c53551",
      "text": "If it is not easy to discover this opportunity in your scholars, whose fault is it? You taught them so soon to play at feeling, you taught them so early its language, that speaking continually in the same strain they turn your lessons against yourself, and give you no chance of discovering when they cease to lie, and begin to feel what they say. But look at Emile; I have led him up to this age, and he has neither felt nor pretended to feel. He has never said, \"I love you dearly,\" till he knew what it was to love; he has never been taught what expression to assume when he enters the room of his father, his mother, or his sick tutor; he has not learnt the art of affecting a sorrow he does not feel. He has never pretended to weep for the death of any one, for he does not know what it is to die. There is the same insensibility in his heart as in his manners. Indifferent, like every child, to every one but himself, he takes no interest in any one; his only peculiarity is that he will not pretend to take such an interest; he is less deceitful than others.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00848",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "end": 569524,
      "sha256": "0010bf8c2648ec442570288b1df24825908b9e4ae5b07cf632ced316cdbd7e65",
      "text": "Emile having thought little about creatures of feeling will be a long time before he knows what is meant by pain and death. Groans and cries will begin to stir his compassion, he will turn away his eyes at the sight of blood; the convulsions of a dying animal will cause him I know not what anguish before he knows the source of these impulses. If he were still stupid and barbarous he would not feel them; if he were more learned he would recognise their source; he has compared ideas too frequently already to be insensible, but not enough to know what he feels.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00849",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "end": 570246,
      "sha256": "d84eb69f5311a13160f0c8bf151f106ddfe26d02db4d43d626f2b4b6a8793e96",
      "text": "So pity is born, the first relative sentiment which touches the human heart according to the order of nature. To become sensitive and pitiful the child must know that he has fellow-creatures who suffer as he has suffered, who feel the pains he has felt, and others which he can form some idea of, being capable of feeling them himself. Indeed, how can we let ourselves be stirred by pity unless we go beyond ourselves, and identify ourselves with the suffering animal, by leaving, so to speak, our own nature and taking his. We only suffer so far as we suppose he suffers; the suffering is not ours but his. So no one becomes sensitive till his imagination is aroused and begins to carry him outside himself.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00850",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 570250,
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      "sha256": "4cb8e970e756173c7b452e479215c722707a8c12db8cd4bfdb759996a9a0623f",
      "text": "What should we do to stimulate and nourish this growing sensibility, to direct it, and to follow its natural bent? Should we not present to the young man objects on which the expansive force of his heart may take effect, objects which dilate it, which extend it to other creatures, which take him outside himself? should we not carefully remove everything that narrows, concentrates, and strengthens the power of the human self? that is to say, in other words, we should arouse in him kindness, goodness, pity, and beneficence, all the gentle and attractive passions which are naturally pleasing to man; those passions prevent the growth of envy, covetousness, hatred, all the repulsive and cruel passions which make our sensibility not merely a cipher but a minus quantity, passions which are the curse of those who feel them.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00851",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 571093,
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      "sha256": "406ca593c67e1afef3a54f8e9ceffe95843fa1a06bbd2dde080bbf5fc7aa6751",
      "text": "I think I can sum up the whole of the preceding reflections in two or three maxims, definite, straightforward, and easy to understand.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B00852",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 571232,
      "end": 571399,
      "sha256": "74ba71ae890b194089ddde6209efe492aee6c0f6bf54b98d04918cbacacb9d23",
      "text": "FIRST MAXIM.--It is not in human nature to put ourselves in the place of those who are happier than ourselves, but only in the place of those who can claim our pity.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01162",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 833921,
      "end": 834623,
      "sha256": "4970122299836607720bfddc141b7f4fdd8f8942e49a37422dd860f410dc8cd0",
      "text": "\"We have three principal forms of religion in Europe. One accepts one revelation, another two, and another three. Each hates the others, showers curses on them, accuses them of blindness, obstinacy, hardness of heart, and falsehood. What fair-minded man will dare to decide between them without first carefully weighing their evidence, without listening attentively to their arguments? That which accepts only one revelation is the oldest and seems the best established; that which accepts three is the newest and seems the most consistent; that which accepts two revelations and rejects the third may perhaps be the best, but prejudice is certainly against it; its inconsistency is glaring.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01163",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 834627,
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      "sha256": "966f42670757ec70ecd38e515ff4e92efdd7917776a790190936386d388185c2",
      "text": "\"In all three revelations the sacred books are written in languages unknown to the people who believe in them. The Jews no longer understand Hebrew, the Christians understand neither Hebrew nor Greek; the Turks and Persians do not understand Arabic, and the Arabs of our time do not speak the language of Mahomet. Is not it a very foolish way of teaching, to teach people in an unknown tongue? These books are translated, you say. What an answer! How am I to know that the translations are correct, or how am I to make sure that such a thing as a correct translation is possible? If God has gone so far as to speak to men, why should he require an interpreter?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01164",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 835302,
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      "sha256": "ebffae4c2d2aaf99336b408b578ff7e6deeb4c5ef959bfad10035f1e2d97d8ef",
      "text": "\"I can never believe that every man is obliged to know what is contained in books, and that he who is out of reach of these books, and of those who understand them, will be punished for an ignorance which is no fault of his. Books upon books! What madness! As all Europe is full of books, Europeans regard them as necessary, forgetting that they are unknown throughout three-quarters of the globe. Were not all these books written by men? Why then should a man need them to teach him his duty, and how did he learn his duty before these books were in existence? Either he must have learnt his duties for himself, or his ignorance must have been excused.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01165",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 835968,
      "end": 836335,
      "sha256": "cbbd2ceea6bfcb80ef1ba694a50eef422df6bdaaccdc5c920ddb4f2ffa364c0c",
      "text": "\"Our Catholics talk loudly of the authority of the Church; but what is the use of it all, if they also need just as great an array of proofs to establish that authority as the other seeks to establish their doctrine? The Church decides that the Church has a right to decide. What a well-founded authority! Go beyond it, and you are back again in our discussions.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01166",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 836339,
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      "sha256": "4cbea7f55b72440df890f8b7eb7e2604d1426ea4f529032dc8549ece2869c310",
      "text": "\"Do you know many Christians who have taken the trouble to inquire what the Jews allege against them? If any one knows anything at all about it, it is from the writings of Christians. What a way of ascertaining the arguments of our adversaries! But what is to be done? If any one dared to publish in our day books which were openly in favour of the Jewish religion, we should punish the author, publisher, and bookseller. This regulation is a sure and certain plan for always being in the right. It is easy to refute those who dare not venture to speak.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01167",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 836904,
      "end": 838160,
      "sha256": "43f270341dd741f739b02c6e9232e2573c099547b78f132eabae944fe81912d3",
      "text": "\"Those among us who have the opportunity of talking with Jews are little better off. These unhappy people feel that they are in our power; the tyranny they have suffered makes them timid; they know that Christian charity thinks nothing of injustice and cruelty; will they dare to run the risk of an outcry against blasphemy? Our greed inspires us with zeal, and they are so rich that they must be in the wrong. The more learned, the more enlightened they are, the more cautious. You may convert some poor wretch whom you have paid to slander his religion; you get some wretched old-clothes-man to speak, and he says what you want; you may triumph over their ignorance and cowardice, while all the time their men of learning are laughing at your stupidity. But do you think you would get off so easily in any place where they knew they were safe! At the Sorbonne it is plain that the Messianic prophecies refer to Jesus Christ. Among the rabbis of Amsterdam it is just as clear that they have nothing to do with him. I do not think I have ever heard the arguments of the Jews as to why they should not have a free state, schools and universities, where they can speak and argue without danger. Then alone can we know what they have to say.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01168",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 838164,
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      "sha256": "f854ec7e04f35b28abdd1bc9c1e3bdbb3dc7ae1dc4ad8a595811d5e0d8526c4a",
      "text": "\"At Constantinople the Turks state their arguments, but we dare not give ours; then it is our turn to cringe. Can we blame the Turks if they require us to show the same respect for Mahomet, in whom we do not believe, as we demand from the Jews with regard to Jesus Christ in whom they do not believe? Are we right? On what grounds of justice can we answer this question?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01169",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 838543,
      "end": 839754,
      "sha256": "ea7c3dbf88c5999a6f0e08bbedd447543155b18f79fe4bbecc048dc32c80852e",
      "text": "\"Two-thirds of mankind are neither Jews, Mahometans, nor Christians; and how many millions of men have never heard the name of Moses, Jesus Christ, or Mahomet? They deny it; they maintain that our missionaries go everywhere. That is easily said. But do they go into the heart of Africa, still undiscovered, where as yet no European has ever ventured? Do they go to Eastern Tartary to follow on horseback the wandering tribes, whom no stranger approaches, who not only know nothing of the pope, but have scarcely heard tell of the Grand Lama! Do they penetrate into the vast continents of America, where there are still whole nations unaware that the people of another world have set foot on their shores? Do they go to Japan, where their intrigues have led to their perpetual banishment, where their predecessors are only known to the rising generation as skilful plotters who came with feigned zeal to take possession in secret of the empire? Do they reach the harems of the Asiatic princes to preach the gospel to those thousands of poor slaves? What have the women of those countries done that no missionary may preach the faith to them? Will they all go to hell because of their seclusion?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01252",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 936794,
      "end": 938047,
      "sha256": "69cf88b27ebd559ebc43dacdc8dd9e28fb93dd1eaec3fef36294b080603e7065",
      "text": "Therefore, watch carefully over the young man; he can protect himself from all other foes, but it is for you to protect him against himself. Never leave him night or day, or at least share his room; never let him go to bed till he is sleepy, and let him rise as soon as he wakes. Distrust instinct as soon as you cease to rely altogether upon it. Instinct was good while he acted under its guidance only; now that he is in the midst of human institutions, instinct is not to be trusted; it must not be destroyed, it must be controlled, which is perhaps a more difficult matter. It would be a dangerous matter if instinct taught your pupil to abuse his senses; if once he acquires this dangerous habit he is ruined. From that time forward, body and soul will be enervated; he will carry to the grave the sad effects of this habit, the most fatal habit which a young man can acquire. If you cannot attain to the mastery of your passions, dear Emile, I pity you; but I shall not hesitate for a moment, I will not permit the purposes of nature to be evaded. If you must be a slave, I prefer to surrender you to a tyrant from whom I may deliver you; whatever happens, I can free you more easily from the slavery of women than from yourself.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01253",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 938051,
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      "sha256": "61f8e8755e77549d89d1ac99b914ca8c5744b62e571339c959133d5d6ae581d9",
      "text": "Up to the age of twenty, the body is still growing and requires all its strength; till that age continence is the law of nature, and this law is rarely violated without injury to the constitution. After twenty, continence is a moral duty; it is an important duty, for it teaches us to control ourselves, to be masters of our own appetites. But moral duties have their modifications, their exceptions, their rules. When human weakness makes an alternative inevitable, of two evils choose the least; in any case it is better to commit a misdeed than to contract a vicious habit.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01254",
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      "end": 939541,
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      "text": "Remember, I am not talking of my pupil now, but of yours. His passions, to which you have given way, are your master; yield to them openly and without concealing his victory. If you are able to show him it in its true light, he will be ashamed rather than proud of it, and you will secure the right to guide him in his wanderings, at least so as to avoid precipices. The disciple must do nothing, not even evil, without the knowledge and consent of his master; it is a hundredfold better that the tutor should approve of a misdeed than that he should deceive himself or be deceived by his pupil, and the wrong should be done without his knowledge. He who thinks he must shut his eyes to one thing, must soon shut them altogether; the first abuse which is permitted leads to others, and this chain of consequences only ends in the complete overthrow of all order and contempt for every law.",
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      "ref": "PG5427.B01255",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "There is another mistake which I have already dealt with, a mistake continually made by narrow-minded persons; they constantly affect the dignity of a master, and wish to be regarded by their disciples as perfect. This method is just the contrary of what should be done. How is it that they fail to perceive that when they try to strengthen their authority they are really destroying it; that to gain a hearing one must put oneself in the place of our hearers, and that to speak to the human heart, one must be a man. All these perfect people neither touch nor persuade; people always say, \"It is easy for them to fight against passions they do not feel.\" Show your pupil your own weaknesses if you want to cure his; let him see in you struggles like his own; let him learn by your example to master himself and let him not say like other young men, \"These old people, who are vexed because they are no longer young, want to treat all young people as if they were old; and they make a crime of our passions because their own passions are dead.\"",
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      "ref": "PG5427.B01256",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "Montaigne tells us that he once asked Seigneur de Langey how often, in his negotiations with Germany, he had got drunk in his king's service. I would willingly ask the tutor of a certain young man how often he has entered a house of ill-fame for his pupil's sake. How often? I am wrong. If the first time has not cured the young libertine of all desire to go there again, if he does not return penitent and ashamed, if he does not shed torrents of tears upon your bosom, leave him on the spot; either he is a monster or you are a fool; you will never do him any good. But let us have done with these last expedients, which are as distressing as they are dangerous; our kind of education has no need of them.",
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      "ref": "PG5427.B01257",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "What precautions we must take with a young man of good birth before exposing him to the scandalous manners of our age! These precautions are painful but necessary; negligence in this matter is the ruin of all our young men; degeneracy is the result of youthful excesses, and it is these excesses which make men what they are. Old and base in their vices, their hearts are shrivelled, because their worn-out bodies were corrupted at an early age; they have scarcely strength to stir. The subtlety of their thoughts betrays a mind lacking in substance; they are incapable of any great or noble feeling, they have neither simplicity nor vigour; altogether abject and meanly wicked, they are merely frivolous, deceitful, and false; they have not even courage enough to be distinguished criminals. Such are the despicable men produced by early debauchery; if there were but one among them who knew how to be sober and temperate, to guard his heart, his body, his morals from the contagion of bad example, at the age of thirty he would crush all these insects, and would become their master with far less trouble than it cost him to become master of himself.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01258",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "However little Emile owes to birth and fortune, he might be this man if he chose; but he despises such people too much to condescend to make them his slaves. Let us now watch him in their midst, as he enters into society, not to claim the first place, but to acquaint himself with it and to seek a helpmeet worthy of himself.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01336",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1005290,
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      "sha256": "87823e4ed767a893ab18327ce43f97867edf985b1aacd1907a76eaa461e193e4",
      "text": "The time is come; we must now seek her in earnest, lest Emile should mistake some one else for Sophy, and only discover his error when it is too late. Then farewell Paris, far-famed Paris, with all your noise and smoke and dirt, where the women have ceased to believe in honour and the men in virtue. We are in search of love, happiness, innocence; the further we go from Paris the better.",
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      "bookId": 5427,
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      "sha256": "c38d6ed66b495d14dc14d9fe4f82a0b9e1a0740215355d2e389211d8039beb66",
      "text": "BOOK V",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01338",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1005704,
      "end": 1005789,
      "sha256": "69858148b686653b3722226ec902f67d17d48aea4448407544f8aef8a5102872",
      "text": "We have reached the last act of youth's drama; we are approaching its closing scene.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01339",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1005793,
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      "text": "It is not good that man should be alone. Emile is now a man, and we must give him his promised helpmeet. That helpmeet is Sophy. Where is her dwelling-place, where shall she be found? We must know beforehand what she is, and then we can decide where to look for her. And when she is found, our task is not ended. \"Since our young gentleman,\" says Locke, \"is about to marry, it is time to leave him with his mistress.\" And with these words he ends his book. As I have not the honour of educating \"A young gentleman,\" I shall take care not to follow his example.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01340",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1006365,
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      "text": "SOPHY, OR WOMAN",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01341",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1006384,
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      "text": "Sophy should be as truly a woman as Emile is a man, i.e., she must possess all those characters of her sex which are required to enable her to play her part in the physical and moral order. Let us inquire to begin with in what respects her sex differs from our own.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01342",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1006657,
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      "text": "But for her sex, a woman is a man; she has the same organs, the same needs, the same faculties. The machine is the same in its construction; its parts, its working, and its appearance are similar. Regard it as you will the difference is only in degree.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01343",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1006916,
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      "text": "Yet where sex is concerned man and woman are unlike; each is the complement of the other; the difficulty in comparing them lies in our inability to decide, in either case, what is a matter of sex, and what is not. General differences present themselves to the comparative anatomist and even to the superficial observer; they seem not to be a matter of sex; yet they are really sex differences, though the connection eludes our observation. How far such differences may extend we cannot tell; all we know for certain is that where man and woman are alike we have to do with the characteristics of the species; where they are unlike, we have to do with the characteristics of sex. Considered from these two standpoints, we find so many instances of likeness and unlikeness that it is perhaps one of the greatest of marvels how nature has contrived to make two beings so like and yet so different.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01344",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "These resemblances and differences must have an influence on the moral nature; this inference is obvious, and it is confirmed by experience; it shows the vanity of the disputes as to the superiority or the equality of the sexes; as if each sex, pursuing the path marked out for it by nature, were not more perfect in that very divergence than if it more closely resembled the other. A perfect man and a perfect woman should no more be alike in mind than in face, and perfection admits of neither less nor more.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01345",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "In the union of the sexes each alike contributes to the common end, but in different ways. From this diversity springs the first difference which may be observed between man and woman in their moral relations. The man should be strong and active; the woman should be weak and passive; the one must have both the power and the will; it is enough that the other should offer little resistance.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01346",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1008748,
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      "text": "When this principle is admitted, it follows that woman is specially made for man's delight. If man in his turn ought to be pleasing in her eyes, the necessity is less urgent, his virtue is in his strength, he pleases because he is strong. I grant you this is not the law of love, but it is the law of nature, which is older than love itself.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01347",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "If woman is made to please and to be in subjection to man, she ought to make herself pleasing in his eyes and not provoke him to anger; her strength is in her charms, by their means she should compel him to discover and use his strength. The surest way of arousing this strength is to make it necessary by resistance. Thus pride comes to the help of desire and each exults in the other's victory. This is the origin of attack and defence, of the boldness of one sex and the timidity of the other, and even of the shame and modesty with which nature has armed the weak for the conquest of the strong.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01352",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1011922,
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      "text": "Whether the woman shares the man's passion or not, whether she is willing or unwilling to satisfy it, she always repulses him and defends herself, though not always with the same vigour, and therefore not always with the same success. If the siege is to be successful, the besieged must permit or direct the attack. How skilfully can she stimulate the efforts of the aggressor. The freest and most delightful of activities does not permit of any real violence; reason and nature are alike against it; nature, in that she has given the weaker party strength enough to resist if she chooses; reason, in that actual violence is not only most brutal in itself, but it defeats its own ends, not only because the man thus declares war against his companion and thus gives her a right to defend her person and her liberty even at the cost of the enemy's life, but also because the woman alone is the judge of her condition, and a child would have no father if any man might usurp a father's rights.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01353",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1012931,
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      "sha256": "e65bd5726f9d8c16625f63f21a975d595f0a2c2e92cc343b74c790053929dc9a",
      "text": "Thus the different constitution of the two sexes leads us to a third conclusion, that the stronger party seems to be master, but is as a matter of fact dependent on the weaker, and that, not by any foolish custom of gallantry, nor yet by the magnanimity of the protector, but by an inexorable law of nature. For nature has endowed woman with a power of stimulating man's passions in excess of man's power of satisfying those passions, and has thus made him dependent on her goodwill, and compelled him in his turn to endeavour to please her, so that she may be willing to yield to his superior strength. Is it weakness which yields to force, or is it voluntary self-surrender? This uncertainty constitutes the chief charm of the man's victory, and the woman is usually cunning enough to leave him in doubt. In this respect the woman's mind exactly resembles her body; far from being ashamed of her weakness, she is proud of it; her soft muscles offer no resistance, she professes that she cannot lift the lightest weight; she would be ashamed to be strong. And why? Not only to gain an appearance of refinement; she is too clever for that; she is providing herself beforehand with excuses, with the right to be weak if she chooses.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01354",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1014184,
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      "text": "The experience we have gained through our vices has considerably modified the views held in older times; we rarely hear of violence for which there is so little occasion that it would hardly be credited. Yet such stories are common enough among the Jews and ancient Greeks; for such views belong to the simplicity of nature, and have only been uprooted by our profligacy. If fewer deeds of violence are quoted in our days, it is not that men are more temperate, but because they are less credulous, and a complaint which would have been believed among a simple people would only excite laughter among ourselves; therefore silence is the better course. There is a law in Deuteronomy, under which the outraged maiden was punished, along with her assailant, if the crime were committed in a town; but if in the country or in a lonely place, the latter alone was punished. \"For,\" says the law, \"the maiden cried for help, and there was none to hear.\" From this merciful interpretation of the law, girls learnt not to let themselves be surprised in lonely places.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01355",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1015262,
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      "text": "This change in public opinion has had a perceptible effect on our morals. It has produced our modern gallantry. Men have found that their pleasures depend, more than they expected, on the goodwill of the fair sex, and have secured this goodwill by attentions which have had their reward.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01356",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1015557,
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      "text": "See how we find ourselves led unconsciously from the physical to the moral constitution, how from the grosser union of the sexes spring the sweet laws of love. Woman reigns, not by the will of man, but by the decrees of nature herself; she had the power long before she showed it. That same Hercules who proposed to violate all the fifty daughters of Thespis was compelled to spin at the feet of Omphale, and Samson, the strong man, was less strong than Delilah. This power cannot be taken from woman; it is hers by right; she would have lost it long ago, were it possible.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01357",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "The consequences of sex are wholly unlike for man and woman. The male is only a male now and again, the female is always a female, or at least all her youth; everything reminds her of her sex; the performance of her functions requires a special constitution. She needs care during pregnancy and freedom from work when her child is born; she must have a quiet, easy life while she nurses her children; their education calls for patience and gentleness, for a zeal and love which nothing can dismay; she forms a bond between father and child, she alone can win the father's love for his children and convince him that they are indeed his own. What loving care is required to preserve a united family! And there should be no question of virtue in all this, it must be a labour of love, without which the human race would be doomed to extinction.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01358",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1017000,
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      "text": "The mutual duties of the two sexes are not, and cannot be, equally binding on both. Women do wrong to complain of the inequality of man-made laws; this inequality is not of man's making, or at any rate it is not the result of mere prejudice, but of reason. She to whom nature has entrusted the care of the children must hold herself responsible for them to their father. No doubt every breach of faith is wrong, and every faithless husband, who robs his wife of the sole reward of the stern duties of her sex, is cruel and unjust; but the faithless wife is worse; she destroys the family and breaks the bonds of nature; when she gives her husband children who are not his own, she is false both to him and them, her crime is not infidelity but treason. To my mind, it is the source of dissension and of crime of every kind. Can any position be more wretched than that of the unhappy father who, when he clasps his child to his breast, is haunted by the suspicion that this is the child of another, the badge of his own dishonour, a thief who is robbing his own children of their inheritance. Under such circumstances the family is little more than a group of secret enemies, armed against each other by a guilty woman, who compels them to pretend to love one another.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01359",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1018290,
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      "text": "Thus it is not enough that a wife should be faithful; her husband, along with his friends and neighbours, must believe in her fidelity; she must be modest, devoted, retiring; she should have the witness not only of a good conscience, but of a good reputation. In a word, if a father must love his children, he must be able to respect their mother. For these reasons it is not enough that the woman should be chaste, she must preserve her reputation and her good name. From these principles there arises not only a moral difference between the sexes, but also a fresh motive for duty and propriety, which prescribes to women in particular the most scrupulous attention to their conduct, their manners, their behaviour. Vague assertions as to the equality of the sexes and the similarity of their duties are only empty words; they are no answer to my argument.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01360",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1019164,
      "end": 1020374,
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      "text": "It is a poor sort of logic to quote isolated exceptions against laws so firmly established. Women, you say, are not always bearing children. Granted; yet that is their proper business. Because there are a hundred or so of large towns in the world where women live licentiously and have few children, will you maintain that it is their business to have few children? And what would become of your towns if the remote country districts, with their simpler and purer women, did not make up for the barrenness of your fine ladies? There are plenty of country places where women with only four or five children are reckoned unfruitful. In conclusion, although here and there a woman may have few children, what difference does it make? [Footnote: Without this the race would necessarily diminish; all things considered, for its preservation each woman ought to have about four children, for about half the children born die before they can become parents, and two must survive to replace the father and mother. See whether the towns will supply them?] Is it any the less a woman's business to be a mother? And to not the general laws of nature and morality make provision for this state of things?",
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    {
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      "text": "Even if there were these long intervals, which you assume, between the periods of pregnancy, can a woman suddenly change her way of life without danger? Can she be a nursing mother to-day and a soldier to-morrow? Will she change her tastes and her feelings as a chameleon changes his colour? Will she pass at once from the privacy of household duties and indoor occupations to the buffeting of the winds, the toils, the labours, the perils of war? Will she be now timid, [Footnote: Women's timidity is yet another instinct of nature against the double risk she runs during pregnancy.] now brave, now fragile, now robust? If the young men of Paris find a soldier's life too hard for them, how would a woman put up with it, a woman who has hardly ventured out of doors without a parasol and who has scarcely put a foot to the ground? Will she make a good soldier at an age when even men are retiring from this arduous business?",
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      "ref": "PG5427.B01894",
      "bookId": 5427,
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      "end": 1380212,
      "sha256": "38c2214e4348d36164fdc5496fc1f1298db30afb3a2f225e760959342d7b3a73",
      "text": "\"Perhaps you will find it harder than you think. Pray give me time to explain.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01895",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1380216,
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      "text": "\"Cords too tightly stretched are soon broken. This is what happens when the marriage bond is subjected to too great a strain. The fidelity imposed by it upon husband and wife is the most sacred of all rights; but it gives to each too great a power over the other. Constraint and love do not agree together, and pleasure is not to be had for the asking. Do not blush, Sophy, and do not try to run away. God forbid that I should offend your modesty! But your fate for life is at stake. For so great a cause, permit a conversation between your husband and your father which you would not permit elsewhere.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01896",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1380832,
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      "text": "\"It is not so much possession as mastery of which people tire, and affection is often more prolonged with regard to a mistress than a wife. How can people make a duty of the tenderest caresses, and a right of the sweetest pledges of love? It is mutual desire which gives the right, and nature knows no other. The law may restrict this right, it cannot extend it. The pleasure is so sweet in itself! Should it owe to sad constraint the power which it cannot gain from its own charms? No, my children, in marriage the hearts are bound, but the bodies are not enslaved. You owe one another fidelity, but not complaisance. Neither of you may give yourself to another, but neither of you belongs to the other except at your own will.",
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      "ref": "PG5427.B01897",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1381574,
      "end": 1382505,
      "sha256": "15cf7c5a916e8900f1c950b9ac9557ac49602c3bc0d3e17692869c8664158395",
      "text": "\"If it is true, dear Emile, that you would always be your wife's lover, that she should always be your mistress and her own, be a happy but respectful lover; obtain all from love and nothing from duty, and let the slightest favours never be of right but of grace. I know that modesty shuns formal confessions and requires to be overcome; but with delicacy and true love, will the lover ever be mistaken as to the real will? Will not he know when heart and eyes grant what the lips refuse? Let both for ever be master of their person and their caresses, let them have the right to bestow them only at their own will. Remember that even in marriage this pleasure is only lawful when the desire is mutual. Do not be afraid, my children, that this law will keep you apart; on the contrary, it will make both more eager to please, and will prevent satiety. True to one another, nature and love will draw you to each other.\"",
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      "bookId": 5427,
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      "text": "Emile is angry and cries out against these and similar suggestions. Sophy is ashamed, she hides her face behind her fan and says nothing. Perhaps while she is saying nothing, she is the most annoyed. Yet I insist, without mercy; I make Emile blush for his lack of delicacy; I undertake to be surety for Sophy that she will undertake her share of the treaty. I incite her to speak, you may guess she will not dare to say I am mistaken. Emile anxiously consults the eyes of his young wife; he beholds them, through all her confusion, filled with a, voluptuous anxiety which reassures him against the dangers of trusting her. He flings himself at her feet, kisses with rapture the hand extended to him, and swears that beyond the fidelity he has already promised, he will renounce all other rights over her. \"My dear wife,\" said he, \"be the arbiter of my pleasures as you are already the arbiter of my life and fate. Should your cruelty cost me life itself I would yield to you my most cherished rights. I will owe nothing to your complaisance, but all to your heart.\"",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01899",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1383593,
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      "sha256": "94f9b30ce8bf44b87969e07ba970370e5f51ab162f7a324f3ceb7d5313743495",
      "text": "Dear Emile, be comforted; Sophy herself is too generous to let you fall a victim to your generosity.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01900",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1383698,
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      "text": "In the evening, when I am about to leave them, I say in the most solemn tone, \"Remember both of you, that you are free, that there is no question of marital rights; believe me, no false deference. Emile will you come home with me? Sophy permits it.\" Emile is ready to strike me in his anger. \"And you, Sophy, what do you say? Shall I take him away?\" The little liar, blushing, answers, \"Yes.\" A tender and delightful falsehood, better than truth itself!",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01901",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1384161,
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      "text": "The next day. ... Men no longer delight in the picture of bliss; their taste is as much depraved by the corruption of vice as their hearts. They can no longer feel what is touching or perceive what is truly delightful. You who, as a picture of voluptuous joys, see only the happy lovers immersed in pleasure, your picture is very imperfect; you have only its grosser part, the sweetest charms of pleasure are not there. Which of you has seen a young couple, happily married, on the morrow of their marriage? their chaste yet languid looks betray the intoxication of the bliss they have enjoyed, the blessed security of innocence, and the delightful certainty that they will spend the rest of their life together. The heart of man can behold no more rapturous sight; this is the real picture of happiness; you have beheld it a hundred times without heeding it; your hearts are so hard that you cannot love it. Sophy, peaceful and happy, spends the day in the arms of her tender mother; a pleasant resting place, after a night spent in the arms of her husband.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG5427.B01902",
      "bookId": 5427,
      "start": 1385239,
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      "text": "The day after I am aware of a slight change. Emile tries to look somewhat vexed; but through this pretence I notice such a tender eagerness, and indeed so much submission, that I do not think there is much amiss. As for Sophy she is merrier than she was yesterday; her eyes are sparkling and she looks very well pleased with herself; she is charming to Emile; she ventures to tease him a little and vexes him still more.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00011",
      "bookId": 1952,
      "start": 932,
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      "sha256": "e6cbb2c2d1e20c1ff49da64d2b6cb24511c844b937fe12cdb5d23bf1063188a7",
      "text": "By Charlotte Perkins Gilman",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00012",
      "bookId": 1952,
      "start": 965,
      "end": 1069,
      "sha256": "3741e02f872fda3dabcca2e4112eef96899d37c421ef149a0d82a201c127f088",
      "text": "It is very seldom that mere ordinary people like John and myself secure ancestral halls for the summer.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00013",
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      "start": 1073,
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      "sha256": "90325ae931e589101a0d70ac9f9bca5a50d221f568a3e9e8bca0430f384cbda6",
      "text": "A colonial mansion, a hereditary estate, I would say a haunted house, and reach the height of romantic felicity—but that would be asking too much of fate!",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00014",
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      "sha256": "e1f13a1953d7b65aecb7f6fae65fadbb222c826cc8e6aa892ae1a9846024decc",
      "text": "Still I will proudly declare that there is something queer about it.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00015",
      "bookId": 1952,
      "start": 1307,
      "end": 1385,
      "sha256": "20b215b6082301a51519572f4c62d9468089b6b41e4c415c37c18a20c19ed89c",
      "text": "Else, why should it be let so cheaply? And why have stood so long untenanted?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00016",
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      "text": "John laughs at me, of course, but one expects that in marriage.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00017",
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      "sha256": "723a93dad65c6c20b8ff6f0e18bac4c3ac127201093183245813ea876ad7c91d",
      "text": "John is practical in the extreme. He has no patience with faith, an intense horror of superstition, and he scoffs openly at any talk of things not to be felt and seen and put down in figures.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00018",
      "bookId": 1952,
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      "sha256": "27115338f79a87a1c5e4f5747973626020d6805397778b78da7d9d7c7ed0b11c",
      "text": "John is a physician, and perhaps—(I would not say it to a living soul, of course, but this is dead paper and a great relief to my mind)—perhaps that is one reason I do not get well faster.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00019",
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      "start": 1851,
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      "sha256": "7bba4a4ba84b04e3d4d2aaade8734286846a995667d7087b6055db321cdd92d7",
      "text": "You see, he does not believe I am sick!",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00020",
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      "start": 1894,
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      "sha256": "73969b51f73cdbdb50cf2ead3f64e01fd3501cc40a1280ec928b926166a13ecd",
      "text": "And what can one do?",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00021",
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      "text": "If a physician of high standing, and one’s own husband, assures friends and relatives that there is really nothing the matter with one but temporary nervous depression—a slight hysterical tendency—what is one to do?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00022",
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      "text": "My brother is also a physician, and also of high standing, and he says the same thing.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00023",
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      "start": 2237,
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      "sha256": "5873a81f147e35e0215be501eb05f977285c9987b648772d4002cfd457dbac37",
      "text": "So I take phosphates or phosphites—whichever it is, and tonics, and journeys, and air, and exercise, and am absolutely forbidden to “work” until I am well again.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00024",
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      "sha256": "5b5e7812a97821c33ba5a5e71ae32162a7914a044007c2635bae24bf9e9bf2d3",
      "text": "Personally, I disagree with their ideas.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00025",
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      "text": "Personally, I believe that congenial work, with excitement and change, would do me good.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00026",
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      "sha256": "35a627c1ac014b6f5570638b81f45bd530227823a974e7eeb3ab9c90998f2877",
      "text": "But what is one to do?",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00027",
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      "sha256": "74c1ea5509766b5505bb3689d96f4f542882a0b0720a037e007fce2a69c8e897",
      "text": "I did write for a while in spite of them; but it does exhaust me a good deal—having to be so sly about it, or else meet with heavy opposition.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00028",
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      "text": "I sometimes fancy that in my condition if I had less opposition and more society and stimulus—but John says the very worst thing I can do is to think about my condition, and I confess it always makes me feel bad.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00029",
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      "sha256": "fb2bfe5674cad125dccb297f9366f2ec959819285a4727ea2b21f40006600e7f",
      "text": "So I will let it alone and talk about the house.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00030",
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      "sha256": "8e711e3c8c81ba0c8040d9109f455501899f527e137f8b1c4be7c860607f0d4e",
      "text": "The most beautiful place! It is quite alone, standing well back from the road, quite three miles from the village. It makes me think of English places that you read about, for there are hedges and walls and gates that lock, and lots of separate little houses for the gardeners and people.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00031",
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      "sha256": "638b1f3175e63accf268039b2a26a651076bb689dc2d1eff657025294a4056a8",
      "text": "There is a delicious garden! I never saw such a garden—large and shady, full of box-bordered paths, and lined with long grape-covered arbors with seats under them.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00032",
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      "text": "There were greenhouses, too, but they are all broken now.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00033",
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      "sha256": "14c24a1e52605d36712ed63941520f326b0806b90a853ec05170f3a5dc8c0252",
      "text": "There was some legal trouble, I believe, something about the heirs and co-heirs; anyhow, the place has been empty for years.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00034",
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      "text": "That spoils my ghostliness, I am afraid; but I don’t care—there is something strange about the house—I can feel it.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00035",
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      "text": "I even said so to John one moonlight evening, but he said what I felt was a draught, and shut the window.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00036",
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      "text": "I get unreasonably angry with John sometimes. I’m sure I never used to be so sensitive. I think it is due to this nervous condition.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1952.B00037",
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      "text": "But John says if I feel so I shall neglect proper self-control; so I take pains to control myself,—before him, at least,—and that makes me very tired.",
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      "text": "I don’t like our room a bit. I wanted one downstairs that opened on the piazza and had roses all over the window, and such pretty old-fashioned chintz hangings! but John would not hear of it.",
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      "text": "I have a schedule prescription for each hour in the day; he takes all care from me, and so I feel basely ungrateful not to value it more.",
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      "text": "He said we came here solely on my account, that I was to have perfect rest and all the air I could get. “Your exercise depends on your strength, my dear,” said he, “and your food somewhat on your appetite; but air you can absorb all the time.” So we took the nursery, at the top of the house.",
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      "text": "The paint and paper look as if a boys’ school had used it. It is stripped off—the paper—in great patches all around the head of my bed, about as far as I can reach, and in a great place on the other side of the room low down. I never saw a worse paper in my life.",
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      "text": "It is dull enough to confuse the eye in following, pronounced enough to constantly irritate, and provoke study, and when you follow the lame, uncertain curves for a little distance they suddenly commit suicide—plunge off at outrageous angles, destroy themselves in unheard-of contradictions.",
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      "text": "I am glad my case is not serious!",
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      "text": "But these nervous troubles are dreadfully depressing.",
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      "text": "John does not know how much I really suffer. He knows there is no reason to suffer, and that satisfies him.",
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      "text": "“You know the place is doing you good,” he said, “and really, dear, I don’t care to renovate the house just for a three months’ rental.”",
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      "text": "“Then do let us go downstairs,” I said, “there are such pretty rooms there.”",
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      "text": "Then he took me in his arms and called me a blessed little goose, and said he would go down cellar if I wished, and have it whitewashed into the bargain.",
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      "text": "Out of one window I can see the garden, those mysterious deep-shaded arbors, the riotous old-fashioned flowers, and bushes and gnarly trees.",
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      "text": "Out of another I get a lovely view of the bay and a little private wharf belonging to the estate. There is a beautiful shaded lane that runs down there from the house. I always fancy I see people walking in these numerous paths and arbors, but John has cautioned me not to give way to fancy in the least. He says that with my imaginative power and habit of story-making a nervous weakness like mine is sure to lead to all manner of excited fancies, and that I ought to use my will and good sense to check the tendency. So I try.",
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      "text": "I think sometimes that if I were only well enough to write a little it would relieve the press of ideas and rest me.",
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      "text": "It is so discouraging not to have any advice and companionship about my work. When I get really well John says we will ask Cousin Henry and Julia down for a long visit; but he says he would as soon put fire-works in my pillow-case as to let me have those stimulating people about now.",
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      "text": "But I must not think about that. This paper looks to me as if it knew what a vicious influence it had!",
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      "text": "I get positively angry with the impertinence of it and the everlastingness. Up and down and sideways they crawl, and those absurd, unblinking eyes are everywhere. There is one place where two breadths didn’t match, and the eyes go all up and down the line, one a little higher than the other.",
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      "text": "I never saw so much expression in an inanimate thing before, and we all know how much expression they have! I used to lie awake as a child and get more entertainment and terror out of blank walls and plain furniture than most children could find in a toy-store.",
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      "text": "I remember what a kindly wink the knobs of our big old bureau used to have, and there was one chair that always seemed like a strong friend.",
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      "text": "I used to feel that if any of the other things looked too fierce I could always hop into that chair and be safe.",
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      "text": "The furniture in this room is no worse than inharmonious, however, for we had to bring it all from downstairs. I suppose when this was used as a playroom they had to take the nursery things out, and no wonder! I never saw such ravages as the children have made here.",
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      "text": "The wallpaper, as I said before, is torn off in spots, and it sticketh closer than a brother—they must have had perseverance as well as hatred.",
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      "text": "Then the floor is scratched and gouged and splintered, the plaster itself is dug out here and there, and this great heavy bed, which is all we found in the room, looks as if it had been through the wars.",
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      "text": "There comes John’s sister. Such a dear girl as she is, and so careful of me! I must not let her find me writing.",
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      "text": "But I can write when she is out, and see her a long way off from these windows.",
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      "text": "There is one that commands the road, a lovely, shaded, winding road, and one that just looks off over the country. A lovely country, too, full of great elms and velvet meadows.",
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      "text": "This wallpaper has a kind of sub-pattern in a different shade, a particularly irritating one, for you can only see it in certain lights, and not clearly then.",
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      "text": "But in the places where it isn’t faded, and where the sun is just so, I can see a strange, provoking, formless sort of figure, that seems to sulk about behind that silly and conspicuous front design.",
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      "text": "Well, the Fourth of July is over! The people are gone and I am tired out. John thought it might do me good to see a little company, so we just had mother and Nellie and the children down for a week.",
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      "text": "Of course I didn’t do a thing. Jennie sees to everything now.",
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      "text": "But it tired me all the same.",
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      "text": "John says if I don’t pick up faster he shall send me to Weir Mitchell in the fall.",
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      "text": "But I don’t want to go there at all. I had a friend who was in his hands once, and she says he is just like John and my brother, only more so!",
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      "text": "I don’t feel as if it was worth while to turn my hand over for anything, and I’m getting dreadfully fretful and querulous.",
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      "text": "I cry at nothing, and cry most of the time.",
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      "text": "Of course I don’t when John is here, or anybody else, but when I am alone.",
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      "text": "And I am alone a good deal just now. John is kept in town very often by serious cases, and Jennie is good and lets me alone when I want her to.",
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      "text": "So I walk a little in the garden or down that lovely lane, sit on the porch under the roses, and lie down up here a good deal.",
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      "text": "I’m getting really fond of the room in spite of the wallpaper. Perhaps because of the wallpaper.",
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      "text": "It dwells in my mind so!",
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      "text": "I lie here on this great immovable bed—it is nailed down, I believe—and follow that pattern about by the hour. It is as good as gymnastics, I assure you. I start, we’ll say, at the bottom, down in the corner over there where it has not been touched, and I determine for the thousandth time that I will follow that pointless pattern to some sort of a conclusion.",
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      "text": "I know a little of the principle of design, and I know this thing was not arranged on any laws of radiation, or alternation, or repetition, or symmetry, or anything else that I ever heard of.",
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      "text": "Looked at in one way each breadth stands alone, the bloated curves and flourishes—a kind of “debased Romanesque” with delirium tremens—go waddling up and down in isolated columns of fatuity.",
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      "text": "But, on the other hand, they connect diagonally, and the sprawling outlines run off in great slanting waves of optic horror, like a lot of wallowing seaweeds in full chase.",
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      "text": "The whole thing goes horizontally, too, at least it seems so, and I exhaust myself in trying to distinguish the order of its going in that direction.",
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      "text": "They have used a horizontal breadth for a frieze, and that adds wonderfully to the confusion.",
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      "text": "There is one end of the room where it is almost intact, and there, when the cross-lights fade and the low sun shines directly upon it, I can almost fancy radiation after all,—the interminable grotesques seem to form around a common centre and rush off in headlong plunges of equal distraction.",
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      "text": "It makes me tired to follow it. I will take a nap, I guess.",
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      "text": "And I know John would think it absurd. But I must say what I feel and think in some way—it is such a relief!",
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      "text": "Half the time now I am awfully lazy, and lie down ever so much.",
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      "text": "John says I mustn’t lose my strength, and has me take cod-liver oil and lots of tonics and things, to say nothing of ale and wine and rare meat.",
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      "text": "Dear John! He loves me very dearly, and hates to have me sick. I tried to have a real earnest reasonable talk with him the other day, and tell him how I wish he would let me go and make a visit to Cousin Henry and Julia.",
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      "text": "But he said I wasn’t able to go, nor able to stand it after I got there; and I did not make out a very good case for myself, for I was crying before I had finished.",
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      "text": "It is getting to be a great effort for me to think straight. Just this nervous weakness, I suppose.",
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      "text": "And dear John gathered me up in his arms, and just carried me upstairs and laid me on the bed, and sat by me and read to me till it tired my head.",
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      "text": "He says no one but myself can help me out of it, that I must use my will and self-control and not let any silly fancies run away with me.",
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      "text": "There’s one comfort, the baby is well and happy, and does not have to occupy this nursery with the horrid wallpaper.",
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      "text": "If we had not used it that blessed child would have! What a fortunate escape! Why, I wouldn’t have a child of mine, an impressionable little thing, live in such a room for worlds.",
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      "text": "I never thought of it before, but it is lucky that John kept me here after all. I can stand it so much easier than a baby, you see.",
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      "text": "Of course I never mention it to them any more,—I am too wise,—but I keep watch of it all the same.",
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      "text": "There are things in that paper that nobody knows but me, or ever will.",
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      "text": "Behind that outside pattern the dim shapes get clearer every day.",
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      "text": "And it is like a woman stooping down and creeping about behind that pattern. I don’t like it a bit. I wonder—I begin to think—I wish John would take me away from here!",
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      "text": "It is so hard to talk with John about my case, because he is so wise, and because he loves me so.",
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      "text": "But I tried it last night.",
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      "text": "It was moonlight. The moon shines in all around, just as the sun does.",
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      "text": "John was asleep and I hated to waken him, so I kept still and watched the moonlight on that undulating wallpaper till I felt creepy.",
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      "text": "“What is it, little girl?” he said. “Don’t go walking about like that—you’ll get cold.”",
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      "text": "I thought it was a good time to talk, so I told him that I really was not gaining here, and that I wished he would take me away.",
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      "text": "“Why darling!” said he, “our lease will be up in three weeks, and I can’t see how to leave before.",
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      "text": "“The repairs are not done at home, and I cannot possibly leave town just now. Of course if you were in any danger I could and would, but you really are better, dear, whether you can see it or not. I am a doctor, dear, and I know. You are gaining flesh and color, your appetite is better. I feel really much easier about you.”",
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      "text": "“I don’t weigh a bit more,” said I, “nor as much; and my appetite may be better in the evening, when you are here, but it is worse in the morning when you are away.”",
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      "text": "“Bless her little heart!” said he with a big hug; “she shall be as sick as she pleases! But now let’s improve the shining hours by going to sleep, and talk about it in the morning!”",
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      "text": "“And you won’t go away?” I asked gloomily.",
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      "text": "“Why, how can I, dear? It is only three weeks more and then we will take a nice little trip of a few days while Jennie is getting the house ready. Really, dear, you are better!”",
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      "text": "“Better in body perhaps”—I began, and stopped short, for he sat up straight and looked at me with such a stern, reproachful look that I could not say another word.",
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      "text": "“My darling,” said he, “I beg of you, for my sake and for our child’s sake, as well as for your own, that you will never for one instant let that idea enter your mind! There is nothing so dangerous, so fascinating, to a temperament like yours. It is a false and foolish fancy. Can you not trust me as a physician when I tell you so?”",
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      "text": "So of course I said no more on that score, and we went to sleep before long. He thought I was asleep first, but I wasn’t,—I lay there for hours trying to decide whether that front pattern and the back pattern really did move together or separately.",
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      "text": "On a pattern like this, by daylight, there is a lack of sequence, a defiance of law, that is a constant irritant to a normal mind.",
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      "text": "The color is hideous enough, and unreliable enough, and infuriating enough, but the pattern is torturing.",
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      "text": "You think you have mastered it, but just as you get well under way in following, it turns a back somersault and there you are. It slaps you in the face, knocks you down, and tramples upon you. It is like a bad dream.",
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      "text": "The outside pattern is a florid arabesque, reminding one of a fungus. If you can imagine a toadstool in joints, an interminable string of toadstools, budding and sprouting in endless convolutions,—why, that is something like it.",
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      "text": "That is, sometimes!",
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      "text": "There is one marked peculiarity about this paper, a thing nobody seems to notice but myself, and that is that it changes as the light changes.",
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      "text": "When the sun shoots in through the east window—I always watch for that first long, straight ray—it changes so quickly that I never can quite believe it.",
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      "text": "By moonlight—the moon shines in all night when there is a moon—I wouldn’t know it was the same paper.",
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      "text": "At night in any kind of light, in twilight, candlelight, lamplight, and worst of all by moonlight, it becomes bars! The outside pattern I mean, and the woman behind it is as plain as can be.",
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      "text": "I didn’t realize for a long time what the thing was that showed behind,—that dim sub-pattern,—but now I am quite sure it is a woman.",
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      "text": "It strikes me occasionally, just as a scientific hypothesis, that perhaps it is the paper!",
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      "text": "I have watched John when he did not know I was looking, and come into the room suddenly on the most innocent excuses, and I’ve caught him several times looking at the paper! And Jennie too. I caught Jennie with her hand on it once.",
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      "text": "She didn’t know I was in the room, and when I asked her in a quiet, a very quiet voice, with the most restrained manner possible, what she was doing with the paper she turned around as if she had been caught stealing, and looked quite angry—asked me why I should frighten her so!",
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      "text": "Then she said that the paper stained everything it touched, that she had found yellow smooches on all my clothes and John’s, and she wished we would be more careful!",
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      "text": "Did not that sound innocent? But I know she was studying that pattern, and I am determined that nobody shall find it out but myself!",
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      "text": "Life is very much more exciting now than it used to be. You see I have something more to expect, to look forward to, to watch. I really do eat better, and am more quiet than I was.",
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      "text": "John is so pleased to see me improve! He laughed a little the other day, and said I seemed to be flourishing in spite of my wallpaper.",
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      "text": "I turned it off with a laugh. I had no intention of telling him it was because of the wallpaper—he would make fun of me. He might even want to take me away.",
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      "text": "I don’t want to leave now until I have found it out. There is a week more, and I think that will be enough.",
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      "text": "I’m feeling ever so much better! I don’t sleep much at night, for it is so interesting to watch developments; but I sleep a good deal in the daytime.",
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      "text": "There are always new shoots on the fungus, and new shades of yellow all over it. I cannot keep count of them, though I have tried conscientiously.",
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      "text": "It is the strangest yellow, that wallpaper! It makes me think of all the yellow things I ever saw—not beautiful ones like buttercups, but old foul, bad yellow things.",
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      "text": "But there is something else about that paper—the smell! I noticed it the moment we came into the room, but with so much air and sun it was not bad. Now we have had a week of fog and rain, and whether the windows are open or not, the smell is here.",
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      "text": "Even when I go to ride, if I turn my head suddenly and surprise it—there is that smell!",
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      "text": "Such a peculiar odor, too! I have spent hours in trying to analyze it, to find what it smelled like.",
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      "text": "In this damp weather it is awful. I wake up in the night and find it hanging over me.",
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      "text": "It used to disturb me at first. I thought seriously of burning the house—to reach the smell.",
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      "text": "But now I am used to it. The only thing I can think of that it is like is the color of the paper! A yellow smell.",
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      "text": "There is a very funny mark on this wall, low down, near the mopboard. A streak that runs round the room. It goes behind every piece of furniture, except the bed, a long, straight, even smooch, as if it had been rubbed over and over.",
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      "text": "I wonder how it was done and who did it, and what they did it for. Round and round and round—round and round and round—it makes me dizzy!",
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      "text": "Through watching so much at night, when it changes so, I have finally found out.",
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      "text": "The front pattern does move—and no wonder! The woman behind shakes it!",
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      "text": "And she is all the time trying to climb through. But nobody could climb through that pattern—it strangles so; I think that is why it has so many heads.",
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      "text": "They get through, and then the pattern strangles them off and turns them upside-down, and makes their eyes white!",
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      "text": "It is the same woman, I know, for she is always creeping, and most women do not creep by daylight.",
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      "text": "I see her on that long shaded lane, creeping up and down. I see her in those dark grape arbors, creeping all around the garden.",
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      "text": "I always lock the door when I creep by daylight. I can’t do it at night, for I know John would suspect something at once.",
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      "text": "I have watched her sometimes away off in the open country, creeping as fast as a cloud shadow in a high wind.",
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      "text": "If only that top pattern could be gotten off from the under one! I mean to try it, little by little.",
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      "text": "I have found out another funny thing, but I shan’t tell it this time! It does not do to trust people too much.",
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      "text": "There are only two more days to get this paper off, and I believe John is beginning to notice. I don’t like the look in his eyes.",
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      "text": "And I heard him ask Jennie a lot of professional questions about me. She had a very good report to give.",
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      "text": "Hurrah! This is the last day, but it is enough. John is to stay in town over night, and won’t be out until this evening.",
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      "text": "Jennie wanted to sleep with me—the sly thing! but I told her I should undoubtedly rest better for a night all alone.",
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      "text": "That was clever, for really I wasn’t alone a bit! As soon as it was moonlight, and that poor thing began to crawl and shake the pattern, I got up and ran to help her.",
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      "text": "We go away to-morrow, and they are moving all my furniture down again to leave things as they were before.",
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      "text": "Jennie looked at the wall in amazement, but I told her merrily that I did it out of pure spite at the vicious thing.",
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      "text": "But I am here, and no person touches this paper but me—not alive!",
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      "text": "She tried to get me out of the room—it was too patent! But I said it was so quiet and empty and clean now that I believed I would lie down again and sleep all I could; and not to wake me even for dinner—I would call when I woke.",
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      "text": "So now she is gone, and the servants are gone, and the things are gone, and there is nothing left but that great bedstead nailed down, with the canvas mattress we found on it.",
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      "text": "I don’t want to go out, and I don’t want to have anybody come in, till John comes.",
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      "text": "I want to astonish him.",
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      "text": "I’ve got a rope up here that even Jennie did not find. If that woman does get out, and tries to get away, I can tie her!",
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      "text": "But I forgot I could not reach far without anything to stand on!",
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      "text": "This bed will not move!",
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      "text": "I tried to lift and push it until I was lame, and then I got so angry I bit off a little piece at one corner—but it hurt my teeth.",
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      "text": "Then I peeled off all the paper I could reach standing on the floor. It sticks horribly and the pattern just enjoys it! All those strangled heads and bulbous eyes and waddling fungus growths just shriek with derision!",
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      "text": "I am getting angry enough to do something desperate. To jump out of the window would be admirable exercise, but the bars are too strong even to try.",
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      "text": "Besides I wouldn’t do it. Of course not. I know well enough that a step like that is improper and might be misconstrued.",
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      "text": "I don’t like to look out of the windows even—there are so many of those creeping women, and they creep so fast.",
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      "text": "I wonder if they all come out of that wallpaper as I did?",
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      "text": "But I am securely fastened now by my well-hidden rope—you don’t get me out in the road there!",
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      "text": "I suppose I shall have to get back behind the pattern when it comes night, and that is hard!",
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      "text": "It is so pleasant to be out in this great room and creep around as I please!",
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      "text": "I don’t want to go outside. I won’t, even if Jennie asks me to.",
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      "text": "For outside you have to creep on the ground, and everything is green instead of yellow.",
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      "text": "But here I can creep smoothly on the floor, and my shoulder just fits in that long smooch around the wall, so I cannot lose my way.",
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      "text": "Why, there’s John at the door!",
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      "text": "It is no use, young man, you can’t open it!",
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      "text": "How he does call and pound!",
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      "text": "Now he’s crying for an axe.",
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      "text": "It would be a shame to break down that beautiful door!",
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      "text": "“John dear!” said I in the gentlest voice, “the key is down by the front steps, under a plantain leaf!”",
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      "text": "That silenced him for a few moments.",
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      "text": "Then he said—very quietly indeed, “Open the door, my darling!”",
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      "text": "“I can’t,” said I. “The key is down by the front door under a plantain leaf!”",
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      "text": "And then I said it again, several times, very gently and slowly, and said it so often that he had to go and see, and he got it, of course, and came in. He stopped short by the door.",
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      "text": "“What is the matter?” he cried. “For God’s sake, what are you doing!”",
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      "text": "I kept on creeping just the same, but I looked at him over my shoulder.",
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      "text": "“I’ve got out at last,” said I, “in spite of you and Jane! And I’ve pulled off most of the paper, so you can’t put me back!”",
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      "text": "Now why should that man have fainted? But he did, and right across my path by the wall, so that I had to creep over him every time!",
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      "text": "*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE YELLOW WALLPAPER ***",
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      "text": "Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.",
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      "text": "WHAT NATURE-STUDY IS",
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      "text": "[Illustration: N]",
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      "text": "Nature-study is, despite all discussions and perversions, a study of nature; it consists of simple, truthful observations that may, like beads on a string, finally be threaded upon the understanding and thus held together as a logical and harmonious whole. Therefore, the object of the nature-study teacher should be to cultivate in the children powers of accurate observation and to build up within them, understanding.",
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      "text": "WHAT NATURE-STUDY SHOULD DO FOR THE CHILD",
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      "text": "[Illustration: F]",
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      "text": "No science professor in any university, if he be a man of high attainment, hesitates to say to his pupils “I do not know,” if they ask for information beyond his knowledge. The greater his scientific reputation and erudition, the more readily, simply and without apology he says this. He, better than others, comprehends how vast is the region that lies beyond man’s present knowledge. It is only the teacher in the elementary schools who has never received enough scientific training to reveal to her how little she does know, who feels that she must appear to know everything or her pupils will lose confidence in her. But how useless is this pretence, in nature-study! The pupils, whose younger eyes are much keener for details than hers, will soon discover her limitations and then their distrust of her will be real.",
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      "text": "In nature-study any teacher can with honor say, “I do not know;” for perhaps, the question asked is as yet unanswered by the great scientists. But she should not let her lack of knowledge be a wet blanket thrown over her pupils’ interest. She should say frankly, “I do not know; let us see if we cannot together find out this mysterious thing. Maybe no one knows it as yet, and I wonder if you will discover it before I do.” She thus conveys the right impression, that only a little about the intricate life of plants and animals is yet known; and at the same time she makes her pupils feel the thrill and zest of investigation. Nor will she lose their respect by doing this, if she does it in the right spirit. For three years, I had for comrades in my walks afield, two little children and they kept me busy saying, “I do not know”. But they never lost confidence in me or in my knowledge; they simply gained respect for the vastness of the unknown.",
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      "text": "The chief charm of nature-study would be taken away if it did not lead us through the border-land of knowledge into the realm of the undiscovered. Moreover, the teacher, in confessing her ignorance and at the same time her interest in a subject, establishes between herself and her pupils a sense of companionship which relieves the strain of discipline, and gives her a new and intimate relation with her pupils which will surely prove a potent element in her success. The best teacher is always one who is the good comrade of her pupils.",
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      "text": "NATURE-STUDY, THE ELIXIR OF YOUTH",
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      "text": "[Illustration: T]",
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    {
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      "start": 57050,
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      "sha256": "3ffeacc656c307a54029c5c39376d9600972d94f1f424576757eddc754728475",
      "text": "“_Those old days when the balancing of a yellow butterfly o’er a thistle bloom Was spiritual food and lodging for the whole afternoon._”",
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    {
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      "sha256": "de7dddf80c7291bd38ba047c5a062ec333932b81da09311a51ec148e9243091b",
      "text": "THE NATURE-STUDY LESSON ALWAYS NEW",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00401",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "A nature-study lesson should not be repeated unless the pupils demand it. It should be done so well the first time that there is no need of repetition, because it has thus become a part of the child’s consciousness. The repetition of the same lesson in different grades was, to begin with, a hopeless incubus upon nature-study. One disgusted boy declared, “Darn germination! I had it in the primary and last year and now I am having it again. I know _all about germination_.” The boy’s attitude was a just one; but if there had been revealed to him the meaning of germination, instead of the mere process, he would have realized that until he had planted and observed every plant in the world he would not know all about germination, because each seedling has its own interesting story. The only excuse for repeating a nature-study lesson is in recalling it for comparison and contrast with other lessons. The study of the violet will naturally bring about a review of the pansy; the dandelion, of the sunflower; the horse, of the donkey; the butterfly, of the moth.",
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      "text": "NATURE-STUDY AND OBJECT LESSONS",
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    {
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      "bookId": 78142,
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      "sha256": "64c673f1cbdde38aab907883a56d2608f08dc679d2d2d07035b103ad57acd2a6",
      "text": "[Illustration: T]",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00404",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "sha256": "cd25e536822ffa1b2c5756313f36e777ebef9bc91644517e5f68b6f89d1f6881",
      "text": "The object lesson method was introduced to drill the child to see a thing accurately, not only as a whole, but in detail and to describe accurately what he saw. A book or a vase or some other object was held up before the class for a moment and then removed; afterwards the pupils described it as perfectly as possible. This is an excellent exercise and the children usually enjoy it as if it were a game. But if the teacher has in mind the same thought when she is giving the nature-study lesson, she has little comprehension of the meaning of the latter and the pupils will have less. In nature-study, it is not desirable that the child see all the details, but rather those details that have something to do with the life of the creature studied; if he sees that the grasshopper has the hind legs much longer than the others, he will inevitably note that there are two other pairs of legs and he will in the meantime have come into an illuminating comprehension of the reason the insect is called “grasshopper.” The child should see definitely and accurately all that is necessary for the recognition of a plant or animal; but in nature-study, the observation of form is for the purpose of better understanding life. In fact, it is form linked with life, the relation of “being” to “doing.”",
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    {
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      "bookId": 78142,
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      "sha256": "ad24b097f1217b62892cfc3d928e6758e461bff66049c8724e3066469479121a",
      "text": "NATURE-STUDY IN THE SCHOOLROOM",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00406",
      "bookId": 78142,
      "start": 59768,
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      "sha256": "a5723f617024f0918ca086f22aa758829507b8604a94955e9d8f8749935d3ce7",
      "text": "[Illustration: M]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00418",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "end": 65604,
      "sha256": "e28e7c9546bc04447720925b64d9a9e1cf17e9e7d209048019a5408dd328e45f",
      "text": "USES OF PICTURES, CHARTS AND BLACKBOARD DRAWINGS",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00419",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "sha256": "11ef1ff05149a2c407f09b87c5e0cce4433c34fc79f8ab3b91f72da17997dae2",
      "text": "[Illustration: P]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00420",
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      "text": "Pictures alone should never be used as the subjects for nature-study lessons, but they may be of great use in illustrating and illuminating a lesson. Books well illustrated are more readily comprehended by the child and are often very helpful to him, especially after his interest in the subject is thoroughly aroused. If charts are used to illustrate the lesson, the child is likely to be misled by the size of the drawing, which is also the case in blackboard pictures. However, this error may be avoided by fixing the attention of the pupil on the object first. If the pupils are studying the ladybird and have it in their hands, the teacher may use a diagram representing the beetle as a foot long and it will still convey the idea accurately; but if she begins with the picture, she probably can never convince the children that the picture has anything to do with the insect.",
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    {
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      "end": 66987,
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      "text": "In making blackboard drawings illustrative of the lesson, it is best, if possible, to have one of the pupils do the drawing in the presence of the class; or, if the teacher does the drawing, she should hold the object in her hand while doing it and look at it often so that the children may see that she is trying to represent it accurately. Taking everything into consideration, however, nature-study charts and blackboard drawings are of little use to the nature-study teacher.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00422",
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      "end": 67039,
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      "text": "THE USES OF SCIENTIFIC NAMES",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00423",
      "bookId": 78142,
      "start": 67041,
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      "sha256": "1868fbf74f9d3cb35b3277b57b7f645257a57a6a9123fe0157bef42422d07a74",
      "text": "[Illustration: D]",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00424",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "sha256": "a22cfcaad6a33b88db44e4c7841d394f1b9fe1e8e7e9dc3e6954f0d696d3f1a5",
      "text": "Disquieting problems relative to scientific nomenclature always confront the teacher of nature-study. My own practice has been to use the popular names of species, except in cases where confusion might ensue, and to use the scientific names for anatomical parts. However, this matter is of little importance if the teacher bears in mind that the purpose of nature-study is to know the subject under observation and to learn the name incidentally.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00425",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "If the teacher says: “I have a pink hepatica. Can anyone find me a blue one?” the children, who naturally like grown-up words, will soon be calling these flowers hepaticas. But if the teacher says, “These flowers are called hepaticas. Now please everyone remember the name. Write it in your books as I write it on the blackboard, and in half an hour I shall ask you again what it is,” the pupils naturally look upon the exercise as a word lesson and its real significance is lost. This sort of nature-study is dust and ashes and there has been too much of it. The child should never be _required_ to learn the name of anything in the nature-study work; but the name should be used so often and so naturally in his presence, that he will learn it without being conscious of the process.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00426",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "THE STORY AS A SUPPLEMENT TO THE NATURE-STUDY LESSON",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00427",
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      "text": "[Illustration: M]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00428",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "Many of the subjects for nature lessons can be studied only in part, since but one phase may be available at the time. Often, especially if there is little probability that the pupils will find opportunity to complete the study, it is best to round out their knowledge by reading or telling the story to supplement the facts which they have discovered for themselves. This story should not be told as a finality or as a complete picture but as a guide and inspiration for further study. Always leave at the end of the story an interrogation mark that will remain aggressive and insistent in the child’s mind. To illustrate: Once a club of junior naturalists brought me rose leaves injured by the leaf-cutter bee and asked me why the leaves were cut out so regularly. I told them the story of the use made by the mother bee of these oval and circular bits of leaves and made the account as vital as I was able; but at the end I said, “I do not know which species of bee cut these leaves. She is living here among us and building her nest with your rose leaves which she is cutting every day almost under your very eyes. Is she then so much more clever than you that you cannot see her nor find her nest?” For two years following this lesson I received letters from members of this club. Two carpenter bees and their nests were discovered by them and studied before the mysterious leaf-cutter was finally ferreted out. My story had left something interesting for the young naturalists to discover. The children should be impressed with the fact that the nature story is never finished. There is not a weed nor an insect nor a tree so common that the child, by observing carefully, may not see things never yet recorded in scientific books; therefore the supplementary story should be made an inspiration for keener interest and further investigation on the part of the pupil. The supplementary story simply thrusts aside some of the obscuring underbrush thus revealing more plainly the path to further knowledge.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00429",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "THE NATURE-STUDY ATTITUDE TOWARD LIFE AND DEATH",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00430",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "sha256": "11ef1ff05149a2c407f09b87c5e0cce4433c34fc79f8ab3b91f72da17997dae2",
      "text": "[Illustration: P]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00431",
      "bookId": 78142,
      "start": 70485,
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      "text": "Perhaps no greater danger besets the pathway of the nature-study teacher than the question involved in her pupils’ attitude toward life and death. To inculcate in the child a reverence for life and yet to keep him from becoming mawkish and morbid is truly a problem. It is almost inevitable that the child should become sympathetic with the life of the animal or plant studied, since a true understanding of the life of any creature creates an interest which stimulates a desire to protect this particular creature and make its life less hard. Many times, within my own experience, have I known boys, who began by robbing birds’ nests for egg collections, to end by becoming most zealous protectors of the birds. The humane qualities within these boys budded and blossomed in the growing knowledge of the lives of the birds. At Cornell University, it is a well known fact that those students who turn aside so as not to crush the ant, caterpillar or cricket on the pavement are almost invariably those that are studying entomology; and in America it is the botanists themselves who are leading the crusade for flower protection.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00432",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "Thus, the nature-study teacher, if she does her work well, is a sure aid in inculcating a respect for the rights of all living beings to their own lives; and she needs only to lend her influence gently in this direction to change carelessness to thoughtfulness and cruelty to kindness. But with this impetus toward a reverence for life, the teacher soon finds herself in a dilemma from which there is no logical way out, so long as she lives in a world where lamb chop, beefsteak and roast chicken are articles of ordinary diet; a world in fact, where every meal is based upon the death of some creature. For if she places much emphasis upon the sacredness of life, the children soon begin to question whether it be right to slay the lamb or the chicken for their own food. It would seem that there is nothing for the consistent nature-study teacher to do but become a vegetarian, and even then there might arise refinements in this question of taking life, she might have to consider the cruelty to asparagus in cutting it off in plump infancy, or the ethics of devouring in the turnip the food laid up by the mother plant to perfect her seed. In fact, a most rigorous diet would be forced upon the teacher who should refuse to sustain her own existence at the cost of life; and if she should attempt to teach the righteousness of such a diet she would undoubtedly forfeit her position; and yet what is she to do! She will soon find herself in the position of a certain lady who placed sheets of sticky fly-paper around her kitchen to rid her house of flies, and then in mental anguish picked off the buzzing, struggling victims and sought to clean their too adhesive wings and legs.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00433",
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      "text": "In fact, drawing the line between what to kill and what to let live, requires the use of common sense rather than logic. First of all, the nature-study teacher, while exemplifying and encouraging the humane attitude toward the lower creatures, and repressing cruelty which wantonly causes suffering, should never magnify the terrors of death. Death is as natural as life and the inevitable end of physical life on our globe. Therefore, every story and every sentiment expressed which makes the child feel that death is terrible, is wholly wrong. The one right way to teach about death is not to emphasize it one way or another, but to deal with it as a circumstance common to all; it should be no more emphasized than the fact that creatures eat or fall asleep.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00434",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "Another thing for the nature-study teacher to do is to direct the interest of the child so that it shall center upon the hungry creature rather than upon the one which is made into the meal. It is well to emphasize the fact that one of the conditions imposed upon every living being in the woods and fields, is that it is entitled to a meal when it is hungry, if it is clever enough to get it. The child naturally takes this view of it. I remember well as a child I never thought particularly about the mouse which my cat was eating; in fact, the process of transmuting mouse into cat seemed altogether proper, but when the cat played with the mouse, that was quite another thing, and was never permitted. Although no one appreciates more deeply than I the debt which we owe to Thompson-Seton and writers of his kind, who have placed before the public the animal story from the animal point of view and thus set us all to thinking, yet it is certainly wrong to impress this view too strongly upon the young and sensitive child. In fact, this process should not begin until the judgment and the understanding is well developed, for we all know that although seeing the other fellow’s standpoint is a source of strength and breadth of mind, yet living the other fellow’s life is, at best, an enfeebling process and a futile waste of energy.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00435",
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      "text": "SHOULD THE NATURE-STUDY TEACHER TEACH HOW TO DESTROY LIFE?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00436",
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      "text": "[Illustration: I]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00437",
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      "text": "It is probably within the proper scope of the nature-study teacher to place emphasis upon the domain of man, who being the most powerful of all animals, asserts his will as to which ones shall live in his midst. From a standpoint of abstract justice, the stray cat has just as much right to kill and eat the robin which builds in the vine of my porch as the robin has to pull and eat the earthworms from my lawn; but the place is mine, and I choose to kill the cat and preserve the robin.",
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      "text": "THE FIELD NOTE-BOOK",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00441",
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      "sha256": "69147b9ac63ad09c645346a5b2f7f1a2ffe6eb99e803bc6ea0349b24c7ee08f5",
      "text": "A field note-book may be made a joy to the pupil and a help to the teacher. Any kind of a blank book will do for this, except that it should not be too large to be carried in the pocket, and it should always have the pencil attached. To make the note-book a success the following rules should be observed:",
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      "text": "(a) The book should be considered the personal property of the child and should never be criticized by the teacher except as a matter of encouragement; for the spirit in which the notes are made, is more important than the information they cover.",
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      "bookId": 78142,
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      "sha256": "fa969f9ea5c22d28c92606fc9a1bd8dd798e89a97926c83a840305f42c9e6f90",
      "text": "(b) The making of drawings should be encouraged for illustrating what is observed. A graphic drawing is far better than a long description of a natural object.",
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      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "(c) The note-book should not be regarded as a part of the work in English. The spelling, language and writing of the notes should all be exempt from criticism.",
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      "text": "(d) As occasion offers, outlines for observing certain plants or animals may be placed in the note-book previous to the field excursion so as to give definite points for the work.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
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      "bookId": 78142,
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      "end": 78722,
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      "text": "(e) No child should be compelled to have a note-book.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
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      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "The field note-book is a veritable gold mine for the nature-study teacher to work, in securing voluntary and happy observations from the pupils concerning their out-of-door interests. It is a friendly gate which admits the teacher to a knowledge of what the child sees and cares for. Through it she may discover where the child’s attention impinges upon the realm of nature and thus may know where to find the starting point for cultivating larger intelligence and a wider interest.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "[Illustration: _A page from the field note-book of a lad of fourteen who read Thoreau and admired the books of Thompson-Seton._]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00449",
      "bookId": 78142,
      "start": 79340,
      "end": 80011,
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      "text": "I have examined many field note-books kept by pupils in the intermediate grades and have been surprised at their plenitude of accurate observation and graphic illustration. These books ranged from blank account books furnished by the family grocer up to a quarto, the pages of which were adorned with many marginal illustrations made in passionate admiration of Thompson-Seton’s books and filled with carefully transcribed text, that showed the direct influence of Thoreau. These books, of whatever quality, are precious beyond price to their owners. And why not? For they represent what cannot be bought or sold, personal experience in the happy world of out-of-doors.",
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      "sha256": "f9da08a4f7b26f75dadbac9444567eaad22751cf02abcb451754d2aa04487ad5",
      "text": "GARDENING AND NATURE-STUDY",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00486",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "[Illustration: E]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00487",
      "bookId": 78142,
      "start": 95060,
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      "text": "Erroneously, some people maintain that gardening is nature-study; this is not so necessarily nor ordinarily. Gardening may be a basis for nature-study but it is rarely made so to any great extent. Even the work in children’s gardens is so conducted that the pupils know little or nothing of the flowers or vegetables which they grow except their names, their uses to man and how to cultivate them. They are taught how to prepare the soil, but the reason for this from the plant’s standpoint is never revealed; and if the child becomes acquainted with the plants in his garden, he makes the discovery by himself. All this is nothing against gardening! It is a wholesome and valuable experience for a child to learn how to make a garden even if he remains ignorant of the interesting facts concerning the plants which he there cultivates. But if the teachers are so inclined, they may find in the garden and its products, the most interesting material for the best of nature lessons. Every plant the child grows is an individual with its own peculiarities as well as those of its species in manner of growth. Its roots, stems and leaves are of certain form and structure; and often the special uses to the plant of its own kind of leaves, stems and roots are obvious. Each plant has its own form of flower and even its own tricks for securing pollination; and its own manner of developing and scattering its seeds. Every weed of the garden has developed some special method of winning and holding its place among the cultivated plants; and in no other way may the child so fully and naturally come into a comprehension of that term “the survival of the fittest” as by studying the ways of the fit as exemplified in the triumphant weeds of his garden.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00488",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "Every earthworm working below the soil is doing something for the garden. Every bee that visits the flowers there is on an errand for the garden as well as for herself. Every insect feeding on leaf or root is doing something to the garden. Every bird that nests near by or that ever visits it, is doing something which affects the life and the growth of the garden. What all of these uninvited guests are doing is one field of garden nature-study. Aside from all this study of individual life in the garden which even the youngest child may take part in, there are the more advanced lessons on the soil. What kind of soil is it? From what sort of rock was it formed? What renders it mellow and fit for the growing of plants? Moreover, what do the plants get from it? How do they get it? What do they do with what they get?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00489",
      "bookId": 78142,
      "start": 97642,
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      "text": "This leads to the subject of plant physiology, the elements of which may be taught simply by experiments carried on by the children themselves, experiments which should demonstrate the sap currents in the plant; the use of water to carry food and in making the plant rigid; the use of sunshine in making the plant food in the leaf laboratories; the nourishment provided for the seed and its germination, and many other similar lessons.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00493",
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      "text": "Luckily, thumb-rule agriculture is being pushed to the wall in these enlightened days. Thumb rules would work much better if nature did not vary her performances in such a confusing way. Government experiment stations were established because thumb rules for farming were unreliable and disappointing; and all the work of all the experiment stations has been simply advanced nature-study and its application to the practice of agriculture. Both nature-study and agriculture are based upon the study of life and the physical conditions which encourage or limit life; this is known to the world as the study of the natural sciences; and if we see clearly the relation of nature-study to science, we may understand better the relation of nature-study to agriculture, which is based upon the sciences.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00494",
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      "text": "Nature-study is science brought home. It is a knowledge of botany, zoology and geology as illustrated in the dooryard, the corn-field or the woods back of the house. Some people have an idea that to know these sciences one must go to college; they do not understand that nature has furnished the material and laboratories on every farm in the land. Thus, by beginning with the child in nature-study we take him to the laboratory of the wood or garden, the roadside or the field, and his materials are the wild flowers or the weeds, or the insects that visit the golden-rod or the bird that sings in the maple tree, or the woodchuck whistling in the pasture. The child begins to study living things anywhere or everywhere, and his progress is always along the various tracks laid down by the laws of life, along which his work as an agriculturist must always progress if it is to be successful.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00495",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "The child through nature-study learns the way a plant grows, whether it be an oak, a turnip or a pigweed; he learns how the roots of each is adapted to its needs; how the leaves place themselves to get the sunshine and why they need it; and how the flowers get their pollen carried by the bee or wind; and how the seeds are finally scattered and planted. Or he learns about the life of the bird, whether it be a chicken, an owl or a bobolink; he knows how each bird gets its food and what its food is, where it lives, where it nests and its relation to other living things. He studies the bumblebee and discovers its great mission of pollen carrying for many flowers, and in the end would no sooner strike it dead than he would voluntarily destroy his clover patch. This is the kind of learning we call nature-study and not science or agriculture. But the country child can never learn anything in nature-study that has not something to do with science; and that has not its own practical lesson for him, when he shall become a farmer.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B00496",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "end": 102248,
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      "text": "Some have argued, “Why not make nature-study along the lines of agriculture solely? Why should not the child begin nature-study with the cabbage rather than the wild flowers?” This argument carried out logically provides recreation for a boy in hoeing corn rather than in playing ball. Many parents in the past have argued thus and have, in consequence, driven thousands of splendid boys from the country to the city with a loathing in their souls for the drudgery which seemed all there was to farm life. The reason why the wild flowers may be selected for beginning the nature-study of plants, is because every child loves these woodland posies, and his happiest hours are spent in gathering them. Never yet have we known of a case where a child having gained his knowledge of the way a plant lives through studying the plants he loves, has failed to be interested and delighted to find that the wonderful things he discovered about his wild flower may be true of the vegetable in the garden, or the purslane which fights with it for ground to stand upon.",
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      "ref": "PG78142.B00497",
      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "Some have said, “We, as farmers, care only to know what concerns our pocket-books; we wish only to study those things which we must, as farmers, cultivate or destroy. We do not care for the butterfly, but we wish to know the plum weevil; we do not care for the trillium but we are interested in the onion; we do not care for the meadow-lark but we cherish the gosling.” This is an absurd argument since it is a mental impossibility for any human being to discriminate between two things when he knows or sees only one. In order to understand the important economic relations to the world of one plant or animal, it is absolutely necessary to have a wide knowledge of other plants and animals. One might as well say, “I will see the approaching cyclone, but never look at the sky; I will look at the clover but not see the dandelion; I will look for the sheriff when he comes over the hill but will not see any other team on the road.”",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B04580",
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      "text": "_Experiment 2. To prove that plants need light in order to grow._--Fill two pots with the same rich soil; plant in these the same kind of seeds, and give them both the same amount of water; keep one in the window and place the other in a dark closet or under a box, and note what happens. Or take two potted geraniums which look equally thrifty; keep one in the light and the other in darkness. What happens?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B04581",
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      "sha256": "22adca3a2ac6d1bb7533b2d60efe81b682f58031a42fcb5647399be1c216f845",
      "text": "_Experiment 3. To show that the leaves love the light_--Place a geranium in a window and let it remain in the same position for two weeks. Which way do all the leaves face? Turn it around, and note what the leaves have done after a few days.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B04582",
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      "text": "_Experiment 4. To show that plants need water_--Fill three pots with rich earth, plant the same kinds of seeds in each, and place them all in the same window. Give one water as it needs it, keep another flooded with water, and give the other none at all. What happens to the seeds in the three pots?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B04583",
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      "text": "The success of these four experiments depends upon the genius of the teacher. The interest in the result should be keen; every child should feel that every seed planted is a living germ and that it is struggling to grow; every look at the experiments should be like another chapter in a continued story. In the case of young children, I have gone so far as to name the seeds, “Robbie Radish” or “Polly Peppergrass.” I did this to focus the attention of the child on the efforts of this living being to grow. After the experiments, the children told the story, personating each seed, thus: “I am Susie Sweet Pea and Johnny Smith planted me in sand. I started to grow, for I had some lunch with me which my mother put up for me to eat when I was hungry; but after the lunch was all gone, I could find very little food in the sand, although my little roots reached down and tried and tried to find something for me to eat. I finally grew pale and could not put out another leaf.”",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B04584",
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      "text": "The explanations of these experiments should be simple, with no attempt to teach the details of plant physiology. The need of plants for rich, loose earth and for water is easily understood by the children; but the need for light is not so apparent, and Uncle John’s story of the starch factory is the most simple and graphic way of making known to the children the processes of plant nourishment. This is how he tells it: “Plants are just like us; they have to have food to make them grow; where is the food and how do they find it? Every green leaf is a factory to make food for the plant; the green pulp in the leaf is the machinery; the leaves get the raw materials from the sap and from the air, and the machinery unites them and makes them into plant food. This is mostly starch, for this is the chief food of plants, although they require some other kinds of food also. The machinery is run by sunshine-power, so the leaf-factory can make nothing without the aid of light; the leaf-factories begin to work as soon as the sun rises, and only stop working when it sets. But the starch has to be changed to sugar before the baby, growing tips of the plant can use it for nourishment and growth; and so the leaves, after making the starch from the sap and the air, are obliged to digest it, changing the starch to sugar; for the growing parts of the plant feed upon sweet sap. Although the starch-factory in the leaves can work only during the daytime, the leaves can change the starch to sugar during the night. So far as we know, there is no starch in the whole world which is not made in the leaf-factories.”",
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      "text": "1. Pollen is needed to make the seeds grow; some flowers need the pollen from other flowers of the same kind, to make their seeds grow; but many flowers also use the pollen from their own flowers to pollenate their ovules, which grow into seeds.",
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      "text": "2. Flowers have neither legs like animals nor wings like butterflies, to go after pollen; so they give insects nectar to drink and pollen to eat, and thus pay them for fetching and carrying the pollen.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B04610",
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      "text": "I taught this to a four-year-old once in the following manner: A pine tree in the yard was sifting its pollen over us and little Jack asked what the yellow dust was; we went to the tree and saw where it came from, then I found a tiny young cone and explained to him that this was a pine blossom, and that in order to become a cone with seeds, it must have some pollen fall upon it; and we saw how the wind sifted the pollen over it and then we examined a ripe cone and found the seeds. Then we looked at the clovers in the lawn. They did not have so much pollen and they were so low in the grass that the wind could not carry it for them; but right there was a bee. What was she doing? She was getting honey for her hive or pollen for her brood, and she went from one clover head to another; we caught her in a glass fruit jar, and found she was dusted with pollen and that she had pollen packed in the baskets on her hind legs; and we concluded that she carried plenty of pollen on her clothes for the clovers, and that the pollen in her baskets was for her own use. After that he was always watching the bees at work; and we found afterwards that flowers had two ways of telling the insects that they wanted pollen. One was by their color, for the dandelions and clovers hide their colors during dark, rainy days when the bees remain in their hives. Then we found the bees working on mignonette, whose blossoms were so small that Jack did not think they were blossoms at all, and we concluded that the mignonette called the bees by its fragrance. We found other flowers which called with both color and fragrance; and this insect-flower partnership remained a factor of great interest in the child’s mind ever after.",
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      "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12",
      "text": "* * * * *",
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B04612",
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      "sha256": "6b9065bea529703fcc922de5cb8517a2e6122f0601d061e453cb6a8fece00443",
      "text": "“_Roly-poly honey-bee, Humming in the clover, Under you the tossing leaves, And the blue sky over, Why are you so busy, pray? Never still a minute, Hovering now above a flower, Now half buried in it!_” --JULIA C. R. DORR.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG78142.B04974",
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      "text": "[Illustration: _Dodder in blossom._",
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      "text": "Photo by Cyrus Crosby.]",
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      "bookId": 78142,
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      "text": "If Sinbad’s “Old Man of the Sea” had been also a sneak thief, then we might well liken him to dodder. There is an opportunity for an excellent moral lesson connected with the study of dodder and its underhand ways. When a plant ceases to be self-supporting, when it gets its own living from the food made by other plants for their own sustenance, it loses its own power of food-making; and the dodder is an excellent example of the inevitable punishment for “sponging” a living. The dodder has no leaves of its own for it does not need to manufacture food nor to digest it. Its dull yellow stems reach out in long tendrils, swayed by every breeze, until they come in contact with some other plant to which they at once make fast. One of these tendrils seizes its victim plant as a serpent winds its prey, except that it always winds in the same direction--it passes under from the right side and over from the left. Who knows whether the serpents are always so methodical! After dodder gets its hold, little projections appear upon its coiled stems, which look like the prolegs of a caterpillar; but they are not legs, they are suckers, worse than those of the devil-fish; for the latter uses its suckers only to hold fast its prey; but the dodder uses its suckers to penetrate the bark of its victim, and reach down to the sap channels where they may, vampirelike, suck the blood from their victims, or rather the matured sap which is flowing from the leaves to the growing points of the host plant. Not having anything else to do, dodder devotes its energies to the producing of seeds, in order to do more mischief. The species which attack clover and other farm crops seem to manage to get their seeds harvested with the rest; and the farmer who does not know how to test his clover seed for impurities, sows with it the seeds of its enemy.",
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      "text": "The dodder flowers are small, globular and crowded together. The calyx has five lobes; the corolla is globular, with five little lobes around its margin and a stamen set in each notch. A few of the species have a four-lobed calyx and corolla; but however many the lobes, the flowers are shiftless looking and are yellowish or greenish white; despite its shiftless appearance, however, each flower manages to mature four perfectly good, plump seeds.",
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      "text": "There are, according to Gray, nine species of dodder more or less common in America. Some of the species, among which is the flax dodder, live only upon certain other species of plant life, while others take almost anything that comes within reach. Where it flourishes, it grows so abundantly that it makes large yellow patches in fields, completely choking out the leaves of its victims.",
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      "text": "The milkweed pod has been the admiration of nature students from the beginning, and surely there is no plant structure that so interests the child as this house in which the milkweed carries its seeds. When we look at a green pod, we first admire its beautiful shape; on either side of the seam, which will sometime open, are three or four rows of projecting points rising from the felty surface of the pod in a way that suggests embossed embroidery. We open the pod by pulling it apart along the seam; and this is not a seam with a raw edge but is finished with a most perfect selvage. When we were children we were wont to dispossess these large green pods of their natural contents, and because they snapped shut so easily, we imprisoned therein bumblebees “to hear them sing,” but we always let them go again. We now know that there is nothing so interesting as to study the contents of the pod just as it is. Below the opening is a line of white velvet; at one end, and with their “heads all in one direction,” are the beautiful, pale-rimmed, brown, overlapping seeds; and at the other end we see the exquisite milkweed silk with the skein so polished that no human reel could give us a skein of such luster. If we remove the contents of the pod as a whole, we see that the velvety portion is really the seed-support and that it joins the pod at either end. It is like a hammock full of babies, except that the milkweed babies are fastened on the outside of the hammock.",
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      "text": "No sooner is our treasure open to the air than the shining silk begins to separate into floss of fairy texture. But before one seed comes off, let us look at the beautiful pattern formed by the seeds overlapping--such patterns we may see in the mosaics of mosques.",
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      "text": "Pull off a seed, and with it comes its own skein of floss, shining like a pearl; but if we hold the seed in the hand a moment the skein unwinds itself into a fluff of shining threads as fine as spiders’ silk, and each individual thread thrusts itself out and rests upon the air; and altogether there are enough of the threads to float the seed, a balloon of the safest sort. If we wreck the balloon by rubbing the floss through our fingers, we shall feel the very softest textile fiber spun by Mother Nature.",
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      "ref": "PG78142.B05005",
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      "text": "If we look closely at our seed we see a margin all around it. Well, what if the balloon should be driven over sea, and the seed dropped upon the water? It must then drown unless it has a life preserver; this margin that we have noted is of the safest cork, and is warranted to float; if you do not believe it, try it.",
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      "text": "If we pull off all the seeds, we can see that the velvety support is flat and that all of the seeds are attached to it, but before we stop our admiring study we should look carefully again at the inside of the pod, for never was there a seed cradle with a lining more soft and satiny.",
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      "text": "It is an interesting process to take apart a cat-tail plant; the lower, shorter leaves surround the base of the plant, giving it size and strength. All the leaves have the same general shape, but vary in length. Each leaf consists of the free portion, which is long and narrow and flat towards its tapering tip but is bent into a trough as it nears the plant, and the lower portion of the leaf, which clasps the plant entirely or partially, depending upon whether it is an outer or inner leaf, and thus adds to its strength. We almost feel as if these alternate leaves were consciously doing their best to protect the slender, flower stem. The free part of the leaves is strengthened by lengthwise veins, and they form edges that never tear nor break. They are very flexible, and therefore yield to the wind rather than defy it. If we look at a leaf in cross-section, we can see the two thick walls strengthened by the framework of stiff veins which divide the interior into long cells. If we cut the leaf lengthwise we can see that these long cells are supported by stiff, coarse partitions.",
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      "text": "Where the leaf clasps the stem, it is very stiff and will break rather than bend. The texture of the leaf is soft and smooth, and its shade of green is attractive. The length of the leaves is often greater than that of the blossom stalk, and their graceful curves contrast pleasantly with its ramrod-like stiffness. It is no wonder that artists and the decorators have used the cat-tail lavishly as a model. It is interesting to note that the only portion of the leaves injured by the wind is the extreme tip.",
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      "text": "The cat-tail is adapted for living in swamps where the soil is wet but not under water all the time. When the land is drained, or when it is flooded for a considerable time, the cat-tails die out and disappear. They usually occur in marshy zones along lakes or streams; and such a zone is always sharply defined by dry land on one side and water on the other. The cat-tail roots are fine and fibrous and are especially fitted, like the roots of the tamarack, to thread the mud of marshy ground and thus gain a foothold. The cat-tails form one of the cohorts in the phalanx of encroaching plants, like the reeds and rushes, which surround and, by a slow march of years, finally conquer and dry up ponds. But in this they overdo the matter, since after a time the soil becomes too dry for them and they disappear, giving place to other plants which find there a congenial environment. The place where I studied the cat-tails as a child is now a garden of joe pye weed and wild sunflowers.",
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      "text": "_Reference_--Plant Life, Coulter.",
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      "text": "LESSON CXXXIV",
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      "text": "In the life of the flower-head the involucre, or the house in which the flower family lives, plays an important part. The involucral bracts, in the row set next to the flowers, are sufficiently long to cover the unopened flowers; the bracts near the stem are shorter and curl back, making a frill. In the freshly opened flower-head, the buds at the middle all curve slightly toward the center, each bud showing a blunt, five-lobed tip which looks like the tips of five fingers held tightly together. The flowers in the outer row blossom first, straightening back and pushing the banner outward; and now we can see that the five lobes in the bud are the five notches at the end of the banner. All the flowers in the dandelion-head have banners, but those at the center, belonging to the younger flowers, have shorter and darker yellow banners. After a banner is unfurled, there pushes out from its tubular base a darker yellow anther-tube; the five filaments below the tube are visible with a lens. A little later, the stigma-ramrod pushes forth from the tube, its fuzzy sides acting like a brush to bring out all the pollen; later it rises far above the anther-tube and quirls back its stigma-lobes, as if every floret were making a dandelion curl of its own. The lens shows us, below the corolla, the seed. The pappus is not set in a collar upon the dandelion seed, as it is in the aster seed; there is a short stem above the seed which is called the “beak” and the pappus is attached to this.",
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      "text": "Every day more blossoms open; but on dark, rainy days and during the night the little green house puts up its shutters around the flower-family, and if the bracts are not wide enough to cover the growing family, the banners of the outer flowers have thick or brownish portions along their lower sides which serve to calk the chinks. It is interesting to watch the dandelion stars close as the night falls, and still more interesting to watch the sleepy-heads awaken long after the sun is up in the morning; they often do not open until eight o’clock. The dandelion flower-families are very economical of their pollen and profuse nectar, and do not expose them until the bees and other insects are abroad ready to make morning calls.",
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      "ref": "PG78142.B05245",
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      "text": "After all the florets of a dandelion family have blossomed, they retire again into their green house and devote themselves to perfecting their seeds. They may stay thus in retirement for several days, and during this period the flower stem often grows industriously; and when the shutters of the little green house are again let down, what a different appearance has the dandelion family! The seeds with their balloons are set so as to make an exquisite, filmy globe; and now they are ready to coquette with the wind and, one after another, all the balloons go sailing off. One of these seeds is well worth careful observation through a lens. The balloon is attached to the top of the beak as an umbrella frame is attached to the handle, except that the “ribs” are many and fluffy; while the dandelion youngster, hanging below, has an overcoat armed with grappling hooks, which enable it to cling fast when the balloon chances to settle to the ground.",
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      "text": "Father Tabb says of the dandelion,--“With locks of gold today; tomorrow silver gray; then blossom bald.” But not the least beautiful part of the dandelion is this blossom-bald head after all the seeds are gone; it is like a mosaic, with a pit at the center of each figure where the seed was attached. There is an interesting mechanism connected with this receptacle. Before the seeds are fully out this soon-to-be-bald head is concave at the center, later it becomes convex, and the mechanism of this movement liberates the seeds which are embedded in it.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: _1, Floret of dandelion_; _2, seed of dandelion_. _Both enlarged._]",
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      "text": "Despite the many varieties of poppies, there are only four species commonly cultivated. The opium poppy has upon its foliage a white bloom, the filaments of its stamens are dilated at the top, and its seed-capsule is smooth. The oriental poppy has all of these characters, except that its foliage is green and not covered with bloom. Its blossom is scarlet and very large and has a purple center in the petals and purple stamens; it has three sepals. Its flower stalks are stout and leafy. The corn poppy, which grows in the fields of Europe, is a weed we gladly cultivate. This, naturally, has red petals and is dark at the center of the flower; but it has been changed by breeding until now we have many varieties. Its foliage is finely cut and very bristly or hairy. Its seed-capsule is not bristly. To see this poppy at its best, we should visit northern Italy or southern France in late May, where it makes the grain fields gorgeous. This is the original parent of all the Shirley poppies. The Arctic, or Iceland poppy, has flowers of satiny texture and finely crumpled; its colors are yellow, orange or white, but never scarlet like the corn poppy; it has no leaves on its flower stem, and its seed-capsule is hairy. Of these four species, the opium poppy and the corn poppy are annuals, while the Arctic and the Oriental species are perennials.",
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      "text": "The bees are over-fond of the poppy pollen and it is a delight to watch the fervor with which they simply wallow in it, brushing off all of the grains possible onto their hairy bodies. I have often seen a honey-bee seize a bunch of the anthers and rub them against the under side of her body, meanwhile standing on her head in an attitude of delirious joy. As showing the honey-bee’s eye for color, I have several times seen a bee drop to the ground to examine a red petal which had fallen. This was plain evidence that she trusted to the color to guide her to the pollen.",
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      "ref": "PG78142.B05586",
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      "text": "But perhaps it is the development of the poppy seed-capsule which we find the most interesting of the poppy performances. After fertilization, the stigma-disk develops a scalloped edge, a stigma rounding out the point of each scallop; and a sharp ridge, which continues the length of the globular capsule, runs from the center of each scallop. If examined on the inside, it will be seen that the ridge on the capsule is the edge of a partition which extends only part way toward the center of the capsule. On these partitions, the little seeds are grown in great profusion, and when they ripen, they fall together in the hollow center of the seed-box. But how are they to get out? This is a point of interest for the children to observe, and they should watch the whole process. Just beneath the stigma-disk, and between each two of the sharp ridges, the point loosens; later, it turns outward and back, leaving a hole which leads directly into the central hollow portion of the capsule. The way these points open is as pretty a story as I know in flower history. This beautiful globular capsule, with its graceful pedestal where it joins the stem, is a seed-shaker instead of a salt or pepper-shaker. Passing people and animals push against it and the stiff stem bends and then springs back, sending a little shower of seeds this way and that; or a wind sways the stalk, and the seeds are sown, a few at a time, and in different conditions of season and weather. Thus, although the poppy puts all her eggs in one basket, she sends them to market a few at a time. The poppy seed is a pretty object, as seen through the lens. It is shaped like a round bean, and is covered with a honeycomb network.",
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      "text": "LESSON CLV",
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      "text": "THE POPPY",
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    {
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      "text": "1902",
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      "text": "INTRODUCTION",
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      "end": 1967,
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      "text": "Two aspects of animal life impressed me most during the journeys which I made in my youth in Eastern Siberia and Northern Manchuria. One of them was the extreme severity of the struggle for existence which most species of animals have to carry on against an inclement Nature; the enormous destruction of life which periodically results from natural agencies; and the consequent paucity of life over the vast territory which fell under my observation. And the other was, that even in those few spots where animal life teemed in abundance, I failed to find--although I was eagerly looking for it--that bitter struggle for the means of existence, among animals belonging to the same species, which was considered by most Darwinists (though not always by Darwin himself) as the dominant characteristic of struggle for life, and the main factor of evolution.",
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      "text": "The terrible snow-storms which sweep over the northern portion of Eurasia in the later part of the winter, and the glazed frost that often follows them; the frosts and the snow-storms which return every year in the second half of May, when the trees are already in full blossom and insect life swarms everywhere; the early frosts and, occasionally, the heavy snowfalls in July and August, which suddenly destroy myriads of insects, as well as the second broods of the birds in the prairies; the torrential rains, due to the monsoons, which fall in more temperate regions in August and September--resulting in inundations on a scale which is only known in America and in Eastern Asia, and swamping, on the plateaus, areas as wide as European States; and finally, the heavy snowfalls, early in October, which eventually render a territory as large as France and Germany, absolutely impracticable for ruminants, and destroy them by the thousand--these were the conditions under which I saw animal life struggling in Northern Asia. They made me realize at an early date the overwhelming importance in Nature of what Darwin described as \"the natural checks to over-multiplication,\" in comparison to the struggle between individuals of the same species for the means of subsistence, which may go on here and there, to some limited extent, but never attains the importance of the former. Paucity of life, under-population--not over-population--being the distinctive feature of that immense part of the globe which we name Northern Asia, I conceived since then serious doubts--which subsequent study has only confirmed--as to the reality of that fearful competition for food and life within each species, which was an article of faith with most Darwinists, and, consequently, as to the dominant part which this sort of competition was supposed to play in the evolution of new species.",
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      "text": "On the other hand, wherever I saw animal life in abundance, as, for instance, on the lakes where scores of species and millions of individuals came together to rear their progeny; in the colonies of rodents; in the migrations of birds which took place at that time on a truly American scale along the Usuri; and especially in a migration of fallow-deer which I witnessed on the Amur, and during which scores of thousands of these intelligent animals came together from an immense territory, flying before the coming deep snow, in order to cross the Amur where it is narrowest--in all these scenes of animal life which passed before my eyes, I saw Mutual Aid and Mutual Support carried on to an extent which made me suspect in it a feature of the greatest importance for the maintenance of life, the preservation of each species, and its further evolution.",
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      "text": "And finally, I saw among the semi-wild cattle and horses in Transbaikalia, among the wild ruminants everywhere, the squirrels, and so on, that when animals have to struggle against scarcity of food, in consequence of one of the above-mentioned causes, the whole of that portion of the species which is affected by the calamity, comes out of the ordeal so much impoverished in vigour and health, that no progressive evolution of the species can be based upon such periods of keen competition.",
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      "text": "Consequently, when my attention was drawn, later on, to the relations between Darwinism and Sociology, I could agree with none of the works and pamphlets that had been written upon this important subject. They all endeavoured to prove that Man, owing to his higher intelligence and knowledge, may mitigate the harshness of the struggle for life between men; but they all recognized at the same time that the struggle for the means of existence, of every animal against all its congeners, and of every man against all other men, was \"a law of Nature.\" This view, however, I could not accept, because I was persuaded that to admit a pitiless inner war for life within each species, and to see in that war a condition of progress, was to admit something which not only had not yet been proved, but also lacked confirmation from direct observation.",
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      "text": "On the contrary, a lecture \"On the Law of Mutual Aid,\" which was delivered at a Russian Congress of Naturalists, in January 1880, by the well-known zoologist, Professor Kessler, the then Dean of the St. Petersburg University, struck me as throwing a new light on the whole subject. Kessler's idea was, that besides the law of Mutual Struggle there is in Nature the law of Mutual Aid, which, for the success of the struggle for life, and especially for the progressive evolution of the species, is far more important than the law of mutual contest. This suggestion--which was, in reality, nothing but a further development of the ideas expressed by Darwin himself in The Descent of Man--seemed to me so correct and of so great an importance, that since I became acquainted with it (in 1883) I began to collect materials for further developing the idea, which Kessler had only cursorily sketched in his lecture, but had not lived to develop. He died in 1881.",
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      "text": "In one point only I could not entirely endorse Kessler's views. Kessler alluded to \"parental feeling\" and care for progeny (see below, Chapter I) as to the source of mutual inclinations in animals. However, to determine how far these two feelings have really been at work in the evolution of sociable instincts, and how far other instincts have been at work in the same direction, seems to me a quite distinct and a very wide question, which we hardly can discuss yet. It will be only after we have well established the facts of mutual aid in different classes of animals, and their importance for evolution, that we shall be able to study what belongs in the evolution of sociable feelings, to parental feelings, and what to sociability proper--the latter having evidently its origin at the earliest stages of the evolution of the animal world, perhaps even at the \"colony-stages.\" I consequently directed my chief attention to establishing first of all, the importance of the Mutual Aid factor of evolution, leaving to ulterior research the task of discovering the origin of the Mutual Aid instinct in Nature.",
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      "text": "The importance of the Mutual Aid factor--\"if its generality could only be demonstrated\"--did not escape the naturalist's genius so manifest in Goethe. When Eckermann told once to Goethe--it was in 1827--that two little wren-fledglings, which had run away from him, were found by him next day in the nest of robin redbreasts (Rothkehlchen), which fed the little ones, together with their own youngsters, Goethe grew quite excited about this fact. He saw in it a confirmation of his pantheistic views, and said:--\"If it be true that this feeding of a stranger goes through all Nature as something having the character of a general law--then many an enigma would be solved.\" He returned to this matter on the next day, and most earnestly entreated Eckermann (who was, as is known, a zoologist) to make a special study of the subject, adding that he would surely come \"to quite invaluable treasuries of results\" (Gespräche, edition of 1848, vol. iii. pp. 219, 221). Unfortunately, this study was never made, although it is very possible that Brehm, who has accumulated in his works such rich materials relative to mutual aid among animals, might have been inspired by Goethe's remark.",
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      "text": "Several works of importance were published in the years 1872-1886, dealing with the intelligence and the mental life of animals (they are mentioned in a footnote in Chapter I of this book), and three of them dealt more especially with the subject under consideration; namely, Les Societes animales, by Espinas (Paris, 1877); La Lutte pour l'existence et l'association pout la lutte, a lecture by J.L. Lanessan (April 1881); and Louis Buchner's book, Liebe und Liebes-Leben in der Thierwelt, of which the first edition appeared in 1882 or 1883, and a second, much enlarged, in 1885. But excellent though each of these works is, they leave ample room for a work in which Mutual Aid would be considered, not only as an argument in favour of a pre-human origin of moral instincts, but also as a law of Nature and a factor of evolution. Espinas devoted his main attention to such animal societies (ants, bees) as are established upon a physiological division of labour, and though his work is full of admirable hints in all possible directions, it was written at a time when the evolution of human societies could not yet be treated with the knowledge we now possess. Lanessan's lecture has more the character of a brilliantly laid-out general plan of a work, in which mutual support would be dealt with, beginning with rocks in the sea, and then passing in review the world of plants, of animals and men. As to Buchner's work, suggestive though it is and rich in facts, I could not agree with its leading idea. The book begins with a hymn to Love, and nearly all its illustrations are intended to prove the existence of love and sympathy among animals. However, to reduce animal sociability to love and sympathy means to reduce its generality and its importance, just as human ethics based upon love and personal sympathy only have contributed to narrow the comprehension of the moral feeling as a whole. It is not love to my neighbour--whom I often do not know at all--which induces me to seize a pail of water and to rush towards his house when I see it on fire; it is a far wider, even though more vague feeling or instinct of human solidarity and sociability which moves me. So it is also with animals. It is not love, and not even sympathy (understood in its proper sense) which induces a herd of ruminants or of horses to form a ring in order to resist an attack of wolves; not love which induces wolves to form a pack for hunting; not love which induces kittens or lambs to play, or a dozen of species of young birds to spend their days together in the autumn; and it is neither love nor personal sympathy which induces many thousand fallow-deer scattered over a territory as large as France to form into a score of separate herds, all marching towards a given spot, in order to cross there a river. It is a feeling infinitely wider than love or personal sympathy--an instinct that has been slowly developed among animals and men in the course of an extremely long evolution, and which has taught animals and men alike the force they can borrow from the practice of mutual aid and support, and the joys they can find in social life.",
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      "text": "The importance of this distinction will be easily appreciated by the student of animal psychology, and the more so by the student of human ethics. Love, sympathy and self-sacrifice certainly play an immense part in the progressive development of our moral feelings. But it is not love and not even sympathy upon which Society is based in mankind. It is the conscience--be it only at the stage of an instinct--of human solidarity. It is the unconscious recognition of the force that is borrowed by each man from the practice of mutual aid; of the close dependency of every one's happiness upon the happiness of all; and of the sense of justice, or equity, which brings the individual to consider the rights of every other individual as equal to his own. Upon this broad and necessary foundation the still higher moral feelings are developed. But this subject lies outside the scope of the present work, and I shall only indicate here a lecture, \"Justice and Morality\" which I delivered in reply to Huxley's Ethics, and in which the subject has been treated at some length.",
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      "text": "Consequently I thought that a book, written on Mutual Aid as a Law of Nature and a factor of evolution, might fill an important gap. When Huxley issued, in 1888, his \"Struggle-for-life\" manifesto (Struggle for Existence and its Bearing upon Man), which to my appreciation was a very incorrect representation of the facts of Nature, as one sees them in the bush and in the forest, I communicated with the editor of the Nineteenth Century, asking him whether he would give the hospitality of his review to an elaborate reply to the views of one of the most prominent Darwinists; and Mr. James Knowles received the proposal with fullest sympathy. I also spoke of it to W. Bates. \"Yes, certainly; that is true Darwinism,\" was his reply. \"It is horrible what 'they' have made of Darwin. Write these articles, and when they are printed, I will write to you a letter which you may publish.\" Unfortunately, it took me nearly seven years to write these articles, and when the last was published, Bates was no longer living.",
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      "text": "After having discussed the importance of mutual aid in various classes of animals, I was evidently bound to discuss the importance of the same factor in the evolution of Man. This was the more necessary as there are a number of evolutionists who may not refuse to admit the importance of mutual aid among animals, but who, like Herbert Spencer, will refuse to admit it for Man. For primitive Man--they maintain--war of each against all was the law of life. In how far this assertion, which has been too willingly repeated, without sufficient criticism, since the times of Hobbes, is supported by what we know about the early phases of human development, is discussed in the chapters given to the Savages and the Barbarians.",
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      "text": "The number and importance of mutual-aid institutions which were developed by the creative genius of the savage and half-savage masses, during the earliest clan-period of mankind and still more during the next village-community period, and the immense influence which these early institutions have exercised upon the subsequent development of mankind, down to the present times, induced me to extend my researches to the later, historical periods as well; especially, to study that most interesting period--the free medieval city republics, of which the universality and influence upon our modern civilization have not yet been duly appreciated. And finally, I have tried to indicate in brief the immense importance which the mutual-support instincts, inherited by mankind from its extremely long evolution, play even now in our modern society, which is supposed to rest upon the principle: \"every one for himself, and the State for all,\" but which it never has succeeded, nor will succeed in realizing.",
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      "text": "It may be objected to this book that both animals and men are represented in it under too favourable an aspect; that their sociable qualities are insisted upon, while their anti-social and self-asserting instincts are hardly touched upon. This was, however, unavoidable. We have heard so much lately of the \"harsh, pitiless struggle for life,\" which was said to be carried on by every animal against all other animals, every \"savage\" against all other \"savages,\" and every civilized man against all his co-citizens--and these assertions have so much become an article of faith--that it was necessary, first of all, to oppose to them a wide series of facts showing animal and human life under a quite different aspect. It was necessary to indicate the overwhelming importance which sociable habits play in Nature and in the progressive evolution of both the animal species and human beings: to prove that they secure to animals a better protection from their enemies, very often facilities for getting food and (winter provisions, migrations, etc.), longevity, therefore a greater facility for the development of intellectual faculties; and that they have given to men, in addition to the same advantages, the possibility of working out those institutions which have enabled mankind to survive in its hard struggle against Nature, and to progress, notwithstanding all the vicissitudes of its history. It is a book on the law of Mutual Aid, viewed at as one of the chief factors of evolution--not on all factors of evolution and their respective values; and this first book had to be written, before the latter could become possible.",
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      "text": "I should certainly be the last to underrate the part which the self-assertion of the individual has played in the evolution of mankind. However, this subject requires, I believe, a much deeper treatment than the one it has hitherto received. In the history of mankind, individual self-assertion has often been, and continually is, something quite different from, and far larger and deeper than, the petty, unintelligent narrow-mindedness, which, with a large class of writers, goes for \"individualism\" and \"self-assertion.\" Nor have history-making individuals been limited to those whom historians have represented as heroes. My intention, consequently, is, if circumstances permit it, to discuss separately the part taken by the self-assertion of the individual in the progressive evolution of mankind. I can only make in this place the following general remark:--When the Mutual Aid institutions--the tribe, the village community, the guilds, the medieval city--began, in the course of history, to lose their primitive character, to be invaded by parasitic growths, and thus to become hindrances to progress, the revolt of individuals against these institutions took always two different aspects. Part of those who rose up strove to purify the old institutions, or to work out a higher form of commonwealth, based upon the same Mutual Aid principles; they tried, for instance, to introduce the principle of \"compensation,\" instead of the lex talionis, and later on, the pardon of offences, or a still higher ideal of equality before the human conscience, in lieu of \"compensation,\" according to class-value. But at the very same time, another portion of the same individual rebels endeavoured to break down the protective institutions of mutual support, with no other intention but to increase their own wealth and their own powers. In this three-cornered contest, between the two classes of revolted individuals and the supporters of what existed, lies the real tragedy of history. But to delineate that contest, and honestly to study the part played in the evolution of mankind by each one of these three forces, would require at least as many years as it took me to write this book.",
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      "text": "Of works dealing with nearly the same subject, which have been published since the publication of my articles on Mutual Aid among Animals, I must mention The Lowell Lectures on the Ascent of Man, by Henry Drummond (London, 1894), and The Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct, by A. Sutherland (London, 1898). Both are constructed chiefly on the lines taken in Buchner's Love, and in the second work the parental and familial feeling as the sole influence at work in the development of the moral feelings has been dealt with at some length. A third work dealing with man and written on similar lines is The Principles of Sociology, by Prof. F.A. Giddings, the first edition of which was published in 1896 at New York and London, and the leading ideas of which were sketched by the author in a pamphlet in 1894. I must leave, however, to literary critics the task of discussing the points of contact, resemblance, or divergence between these works and mine.",
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      "text": "The different chapters of this book were published first in the Nineteenth Century (\"Mutual Aid among Animals,\" in September and November 1890; \"Mutual Aid among Savages,\" in April 1891; \"Mutual Aid among the Barbarians,\" in January 1892; \"Mutual Aid in the Medieval City,\" in August and September 1894; and \"Mutual Aid amongst Modern Men,\" in January and June 1896). In bringing them out in a book form my first intention was to embody in an Appendix the mass of materials, as well as the discussion of several secondary points, which had to be omitted in the review articles. It appeared, however, that the Appendix would double the size of the book, and I was compelled to abandon, or, at least, to postpone its publication. The present Appendix includes the discussion of only a few points which have been the matter of scientific controversy during the last few years; and into the text I have introduced only such matter as could be introduced without altering the structure of the work.",
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      "text": "\"the weakest and stupidest went to the wall, while the toughest and shrewdest, those who were best fitted to cope with their circumstances, but not the best in another way, survived. Life was a continuous free fight, and beyond the limited and temporary relations of the family, the Hobbesian war of each against all was the normal state of existence.\"(2)",
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      "text": "In how far this view of nature is supported by fact, will be seen from the evidence which will be here submitted to the reader as regards the animal world, and as regards primitive man. But it may be remarked at once that Huxley's view of nature had as little claim to be taken as a scientific deduction as the opposite view of Rousseau, who saw in nature but love, peace, and harmony destroyed by the accession of man. In fact, the first walk in the forest, the first observation upon any animal society, or even the perusal of any serious work dealing with animal life (D'Orbigny's, Audubon's, Le Vaillant's, no matter which), cannot but set the naturalist thinking about the part taken by social life in the life of animals, and prevent him from seeing in Nature nothing but a field of slaughter, just as this would prevent him from seeing in Nature nothing but harmony and peace. Rousseau had committed the error of excluding the beak-and-claw fight from his thoughts; and Huxley committed the opposite error; but neither Rousseau's optimism nor Huxley's pessimism can be accepted as an impartial interpretation of nature.",
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      "text": "As soon as we study animals--not in laboratories and museums only, but in the forest and the prairie, in the steppe and the mountains--we at once perceive that though there is an immense amount of warfare and extermination going on amidst various species, and especially amidst various classes of animals, there is, at the same time, as much, or perhaps even more, of mutual support, mutual aid, and mutual defence amidst animals belonging to the same species or, at least, to the same society. Sociability is as much a law of nature as mutual struggle. Of course it would be extremely difficult to estimate, however roughly, the relative numerical importance of both these series of facts. But if we resort to an indirect test, and ask Nature: \"Who are the fittest: those who are continually at war with each other, or those who support one another?\" we at once see that those animals which acquire habits of mutual aid are undoubtedly the fittest. They have more chances to survive, and they attain, in their respective classes, the highest development of intelligence and bodily organization. If the numberless facts which can be brought forward to support this view are taken into account, we may safely say that mutual aid is as much a law of animal life as mutual struggle, but that, as a factor of evolution, it most probably has a far greater importance, inasmuch as it favours the development of such habits and characters as insure the maintenance and further development of the species, together with the greatest amount of welfare and enjoyment of life for the individual, with the least waste of energy.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00047",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "Of the scientific followers of Darwin, the first, as far as I know, who understood the full purport of Mutual Aid as a law of Nature and the chief factor of evolution, was a well-known Russian zoologist, the late Dean of the St. Petersburg University, Professor Kessler. He developed his ideas in an address which he delivered in January 1880, a few months before his death, at a Congress of Russian naturalists; but, like so many good things published in the Russian tongue only, that remarkable address remains almost entirely unknown.(3)",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00048",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 32810,
      "end": 34125,
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      "text": "\"As a zoologist of old standing,\" he felt bound to protest against the abuse of a term--the struggle for existence--borrowed from zoology, or, at least, against overrating its importance. Zoology, he said, and those sciences which deal with man, continually insist upon what they call the pitiless law of struggle for existence. But they forget the existence of another law which may be described as the law of mutual aid, which law, at least for the animals, is far more essential than the former. He pointed out how the need of leaving progeny necessarily brings animals together, and, \"the more the individuals keep together, the more they mutually support each other, and the more are the chances of the species for surviving, as well as for making further progress in its intellectual development.\" \"All classes of animals,\" he continued, \"and especially the higher ones, practise mutual aid,\" and he illustrated his idea by examples borrowed from the life of the burying beetles and the social life of birds and some mammalia. The examples were few, as might have been expected in a short opening address, but the chief points were clearly stated; and, after mentioning that in the evolution of mankind mutual aid played a still more prominent part, Professor Kessler concluded as follows:--",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00066",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 62272,
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      "text": "Hunting and feeding in common is so much the habit in the feathered world that more quotations hardly would be needful: it must be considered as an established fact. As to the force derived from such associations, it is self-evident. The strongest birds of prey are powerless in face of the associations of our smallest bird pets. Even eagles--even the powerful and terrible booted eagle, and the martial eagle, which is strong enough to carry away a hare or a young antelope in its claws--are compelled to abandon their prey to bands of those beggars the kites, which give the eagle a regular chase as soon as they see it in possession of a good prey. The kites will also give chase to the swift fishing-hawk, and rob it of the fish it has captured; but no one ever saw the kites fighting together for the possession of the prey so stolen. On the Kerguelen Island, Dr. Coues saw the gulls to Buphogus--the sea-hen of the sealers--pursue make them disgorge their food, while, on the other side, the gulls and the terns combined to drive away the sea-hen as soon as it came near to their abodes, especially at nesting-time.(18) The little, but extremely swift lapwings (Vanellus cristatus) boldly attack the birds of prey. \"To see them attacking a buzzard, a kite, a crow, or an eagle, is one of the most amusing spectacles. One feels that they are sure of victory, and one sees the anger of the bird of prey. In such circumstances they perfectly support one another, and their courage grows with their numbers.\"(19) The lapwing has well merited the name of a \"good mother\" which the Greeks gave to it, for it never fails to protect other aquatic birds from the attacks of their enemies. But even the little white wagtails (Motacilla alba), whom we well know in our gardens and whose whole length hardly attains eight inches, compel the sparrow-hawk to abandon its hunt. \"I often admired their courage and agility,\" the old Brehm wrote, \"and I am persuaded that the falcon alone is capable of capturing any of them.... When a band of wagtails has compelled a bird of prey to retreat, they make the air resound with their triumphant cries, and after that they separate.\" They thus come together for the special purpose of giving chase to their enemy, just as we see it when the whole bird-population of a forest has been raised by the news that a nocturnal bird has made its appearance during the day, and all together--birds of prey and small inoffensive singers--set to chase the stranger and make it return to its concealment.",
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    },
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00067",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 64839,
      "end": 65814,
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      "text": "What an immense difference between the force of a kite, a buzzard or a hawk, and such small birds as the meadow-wagtail; and yet these little birds, by their common action and courage, prove superior to the powerfully-winged and armed robbers! In Europe, the wagtails not only chase the birds of prey which might be dangerous to them, but they chase also the fishing-hawk \"rather for fun than for doing it any harm;\" while in India, according to Dr. Jerdon's testimony, the jackdaws chase the gowinda-kite \"for simple matter of amusement.\" Prince Wied saw the Brazilian eagle urubitinga surrounded by numberless flocks of toucans and cassiques (a bird nearly akin to our rook), which mocked it. \"The eagle,\" he adds, \"usually supports these insults very quietly, but from time to time it will catch one of these mockers.\" In all such cases the little birds, though very much inferior in force to the bird of prey, prove superior to it by their common action.(20)",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00068",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "However, the most striking effects of common life for the security of the individual, for its enjoyment of life, and for the development of its intellectual capacities, are seen in two great families of birds, the cranes and the parrots. The cranes are extremely sociable and live in most excellent relations, not only with their congeners, but also with most aquatic birds. Their prudence is really astonishing, so also their intelligence; they grasp the new conditions in a moment, and act accordingly. Their sentries always keep watch around a flock which is feeding or resting, and the hunters know well how difficult it is to approach them. If man has succeeded in surprising them, they will never return to the same place without having sent out one single scout first, and a party of scouts afterwards; and when the reconnoitring party returns and reports that there is no danger, a second group of scouts is sent out to verify the first report, before the whole band moves. With kindred species the cranes contract real friendship; and in captivity there is no bird, save the also sociable and highly intelligent parrot, which enters into such real friendship with man. \"It sees in man, not a master, but a friend, and endeavours to manifest it,\" Brehm concludes from a wide personal experience. The crane is in continual activity from early in the morning till late in the night; but it gives a few hours only in the morning to the task of searching its food, chiefly vegetable. All the remainder of the day is given to society life. \"It picks up small pieces of wood or small stones, throws them in the air and tries to catch them; it bends its neck, opens its wings, dances, jumps, runs about, and tries to manifest by all means its good disposition of mind, and always it remains graceful and beautiful.\"(21) As it lives in society it has almost no enemies, and though Brehm occasionally saw one of them captured by a crocodile, he wrote that except the crocodile he knew no enemies of the crane. It eschews all of them by its proverbial prudence; and it attains, as a rule, a very old age. No wonder that for the maintenance of the species the crane need not rear a numerous offspring; it usually hatches but two eggs. As to its superior intelligence, it is sufficient to say that all observers are unanimous in recognizing that its intellectual capacities remind one very much of those of man.",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00069",
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      "text": "The other extremely sociable bird, the parrot, stands, as known, at the very top of the whole feathered world for the development of its intelligence. Brehm has so admirably summed up the manners of life of the parrot, that I cannot do better than translate the following sentence:--",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00070",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 68554,
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      "text": "\"Except in the pairing season, they live in very numerous societies or bands. They choose a place in the forest to stay there, and thence they start every morning for their hunting expeditions. The members of each band remain faithfully attached to each other, and they share in common good or bad luck. All together they repair in the morning to a field, or to a garden, or to a tree, to feed upon fruits. They post sentries to keep watch over the safety of the whole band, and are attentive to their warnings. In case of danger, all take to flight, mutually supporting each other, and all simultaneously return to their resting-place. In a word, they always live closely united.\"",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00071",
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      "start": 69248,
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      "text": "They enjoy society of other birds as well. In India, the jays and crows come together from many miles round, to spend the night in company with the parrots in the bamboo thickets. When the parrots start hunting, they display the most wonderful intelligence, prudence, and capacity of coping with circumstances. Take, for instance, a band of white cacadoos in Australia. Before starting to plunder a corn-field, they first send out a reconnoitring party which occupies the highest trees in the vicinity of the field, while other scouts perch upon the intermediate trees between the field and the forest and transmit the signals. If the report runs \"All right,\" a score of cacadoos will separate from the bulk of the band, take a flight in the air, and then fly towards the trees nearest to the field. They also will scrutinize the neighbourhood for a long while, and only then will they give the signal for general advance, after which the whole band starts at once and plunders the field in no time. The Australian settlers have the greatest difficulties in beguiling the prudence of the parrots; but if man, with all his art and weapons, has succeeded in killing some of them, the cacadoos become so prudent and watchful that they henceforward baffle all stratagems.(22)",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00072",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "There can be no doubt that it is the practice of life in society which enables the parrots to attain that very high level of almost human intelligence and almost human feelings which we know in them. Their high intelligence has induced the best naturalists to describe some species, namely the grey parrot, as the \"birdman.\" As to their mutual attachment it is known that when a parrot has been killed by a hunter, the others fly over the corpse of their comrade with shrieks of complaints and \"themselves fall the victims of their friendship,\" as Audubon said; and when two captive parrots, though belonging to two different species, have contracted mutual friendship, the accidental death of one of the two friends has sometimes been followed by the death from grief and sorrow of the other friend. It is no less evident that in their societies they find infinitely more protection than they possibly might find in any ideal development of beak and claw. Very few birds of prey or mammals dare attack any but the smaller species of parrots, and Brehm is absolutely right in saying of the parrots, as he also says of the cranes and the sociable monkeys, that they hardly have any enemies besides men; and he adds: \"It is most probable that the larger parrots succumb chiefly to old age rather than die from the claws of any enemies.\" Only man, owing to his still more superior intelligence and weapons, also derived from association, succeeds in partially destroying them. Their very longevity would thus appear as a result of their social life. Could we not say the same as regards their wonderful memory, which also must be favoured in its development by society--life and by longevity accompanied by a full enjoyment of bodily and mental faculties till a very old age?",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00100",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "end": 79335,
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      "text": "As soon as spring comes back to the temperate zone, myriads and myriads of birds which are scattered over the warmer regions of the South come together in numberless bands, and, full of vigour and joy, hasten northwards to rear their offspring. Each of our hedges, each grove, each ocean cliff, and each of the lakes and ponds with which Northern America, Northern Europe, and Northern Asia are dotted tell us at that time of the year the tale of what mutual aid means for the birds; what force, energy, and protection it confers to every living being, however feeble and defenceless it otherwise might be. Take, for instance, one of the numberless lakes of the Russian and Siberian Steppes. Its shores are peopled with myriads of aquatic birds, belonging to at least a score of different species, all living in perfect peace--all protecting one another.",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00101",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 79339,
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      "text": "\"For several hundred yards from the shore the air is filled with gulls and terns, as with snow-flakes on a winter day. Thousands of plovers and sand-coursers run over the beach, searching their food, whistling, and simply enjoying life. Further on, on almost each wave, a duck is rocking, while higher up you notice the flocks of the Casarki ducks. Exuberant life swarms everywhere.\"(1)",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00102",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 79734,
      "end": 80952,
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      "text": "And here are the robbers--the strongest, the most cunning ones, those \"ideally organized for robbery.\" And you hear their hungry, angry, dismal cries as for hours in succession they watch the opportunity of snatching from this mass of living beings one single unprotected individual. But as soon as they approach, their presence is signalled by dozens of voluntary sentries, and hundreds of gulls and terns set to chase the robber. Maddened by hunger, the robber soon abandons his usual precautions: he suddenly dashes into the living mass; but, attacked from all sides, he again is compelled to retreat. From sheer despair he falls upon the wild ducks; but the intelligent, social birds rapidly gather in a flock and fly away if the robber is an erne; they plunge into the lake if it is a falcon; or they raise a cloud of water-dust and bewilder the assailant if it is a kite.(2) And while life continues to swarm on the lake, the robber flies away with cries of anger, and looks out for carrion, or for a young bird or a field-mouse not yet used to obey in time the warnings of its comrades. In the face of an exuberant life, the ideally-armed robber must be satisfied with the off-fall of that life.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00103",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 80956,
      "end": 80999,
      "sha256": "7e9fded8c490bec9c36e122c3524a9d859884268e0e45797bceef1d1a8e2ac70",
      "text": "Further north, in the Arctic archipelagoes,",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00104",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 81003,
      "end": 81374,
      "sha256": "c4c76bdaec5a335528f7ecd5f09643c82f5d66a8f3d48e58a36805d1b0812286",
      "text": "\"you may sail along the coast for many miles and see all the ledges, all the cliffs and corners of the mountain-sides, up to a height of from two to five hundred feet, literally covered with sea-birds, whose white breasts show against the dark rocks as if the rocks were closely sprinkled with chalk specks. The air, near and far, is, so to say, full with fowls.\"(3)",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00287",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 232615,
      "end": 233403,
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      "text": "It is not possible to study primitive mankind without being deeply impressed by the sociability it has displayed since its very first steps in life. Traces of human societies are found in the relics of both the oldest and the later stone age; and, when we come to observe the savages whose manners of life are still those of neolithic man, we find them closely bound together by an extremely ancient clan organization which enables them to combine their individually weak forces, to enjoy life in common, and to progress. Man is no exception in nature. He also is subject to the great principle of Mutual Aid which grants the best chances of survival to those who best support each other in the struggle for life. These were the conclusions arrived at in the previous chapters.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00288",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "However, as soon as we come to a higher stage of civilization, and refer to history which already has something to say about that stage, we are bewildered by the struggles and conflicts which it reveals. The old bonds seem entirely to be broken. Stems are seen to fight against stems, tribes against tribes, individuals against individuals; and out of this chaotic contest of hostile forces, mankind issues divided into castes, enslaved to despots, separated into States always ready to wage war against each other. And, with this history of mankind in his hands, the pessimist philosopher triumphantly concludes that warfare and oppression are the very essence of human nature; that the warlike and predatory instincts of man can only be restrained within certain limits by a strong authority which enforces peace and thus gives an opportunity to the few and nobler ones to prepare a better life for humanity in times to come.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00289",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 234351,
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      "text": "And yet, as soon as the every-day life of man during the historical period is submitted to a closer analysis and so it has been, of late, by many patient students of very early institutions--it appears at once under quite a different aspect. Leaving aside the preconceived ideas of most historians and their pronounced predilection for the dramatic aspects of history, we see that the very documents they habitually peruse are such as to exaggerate the part of human life given to struggles and to underrate its peaceful moods. The bright and sunny days are lost sight of in the gales and storms. Even in our own time, the cumbersome records which we prepare for the future historian, in our Press, our law courts, our Government offices, and even in our fiction and poetry, suffer from the same one-sidedness. They hand down to posterity the most minute descriptions of every war, every battle and skirmish, every contest and act of violence, every kind of individual suffering; but they hardly bear any trace of the countless acts of mutual support and devotion which every one of us knows from his own experience; they hardly take notice of what makes the very essence of our daily life--our social instincts and manners. No wonder, then, if the records of the past were so imperfect. The annalists of old never failed to chronicle the petty wars and calamities which harassed their contemporaries; but they paid no attention whatever to the life of the masses, although the masses chiefly used to toil peacefully while the few indulged in fighting. The epic poems, the inscriptions on monuments, the treaties of peace--nearly all historical documents bear the same character; they deal with breaches of peace, not with peace itself. So that the best-intentioned historian unconsciously draws a distorted picture of the times he endeavours to depict; and, to restore the real proportion between conflict and union, we are now bound to enter into a minute analysis of thousands of small facts and faint indications accidentally preserved in the relics of the past; to interpret them with the aid of comparative ethnology; and, after having heard so much about what used to divide men, to reconstruct stone by stone the institutions which used to unite them.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00290",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "Ere long history will have to be re-written on new lines, so as to take into account these two currents of human life and to appreciate the part played by each of them in evolution. But in the meantime we may avail ourselves of the immense preparatory work recently done towards restoring the leading features of the second current, so much neglected. From the better-known periods of history we may take some illustrations of the life of the masses, in order to indicate the part played by mutual support during those periods; and, in so doing, we may dispense (for the sake of brevity) from going as far back as the Egyptian, or even the Greek and Roman antiquity. For, in fact, the evolution of mankind has not had the character of one unbroken series. Several times civilization came to an end in one given region, with one given race, and began anew elsewhere, among other races. But at each fresh start it began again with the same clan institutions which we have seen among the savages. So that if we take the last start of our own civilization, when it began afresh in the first centuries of our era, among those whom the Romans called the \"barbarians,\" we shall have the whole scale of evolution, beginning with the gentes and ending in the institutions of our own time. To these illustrations the following pages will be devoted.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00291",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "Men of science have not yet settled upon the causes which some two thousand years ago drove whole nations from Asia into Europe and resulted in the great migrations of barbarians which put an end to the West Roman Empire. One cause, however, is naturally suggested to the geographer as he contemplates the ruins of populous cities in the deserts of Central Asia, or follows the old beds of rivers now disappeared and the wide outlines of lakes now reduced to the size of mere ponds. It is desiccation: a quite recent desiccation, continued still at a speed which we formerly were not prepared to admit.(1) Against it man was powerless. When the inhabitants of North-West Mongolia and East Turkestan saw that water was abandoning them, they had no course open to them but to move down the broad valleys leading to the lowlands, and to thrust westwards the inhabitants of the plains.(2) Stems after stems were thus thrown into Europe, compelling other stems to move and to remove for centuries in succession, westwards and eastwards, in search of new and more or less permanent abodes. Races were mixing with races during those migrations, aborigines with immigrants, Aryans with Ural-Altayans; and it would have been no wonder if the social institutions which had kept them together in their mother countries had been totally wrecked during the stratification of races which took place in Europe and Asia. But they were not wrecked; they simply underwent the modification which was required by the new conditions of life.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00309",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 266532,
      "end": 267343,
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      "text": "History finds great difficulties in restoring to life the institutions of the barbarians. At every step the historian meets with some faint indication which he is unable to explain with the aid of his own documents only. But a broad light is thrown on the past as soon as we refer to the institutions of the very numerous tribes which are still living under a social organization almost identical with that of our barbarian ancestors. Here we simply have the difficulty of choice, because the islands of the Pacific, the steppes of Asia, and the tablelands of Africa are real historical museums containing specimens of all possible intermediate stages which mankind has lived through, when passing from the savage gentes up to the States' organization. Let us, then, examine a few of those specimens.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00310",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 267347,
      "end": 269202,
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      "text": "If we take the village communities of the Mongol Buryates, especially those of the Kudinsk Steppe on the upper Lena which have better escaped Russian influence, we have fair representatives of barbarians in a transitional state, between cattle-breeding and agriculture.(30) These Buryates are still living in \"joint families\"; that is, although each son, when he is married, goes to live in a separate hut, the huts of at least three generations remain within the same enclosure, and the joint family work in common in their fields, and own in common their joint households and their cattle, as well as their \"calves' grounds\" (small fenced patches of soil kept under soft grass for the rearing of calves). As a rule, the meals are taken separately in each hut; but when meat is roasted, all the twenty to sixty members of the joint household feast together. Several joint households which live in a cluster, as well as several smaller families settled in the same village--mostly debris of joint households accidentally broken up--make the oulous, or the village community; several oulouses make a tribe; and the forty-six tribes, or clans, of the Kudinsk Steppe are united into one confederation. Smaller and closer confederations are entered into, as necessity arises for special wants, by several tribes. They know no private property in land--the land being held in common by the oulous, or rather by the confederation, and if it becomes necessary, the territory is re-allotted between the different oulouses at a folkmote of the tribe, and between the forty-six tribes at a folkmote of the confederation. It is worthy of note that the same organization prevails among all the 250,000 Buryates of East Siberia, although they have been for three centuries under Russian rule, and are well acquainted with Russian institutions.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00311",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 269206,
      "end": 271761,
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      "text": "With all that, inequalities of fortune rapidly develop among the Buryates, especially since the Russian Government is giving an exaggerated importance to their elected taishas (princes), whom it considers as responsible tax-collectors and representatives of the confederations in their administrative and even commercial relations with the Russians. The channels for the enrichment of the few are thus many, while the impoverishment of the great number goes hand in hand, through the appropriation of the Buryate lands by the Russians. But it is a habit with the Buryates, especially those of Kudinsk--and habit is more than law--that if a family has lost its cattle, the richer families give it some cows and horses that it may recover. As to the destitute man who has no family, he takes his meals in the huts of his congeners; he enters a hut, takes--by right, not for charity--his seat by the fire, and shares the meal which always is scrupulously divided into equal parts; he sleeps where he has taken his evening meal. Altogether, the Russian conquerors of Siberia were so much struck by the communistic practices of the Buryates, that they gave them the name of Bratskiye--\"the Brotherly Ones\"--and reported to Moscow. \"With them everything is in common; whatever they have is shared in common.\" Even now, when the Lena Buryates sell their wheat, or send some of their cattle to be sold to a Russian butcher, the families of the oulous, or the tribe, put their wheat and cattle together, and sell it as a whole. Each oulous has, moreover, its grain store for loans in case of need, its communal baking oven (the four banal of the old French communities), and its blacksmith, who, like the blacksmith of the Indian communities,(31) being a member of the community, is never paid for his work within the community. He must make it for nothing, and if he utilizes his spare time for fabricating the small plates of chiselled and silvered iron which are used in Buryate land for the decoration of dress, he may occasionally sell them to a woman from another clan, but to the women of his own clan the attire is presented as a gift. Selling and buying cannot take place within the community, and the rule is so severe that when a richer family hires a labourer the labourer must be taken from another clan or from among the Russians. This habit is evidently not specific to the Buryates; it is so widely spread among the modern barbarians, Aryan and Ural-Altayan, that it must have been universal among our ancestors.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00312",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 271765,
      "end": 273145,
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      "text": "The feeling of union within the confederation is kept alive by the common interests of the tribes, their folkmotes, and the festivities which are usually kept in connection with the folkmotes. The same feeling is, however, maintained by another institution, the aba, or common hunt, which is a reminiscence of a very remote past. Every autumn, the forty-six clans of Kudinsk come together for such a hunt, the produce of which is divided among all the families. Moreover, national abas, to assert the unity of the whole Buryate nation, are convoked from time to time. In such cases, all Buryate clans which are scattered for hundreds of miles west and east of Lake Baikal, are bound to send their delegate hunters. Thousands of men come together, each one bringing provisions for a whole month. Every one's share must be equal to all the others, and therefore, before being put together, they are weighed by an elected elder (always \"with the hand\": scales would be a profanation of the old custom). After that the hunters divide into bands of twenty, and the parties go hunting according to a well-settled plan. In such abas the entire Buryate nation revives its epic traditions of a time when it was united in a powerful league. Let me add that such communal hunts are quite usual with the Red Indians and the Chinese on the banks of the Usuri (the kada).(32)",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00313",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "end": 274248,
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      "text": "With the Kabyles, whose manners of life have been so well described by two French explorers,(33) we have barbarians still more advanced in agriculture. Their fields, irrigated and manured, are well attended to, and in the hilly tracts every available plot of land is cultivated by the spade. The Kabyles have known many vicissitudes in their history; they have followed for sometime the Mussulman law of inheritance, but, being adverse to it, they have returned, 150 years ago, to the tribal customary law of old. Accordingly, their land-tenure is of a mixed character, and private property in land exists side by side with communal possession. Still, the basis of their present organization is the village community, the thaddart, which usually consists of several joint families (kharoubas), claiming a community of origin, as well as of smaller families of strangers. Several villages are grouped into clans or tribes (arch); several tribes make the confederation (thak'ebilt); and several confederations may occasionally enter into a league, chiefly for purposes of armed defence.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00314",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 274252,
      "end": 276116,
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      "text": "The Kabyles know no authority whatever besides that of the djemmaa, or folkmote of the village community. All men of age take part in it, in the open air, or in a special building provided with stone seats. And the decisions of the djemmaa are evidently taken at unanimity: that is, the discussions continue until all present agree to accept, or to submit to, some decision. There being no authority in a village community to impose a decision, this system has been practised by mankind wherever there have been village communities, and it is practised still wherever they continue to exist, i.e. by several hundred million men all over the world. The djemmaa nominates its executive--the elder, the scribe, and the treasurer; it assesses its own taxes; and it manages the repartition of the common lands, as well as all kinds of works of public utility. A great deal of work is done in common: the roads, the mosques, the fountains, the irrigation canals, the towers erected for protection from robbers, the fences, and so on, are built by the village community; while the high-roads, the larger mosques, and the great market-places are the work of the tribe. Many traces of common culture continue to exist, and the houses continue to be built by, or with the aid of, all men and women of the village. Altogether, the \"aids\" are of daily occurrence, and are continually called in for the cultivation of the fields, for harvesting, and so on. As to the skilled work, each community has its blacksmith, who enjoys his part of the communal land, and works for the community; when the tilling season approaches he visits every house, and repairs the tools and the ploughs, without expecting any pay, while the making of new ploughs is considered as a pious work which can by no means be recompensed in money, or by any other form of salary.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00315",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 276120,
      "end": 279010,
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      "text": "As the Kabyles already have private property, they evidently have both rich and poor among them. But like all people who closely live together, and know how poverty begins, they consider it as an accident which may visit every one. \"Don't say that you will never wear the beggar's bag, nor go to prison,\" is a proverb of the Russian peasants; the Kabyles practise it, and no difference can be detected in the external behaviour between rich and poor; when the poor convokes an \"aid,\" the rich man works in his field, just as the poor man does it reciprocally in his turn.(34) Moreover, the djemmaas set aside certain gardens and fields, sometimes cultivated in common, for the use of the poorest members. Many like customs continue to exist. As the poorer families would not be able to buy meat, meat is regularly bought with the money of the fines, or the gifts to the djemmaa, or the payments for the use of the communal olive-oil basins, and it is distributed in equal parts among those who cannot afford buying meat themselves. And when a sheep or a bullock is killed by a family for its own use on a day which is not a market day, the fact is announced in the streets by the village crier, in order that sick people and pregnant women may take of it what they want. Mutual support permeates the life of the Kabyles, and if one of them, during a journey abroad, meets with another Kabyle in need, he is bound to come to his aid, even at the risk of his own fortune and life; if this has not been done, the djemmaa of the man who has suffered from such neglect may lodge a complaint, and the djemmaa of the selfish man will at once make good the loss. We thus come across a custom which is familiar to the students of the mediaeval merchant guilds. Every stranger who enters a Kabyle village has right to housing in the winter, and his horses can always graze on the communal lands for twenty-four hours. But in case of need he can reckon upon an almost unlimited support. Thus, during the famine of 1867-68, the Kabyles received and fed every one who sought refuge in their villages, without distinction of origin. In the district of Dellys, no less than 12,000 people who came from all parts of Algeria, and even from Morocco, were fed in this way. While people died from starvation all over Algeria, there was not one single case of death due to this cause on Kabylian soil. The djemmaas, depriving themselves of necessaries, organized relief, without ever asking any aid from the Government, or uttering the slightest complaint; they considered it as a natural duty. And while among the European settlers all kind of police measures were taken to prevent thefts and disorder resulting from such an influx of strangers, nothing of the kind was required on the Kabyles' territory: the djemmaas needed neither aid nor protection from without.(35)",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00316",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "I can only cursorily mention two other most interesting features of Kabyle life; namely, the anaya, or protection granted to wells, canals, mosques, marketplaces, some roads, and so on, in case of war, and the cofs. In the anaya we have a series of institutions both for diminishing the evils of war and for preventing conflicts. Thus the market-place is anaya, especially if it stands on a frontier and brings Kabyles and strangers together; no one dares disturb peace in the market, and if a disturbance arises, it is quelled at once by the strangers who have gathered in the market town. The road upon which the women go from the village to the fountain also is anaya in case of war; and so on. As to the cof it is a widely spread form of association, having some characters of the mediaeval Burgschaften or Gegilden, as well as of societies both for mutual protection and for various purposes--intellectual, political, and emotional--which cannot be satisfied by the territorial organization of the village, the clan, and the con federation. The cof knows no territorial limits; it recruits its members in various villages, even among strangers; and it protects them in all possible eventualities of life. Altogether, it is an attempt at supplementing the territorial grouping by an extra-territorial grouping intended to give an expression to mutual affinities of all kinds across the frontiers. The free international association of individual tastes and ideas, which we consider as one of the best features of our own life, has thus its origin in barbarian antiquity.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00317",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 280614,
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      "text": "The mountaineers of Caucasia offer another extremely instructive field for illustrations of the same kind. In studying the present customs of the Ossetes--their joint families and communes and their judiciary conceptions--Professor Kovalevsky, in a remarkable work on Modern Custom and Ancient Law was enabled step by step to trace the similar dispositions of the old barbarian codes and even to study the origins of feudalism. With other Caucasian stems we occasionally catch a glimpse into the origin of the village community in those cases where it was not tribal but originated from a voluntary union between families of distinct origin. Such was recently the case with some Khevsoure villages, the inhabitants of which took the oath of \"community and fraternity.\"(36) In another part of Caucasus, Daghestan, we see the growth of feudal relations between two tribes, both maintaining at the same time their village communities (and even traces of the gentile \"classes\"), and thus giving a living illustration of the forms taken by the conquest of Italy and Gaul by the barbarians. The victorious race, the Lezghines, who have conquered several Georgian and Tartar villages in the Zakataly district, did not bring them under the dominion of separate families; they constituted a feudal clan which now includes 12,000 households in three villages, and owns in common no less than twenty Georgian and Tartar villages. The conquerors divided their own land among their clans, and the clans divided it in equal parts among the families; but they did not interfere with the djemmaas of their tributaries which still practise the habit mentioned by Julius Caesar; namely, the djemmaa decides each year which part of the communal territory must be cultivated, and this land is divided into as many parts as there are families, and the parts are distributed by lot. It is worthy of note that although proletarians are of common occurrence among the Lezghines (who live under a system of private property in land, and common ownership of serfs(37)) they are rare among their Georgian serfs, who continue to hold their land in common. As to the customary law of the Caucasian mountaineers, it is much the same as that of the Longobards or Salic Franks, and several of its dispositions explain a good deal the judicial procedure of the barbarians of old. Being of a very impressionable character, they do their best to prevent quarrels from taking a fatal issue; so, with the Khevsoures, the swords are very soon drawn when a quarrel breaks out; but if a woman rushes out and throws among them the piece of linen which she wears on her head, the swords are at once returned to their sheaths, and the quarrel is appeased. The head-dress of the women is anaya. If a quarrel has not been stopped in time and has ended in murder, the compensation money is so considerable that the aggressor is entirely ruined for his life, unless he is adopted by the wronged family; and if he has resorted to his sword in a trifling quarrel and has inflicted wounds, he loses for ever the consideration of his kin. In all disputes, mediators take the matter in hand; they select from among the members of the clan the judges--six in smaller affairs, and from ten to fifteen in more serious matters--and Russian observers testify to the absolute incorruptibility of the judges. An oath has such a significance that men enjoying general esteem are dispensed from taking it: a simple affirmation is quite sufficient, the more so as in grave affairs the Khevsoure never hesitates to recognize his guilt (I mean, of course, the Khevsoure untouched yet by civilization). The oath is chiefly reserved for such cases, like disputes about property, which require some sort of appreciation in addition to a simple statement of facts; and in such cases the men whose affirmation will decide in the dispute, act with the greatest circumspection. Altogether it is certainly not a want of honesty or of respect to the rights of the congeners which characterizes the barbarian societies of Caucasus.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00318",
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      "text": "The stems of Africa offer such an immense variety of extremely interesting societies standing at all intermediate stages from the early village community to the despotic barbarian monarchies that I must abandon the idea of giving here even the chief results of a comparative study of their institutions.(38) Suffice it to say, that, even under the most horrid despotism of kings, the folkmotes of the village communities and their customary law remain sovereign in a wide circle of affairs. The law of the State allows the king to take any one's life for a simple caprice, or even for simply satisfying his gluttony; but the customary law of the people continues to maintain the same network of institutions for mutual support which exist among other barbarians or have existed among our ancestors. And with some better-favoured stems (in Bornu, Uganda, Abyssinia), and especially the Bogos, some of the dispositions of the customary law are inspired with really graceful and delicate feelings.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00319",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "The village communities of the natives of both Americas have the same character. The Tupi of Brazil were found living in \"long houses\" occupied by whole clans which used to cultivate their corn and manioc fields in common. The Arani, much more advanced in civilization, used to cultivate their fields in common; so also the Oucagas, who had learned under their system of primitive communism and \"long houses\" to build good roads and to carry on a variety of domestic industries,(39) not inferior to those of the early medieval times in Europe. All of them were also living under the same customary law of which we have given specimens on the preceding pages. At another extremity of the world we find the Malayan feudalism, but this feudalism has been powerless to unroot the negaria, or village community, with its common ownership of at least part of the land, and the redistribution of land among the several negarias of the tribe.(40) With the Alfurus of Minahasa we find the communal rotation of the crops; with the Indian stem of the Wyandots we have the periodical redistribution of land within the tribe, and the clan-culture of the soil; and in all those parts of Sumatra where Moslem institutions have not yet totally destroyed the old organization we find the joint family (suka) and the village community (kota) which maintains its right upon the land, even if part of it has been cleared without its authorization.(41) But to say this, is to say that all customs for mutual protection and prevention of feuds and wars, which have been briefly indicated in the preceding pages as characteristic of the village community, exist as well. More than that: the more fully the communal possession of land has been maintained, the better and the gentler are the habits. De Stuers positively affirms that wherever the institution of the village community has been less encroached upon by the conquerors, the inequalities of fortunes are smaller, and the very prescriptions of the lex talionis are less cruel; while, on the contrary, wherever the village community has been totally broken up, \"the inhabitants suffer the most unbearable oppression from their despotic rulers.\"(42) This is quite natural. And when Waitz made the remark that those stems which have maintained their tribal confederations stand on a higher level of development and have a richer literature than those stems which have forfeited the old bonds of union, he only pointed out what might have been foretold in advance.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00383",
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      "text": "Such were the leading ideas of those brotherhoods which gradually covered the whole of medieval life. In fact, we know of guilds among all possible professions: guilds of serfs,(33) guilds of freemen, and guilds of both serfs and freemen; guilds called into life for the special purpose of hunting, fishing, or a trading expedition, and dissolved when the special purpose had been achieved; and guilds lasting for centuries in a given craft or trade. And, in proportion as life took an always greater variety of pursuits, the variety in the guilds grew in proportion. So we see not only merchants, craftsmen, hunters, and peasants united in guilds; we also see guilds of priests, painters, teachers of primary schools and universities, guilds for performing the passion play, for building a church, for developing the \"mystery\" of a given school of art or craft, or for a special recreation--even guilds among beggars, executioners, and lost women, all organized on the same double principle of self-jurisdiction and mutual support.(34) For Russia we have positive evidence showing that the very \"making of Russia\" was as much the work of its hunters', fishermen's, and traders' artels as of the budding village communities, and up to the present day the country is covered with artels.(35)",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00384",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "These few remarks show how incorrect was the view taken by some early explorers of the guilds when they wanted to see the essence of the institution in its yearly festival. In reality, the day of the common meal was always the day, or the morrow of the day, of election of aldermen, of discussion of alterations in the statutes, and very often the day of judgment of quarrels that had risen among the brethren,(36) or of renewed allegiance to the guild. The common meal, like the festival at the old tribal folkmote--the mahl or malum--or the Buryate aba, or the parish feast and the harvest supper, was simply an affirmation of brotherhood. It symbolized the times when everything was kept in common by the clan. This day, at least, all belonged to all; all sate at the same table and partook of the same meal. Even at a much later time the inmate of the almshouse of a London guild sat this day by the side of the rich alderman. As to the distinction which several explorers have tried to establish between the old Saxon \"frith guild\" and the so-called \"social\" or \"religious\" guilds--all were frith guilds in the sense above mentioned,(37) and all were religious in the sense in which a village community or a city placed under the protection of a special saint is social and religious. If the institution of the guild has taken such an immense extension in Asia, Africa, and Europe, if it has lived thousands of years, reappearing again and again when similar conditions called it into existence, it is because it was much more than an eating association, or an association for going to church on a certain day, or a burial club. It answered to a deeply inrooted want of human nature; and it embodied all the attributes which the State appropriated later on for its bureaucracy and police, and much more than that. It was an association for mutual support in all circumstances and in all accidents of life, \"by deed and advise,\" and it was an organization for maintaining justice--with this difference from the State, that on all these occasions a humane, a brotherly element was introduced instead of the formal element which is the essential characteristic of State interference. Even when appearing before the guild tribunal, the guild-brother answered before men who knew him well and had stood by him before in their daily work, at the common meal, in the performance of their brotherly duties: men who were his equals and brethren indeed, not theorists of law nor defenders of some one else's interests.(38)",
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      "text": "It is evident that an institution so well suited to serve the need of union, without depriving the individual of his initiative, could but spread, grow, and fortify. The difficulty was only to find such form as would permit to federate the unions of the guilds without interfering with the unions of the village communities, and to federate all these into one harmonious whole. And when this form of combination had been found, and a series of favourable circumstances permitted the cities to affirm their independence, they did so with a unity of thought which can but excite our admiration, even in our century of railways, telegraphs, and printing. Hundreds of charters in which the cities inscribed their liberation have reached us, and through all of them--notwithstanding the infinite variety of details, which depended upon the more or less greater fulness of emancipation--the same leading ideas run. The city organized itself as a federation of both small village communities and guilds.",
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      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "\"All those who belong to the friendship of the town\"--so runs a charter given in 1188 to the burghesses of Aire by Philip, Count of Flanders--\"have promised and confirmed by faith and oath that they will aid each other as brethren, in whatever is useful and honest. That if one commits against another an offence in words or in deeds, the one who has suffered there from will not take revenge, either himself or his people ... he will lodge a complaint and the offender will make good for his offence, according to what will be pronounced by twelve elected judges acting as arbiters, And if the offender or the offended, after having been warned thrice, does not submit to the decision of the arbiters, he will be excluded from the friendship as a wicked man and a perjuror.(39)",
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      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 338186,
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      "text": "\"Each one of the men of the commune will be faithful to his con-juror, and will give him aid and advice, according to what justice will dictate him\"--the Amiens and Abbeville charters say. \"All will aid each other, according to their powers, within the boundaries of the Commune, and will not suffer that any one takes anything from any one of them, or makes one pay contributions\"--do we read in the charters of Soissons, Compiegne, Senlis, and many others of the same type.(40) And so on with countless variations on the same theme.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00390",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "Self-jurisdiction was the essential point, and self-jurisdiction meant self-administration. But the commune was not simply an \"autonomous\" part of the State--such ambiguous words had not yet been invented by that time--it was a State in itself. It had the right of war and peace, of federation and alliance with its neighbours. It was sovereign in its own affairs, and mixed with no others. The supreme political power could be vested entirely in a democratic forum, as was the case in Pskov, whose vyeche sent and received ambassadors, concluded treaties, accepted and sent away princes, or went on without them for dozens of years; or it was vested in, or usurped by, an aristocracy of merchants or even nobles, as was the case in hundreds of Italian and middle European cities. The principle, nevertheless, remained the same: the city was a State and--what was perhaps still more remarkable--when the power in the city was usurped by an aristocracy of merchants or even nobles, the inner life of the city and the democratism of its daily life did not disappear: they depended but little upon what may be called the political form of the State.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00391",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 341589,
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      "text": "The secret of this seeming anomaly lies in the fact that a medieval city was not a centralized State. During the first centuries of its existence, the city hardly could be named a State as regards its interior organization, because the middle ages knew no more of the present centralization of functions than of the present territorial centralization. Each group had its share of sovereignty. The city was usually divided into four quarters, or into five to seven sections radiating from a centre, each quarter or section roughly corresponding to a certain trade or profession which prevailed in it, but nevertheless containing inhabitants of different social positions and occupations--nobles, merchants, artisans, or even half-serfs; and each section or quarter constituted a quite independent agglomeration. In Venice, each island was an independent political community. It had its own organized trades, its own commerce in salt, its own jurisdiction and administration, its own forum; and the nomination of a doge by the city changed nothing in the inner independence of the units.(42) In Cologne, we see the inhabitants divided into Geburschaften and Heimschaften (viciniae), i.e. neighbour guilds, which dated from the Franconian period. Each of them had its judge (Burrichter) and the usual twelve elected sentence-finders (Schoffen), its Vogt, and its greve or commander of the local militia.(43) The story of early London before the Conquest--Mr. Green says--is that \"of a number of little groups scattered here and there over the area within the walls, each growing up with its own life and institutions, guilds, sokes, religious houses and the like, and only slowly drawing together into a municipal union.\"(44) And if we refer to the annals of the Russian cities, Novgorod and Pskov, both of which are relatively rich in local details, we find the section (konets) consisting of independent streets (ulitsa), each of which, though chiefly peopled with artisans of a certain craft, had also merchants and landowners among its inhabitants, and was a separate community. It had the communal responsibility of all members in case of crime, its own jurisdiction and administration by street aldermen (ulichanskiye starosty), its own seal and, in case of need, its own forum; its own militia, as also its self-elected priests and its, own collective life and collective enterprise.(45)",
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    },
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00392",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "The medieval city thus appears as a double federation: of all householders united into small territorial unions--the street, the parish, the section--and of individuals united by oath into guilds according to their professions; the former being a produce of the village-community origin of the city, while the second is a subsequent growth called to life by new conditions.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00393",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "end": 346280,
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      "text": "To guarantee liberty, self-administration, and peace was the chief aim of the medieval city; and labour, as we shall presently see when speaking of the craft guilds, was its chief foundation. But \"production\" did not absorb the whole attention of the medieval economist. With his practical mind, he understood that \"consumption\" must be guaranteed in order to obtain production; and therefore, to provide for \"the common first food and lodging of poor and rich alike\" (gemeine notdurft und gemach armer und richer(46)) was the fundamental principle in each city. The purchase of food supplies and other first necessaries (coal, wood, etc.) before they had reached the market, or altogether in especially favourable conditions from which others would be excluded--the preempcio, in a word--was entirely prohibited. Everything had to go to the market and be offered there for every one's purchase, till the ringing of the bell had closed the market. Then only could the retailer buy the remainder, and even then his profit should be an \"honest profit\" only.(47) Moreover, when corn was bought by a baker wholesale after the close of the market, every citizen had the right to claim part of the corn (about half-a-quarter) for his own use, at wholesale price, if he did so before the final conclusion of the bargain; and reciprocally, every baker could claim the same if the citizen purchased corn for re-selling it. In the first case, the corn had only to be brought to the town mill to be ground in its proper turn for a settled price, and the bread could be baked in the four banal, or communal oven.(48) In short, if a scarcity visited the city, all had to suffer from it more or less; but apart from the calamities, so long as the free cities existed no one could die in their midst from starvation, as is unhappily too often the case in our own times.",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00394",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 346284,
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      "text": "However, all such regulations belong to later periods of the cities' life, while at an earlier period it was the city itself which used to buy all food supplies for the use of the citizens. The documents recently published by Mr. Gross are quite positive on this point and fully support his conclusion to the effect that the cargoes of subsistences \"were purchased by certain civic officials in the name of the town, and then distributed in shares among the merchant burgesses, no one being allowed to buy wares landed in the port unless the municipal authorities refused to purchase them. This seem--she adds--to have been quite a common practice in England, Ireland, Wales and Scotland.\"(49) Even in the sixteenth century we find that common purchases of corn were made for the \"comoditie and profitt in all things of this.... Citie and Chamber of London, and of all the Citizens and Inhabitants of the same as moche as in us lieth\"--as the Mayor wrote in 1565.(50) In Venice, the whole of the trade in corn is well known to have been in the hands of the city; the \"quarters,\" on receiving the cereals from the board which administrated the imports, being bound to send to every citizen's house the quantity allotted to him.(51) In France, the city of Amiens used to purchase salt and to distribute it to all citizens at cost price;(52) and even now one sees in many French towns the halles which formerly were municipal depots for corn and salt.(53) In Russia it was a regular custom in Novgorod and Pskov.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00461",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 375851,
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      "text": "There was not much room for hired work in the early flourishing periods of the medieval cities, still less for individual hirelings. The work of the weavers, the archers, the smiths, the bakers, and so on, was performed for the craft and the city; and when craftsmen were hired in the building trades, they worked as temporary corporations (as they still do in the Russian artels), whose work was paid en bloc. Work for a master began to multiply only later on; but even in this case the worker was paid better than he is paid now, even in this country, and very much better than he used to be paid all over Europe in the first half of this century. Thorold Rogers has familiarized English readers with this idea; but the same is true for the Continent as well, as is shown by the researches of Falke and Schonberg, and by many occasional indications. Even in the fifteenth century a mason, a carpenter, or a smith worker would be paid at Amiens four sols a day, which corresponded to forty-eight pounds of bread, or to the eighth part of a small ox (bouvard). In Saxony, the salary of the Geselle in the building trade was such that, to put it in Falke's words, he could buy with his six days' wages three sheep and one pair of shoes.(6) The donations of workers (Geselle) to cathedrals also bear testimony of their relative well-being, to say nothing of the glorious donations of certain craft guilds nor of what they used to spend in festivities and pageants.(7) In fact, the more we learn about the medieval city, the more we are convinced that at no time has labour enjoyed such conditions of prosperity and such respect as when city life stood at its highest.",
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      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "More than that; not only many aspirations of our modern radicals were already realized in the middle ages, but much of what is described now as Utopian was accepted then as a matter of fact. We are laughed at when we say that work must be pleasant, but--\"every one must be pleased with his work,\" a medieval Kuttenberg ordinance says, \"and no one shall, while doing nothing (mit nichts thun), appropriate for himself what others have produced by application and work, because laws must be a shield for application and work.\"(8) And amidst all present talk about an eight hours' day, it may be well to remember an ordinance of Ferdinand the First relative to the Imperial coal mines, which settled the miner's day at eight hours, \"as it used to be of old\" (wie vor Alters herkommen), and work on Saturday afternoon was prohibited. Longer hours were very rare, we are told by Janssen, while shorter hours were of common occurrence. In this country, in the fifteenth century, Rogers says, \"the workmen worked only forty-eight hours a week.\"(9) The Saturday half-holiday, too, which we consider as a modern conquest, was in reality an old medieval institution; it was bathing-time for a great part of the community, while Wednesday afternoon was bathing-time for the Geselle.(10) And although school meals did not exist--probably because no children went hungry to school--a distribution of bath-money to the children whose parents found difficulty in providing it was habitual in several places. As to Labour Congresses, they also were a regular Feature of the middles ages. In some parts of Germany craftsmen of the same trade, belonging to different communes, used to come together every year to discuss questions relative to their trade, the years of apprenticeship, the wandering years, the wages, and so on; and in 1572, the Hanseatic towns formally recognized the right of the crafts to come together at periodical congresses, and to take any resolutions, so long as they were not contrary to the cities' rolls, relative to the quality of goods. Such Labour Congresses, partly international like the Hansa itself, are known to have been held by bakers, founders, smiths, tanners, sword-makers and cask-makers.(11)",
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      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "The craft organization required, of course, a close supervision of the craftsmen by the guild, and special jurates were always nominated for that purpose. But it is most remarkable that, so long as the cities lived their free life, no complaints were heard about the supervision; while, after the State had stepped in, confiscating the property of the guilds and destroying their independence in favour of its own bureaucracy, the complaints became simply countless.(12) On the other hand, the immensity of progress realized in all arts under the mediaeval guild system is the best proof that the system was no hindrance to individual initiative.(13) The fact is, that the medieval guild, like the medieval parish, \"street,\" or \"quarter,\" was not a body of citizens, placed under the control of State functionaries; it was a union of all men connected with a given trade: jurate buyers of raw produce, sellers of manufactured goods, and artisans--masters, \"compaynes,\" and apprentices. For the inner organization of the trade its assembly was sovereign, so long as it did not hamper the other guilds, in which case the matter was brought before the guild of the guilds--the city. But there was in it something more than that. It had its own self-jurisdiction, its own military force, its own general assemblies, its own traditions of struggles, glory, and independence, its own relations with other guilds of the same trade in other cities: it had, in a word, a full organic life which could only result from the integrality of the vital functions. When the town was called to arms, the guild appeared as a separate company (Schaar), armed with its own arms (or its own guns, lovingly decorated by the guild, at a subsequent epoch), under its own self-elected commanders. It was, in a word, as independent a unit of the federation as the republic of Uri or Geneva was fifty years ago in the Swiss Confederation. So that, to compare it with a modern trade union, divested of all attributes of State sovereignty, and reduced to a couple of functions of secondary importance, is as unreasonable as to compare Florence or Brugge with a French commune vegetating under the Code Napoleon, or with a Russian town placed under Catherine the Second's municipal law. Both have elected mayors, and the latter has also its craft corporations; but the difference is--all the difference that exists between Florence and Fontenay-les-Oies or Tsarevokokshaisk, or between a Venetian doge and a modern mayor who lifts his hat before the sous-prefet's clerk.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00464",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 382374,
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      "text": "The medieval guilds were capable of maintaining their independence; and, later on, especially in the fourteenth century, when, in consequence of several causes which shall presently be indicated, the old municipal life underwent a deep modification, the younger crafts proved strong enough to conquer their due share in the management of the city affairs. The masses, organized in \"minor\" arts, rose to wrest the power out of the hands of a growing oligarchy, and mostly succeeded in this task, opening again a new era of prosperity. True, that in some cities the uprising was crushed in blood, and mass decapitations of workers followed, as was the case in Paris in 1306, and in Cologne in 1371. In such cases the city's liberties rapidly fell into decay, and the city was gradually subdued by the central authority. But the majority of the towns had preserved enough of vitality to come out of the turmoil with a new life and vigour.(14) A new period of rejuvenescence was their reward. New life was infused, and it found its expression in splendid architectural monuments, in a new period of prosperity, in a sudden progress of technics and invention, and in a new intellectual movement leading to the Renaissance and to the Reformation.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00465",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "The life of a mediaeval city was a succession of hard battles to conquer liberty and to maintain it. True, that a strong and tenacious race of burghers had developed during those fierce contests; true, that love and worship of the mother city had been bred by these struggles, and that the grand things achieved by the mediaeval communes were a direct outcome of that love. But the sacrifices which the communes had to sustain in the battle for freedom were, nevertheless, cruel, and left deep traces of division on their inner life as well. Very few cities had succeeded, under a concurrence of favourable circumstances, in obtaining liberty at one stroke, and these few mostly lost it equally easily; while the great number had to fight fifty or a hundred years in succession, often more, before their rights to free life had been recognized, and another hundred years to found their liberty on a firm basis--the twelfth century charters thus being but one of the stepping-stones to freedom.(15) In reality, the mediaeval city was a fortified oasis amidst a country plunged into feudal submission, and it had to make room for itself by the force of its arms. In consequence of the causes briefly alluded to in the preceding chapter, each village community had gradually fallen under the yoke of some lay or clerical lord. His house had grown to be a castle, and his brothers-in-arms were now the scum of adventurers, always ready to plunder the peasants. In addition to three days a week which the peasants had to work for the lord, they had also to bear all sorts of exactions for the right to sow and to crop, to be gay or sad, to live, to marry, or to die. And, worst of all, they were continually plundered by the armed robbers of some neighbouring lord, who chose to consider them as their master's kin, and to take upon them, and upon their cattle and crops, the revenge for a feud he was fighting against their owner. Every meadow, every field, every river, and road around the city, and every man upon the land was under some lord.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00538",
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      "text": "After having passed through the savage tribe, and next through the village community, the Europeans came to work out in medieval times a new form of organization, which had the advantage of allowing great latitude for individual initiative, while it largely responded at the same time to man's need of mutual support. A federation of village communities, covered by a network of guilds and fraternities, was called into existence in the medieval cities. The immense results achieved under this new form of union--in well-being for all, in industries, art, science, and commerce--were discussed at some length in two preceding chapters, and an attempt was also made to show why, towards the end of the fifteenth century, the medieval republics--surrounded by domains of hostile feudal lords, unable to free the peasants from servitude, and gradually corrupted by ideas of Roman Caesarism--were doomed to become a prey to the growing military States.",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00539",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "However, before submitting for three centuries to come, to the all-absorbing authority of the State, the masses of the people made a formidable attempt at reconstructing society on the old basis of mutual aid and support. It is well known by this time that the great movement of the reform was not a mere revolt against the abuses of the Catholic Church. It had its constructive ideal as well, and that ideal was life in free, brotherly communities. Those of the early writings and sermons of the period which found most response with the masses were imbued with ideas of the economical and social brotherhood of mankind. The \"Twelve Articles\" and similar professions of faith, which were circulated among the German and Swiss peasants and artisans, maintained not only every one's right to interpret the Bible according to his own understanding, but also included the demand of communal lands being restored to the village communities and feudal servitudes being abolished, and they always alluded to the \"true\" faith--a faith of brotherhood. At the same time scores of thousands of men and women joined the communist fraternities of Moravia, giving them all their fortune and living in numerous and prosperous settlements constructed upon the principles of communism.(1) Only wholesale massacres by the thousand could put a stop to this widely-spread popular movement, and it was by the sword, the fire, and the rack that the young States secured their first and decisive victory over the masses of the people.(2)",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00540",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "For the next three centuries the States, both on the Continent and in these islands, systematically weeded out all institutions in which the mutual-aid tendency had formerly found its expression. The village communities were bereft of their folkmotes, their courts and independent administration; their lands were confiscated. The guilds were spoliated of their possessions and liberties, and placed under the control, the fancy, and the bribery of the State's official. The cities were divested of their sovereignty, and the very springs of their inner life--the folkmote, the elected justices and administration, the sovereign parish and the sovereign guild--were annihilated; the State's functionary took possession of every link of what formerly was an organic whole. Under that fatal policy and the wars it engendered, whole regions, once populous and wealthy, were laid bare; rich cities became insignificant boroughs; the very roads which connected them with other cities became impracticable. Industry, art, and knowledge fell into decay. Political education, science, and law were rendered subservient to the idea of State centralization. It was taught in the Universities and from the pulpit that the institutions in which men formerly used to embody their needs of mutual support could not be tolerated in a properly organized State; that the State alone could represent the bonds of union between its subjects; that federalism and \"particularism\" were the enemies of progress, and the State was the only proper initiator of further development. By the end of the last century the kings on the Continent, the Parliament in these isles, and the revolutionary Convention in France, although they were at war with each other, agreed in asserting that no separate unions between citizens must exist within the State; that hard labour and death were the only suitable punishments to workers who dared to enter into \"coalitions.\" \"No state within the State!\" The State alone, and the State's Church, must take care of matters of general interest, while the subjects must represent loose aggregations of individuals, connected by no particular bonds, bound to appeal to the Government each time that they feel a common need. Up to the middle of this century this was the theory and practice in Europe. Even commercial and industrial societies were looked at with suspicion. As to the workers, their unions were treated as unlawful almost within our own lifetime in this country and within the last twenty years on the Continent. The whole system of our State education was such that up to the present time, even in this country, a notable portion of society would treat as a revolutionary measure the concession of such rights as every one, freeman or serf, exercised five hundred years ago in the village folkmote, the guild, the parish, and the city.",
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      "text": "The absorption of all social functions by the State necessarily favoured the development of an unbridled, narrow-minded individualism. In proportion as the obligations towards the State grew in numbers the citizens were evidently relieved from their obligations towards each other. In the guild--and in medieval times every man belonged to some guild or fraternity two \"brothers\" were bound to watch in turns a brother who had fallen ill; it would be sufficient now to give one's neighbour the address of the next paupers' hospital. In barbarian society, to assist at a fight between two men, arisen from a quarrel, and not to prevent it from taking a fatal issue, meant to be oneself treated as a murderer; but under the theory of the all-protecting State the bystander need not intrude: it is the policeman's business to interfere, or not. And while in a savage land, among the Hottentots, it would be scandalous to eat without having loudly called out thrice whether there is not somebody wanting to share the food, all that a respectable citizen has to do now is to pay the poor tax and to let the starving starve. The result is, that the theory which maintains that men can, and must, seek their own happiness in a disregard of other people's wants is now triumphant all round in law, in science, in religion. It is the religion of the day, and to doubt of its efficacy is to be a dangerous Utopian. Science loudly proclaims that the struggle of each against all is the leading principle of nature, and of human societies as well. To that struggle Biology ascribes the progressive evolution of the animal world. History takes the same line of argument; and political economists, in their naive ignorance, trace all progress of modern industry and machinery to the \"wonderful\" effects of the same principle. The very religion of the pulpit is a religion of individualism, slightly mitigated by more or less charitable relations to one's neighbours, chiefly on Sundays. \"Practical\" men and theorists, men of science and religious preachers, lawyers and politicians, all agree upon one thing--that individualism may be more or less softened in its harshest effects by charity, but that it is the only secure basis for the maintenance of society and its ulterior progress.",
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      "text": "It seems, therefore, hopeless to look for mutual-aid institutions and practices in modern society. What could remain of them? And yet, as soon as we try to ascertain how the millions of human beings live, and begin to study their everyday relations, we are struck with the immense part which the mutual-aid and mutual-support principles play even now-a-days in human life. Although the destruction of mutual-aid institutions has been going on in practice and theory, for full three or four hundred years, hundreds of millions of men continue to live under such institutions; they piously maintain them and endeavour to reconstitute them where they have ceased to exist. In our mutual relations every one of us has his moments of revolt against the fashionable individualistic creed of the day, and actions in which men are guided by their mutual aid inclinations constitute so great a part of our daily intercourse that if a stop to such actions could be put all further ethical progress would be stopped at once. Human society itself could not be maintained for even so much as the lifetime of one single generation. These facts, mostly neglected by sociologists and yet of the first importance for the life and further elevation of mankind, we are now going to analyze, beginning with the standing institutions of mutual support, and passing next to those acts of mutual aid which have their origin in personal or social sympathies.",
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      "text": "In Great Britain, which may be taken as the best illustration of the industrial policy of the modern States, we see the Parliament beginning the destruction of the guilds as early as the fifteenth century; but it was especially in the next century that decisive measures were taken. Henry the Eighth not only ruined the organization of the guilds, but also confiscated their properties, with even less excuse and manners, as Toulmin Smith wrote, than he had produced for confiscating the estates of the monasteries.(1) Edward the Sixth completed his work,(2) and already in the second part of the sixteenth century we find the Parliament settling all the disputes between craftsmen and merchants, which formerly were settled in each city separately. The Parliament and the king not only legislated in all such contests, but, keeping in view the interests of the Crown in the exports, they soon began to determine the number of apprentices in each trade and minutely to regulate the very technics of each fabrication--the weights of the stuffs, the number of threads in the yard of cloth, and the like. With little success, it must be said; because contests and technical difficulties which were arranged for centuries in succession by agreement between closely-interdependent guilds and federated cities lay entirely beyond the powers of the centralized State. The continual interference of its officials paralyzed the trades; bringing most of them to a complete decay; and the last century economists, when they rose against the State regulation of industries, only ventilated a widely-felt discontent. The abolition of that interference by the French Revolution was greeted as an act of liberation, and the example of France was soon followed elsewhere.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG4341.B00633",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "With the regulation of wages the State had no better success. In the medieval cities, when the distinction between masters and apprentices or journeymen became more and more apparent in the fifteenth century, unions of apprentices (Gesellenverbande), occasionally assuming an international character, were opposed to the unions of masters and merchants. Now it was the State which undertook to settle their griefs, and under the Elizabethan Statute of 1563 the Justices of Peace had to settle the wages, so as to guarantee a \"convenient\" livelihood to journeymen and apprentices. The Justices, however, proved helpless to conciliate the conflicting interests, and still less to compel the masters to obey their decisions. The law gradually became a dead letter, and was repealed by the end of the eighteenth century. But while the State thus abandoned the function of regulating wages, it continued severely to prohibit all combinations which were entered upon by journeymen and workers in order to raise their wages, or to keep them at a certain level. All through the eighteenth century it legislated against the workers' unions, and in 1799 it finally prohibited all sorts of combinations, under the menace of severe punishments. In fact, the British Parliament only followed in this case the example of the French Revolutionary Convention, which had issued a draconic law against coalitions of workers-coalitions between a number of citizens being considered as attempts against the sovereignty of the State, which was supposed equally to protect all its subjects. The work of destruction of the medieval unions was thus completed. Both in the town and in the village the State reigned over loose aggregations of individuals, and was ready to prevent by the most stringent measures the reconstitution of any sort of separate unions among them. These were, then, the conditions under which the mutual-aid tendency had to make its way in the nineteenth century.",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00634",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "Need it be said that no such measures could destroy that tendency? Throughout the eighteenth century, the workers' unions were continually reconstituted.(3) Nor were they stopped by the cruel prosecutions which took place under the laws of 1797 and 1799. Every flaw in supervision, every delay of the masters in denouncing the unions was taken advantage of. Under the cover of friendly societies, burial clubs, or secret brotherhoods, the unions spread in the textile industries, among the Sheffield cutlers, the miners, and vigorous federal organizations were formed to support the branches during strikes and prosecutions.(4) The repeal of the Combination Laws in 1825 gave a new impulse to the movement. Unions and national federations were formed in all trades.(5) and when Robert Owen started his Grand National Consolidated Trades' Union, it mustered half a million members in a few months. True that this period of relative liberty did not last long. Prosecution began anew in the thirties, and the well-known ferocious condemnations of 1832-1844 followed. The Grand National Union was disbanded, and all over the country, both the private employers and the Government in its own workshops began to compel the workers to resign all connection with unions, and to sign \"the Document\" to that effect. Unionists were prosecuted wholesale under the Master and Servant Act--workers being summarily arrested and condemned upon a mere complaint of misbehaviour lodged by the master.(6) Strikes were suppressed in an autocratic way, and the most astounding condemnations took place for merely having announced a strike or acted as a delegate in it--to say nothing of the military suppression of strike riots, nor of the condemnations which followed the frequent outbursts of acts of violence. To practise mutual support under such circumstances was anything but an easy task. And yet, notwithstanding all obstacles, of which our own generation hardly can have an idea, the revival of the unions began again in 1841, and the amalgamation of the workers has been steadily continued since. After a long fight, which lasted for over a hundred years, the right of combining together was conquered, and at the present time nearly one-fourth part of the regularly-employed workers, i.e. about 1,500,000, belong to trade unions.(7)",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00635",
      "bookId": 4341,
      "start": 515845,
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      "text": "As to the other European States, sufficient to say that up to a very recent date, all sorts of unions were prosecuted as conspiracies; and that nevertheless they exist everywhere, even though they must often take the form of secret societies; while the extension and the force of labour organizations, and especially of the Knights of Labour, in the United States and in Belgium, have been sufficiently illustrated by strikes in the nineties. It must, however, be borne in mind that, prosecution apart, the mere fact of belonging to a labour union implies considerable sacrifices in money, in time, and in unpaid work, and continually implies the risk of losing employment for the mere fact of being a unionist.(8) There is, moreover, the strike, which a unionist has continually to face; and the grim reality of a strike is, that the limited credit of a worker's family at the baker's and the pawnbroker's is soon exhausted, the strike-pay goes not far even for food, and hunger is soon written on the children's faces. For one who lives in close contact with workers, a protracted strike is the most heartrending sight; while what a strike meant forty years ago in this country, and still means in all but the wealthiest parts of the continent, can easily be conceived. Continually, even now, strikes will end with the total ruin and the forced emigration of whole populations, while the shooting down of strikers on the slightest provocation, or even without any provocation,(9) is quite habitual still on the continent.",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00636",
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      "text": "And yet, every year there are thousands of strikes and lock-outs in Europe and America--the most severe and protracted contests being, as a rule, the so-called \"sympathy strikes,\" which are entered upon to support locked-out comrades or to maintain the rights of the unions. And while a portion of the Press is prone to explain strikes by \"intimidation,\" those who have lived among strikers speak with admiration of the mutual aid and support which are constantly practised by them. Every one has heard of the colossal amount of work which was done by volunteer workers for organizing relief during the London dock-labourers' strike; of the miners who, after having themselves been idle for many weeks, paid a levy of four shillings a week to the strike fund when they resumed work; of the miner widow who, during the Yorkshire labour war of 1894, brought her husband's life-savings to the strike-fund; of the last loaf of bread being always shared with neighbours; of the Radstock miners, favoured with larger kitchen-gardens, who invited four hundred Bristol miners to take their share of cabbage and potatoes, and so on. All newspaper correspondents, during the great strike of miners in Yorkshire in 1894, knew heaps of such facts, although not all of them could report such \"irrelevant\" matters to their respective papers.(10)",
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      "text": "We can thus see in Russia how the old medieval institution, having not been interfered with by the State (in its informal manifestations), has fully survived until now, and takes the greatest variety of forms in accordance with the requirements of modern industry and commerce. As to the Balkan peninsula, the Turkish Empire and Caucasia, the old guilds are maintained there in full. The esnafs of Servia have fully preserved their medieval character; they include both masters and journeymen, regulate the trades, and are institutions for mutual support in labour and sickness;(12) while the amkari of Caucasia, and especially at Tiflis, add to these functions a considerable influence in municipal life.(13)",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00641",
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      "text": "In connection with co-operation, I ought perhaps to mention also the friendly societies, the unities of oddfellows, the village and town clubs organized for meeting the doctors' bills, the dress and burial clubs, the small clubs very common among factory girls, to which they contribute a few pence every week, and afterwards draw by lot the sum of one pound, which can at least be used for some substantial purchase, and many others. A not inconsiderable amount of sociable or jovial spirit is alive in all such societies and clubs, even though the \"credit and debit\" of each member are closely watched over. But there are so many associations based on the readiness to sacrifice time, health, and life if required, that we can produce numbers of illustrations of the best forms of mutual support.",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00642",
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      "text": "The Lifeboat Association in this country, and similar institutions on the Continent, must be mentioned in the first place. The former has now over three hundred boats along the coasts of these isles, and it would have twice as many were it not for the poverty of the fisher men, who cannot afford to buy lifeboats. The crews consist, however, of volunteers, whose readiness to sacrifice their lives for the rescue of absolute strangers to them is put every year to a severe test; every winter the loss of several of the bravest among them stands on record. And if we ask these men what moves them to risk their lives, even when there is no reasonable chance of success, their answer is something on the following lines. A fearful snowstorm, blowing across the Channel, raged on the flat, sandy coast of a tiny village in Kent, and a small smack, laden with oranges, stranded on the sands near by. In these shallow waters only a flat-bottomed lifeboat of a simplified type can be kept, and to launch it during such a storm was to face an almost certain disaster. And yet the men went out, fought for hours against the wind, and the boat capsized twice. One man was drowned, the others were cast ashore. One of these last, a refined coastguard, was found next morning, badly bruised and half frozen in the snow. I asked him, how they came to make that desperate attempt? \"I don't know myself,\" was his reply.\" There was the wreck; all the people from the village stood on the beach, and all said it would be foolish to go out; we never should work through the surf. We saw five or six men clinging to the mast, making desperate signals. We all felt that something must be done, but what could we do? One hour passed, two hours, and we all stood there. We all felt most uncomfortable. Then, all of a sudden, through the storm, it seemed to us as if we heard their cries--they had a boy with them. We could not stand that any longer. All at once we said, \"We must go!\" The women said so too; they would have treated us as cowards if we had not gone, although next day they said we had been fools to go. As one man, we rushed to the boat, and went. The boat capsized, but we took hold of it. The worst was to see poor drowning by the side of the boat, and we could do nothing to save him. Then came a fearful wave, the boat capsized again, and we were cast ashore. The men were still rescued by the D. boat, ours was caught miles away. I was found next morning in the snow.\"",
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      "text": "The same feeling moved also the miners of the Rhonda Valley, when they worked for the rescue of their comrades from the inundated mine. They had pierced through thirty-two yards of coal in order to reach their entombed comrades; but when only three yards more remained to be pierced, fire-damp enveloped them. The lamps went out, and the rescue-men retired. To work in such conditions was to risk being blown up at every moment. But the raps of the entombed miners were still heard, the men were still alive and appealed for help, and several miners volunteered to work at any risk; and as they went down the mine, their wives had only silent tears to follow them--not one word to stop them.",
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      "text": "There is the gist of human psychology. Unless men are maddened in the battlefield, they \"cannot stand it\" to hear appeals for help, and not to respond to them. The hero goes; and what the hero does, all feel that they ought to have done as well. The sophisms of the brain cannot resist the mutual-aid feeling, because this feeling has been nurtured by thousands of years of human social life and hundreds of thousands of years of pre-human life in societies.",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00694",
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      "text": "And finally, in the last two chapters facts were produced to show that although the growth of the State on the pattern of Imperial Rome had put a violent end to all medieval institutions for mutual support, this new aspect of civilization could not last. The State, based upon loose aggregations of individuals and undertaking to be their only bond of union, did not answer its purpose. The mutual-aid tendency finally broke down its iron rules; it reappeared and reasserted itself in an infinity of associations which now tend to embrace all aspects of life and to take possession of all that is required by man for life and for reproducing the waste occasioned by life.",
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      "text": "It will probably be remarked that mutual aid, even though it may represent one of the factors of evolution, covers nevertheless one aspect only of human relations; that by the side of this current, powerful though it may be, there is, and always has been, the other current--the self-assertion of the individual, not only in its efforts to attain personal or caste superiority, economical, political, and spiritual, but also in its much more important although less evident function of breaking through the bonds, always prone to become crystallized, which the tribe, the village community, the city, and the State impose upon the individual. In other words, there is the self-assertion of the individual taken as a progressive element.",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00696",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "It is evident that no review of evolution can be complete, unless these two dominant currents are analyzed. However, the self-assertion of the individual or of groups of individuals, their struggles for superiority, and the conflicts which resulted therefrom, have already been analyzed, described, and glorified from time immemorial. In fact, up to the present time, this current alone has received attention from the epical poet, the annalist, the historian, and the sociologist. History, such as it has hitherto been written, is almost entirely a description of the ways and means by which theocracy, military power, autocracy, and, later on, the richer classes' rule have been promoted, established, and maintained. The struggles between these forces make, in fact, the substance of history. We may thus take the knowledge of the individual factor in human history as granted--even though there is full room for a new study of the subject on the lines just alluded to; while, on the other side, the mutual-aid factor has been hitherto totally lost sight of; it was simply denied, or even scoffed at, by the writers of the present and past generation. It was therefore necessary to show, first of all, the immense part which this factor plays in the evolution of both the animal world and human societies. Only after this has been fully recognized will it be possible to proceed to a comparison between the two factors.",
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      "ref": "PG4341.B00697",
      "bookId": 4341,
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      "text": "To make even a rough estimate of their relative importance by any method more or less statistical, is evidently impossible. One single war--we all know--may be productive of more evil, immediate and subsequent, than hundreds of years of the unchecked action of the mutual-aid principle may be productive of good. But when we see that in the animal world, progressive development and mutual aid go hand in hand, while the inner struggle within the species is concomitant with retrogressive development; when we notice that with man, even success in struggle and war is proportionate to the development of mutual aid in each of the two conflicting nations, cities, parties, or tribes, and that in the process of evolution war itself (so far as it can go this way) has been made subservient to the ends of progress in mutual aid within the nation, the city or the clan--we already obtain a perception of the dominating influence of the mutual-aid factor as an element of progress. But we see also that the practice of mutual aid and its successive developments have created the very conditions of society life in which man was enabled to develop his arts, knowledge, and intelligence; and that the periods when institutions based on the mutual-aid tendency took their greatest development were also the periods of the greatest progress in arts, industry, and science. In fact, the study of the inner life of the medieval city and of the ancient Greek cities reveals the fact that the combination of mutual aid, as it was practised within the guild and the Greek clan, with a large initiative which was left to the individual and the group by means of the federative principle, gave to mankind the two greatest periods of its history--the ancient Greek city and the medieval city periods; while the ruin of the above institutions during the State periods of history, which followed, corresponded in both cases to a rapid decay.",
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      "text": "As to the sudden industrial progress which has been achieved during our own century, and which is usually ascribed to the triumph of individualism and competition, it certainly has a much deeper origin than that. Once the great discoveries of the fifteenth century were made, especially that of the pressure of the atmosphere, supported by a series of advances in natural philosophy--and they were made under the medieval city organization,--once these discoveries were made, the invention of the steam-motor, and all the revolution which the conquest of a new power implied, had necessarily to follow. If the medieval cities had lived to bring their discoveries to that point, the ethical consequences of the revolution effected by steam might have been different; but the same revolution in technics and science would have inevitably taken place. It remains, indeed, an open question whether the general decay of industries which followed the ruin of the free cities, and was especially noticeable in the first part of the eighteenth century, did not considerably retard the appearance of the steam-engine as well as the consequent revolution in arts. When we consider the astounding rapidity of industrial progress from the twelfth to the fifteenth centuries--in weaving, working of metals, architecture and navigation, and ponder over the scientific discoveries which that industrial progress led to at the end of the fifteenth century--we must ask ourselves whether mankind was not delayed in its taking full advantage of these conquests when a general depression of arts and industries took place in Europe after the decay of medieval civilization. Surely it was not the disappearance of the artist-artisan, nor the ruin of large cities and the extinction of intercourse between them, which could favour the industrial revolution; and we know indeed that James Watt spent twenty or more years of his life in order to render his invention serviceable, because he could not find in the last century what he would have readily found in medieval Florence or Brugge, that is, the artisans capable of realizing his devices in metal, and of giving them the artistic finish and precision which the steam-engine requires.",
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      "text": "In the summer of 1847, with my carefully hoarded earnings, I resolved to seek an entrance into a medical school. Philadelphia was then considered the chief seat of medical learning in America, so to Philadelphia I went; taking passage in a sailing vessel from Charleston for the sake of economy.",
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      "text": "In Philadelphia I boarded in the family of Dr. William Elder. He and his admirable wife soon became warm and steadfast friends. Dr. Elder (author of the life of Dr. Kane, the Arctic voyager) was a remarkable man, of brilliant talent and genial nature. He took a generous interest in my plans, helping by his advice and encouragement through the months of effort and refusals which were now encountered.",
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      "text": "Applications were cautiously but persistently made to the four medical colleges of Philadelphia for admission as a regular student. The interviews with their various professors were by turns hopeful and disappointing. Whilst pursuing these inquiries I commenced my anatomical studies in the private school of Dr. Allen. This gentleman by his thoughtful arrangements enabled me to overcome the natural repulsion to these studies generally felt at the outset. With a tact and delicacy for which I have always felt grateful, he gave me as my first lesson in practical anatomy a demonstration of the human wrist. The beauty of the tendons and exquisite arrangements of this part of the body struck my artistic sense, and appealed to the sentiment of reverence with which this anatomical branch of study was ever afterwards invested in my mind.",
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      "text": "During the following months, whilst making applications to the different medical colleges of Philadelphia for admission as a regular student, I enlisted the services of my friends in the search for an Alma Mater. The interviews with the various professors, though disappointing, were often amusing.",
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      "text": "_Extracts from the Journal of 1847_",
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      "text": "Dr. Warrington told me that he had seen his friend Dr. Ashmead, who had told him that Paris was such a horrible place that I must give up my wish for a medical education—indeed, his communication would be so unfavourable that he would rather not meet me in person. I told the Doctor that if the path of duty led me to hell I would go there; and I did not think that by being with devils I should become a devil myself—at which the good Doctor stared.",
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      "text": "Nevertheless, I shrink extremely from the idea of giving up the attempt in America and going to France, although the suggestion is often urged on me.",
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      "text": "The fear of successful rivalry which at that time often existed in the medical mind was expressed by the dean of one of the smaller schools, who frankly replied to the application, ‘You cannot expect us to furnish you with a stick to break our heads with;’ so revolutionary seemed the attempt of a woman to leave a subordinate position and seek to obtain a complete medical education. A similarly mistaken notion of the rapid practical success which would attend a lady doctor was shown later by one of the professors of my medical college, who was desirous of entering into partnership with me on condition of sharing profits over 5,000 dollars on my first year’s practice.",
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      "text": "During these fruitless efforts my kindly Quaker adviser, whose private lectures I attended, said to me: ‘Elizabeth, it is of no use trying. Thee cannot gain admission to these schools. Thee must go to Paris and don masculine attire to gain the necessary knowledge.’ Curiously enough, this suggestion of disguise made by good Dr. Warrington was also given me by Doctor Pankhurst, the Professor of Surgery in the largest college in Philadelphia. He thoroughly approved of a woman’s gaining complete medical knowledge; told me that although my public entrance into the classes was out of the question, yet if I would assume masculine attire and enter the college he could entirely rely on two or three of his students to whom he should communicate my disguise, who would watch the class and give me timely notice to withdraw should my disguise be suspected.",
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      "text": "But neither the advice to go to Paris nor the suggestion of disguise tempted me for a moment. It was to my mind a moral crusade on which I had entered, a course of justice and common sense, and it must be pursued in the light of day, and with public sanction, in order to accomplish its end.",
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      "text": "The following letter to Mrs. Willard of Troy, the well-known educationalist, describes the difficulties through which the young student had to walk warily:—",
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      "text": "This letter enclosed the following unique and manly letter, which I had afterwards copied on parchment, and esteem one of my most valued possessions:—",
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      "text": "At a meeting of the entire medical class of Geneva Medical College, held this day, October 20, 1847, the following resolutions were unanimously adopted:—",
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      "text": "1. _Resolved_—That one of the radical principles of a Republican Government is the universal education of both sexes; that to every branch of scientific education the door should be open equally to all; that the application of Elizabeth Blackwell to become a member of our class meets our entire approbation; and in extending our unanimous invitation we pledge ourselves that no conduct of ours shall cause her to regret her attendance at this institution.",
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      "text": "2. _Resolved_—That a copy of these proceedings be signed by the chairman and transmitted to Elizabeth Blackwell.",
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      "text": "F. J. STRATTON, _Chairman_.",
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      "text": "_Christmas Day._—Bright and gay with sleighs. The lake looks most beautiful, the mist rising from it in arches, the sky a brilliant blue, and the ground covered with snow. I received my Christmas Annual with great joy; and having purchased 25 cents’ worth of almonds and raisins, I had quite a cosy time reading it.",
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      "text": "_Sunday, January 16._—A most beautiful day; it did me good. The text impressed itself on me—‘Thou wilt keep him in perfect peace whose mind is stayed on Thee.’ I felt happy and blessed. Ah! if the Almighty would always shine on me, how strong I should be! ‘The Lord God is a sun and shield; the Lord will give grace and glory; no good thing will He withhold from them that walk uprightly.’",
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      "text": "The behaviour of the medical class during the two years that I was with them was admirable. It was that of true Christian gentlemen. I learned later that some of them had been inclined to think my application for admission a hoax, perpetrated at their expense by a rival college. But when the _bona-fide_ student actually appeared they gave her a manly welcome, and fulfilled to the letter the promise contained in their invitation.",
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      "text": "My place in the various lecture-rooms was always kept for me, and I was never in any way molested. Walking down the crowded amphitheatre after the class was seated, no notice was taken of me. Whilst the class waited in one of the large lecture-rooms for the Professor of Practice, groups of the wilder students gathered at the windows, which overlooked the grounds of a large normal school for young ladies. The pupils of this institution knew the hour of this lecture, and gathered at their windows for a little fun. Here, peeping from behind the blinds, they responded to the jests and hurrahs of the students. ‘See the one in pink!’ ‘No, look at the one with a blue tie; she has a note,’ &c.—fun suddenly hushed by the entrance of the Professor. Meanwhile I had quietly looked over my notes in the seat always reserved for me, entirely undisturbed by the frolic going on at the windows.",
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      "text": "My studies in anatomy were most thoughtfully arranged by Dr. Le Ford, who selected four of the steadier students to work with me in the private room of the surgical professor, adjoining the amphitheatre. There we worked evening after evening in the most friendly way, and I gained curious glimpses into the escapades of student life. Being several years older than my companions, they treated me like an elder sister, and talked freely together, feeling my friendly sympathy.",
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      "text": "Passing through New York, where I dined with my kind preceptor, Dr. S. H. Dickson, and his wife, then living in the town, I returned to Philadelphia to try and arrange for summer study. Whilst seeking medical opportunities I again stayed in Dr. Elder’s family, and endeavoured to increase my slender finances by disposing of some stories I had written, and by obtaining music pupils.",
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      "text": "Knowing very little of practical medicine, I finally decided to spend the summer, if possible, studying in the hospital wards of the great Blockley Almshouse of Philadelphia. This enormous institution promised a fine field of observation. I obtained a letter of introduction to Mr. Gilpin, one of the directors of the almshouse.",
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      "text": "He received me most kindly, but informed me that the institution was so dominated by party feeling that if he, as a Whig, should bring forward my application for admission, it would be inevitably opposed by the other two parties—viz. the Democrats and the Native Americans. He said that my only chance of admission lay in securing the support of each of those parties, without referring in any way to the other rival parties. I accordingly undertook my sole act of ‘lobbying.’ I interviewed each political leader with favourable results, and then sent in my petition to the first Board meeting—when, lo! a unique scene took place; all were prepared to fight in my behalf, but there was no one to fight! I was unanimously admitted to reside in the hospital. This unanimity, I was afterwards assured, was quite without precedent in the records of the institution.",
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      "text": "On entering the Blockley Almshouse, a large room on the third floor had been appropriated to my use. It was in the women’s syphilitic department, the most unruly part of the institution. It was thought that my residence there might act as a check on the very disorderly inmates. My presence was a mystery to these poor creatures. I used to hear stealthy steps approach and pause at my door, evidently curious to know what I was about. So I placed my table with the books and papers on which I was engaged directly in a line with the keyhole; and there I worked in view of any who chose to investigate the proceedings of the mysterious stranger. The following home letter gives a glimpse of the Blockley life:—",
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      "text": "August.",
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      "text": "_August 17._—Drank tea with the matron, and had a very pleasant time. She excites me, and I influence her. She actually apologised to me for her rough and tyrannical treatment of one of the women.",
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      "text": "_August 19._—A beautiful thought came to me this lovely morning. Emerson says, ‘Our faith comes to us in moments, our vice is habitual.’ I never till now could explain this to my satisfaction. It is that the atmosphere of our society, of our daily surroundings, is false; it attracts the demons, they encompass us continually, for we live in their home. The angels have to strive to come to us. But when by a holy inspiration, or an effort of man’s nobler nature, he rises to a purer sphere, then the angels throng lovingly round him: he breathes the Divine life. But the moment this effort is relaxed, he, not living in a heavenly atmosphere, naturally and inevitably sinks again into hell, because his present home is there—for he cannot separate himself from the race. Not till the _race_ is redeemed will our habitual state be heavenly, and the true spontaneous Divine life be possible. This is the philosophy of effort. The solidarity of our race asserts the impossibility of present permanent Divine life. Bless God for our deep momentary experiences—our prophetic assurances! This sweet morning refreshes me inexpressibly. The wind that lifts my hair seems filled with angel hands that soothe the soul to peace; that little warbling bird fills me with holy joy; a glory seems to rest everywhere, a tide from the Divine Nature.",
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      "text": "During my residence at Blockley, the medical head of the hospital, Dr. Benedict, was most kind, and gave me every facility in his power. I had free entry to all the women’s wards, and was soon on good terms with the nurses. But the young resident physicians, unlike their chief, were not friendly. When I walked into the wards they walked out. They ceased to write the diagnosis and treatment of patients on the card at the head of each bed, which had hitherto been the custom, thus throwing me entirely on my own resources for clinical study.",
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      "text": "During the summer of 1848 the famine fever was raging in Ireland. Multitudes of emigrants were attacked with fever whilst crossing the ocean, and so many were brought to Blockley that it was difficult to provide accommodation for them, many being laid on beds on the floor. But this terrible epidemic furnished an impressive object-lesson, and I chose this form of typhus as the subject of my graduation thesis, studying in the midst of the poor dying sufferers who crowded the hospital wards. I read my thesis to Dr. Elder, and was greatly encouraged by his hearty approbation.",
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      "text": "Trying as my painful residence at Blockley had been both to body and mind, I was conscious of the great gain in medical knowledge and worldly experience which it had afforded. The following journal entry expresses the mixed feelings with which that strange residence was left:—",
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      "text": "BELOVED RELATIONS.—The important crisis is past, the great occasion over, the object of so much and so justifiable anticipation has been attained, and proud as I always feel of the Blackwells, my familism never seemed to me so reasonable and so perfectly a matter of course as it did this morning, when, having escorted E. into the crowded church and taken my seat beside her, we learned from the music that the graduating class, headed by the dean, trustees, faculty, &c., were marching in solemn conclave into the aisle. I found E. well and in good spirits, as you may suppose. Monday morning E. and I went to the college, where she underwent a second examination, as did also the other members of the graduating class, from the curators of the university, no others but themselves, the class, and the faculty being admitted. From this, as from the former one, our Sis came off with flying colours and the reputation of being altogether the leader of the class. In the afternoon they were successively called upon to read from their theses, and to this I was admitted; but Elizabeth’s being in Buffalo to be printed, she could not be called upon. The Professor and students all seem to feel most kindly and warmly friendly. While I sat by the stove on Monday morning at the college whilst the graduating class were undergoing their examination below, the other students, scarcely any of them being acquainted with my personality, conversed freely about matters and things, and of course about Elizabeth. ‘Well, boys,’ one would say, ‘our Elib. feels first-rate this morning. Do you notice how pleased she looks?’ ‘Yes, indeed,’ replied another, ‘and I think she well may after the examination she passed yesterday.’ ‘So Lizzie will get her diploma after all,’ said a third. ‘If any member of the class gets one, _she_ is sure of it,’ said a fourth. Then all agreed that ‘our Elib.’ was ‘a great girl,’ and in short I found that she was a universal favourite with both professors and students. Nothing could be more cordial than the former are, and several are very gentlemanly and intelligent men indeed, and I formed some pleasant acquaintances among them.",
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      "text": "On the morning of the Commencement little Dr. Webster was _in his glory_; he is a warm supporter of Elizabeth and likes a fuss, and nothing could exceed his delight when he found that the whole country round was sending in large numbers of people, and that all the ladies of Geneva were turning out _en masse_ to see a lady receive a medical diploma. At ten o’clock A.M. the students met at the college and marched in procession with music to the Literary College, where they were headed by the Bishop of New York, Dr. Hale, the dean, and the curators, the faculty, &c. Dr. Webster was very anxious that E. should march in procession, and sent down two messages to that effect; but E. very properly refused. About half-past ten o’clock Elizabeth and I walked up to the church—she was very nicely dressed in her black brocaded silk gown, _invisibly green_ gloves, black silk stockings, &c. As we ascended the college steps, Dr. Webster met Eliz. and again urged the request, whereupon she told him peremptorily that ‘it wouldn’t be ladylike.’ ‘Wouldn’t it indeed? Why, no, I forgot—I suppose it wouldn’t,’ said the little Doctor, evidently struck for the first time with the idea. So it was arranged that Eliz. and I should sit down at the entrance of the left aisle and join the procession as it came up, and we then walked in and sat down. We found the church, galleries and all, _crowded with ladies_, they only having been as yet admitted; and of course when we came in there was a general stir and murmur, and everybody turned to look at us. By the time the procession came up, all the pews, except those reserved for students, were filled, and the gentlemen had to pour in afterwards and take the aisles, &c. When the procession entered, Mr. Field, a very pleasant, gentlemanly fellow-graduate, offered his arm, and all the class took their seats together in front of the stage. After a short discourse by Dr. Hale, the President, the diplomas were conferred—four being called up at a time—and, ascending the steps to the platform, the President, addressed them in a Latin formula, taking off his hat, but remaining seated, and so handed them their diplomas, which they received with a bow and retired. Elizabeth was left to the last and called up alone. The President taking off his hat, rose, and addressing her in the same formula, substituting _Domina_ for _Domine_, presented her the diploma, whereupon our Sis, who had walked up and stood before him with much dignity, bowed and half turned to retire, but suddenly turning back replied: ‘Sir, I thank you; by the help of the Most High it shall be the effort of my life to shed honour upon your diploma;’ whereupon she bowed and the President bowed, the audience gave manifestations of applause, little Dr. Webster rubbed his hands, the learned curators and faculty nodded grave approbation at each other upon the platform, and our Sis, descending the steps, took her seat with her fellow-physicians in front. Now walks up into the pulpit Professor Lee, with a large manuscript and a solemn air, and commences his address to the graduates. It was on the whole good; he gave it pretty strong to Homœopathists, Hydropathists, Mesmerists, Thompsonians, &c., and gave the ladies of the audience quite a lecture for their encouragement and circulation of quack medicines, informing them that they had better study a little the principles of medicine before attempting to practise what they were so profoundly ignorant about. At the close he alluded to the novel proceeding which they had taken, and the censure or imitation which it would necessarily create. He justified the proceeding, and passed a most gratifying and enthusiastic encomium on the result of the experiment in the case of Eliz. He pronounced her the _leader_ of her class; stated that she had passed through a thorough course _in every department_, slighting none; that she had profited to the very utmost by all the advantages of the institution, and by her ladylike and dignified deportment had proved that the strongest intellect and nerve and the most untiring perseverance were compatible with the softest attributes of feminine delicacy and grace, &c., to all which the students manifest by decided attempts at applause their entire concurrence. As the audience passed out the Bishop came up with Dr. Hale, requested an introduction, and spoke very pleasantly, congratulating her on her course, to the great astonishment of the conservatives. As we walked out of the church we found that almost all the ladies had stopped outside, and as we appeared, opened their ranks and let us pass, regarding E. with very friendly countenances. Most of E.’s time was taken up till our departure next day at half-past one o’clock in receiving calls from her few friends.",
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      "text": "The admission of a woman for the first time to a complete medical education and full equality in the privileges and the responsibilities of the profession produced a widespread effect in America. The public press very generally recorded the event, and expressed a favourable opinion of it.",
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      "text": "Even in Europe some notice of it was taken, and ‘Punch’ showed his cordial appreciation by his amusing but friendly verses.[5]",
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      "text": "I knew, however, that a first step only had been taken. Although popular sanction had been gained for the innovation, and a full recognised status secured, yet much more medical experience than I possessed was needed before the serious responsibilities of practice could be justly met. Returning, therefore, to Philadelphia, I endeavoured still to continue my studies. I was politely received by the heads of the profession in Philadelphia as a professional sister, and made the following notes in a journal of that date:—",
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      "text": "The growing perplexity of the conscientious student awakening to the uncertainty of the art of medicine is now apparent in letters written at this time.",
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      "text": "_November 20, 1850._",
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      "text": "DEAR E.,—I want to talk to you seriously about the future—that is to say, my _medical future_. It has been a heavy, perplexing subject to me on what system I should practise, for the old one appeared to me wrong, and I have even thought every heresy better; but since I have been looking into these heresies a little more closely I feel as dissatisfied with them as with the old one. We hear of such wonderful cures continually being wrought by this and the other thing, that we forget on how small a number the novelty has been exercised, and the failures are never mentioned; but on the same principle, I am convinced that if the old system were the heresy, and the heresy the established custom, we should hear the same wonders related of the drugs. Neither hydropathy nor mesmerism are what their enthusiastic votaries imagine them to be. At Gräfenberg I could not hear of one case of perfect cure, and unfortunately the undoubtedly great resources of cold water are not so developed and classified as to enable a young practitioner to introduce it, professedly, into his practice. Mesmerism has not converted me since watching its effects on patients. I do wish most heartily that I could discover more of the remedial agency of magnetism, for my conviction is that it ought to be powerfully beneficial in some cases; and as I find they have a magnetic dispensary here in London, I shall certainly try and attend it frequently. I am sorry that I have been unable hitherto to attend more to homœopathy, the third heresy of the present time, but I am trying now to find out opportunities. Here I have been following now with earnest attention, for a few weeks, the practice of a very large London hospital, and I find the majority of patients do get well; so I have come to this conclusion—that I must begin with a practice which is an old-established custom, which has really more expressed science than any other system; but nevertheless, as it dissatisfies me heartily, I shall commence as soon as possible building up a hospital in which I can experiment; and the very instant I feel _sure_ of any improvement I shall adopt it in my practice, in spite of a whole legion of opponents. Now E., future partner, what say you—is it not the only rational course? If I were rich I would not begin private practice, but would only experiment; as, however, I am poor, I have no choice. I look forward with great interest to the time when you can aid me in these matters, for I have really no _medical friend_; all the gentlemen I meet seem separated by an invincible, invisible barrier, and the women who take up the subject partially are inferior. It will not always be so; when the novelty of the innovation is past, men and women will be valuable friends in medicine, but for a time that cannot be. I spend now about three or four hours each day in the wards, chiefly medical, diagnosing disease, watching the progress of cases, and accustoming my ear to the stethoscope. Already, in this short time, I feel that I have made progress, and detect sounds that I could not distinguish on my entrance. I advise you, E., to familiarise yourself with the healthy sounds of the chest. When you go home, auscultate all the family; you will find quite a variety in the sounds, though all may be healthy persons. Lay a cloth over the chest and listen with the ear simply; it is as good as a stethoscope with clean people. I wish I could lend you my little black stethoscope that I brought from the Maternité.",
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      "text": "I have been disappointed in one thing here—the Professor of Midwifery and the Diseases of Women and Children wrote me a very polite note, telling me that he entirely disapproved of a lady’s studying medicine, and begging me to consider that his neglecting to give me aid was owing to no disrespect to me as a lady, but to his condemnation of my object.",
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      "text": "By-the-by, I must tell you of a scientific explanation of the toughness of meat which I obtained from Mr. Paget’s lecture the other morning; it arises from cooking meat during the _rigor mortis_! Would not that be a delicate suggestion for a squeamish individual?...",
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      "text": "PRACTICAL WORK IN AMERICA",
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      "text": "The first seven years of New York life were years of very difficult, though steady, uphill work. It was carried on without cessation and without change from town, either summer or winter. I took good rooms in University Place, but patients came very slowly to consult me. I had no medical companionship, the profession stood aloof, and society was distrustful of the innovation. Insolent letters occasionally came by post, and my pecuniary position was a source of constant anxiety.",
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      "text": "Soon after settling down I made an application to be received as one of the physicians in the women’s department of a large City dispensary; but the application was refused, and I was advised to form my own dispensary.",
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      "text": "My keenest pleasure in those early days came from the encouraging letters received from the many valued English friends who extended across the ocean the warm sympathy they had shown in London. They strengthened that feeling of kinship to my native land which finally drew me back to it.",
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      "text": "A correspondence with Lady Byron, which extended over some years, was particularly encouraging; for the strong scientific tastes of this admirable woman, as well as her large benevolence, led her to take a steady interest in the study of medicine by women.",
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      "text": "My first medical consultation was a curious experience. In a severe case of pneumonia in an elderly lady I called in consultation a kind-hearted physician of high standing who had been present in Cincinnati at the time of my father’s fatal illness. This gentleman, after seeing the patient, went with me into the parlour. There he began to walk about the room in some agitation, exclaiming, ‘A most extraordinary case! Such a one never happened to me before; I really do not know what to do!’ I listened in surprise and much perplexity, as it was a clear case of pneumonia and of no unusual degree of danger, until at last I discovered that his perplexity related to _me_, not to the patient, and to the propriety of consulting with a lady physician! I was both amused and relieved. I at once assured my old acquaintance that it need not be considered in the light of an ordinary consultation, if he were uneasy about it, but as a friendly talk. So, finally, he gave me his best advice; my patient rapidly got well, and happily I never afterwards had any difficulty in obtaining a necessary consultation from members of the profession.",
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      "text": "In 1852, warmly encouraged by Mrs. Dr. Bellows, I published the lectures I had given, under the title, ‘The Laws of Life in reference to the Physical Education of Girls.’ This little work was favourably regarded by physicians; it drew forth an encouraging letter from the dean of my college, to my very great gratification. It also happened to fall under Mr. Ruskin’s notice, and gained his valuable commendation.",
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      "text": "Being still excluded from medical companionship, and from the means of increasing medical knowledge which dispensary practice affords, I finally determined to try and form an independent dispensary.",
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      "text": "In 1853, with the aid of some of my friends, a small room was engaged in a poor quarter of the town near Tompkin’s Square; one of my Quaker friends, Mrs. Cornelia Hussey, actively assisted in arranging drugs, covering a screen, &c. This dispensary (afterwards moved to Third Street) was opened three afternoons in each week, and I had the satisfaction during the following two years of finding it welcomed by the poor, and steadily enlisting a larger circle of friends.",
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      "text": "In 1854 the Act of Incorporation for an institution where women physicians could be available for the poor was obtained, and a few well-known citizens consented to act as trustees. The first annual report of this modest little dispensary is given in the Appendix. From this very small beginning have gradually arisen the present flourishing institutions of the New York Infirmary and College for Women.",
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      "text": "It was during these first early years that, not being able to continue the expense of good consultation-rooms, I determined to _buy_ a house. A friend lent me the necessary money at fair interest, and a house in a good situation in Fifteenth Street was selected. This transaction proved a very material assistance in many different ways, and enabled me to form the home centre which is so necessary to the most efficient work. In later years also this early experience helped me to realise more fully the fundamental importance of the great land question, or ‘a stake in the soil,’ as well as other weighty social problems.",
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      "text": "The difficulties and trials encountered at this early period were severe. Ill-natured gossip, as well as insolent anonymous letters, came to me. Although I have never met with any serious difficulties in attending to my practice at all hours of the night, yet unpleasant annoyances from unprincipled men were not infrequent. Some well-dressed man would walk by my side on Broadway, saying in a low voice, ‘Turn down Duane Street to the right;’ or whilst waiting for a horse-car at midnight by the City Hall a policeman would try to take my hand; or a group of late revellers would shout across the street, ‘See that lone woman walking like mad!’ But with common sense, self-reliance, and attention to the work in hand, any woman can pursue the medical calling without risk.",
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      "text": "In December of 1855 I gave a first drawing-room ‘Address on the Medical Education of Women.’",
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      "text": "In this address (which was afterwards printed) it was shown that the movement was only a revival of work in which women had always been engaged; but that it was a revival in an advanced form, suited to the age and to the enlarging capabilities of women.",
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      "text": "The clear perception of the providential call to women to take their full share in human progress has always led us to insist upon a full and identical medical education for our students. From the beginning in America, and later on in England, we have always refused to be tempted by the specious offers urged upon us to be satisfied with partial or specialised instruction. On the occasion of this address an appeal was made for assistance in collecting funds for the growth of the dispensary and the gradual formation of a hospital, as indispensable for the accomplishment of the work. A committee of three ladies was appointed at this drawing-room meeting, for the purpose of beginning the difficult work of collecting a permanent fund.",
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      "text": "In 1854, my sister, Dr. Emily Blackwell, who had graduated with honour at the Medical College of Cleveland, Ohio, was pursuing her studies in Europe.",
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      "text": "There she gained invaluable surgical experience from having been generously received as assistant by Sir James Simpson in his extensive practice in female diseases. The genial character of this well-known physician was shown not only by his cordial reception of Dr. Emily as pupil and assistant, but by an amusing incident which occurred whilst his consulting-rooms were filled by a waiting assembly of aristocratic patients. My sister, being a classical scholar, was often employed by the Doctor in making translations or extracts for him. On one occasion, whilst thus engaged in the farthest room of the suite, he called in a low voice, ‘Dr. Blackwell,’ then a little louder, ‘_Dr. Blackwell_,’ and when the attention of all his patients was thus aroused, he called in a voice loud enough for my sister to hear, ‘DR. BLACKWELL!’ and then from the corner of his eye, and with intense amusement, he watched the varied expressions of surprise and dismay depicted on the countenances of his distinguished patients as they saw the approach along the suite of rooms of a lady who thus answered to the summons.",
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      "text": "I have at last found a student in whom I can take a great deal of interest—Marie Zackrzewska, a German, about twenty-six. Dr. Schmidt, the head of the Berlin midwifery department, discovered her talent, advised her to study, and finally appointed her as chief midwife in the hospital under him; there she taught classes of about 150 women and 50 young men, and proved herself most capable. When Dr. Schmidt died, the American Minister advised her to come to New York; but here the German doctors wanted her to become a nurse. In desperation she consulted ‘The Home for the Friendless,’ where they advised her to come to me. There is true stuff in her, and I shall do my best to bring it out. She must obtain a medical degree....",
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      "text": "July 24.",
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      "text": "Don’t be discouraged. There is no doubt about our losing many opportunities because of our sex, but you must also bear in mind the disadvantages all students labour under, unless in exceptional cases. Crowded together in masses, they only see at a distance the most interesting cases; the complete study is reserved for the physician or his constant attendant. I remember expressing my impatience while in the Maternité at the restrictive rules there, and M. Blot said, ‘What you wish for are only enjoyed by the few who occupy the most favoured positions.’ Yet I gained, in spite of all difficulties, a great deal, and in accelerating ratio the longer I stayed. I remember that it seemed to me I had gained more in my fourth month at the Maternité than in the whole three preceding ones. Now I say this because I don’t want you to over-estimate the worth of pantaloons. Disguise in France or elsewhere would by no means give you all you need; if the disguise were complete you would just be reduced to the level of the common poor student, and would be, I think, quite disappointed. It needs also that influential men should take an interest in you, and give you chances quite beyond the ordinary run. I know that at St. Bartholomew’s I would not have exchanged my position for that of the simple student, though I would gladly for the clinical clerk or _interne’s_ position. Now you can do nothing in France, except by special medical influence. Your time is limited, and you cannot wait for examinations and promotions as an ordinary student. You ask me what I did, and what can be done as a lady. I entered the Maternité, dissected at l’Ecole des Beaux-Arts alone, employed a _répétiteur_ who drilled me in anatomy and smuggled me into the dead-house of La Charité at great risk of detection, where I operated on the _cadavre_. I once made the rounds of his wards in the Hôtel-Dieu with Roux, heard his lectures, and saw his operations. I attended lectures on medical generalities at the College of France and Jardin des Plantes. I believe that was all in the way of Parisian study. I applied to Davenne, Director-General of the hospitals, for permission to follow the physicians—refused; applied to Dubois and Trousseau to attend lectures at the Ecole de Médecine—refused; Trousseau advising me to disguise. You see I had no introductions, no experience. I went into the Maternité soon after going to France, and came out with a sad accident, not inclined to renew the battle, not well knowing how, and with a promising chance opened to me in London. I should do differently now. I should get the most influential introduction I could; I should tell them just what I wanted, find which hospitals would be most suited to my purpose, and if by putting on disguise I could get either an assistant’s post or good visiting privilege, I would put it on. I don’t believe it would be a disguise at all to those you were thrown with, but it would be a protection if advised by intelligent men, and would make them free to help you. I should avoid crowds, because you gain nothing in them; I don’t think either the lectures at l’Ecole de Médecine or the great hospital visits, where from one to five hundred students follow, would be of any use. It is in a more private and intimate way, and in hospitals where many students do not go, that you might gain. I know no one in a position to give you more valuable letters than Dr. Simpson, if he is disposed to. You ask me what I saw at the Maternité, but I find my notes imperfect; I have only noted down nine versions, &c. But I think the most important thing in the Maternité is the drilling in the more ordinary labours, for only where the finger is thoroughly trained can you detect varieties. The cases you send me are very interesting, and I am very glad you have made such full notes, as they will be useful hints in future solitary practice. Don’t be in a hurry to leave Dr. S., for I fear you will nowhere else find a good drilling in that department. I shall see how far I can make your notes available from time to time in my own practice. With regard to my own _clientèle_, I shall have advanced 50 dollars over last year; slow progress, but still satisfactory, as it is reliable practice, not capricious success. Only think, the thermometer has been up to 102 in some of the rooms down town! We have had three days’ ‘spells’ this July that seem to me a little beyond anything I have ever had to endure.",
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      "text": "November 13.",
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      "text": "I shall be very anxious to know what you do in Paris. I almost doubt the propriety of your entering the Maternité, or rather I hope that the necessity may be obviated by your finding other openings. That Dubois is somewhat of an old fox, and will, I presume, at once advise your entrance, to get rid of any responsibility; but I would not think of doing so until I had seen all the others and tried for better openings. I think you could get sufficient midwifery at the Ecole de Médecine, where the midwives have the night cases; the association would be unpleasant from the character of the women, but it would leave you your freedom. You have done excellently in Edinburgh, and nothing could be more satisfactory than the way you leave. I think, however, before going to Paris you had certainly better see Dr. Oldham of Guy’s; he is disposed to be friendly, and if he chose might greatly help you. It would seem as if it would be well to pursue your English studies before the Parisian; if you could follow Doctors Burrows and Baly in medicine at St. Bartholomew’s, and Oldham at Guy’s, you would do well. I am very glad you are collecting special medical statistics; we shall find them very serviceable in lecture or pamphlet form. It will be necessary next year to make an active effort for the dispensary, and I think a few lectures would be very important. My conviction becomes constantly stronger that you will return, and my plans for the future all involve that fact. A pleasant circumstance occurred to my German, Dr. Zackrzewska. I arranged a Cleveland course for her, and she entered two weeks ago; she met a very friendly reception, and found that Dr. Kirkland is in correspondence with Professor Müller of Berlin, and he had mentioned her in some of his letters in such high terms, that the faculty told her, if she would qualify herself for examination in surgery and chemistry and write an English thesis, that they would graduate her at the end of this term. Of course she is studying with might and main, and will, I have no doubt, succeed; so we may reckon on a little group of three next year. That will be quite encouraging.",
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      "text": "[PDF page 13] Figures. vii. Any combination of points, of lines, or of points and lines in a plane, is called a plane figure. If a figure be formed of points only it is called a stigmatic figure; and if of right lines only, a rectilineal figure. viii. Points which lie on the same right line are called collinear points. A figure formed of collinear points is called a row of points. The Angle. ix. The inclination of two right lines extending out from one point in different directions is called a rectilineal angle. x. The two lines are called the legs, and the point the vertex of the angle. A right line drawn from the vertex and turning about it in the plane of the angle, from the position of coincidence with one leg to that of coincidence with the other, is said to turn through the angle, and the angle is the greater as the quantity of turning is the greater. Again, since the line may turn from one position to the other in either of two ways, two angles are formed by two lines drawn from a point. Thus if AB, AC be the legs, a line may turn from the position AB to the position AC in the two ways indicated by the arrows. The smaller of the angles thus formed is to be understood as the angle contained by the lines. The larger, called a re-entrant angle, seldom occurs in the “Elements.” xi. Designation of Angles. —A particular angle in a figure is denoted by three letters, as BAC, of which the middle one, A, is at the vertex, and the other two along the legs. The angle is then read BAC. xii. The angle formed by joining two or more angles together is called their sum. Thus the sum of the two angles ABC, P QR is the angle AB′R, formed by applying the side QP to the side BC, so that the vertex Q shall fall on the vertex B, and the side QR on the opposite side of BC from BA. xiii. When the sum of two angles BAC, CAD is such that the legs BA, AD form one right line, they are called supplements of each other. Hence, when one line stands on another, the two angles which it makes on the same side of that on which it stands are supplements of each other. 3",
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      "text": "[PDF page 14] xiv. When one line stands on another, and makes the adjacent angles at both sides of itself equal, each of the angles is called a right angle, and the line which stands on the other is called a perpendicular to it. Hence a right angle is equal to its supplement. xv. An acute angle is one which is less than a right angle, as A. xvi. An obtuse angle is one which is greater than a right angle, as BAC. The supplement of an acute angle is obtuse, and conversely, the supplement of an obtuse angle is acute. xvii. When the sum of two angles is a right angle, each is called the complement of the other. Thus, if the angle BAC be right, the angles BAD, DAC are complements of each other. Concurrent Lines. xviii. Three or more right lines passing through the same point are called concurrent lines. xix. A system of more than three concurrent lines is called a pencil of lines. Each line of a pencil is called a ray, and the common point through which the rays pass is called the vertex. The Triangle. xx. A triangle is a figure formed by three right lines joined end to end. The three lines are called its sides. xxi. A triangle whose three sides are unequal is said to be scalene, as A; a triangle having two sides equal, to be isosceles, as B; and and having all its sides equal, to be equilateral, as C. xxii. A right-angled triangle is one that has one of its angles a right angle, as D. The side which subtends the right angle is called the hypotenuse. 4",
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      "text": "[PDF page 15] xxiii. An obtuse-angled triangle is one that has one of its angles obtuse, as E. xxiv. An acute-angled triangle is one that has its three angles acute, as F . xxv. An exterior angle of a triangle is one that is formed by any side and the continuation of another side. Hence a triangle has six exterior angles; and also each exterior angle is the supplement of the adjacent interior angle. The Polygon. xxvi. A rectilineal figure bounded by more than three right lines is usually called a polygon. xxvii. A polygon is said to be convex when it has no re-entrant angle. xxviii. A polygon of four sides is called a quadrilateral. xxix. A quadrilateral whose four sides are equal is called a lozenge. xxx. A lozenge which has a right angle is called a square. xxxi. A polygon which has five sides is called a pentagon; one which has six sides, a hexagon, and so on. The Circle. xxxii. A circle is a plane figure formed by a curved line called the circumference, and is such that all right lines drawn from a certain point within the figure to the circumference are equal to one another. This point is called the centre. xxxiii. A radius of a circle is any right line drawn from the centre to the circumference, such as CD. xxxiv. A diameter of a circle is a right line drawn through the centre and terminated both ways by the circumference, such as AB. From the definition of a circle it follows at once that the path of a movable point in a plane which remains at a constant distance from a fixed point is a circle; also that any point P in the plane is inside, outside, or on the circumference of a circle according as its distance from the centre is less than, greater than, or equal to, the radius. Postulates. Let it be granted that— i. A right line may be drawn from any one point to any other point. When we consider a straight line contained between two fixed points which are its ends, such a portion is called a finite straight line. ii. A terminated right line may be produced to any length in a right line. 5",
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      "text": "[PDF page 16] Every right line may extend without limit in either direction or in both. It is in these cases called an indefinite line. By this postulate a finite right line may be supposed to be produced, whenever we please, into an indefinite right line. iii. A circle may be described from any centre, and with any distance from that centre as radius. If there be two points A and B, and if with any instruments, such as a ruler and pen, we draw a line from A to B, this will evidently have some irregularities, and also some breadth and thickness. Hence it will not be a geometrical line no matter how nearly it may approach to one. This is the reason that Euclid postulates the drawing of a right line from one point to another. For if it could be accurately done there would be no need for his asking us to let it be granted. Similar observations apply to the other postulates. It is also worthy of remark that Euclid never takes for granted the doing of anything for which a geometrical construction, founded on other problems or on the foregoing postulates, can be given. Axioms. i. Things which are equal to the same, or to equals, are equal to each other. Thus, if there be three things, and if the first, and the second, be each equal to the third, we infer by this axiom that the first is equal to the second. This axiom relates to all kinds of magnitude. The same is true of Axioms ii., iii., iv., v., vi., vii., ix.; but viii., x., xi., xii., are strictly geometrical. ii. If equals be added to equals the sums will be equal. iii. If equals be taken from equals the remainders will be equal. iv. If equals be added to unequals the sums will be unequal. v. If equals be taken from unequals the remainders will be unequal. vi. The doubles of equal magnitudes are equal. vii. The halves of equal magnitudes are equal. viii. Magnitudes that can be made to coincide are equal. The placing of one geometrical magnitude on another, such as a line on a line, a triangle on a triangle, or a circle on a circle, &c., is called superposition. The superposition employed in Geometry is only mental, that is, we conceive one magnitude placed on the other; and then, if we can prove that they coincide, we infer, by the present axiom, that they are equal. Superposition involves the following principle, of which, without explicitly stating it, Euclid makes frequent use:—“Any figure may be transferred from one position to another without change of form or size.” ix. The whole is greater than its part. This axiom is included in the following, which is a fuller statement:— ix′. The whole is equal to the sum of all its parts. x. Two right lines cannot enclose a space. This is equivalent to the statement, “If two right lines have two points common to both, they coincide in direction,” that is, they form but one line, and this holds true even when one of the points is at infinity. xi. All right angles are equal to one another. This can be proved as follows:—Let there be two right lines AB, CD, and two perpendic- ulars to them, namely, EF , GH, then if AB, CD be made to coincide by superposition, so that the point E will coincide with G; then since a right angle is equal to its supplement, the line EF must coincide with GH. Hence the angle AEF is equal to CGH . xii. If two right lines ( AB, CD ) meet a third line ( AC), so as to make the sum of the two interior angles ( BAC, ACD ) on the same side less than two right angles, these lines being produced shall meet at some finite distance. 6",
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      "text": "[PDF page 17] This axiom is the converse of Prop. xvii., Book I. Explanation of Terms. Axioms.—“Elements of human reason,” according toDugald Stewart, are certain general propositions, the truths of which are self-evident, and which are so fundamental, that they cannot be inferred from any propositions which are more elementary; in other words, they are incapable of demonstration. “That two sides of a triangle are greater than the third” is, perhaps, self-evident; but it is not an axiom, inasmuch as it can be inferred by demonstration from other propositions; but we can give no proof of the proposition that “things which are equal to the same are equal to one another,” and, being self-evident, it is an axiom. Propositions which are not axioms are properties of figures obtained by pro- cesses of reasoning. They are divided into theorems and problems. A Theorem is the formal statement of a property that may be demonstrated from known propositions. These propositions may themselves be theorems or axioms. A theorem consists of two parts, the hypothesis, or that which is as- sumed, and the conclusion, or that which is asserted to follow therefrom. Thus, in the typical theorem, If X is Y, then Z is W, (i.) the hypothesis is that X is Y , and the conclusion is that Z is W . Converse Theorems .—Two theorems are said to be converse, each of the other, when the hypothesis of either is the conclusion of the other. Thus the converse of the theorem ( i.) is— If Z is W, then X is Y. (ii.) From the two theorems ( i.) and ( ii.) we may infer two others, called their contrapositives. Thus the contrapositive of (i.) is, If Z is not W , then X is not Y ; ( iii.) of (ii.) is, If X is not Y , then Z is not W . ( iv.) The theorem (iv.) is called the obverse of (i.), and (iii.) the obverse of ( ii.). A Problem is a proposition in which something is proposed to be done, such as a line to be drawn, or a figure to be constructed, under some given conditions. 7",
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      "text": "[PDF page 18] The Solution of a problem is the method of construction which accomplishes the required end. The Demonstration is the proof, in the case of a theorem, that the conclusion follows from the hypothesis; and in the case of a problem, that the construction accomplishes the object proposed. The Enunciation of a problem consists of two parts, namely, the data, or things supposed to be given, and the quaesita, or things required to be done. Postulates are the elements of geometrical construction, and occupy the same relation with respect to problems as axioms do to theorems. A Corollary is an inference or deduction from a proposition. A Lemma is an auxiliary proposition required in the demonstration of a principal proposition. A Secant or Transversal is a line which cuts a system of lines, a circle, or any other geometrical figure. Congruent figures are those that can be made to coincide by superposi- tion. They agree in shape and size, but differ in position. Hence it follows, by Axiom viii., that corresponding parts or portions of congruent figures are congruent, and that congruent figures are equal in every respect. Rule of Identity .—Under this name the following principle will be sometimes referred to:—“If there is but one X and one Y , then, from the fact that X is Y , it necessarily follows that Y is X.”—Syllabus. PROP. I.—Problem. On a given finite right line (AB) to construct an equilateral triangle. Sol.—With A as centre, and AB as radius, describe the circle BCD (Post. iii.). With B as centre, and BA as radius, describe the circle ACE, cut- ting the former circle in C. Join CA, CB (Post. i.). Then ABC is the equi- lateral triangle required. Dem.—Because A is the centre of the circle BCD , AC is equal to AB (Def. xxxii.). Again, because B is the centre of the circle ACE, BC is equal to BA. Hence we have proved. AC = AB, and BC = AB. But things which are equal to the same are equal to one another (Axiom i.); therefore AC is equal to BC; therefore the three lines AB, BC, CA are equal to one another. Hence the triangle ABC is equilateral (Def. xxi.); and it is described on the given line AB, which was required to be done. 8",
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      "text": "[PDF page 19] Questions for Examination. 1. What is the datum in this proposition? 2. What is the quaesitum? 3. What is a finite right line? 4. What is the opposite of finite? 5. In what part of the construction is the third postulate quoted? and for what purpose? Where is the first postulate quoted? 6. Where is the first axiom quoted? 7. What use is made of the definition of a circle? What is a circle? 8. What is an equilateral triangle? Exercises. The following exercises are to be solved when the pupil has mastered the First Book:— 1. If the lines AF , BF be joined, the figure ACBF is a lozenge. 2. If AB be produced to D and E, the triangles CDF and CEF are equilateral. 3. If CA, CB be produced to meet the circles again in G and H, the points G, F , H are collinear, and the triangle GCH is equilateral. 4. If CF be joined, CF 2 = 3AB2. 5. Describe a circle in the space ACB, bounded by the line AB and the two circles. PROP. II.—Problem. From a given point (A) to draw a right line equal to a given finite right line (BC). Sol.—Join AB (Post. i.); on AB de- scribe the equilateral triangle ABD [i.]. With B as centre, and BC as radius, de- scribe the circle ECH (Post iii.). Pro- duce DB to meet the circle ECH in E (Post. ii.). With D as centre, and DE as radius, describe the circle EF G (Post. iii.). Produce DA to meet this circle in F . AF is equal to BC. Dem.—Because D is the centre of the circle EF G, DF is equal to DE (Def. xxxii.). And because DAB is an equilateral triangle, DA is equal to DB (Def. xxi.). Hence we have DF = DE, and DA = DB; and taking the latter from the former, the remainder AF is equal to the remain- der BE (Axiom iii.). Again, because B is the centre of the circle ECH , BC is equal to BE; and we have proved that AF is equal to BE; and things which are equal to the same thing are equal to one another (Axiom i.). Hence AF 9",
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      "text": "[PDF page 20] is equal to BC. Therefore from the given point A the line AF has been drawn equal to BC. It is usual with commentators on Euclid to say that he allows the use of the rule and compass. Were such the case this Proposition would have been unnecessary. The fact is, Euclid’s object was to teach Theoretical and not Practical Geometry, and the only things he postulates are the drawing of right lines and the describing of circles. If he allowed the mechanical use of the rule and compass he could give methods of solving many problems that go beyond the limits of the “geometry of the point, line, and circle.”— See Notes D, F at the end of this work. Exercises. 1. Solve the problem when the point A is in the line BC itself. 2. Inflect from a given point A to a given line BC a line equal to a given line. State the number of solutions. PROP. III.—Problem. From the greater (AB) of two given right lines to cut off a part equal to (C) the less. Sol.—From A, one of the extremities of AB, draw the right line AD equal to C [ii.]; and with A as centre, and AD as radius, de- scribe the circle EDF (Post. iii.) cutting AB in E. AE shall be equal to C. Dem.—Because A is the centre of the circle EDF , AE is equal to AD (Def. xxxii.), and C is equal to AD (const.); and things which are equal to the same are equal to one another (Axiom i.); therefore AE is equal to C. Where- fore from AB, the greater of the two given lines, a part, AE, has been out off equal to C, the less . Questions for Examination. 1. What previous problem is employed in the solution of this? 2. What postulate? 3. What axiom in the demonstration? 4. Show how to produce the less of two given lines until the whole produced line becomes equal to the greater. PROP. IV.—Theorem. If two triangles (BAC, EDF ) have two sides (BA, AC ) of one equal re- spectively to two sides (ED, DF ) of the other, and have also the angles (A, D ) included by those sides equal, the triangles shall be equal in every respect—that is, their bases or third sides (BC, EF ) shall be equal, and the angles (B, C ) at the base of one shall be respectively equal to the angles (E, F ) at the base of the other; namely, those shall be equal to which the equal sides are opposite. 10",
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    {
      "ref": "PG21076.B00021",
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      "text": "[PDF page 21] Dem.—Let us conceive the triangle BAC to be applied to EDF , so that the point A shall coincide with D, and the line AB with DE, and that the point C shall be on the same side of DE as F ; then because AB is equal to DE, the point B shall coincide with E. Again, because the angle BAC is equal to the angle EDF , the line AC shall coincide with DF ; and since AC is equal to DF (hyp.), the point C shall coincide with F ; and we have proved that the point B coincides with E. Hence two points of the line BC coincide with two points of the line EF ; and since two right lines cannot enclose a space, BC must coincide with EF . Hence the triangles agree in every respect; therefore BC is equal to EF , the angle B is equal to the angle E, the angle C to the angle F , and the triangle BAC to the triangle EDF . Questions for Examination. 1. How many parts in the hypothesis of this Proposition? Ans. Three. Name them. 2. How many in the conclusion? Name them. 3. What technical term is applied to figures which agree in everything but position? Ans. They are said to be congruent. 4. What is meant by superposition? 5. What axiom is made use of in superposition? 6. How many parts in a triangle? Ans. Six; namely, three sides and three angles. 7. When it is required to prove that two triangles are congruent, how many parts of one must be given equal to corresponding parts of the other? Ans. In general, any three except the three angles. This will be established in Props. viii. and xxvi., taken along with iv. 8. What property of two lines having two common points is quoted in this Proposition? They must coincide. Exercises. 1. The line that bisects the vertical angle of an isosceles triangle bisects the base perpen- dicularly. 2. If two adjacent sides of a quadrilateral be equal, and the diagonal bisects the angle between them, their other sides are equal. 3. If two lines be at right angles, and if each bisect the other, then any point in either is equally distant from the extremities of the other. 4. If equilateral triangles be described on the sides of any triangle, the distances between the vertices of the original triangle and the opposite vertices of the equilateral triangles are equal. (This Proposition should be proved after the student has read Prop. xxxii.) PROP. V.—Theorem. The angles (ABC, ACB ) at the base (BC) of an isosceles triangle are equal to one another, and if the equal sides (AB, AC ) be produced, the external angles (DBC, ECB ) below the base shall be equal. 11",
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    {
      "ref": "PG21076.B00022",
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      "text": "[PDF page 22] Dem.—In BD take any point F , and from AE, the greater, cut off AG equal to AF [iii]. Join BG, CF (Post. i.). Because AF is equal to AG (const.), and AC is equal to AB (hyp.), the two triangles F AC, GAB have the sides F A, AC in one respectively equal to the sides GA, AB in the other; and the included angle A is common to both triangles. Hence [ iv.] the base F C is equal to GB, the angle AF C is equal to AGB, and the angle ACF is equal to the angle ABG. Again, because AF is equal to AG (const.), and AB to AC (hyp.), the remainder, BF , is equal to CG (Axiom iii); and we have proved that F C is equal to GB, and the angle BF C equal to the angle CGB. Hence the two triangles BF C, CGB have the two sides BF , F C in one equal to the two sides CG, GB in the other; and the angle BF C contained by the two sides of one equal to the angle CGB contained by the two sides of the other. Therefore [ iv.] these triangles have the angle F BC equal to the angle GCB, and these are the angles below the base . Also the angle F CB equal to GBC; but the whole angle F CA has been proved equal to the whole angle GBA. Hence the remaining angle ACB is equal to the remaining angle ABC, and these are the angles at the base . Observation.—The great difficulty which be- ginners find in this Proposition is due to the fact that the two triangles ACF , ABG overlap each other. The teacher should make these triangles sep- arate, as in the annexed diagram, and point out the corresponding parts thus:— AF = AG, AC = AB; angle F AC = angle GAB. Hence [iv.], angle ACF = angle ABG. and angle AF C = angle AGB. The student should also be shown how to apply one of the triangles to the other, so as to bring them into coincidence. Similar Illustrations may be given of the triangles BF C, CGB. The following is a very easy proof of this Proposition. Conceive the △ ACB to be turned, without alteration, round the line AC, until it falls on the other side. Let ACD be its new position; then the angle ADC of the displaced triangle is evidently equal to the angle ABC, with which it originally coincided. Again, the two △s BAC , CAD have the sides BA, AC of one respectively equal to the sides AC, AD of the other, and the included angles equal; therefore [ iv.] the angle ACB opposite to the side AB is equal to the angle ADC opposite to the side AC; but the angle ADC is equal to ABC; therefore ACB is equal to ABC. Cor.—Every equilateral triangle is equiangular. 12",
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    {
      "ref": "PG21076.B00023",
      "bookId": 21076,
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      "text": "[PDF page 23] Def.—A line in any figure, such as AC in the preceding diagram, which is such that, by folding the plane of the figure round it, one part of the diagram will coincide with the other, is called an axis of symmetry of the figure. Exercises. 1. Prove that the angles at the base are equal without producing the sides. Also by producing the sides through the vertex. 2. Prove that the line joining the point A to the intersection of the lines CF and BG is an axis of symmetry of the figure. 3. If two isosceles triangles be on the same base, and be either at the same or at opposite sides of it, the line joining their vertices is an axis of symmetry of the figure formed by them. 4. Show how to prove this Proposition by assuming as an axiom that every angle has a bisector. 5. Each diagonal of a lozenge is an axis of symmetry of the lozenge. 6. If three points be taken on the sides of an equilateral triangle, namely, one on each side, at equal distances from the angles, the lines joining them form a new equilateral triangle. PROP. VI.—Theorem. If two angles (B, C ) of a triangle be equal, the sides (AC, AB ) opposite to them are also equal. Dem.—If AB, AC are not equal, one must be greater than the other. Suppose AB is the greater, and that the part BD is equal to AC. Join CD (Post. i.). Then the two triangles DBC , ACB have BD equal to AC, and BC common to both. Therefore the two sides DB, BC in one are equal to the two sides AC, CB in the other; and the angle DBC in one is equal to the angle ACB in the other (hyp). Therefore [ iv.] the triangle DBC is equal to the triangle ACB—the less to the greater, which is absurd; hence AC, AB are not unequal, that is, they are equal . Questions for Examination. 1. What is the hypothesis in this Proposition? 2. What Proposition is this the converse of? 3. What is the obverse of this Proposition? 4. What is the obverse of Prop. v.? 5. What is meant by an indirect proof? 6. How does Euclid generally prove converse Propositions? 7. What false assumption is made in the demonstration? 8. What does this assumption lead to? PROP. VII—Theorem. If two triangles (ACB, ADB ) on the same base (AB) and on the same side of it have one pair of conterminous sides (AC, AD ) equal to one another, the other pair of conterminous sides (BC, BD ) must be unequal. 13",
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    {
      "ref": "PG21076.B00043",
      "bookId": 21076,
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      "text": "[PDF page 43] PROP. XXXIII.—Theorem. The right lines (AC, BD ) which join the adjacent extremities of two equal and parallel right lines (AB, CD ) are equal and parallel. Dem.—Join BC. Now since AB is paral- lel to CD, and BC intersects them, the an- gle ABC is equal to the alternate angle DCB [xxix.]. Again, since AB is equal to CD, and BC common, the triangles ABC, DCB have the sides AB, BC in one respectively equal to the sides DC, CB in the other, and the angles ABC, DCB contained by those sides equal; therefore [iv.] the base AC is equal to the base BD, and the angle ACB is equal to the angle CBD ; but these are alternate angles; hence [xxvii.] AC is parallel to BD, and it has been proved equal to it. Therefore AC is both equal and parallel to BD. Exercises. 1. If two right lines AB, BC be respectively equal and parallel to two other right lines DE, EF , the right line AC joining the extremities of the former pair is equal to the right line DF joining the extremities of the latter. 2. Right lines that are equal and parallel have equal projections on any other right line; and conversely, parallel right lines that have equal projections on another right line are equal. 3. Equal right lines that have equal projections on another right line are parallel. 4. The right lines which join transversely the extremities of two equal and parallel right lines bisect each other. PROP. XXXIV.—Theorem. The opposite sides (AB, CD ; AC, BD ) and the opposite angles (A, D ; B, C ) of a parallelogram are equal to one another, and either diagonal bisects the parallelogram. Dem.—Join BC. Since AB is parallel to CD, and BC intersects them, the angle ABC is equal to the angle BCD [xxix.]. Again, since BC intersects the parallels AC, BD, the angle ACB is equal to the angle CBD ; hence the triangles ABC, DCB have the two angles ABC, ACB in one respectively equal to the two angles BCD , CBD in the other, and the side BC common. Therefore [xxvi.] AB is equal to CD, and AC to BD; the angle BAC to the angle BDC , and the triangle ABC to the triangle BDC . Again, because the angle ACB is equal to CBD , and DCB equal to ABC, the whole angle ACD is equal to the whole angle ABD. Cor. 1.—If one angle of a parallelogram be a right angle, all its angles are right angles. 33",
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      "ref": "PG21076.B00044",
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      "text": "[PDF page 44] Cor. 2.—If two adjacent sides of a parallelogram be equal, it is a lozenge. Cor. 3.—If both pairs of opposite sides of a quadrilateral be equal, it is a parallelogram. Cor. 4.—If both pairs of opposite angles of a quadrilateral be equal, it is a parallelogram. Cor. 5.—If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, it is a paral- lelogram. Cor. 6.—If both diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect the quadrilateral, it is a parallelogram. Cor. 7.—If the adjacent sides of a parallelogram be equal, its diagonals bisect its angles. Cor. 8.—If the adjacent sides of a parallelogram be equal, its diagonals intersect at right angles. Cor. 9.—In a right-angled parallelogram the diagonals are equal. Cor. 10.—If the diagonals of a parallelogram be perpendicular to each other, it is a lozenge. Cor. 11.—If a diagonal of a parallelogram bisect the angles whose vertices it joins, the parallelogram is a lozenge. Exercises. 1. The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other. 2. If the diagonals of a parallelogram be equal, all its angles are right angles. 3. Divide a right line into any number of equal parts. 4. The right lines joining the adjacent extremities of two unequal parallel right lines will meet, if produced, on the side of the shorter parallel. 5. If two opposite sides of a quadrilateral be parallel but not equal, and the other pair equal but not parallel, its opposite angles are supplemental. 6. Construct a triangle, being given the middle points of its three sides. 7. The area of a quadrilateral is equal to the area of a triangle, having two sides equal to its diagonals, and the contained angle equal to that between the diagonals. PROP. XXXV.—Theorem. Parallelograms on the same base (BC) and between the same parallels are equal. Dem.—1. Let the sides AD, DF of the parallelograms AC, BF op- posite to the common base BC ter- minate in the same point D, then [xxxiv.] each parallelogram is dou- ble of the triangle BCD . Hence they are equal to one another. 2. Let the sides AD, EF (figures (α), (β)) opposite to BC not terminate in the same point. 34",
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      "ref": "PG21076.B00045",
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      "text": "[PDF page 45] Then because ABCD is a parallelogram, AD is equal to BC [xxxiv.]; and since BCEF is a parallelogram, EF is equal to BC; therefore (see fig. ( α)) take away ED, and in fig. ( β) add ED, and we have in each case AE equal to DF , and BA is equal to CD [xxxiv.]. Hence the triangles BAE, CDF have the two sides BA, AE in one respectively equal to the two sides CD, DF in the other, and the angle BAE [xxix.] equal to the angle CDF ; hence [iv.] the triangle BAE is equal to the triangle CDF ; and taking each of these triangles in succession from the quadrilateral BAF C, there will remain the parallelogram BCF E equal to the parallelogram BCDA . Or thus: The triangles ABE, DCF have [xxxiv.] the sides AB, BE in one respectively equal to the sides DC, CF in the other, and the angle ABE equal to the angle DCF [xxix., Ex. 8]. Hence the triangle ABE is equal to the triangle DCF ; and, taking each away from the quadrilateral BAF C, there will remain the parallelogram BCF E equal to the parallelogram BCDA . Observation.—By the second method of proof the subdivision of the demonstration into cases is avoided. It is easy to see that either of the two parallelograms ABCD , EBCF can be divided into parts and rearranged so as to make it congruent with the other. This Proposition affords the first instance in the Elements in which equality which is not congruence occurs. This equality is expressed algebraically by the symbol =, while congruence is denoted by ≡, called also the symbol of identity. Figures that are congruent are said to be identically equal. PROP. XXXVI.—Theorem. Parallelograms (BD, F H ) on equal bases (BC, F G ) and between the same parallels are equal. Dem.—Join BE, CH . Now since F H is a parallelogram, F G is equal to EH [xxxiv.]; but BC is equal to F G (hyp.); therefore BC is equal to EH (Axiom i.). Hence BE, CH , which join their adjacent extremities, are equal and parallel; therefore BH is a parallelogram. Again, since the parallelograms BD, BH are on the same base BC, and between the same parallels BC, AH, they are equal [ xxxv.]. In like manner, since the parallelograms HB, HF are on the same base EH , and be- tween the same parallels EH , BG, they are equal. Hence BD and F H are each equal to BH. Therefore (Axiom i.) BD is equal to F H. 35",
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      "ref": "PG21076.B00046",
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      "text": "[PDF page 46] Exercise.—Prove this Proposition without joining BE, CH . PROP. XXXVII.—Theorem. Triangles (ABC, DBC ) on the same base (BC) and between the same parallels (AD, BC ) are equal. Dem.—Produce AD both ways. Draw BE parallel to AC, and CF parallel to BD [xxxi.] Then the figures AEBC , DBCF are parallelograms; and since they are on the same base BC, and between the same par- allels BC, EF they are equal [xxxv.]. Again, the triangle ABC is half the parallelogram AEBC [xxxiv.], because the diagonal AB bisects it. In like manner the triangle DBC is half the parallelogram DBCF , because the diagonal DC bisects it, and halves of equal things are equal (Axiom vii.). Therefore the triangle ABC is equal to the triangle DBC . Exercises. 1. If two equal triangles be on the same base, but on opposite sides, the right line joining their vertices is bisected by the base. 2. Construct a triangle equal in area to a given quadrilateral figure. 3. Construct a triangle equal in area to a given rectilineal figure. 4. Construct a lozenge equal to a given parallelogram, and having a given side of the parallelogram for base. 5. Given the base and the area of a triangle, find the locus of the vertex. 6. If through a point O, in the production of the diagonal AC of a parallelogram ABCD , any right line be drawn cutting the sides AB, BC in the points E, F , and ED, F D be joined, the triangle EF D is less than half the parallelogram. PROP. XXXVIII.—Theorem. Two triangles on equal bases and between the same parallels are equal. Dem.—By a construction similar to the last, we see that the triangles are the halves of parallelograms, on equal bases, and between the same parallels. Hence they are the halves of equal parallelograms [ xxxvi.]. Therefore they are equal to one another. Exercises. 1. Every median of a triangle bisects the triangle. 2. If two triangles have two sides of one respectively equal to two sides of the other, and the contained angles supplemental, their areas are equal. 36",
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      "ref": "PG21076.B00047",
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      "text": "[PDF page 47] 3. If the base of a triangle be divided into any number of equal parts, right lines drawn from the vertex to the points of division will divide the whole triangle into as many equal parts. 4. Right lines from any point in the diagonal of a parallelogram to the angular points through which the diagonal does not pass, and the diagonal, divide the parallelogram into four triangles which are equal, two by two. 5. If one diagonal of a quadrilateral bisects the other, it also bisects the quadrilateral, and conversely. 6. If two △s ABC, ABD be on the same base AB, and between the same parallels, and if a parallel to AB meet the sides AC, BC in the point E, F ; and the sides AD, BD in the point G, H; then EF = GH. 7. If instead of triangles on the same base we have triangles on equal bases and between the same parallels, the intercepts made by the sides of the triangles on any parallel to the bases are equal. 8. If the middle points of any two sides of a triangle be joined, the triangle so formed with the two half sides is one-fourth of the whole. 9. The triangle whose vertices are the middle points of two sides, and any point in the base of another triangle, is one-fourth of that triangle. 10. Bisect a given triangle by a right line drawn from a given point in one of the sides. 11. Trisect a given triangle by three right lines drawn from a given point within it. 12. Prove that any right line through the intersection of the diagonals of a parallelogram bisects the parallelogram. 13. The triangle formed by joining the middle point of one of the non-parallel sides of a trapezium to the extremities of the opposite side is equal to half the trapezium. PROP. XXXIX.—Theorem. Equal triangles (BAC, BDC ) on the same base (BC) and on the same side of it are between the same parallels. Dem.—Join AD. Then if AD be not par- allel to BC, let AE be parallel to it, and let it cut BD in E. Join EC. Now since the tri- angles BEC , BAC are on the same base BC, and between the same parallels BC, AE, they are equal [ xxxvii.]; but the triangle BAC is equal to the triangle BDC (hyp.). Therefore (Axiom i.) the triangle BEC is equal to the triangle BDC —that is, a part equal to the whole which is absurd. Hence AD must be parallel to BC. PROP. XL.—Theorem. Equal triangles (ABC, DEF ) on equal bases (BC, EF ) which form parts of the same right line, and on the same side of the line, are between the same parallels. 37",
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      "ref": "PG21076.B00051",
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      "text": "[PDF page 51] Sol.—Construct the parallelogram BEF G [xlii.] equal to the given triangle C, and having the angle B equal to the given angle D, and so that its side BE shall be in the same right line with AB. Through A draw AH parallel to BG [xxxi.], and produce F G to meet it in H. Join HB. Then because HA and F E are parallels, and HF intersects them, the sum of the angles AHF , HF E is two right angles [ xxix.]; therefore the sum of the angles BHF , HF E is less than two right angles; and therefore (Axiom xii.) the lines HB, F E, if produced, will meet as at K. Through K draw KL parallel to AB [xxxi.], and produce HA and GB to meet it in the points L and M. Then AM is a parallelogram fulfilling the required conditions. Dem.—The parallelogram AM is equal to GE [xliii.]; but GE is equal to the triangle C (const.); therefore AM is equal to the triangle C. Again, the angle ABM is equal to EBG [xv.], and EBG is equal to D (const.); therefore the angle ABM is equal to D; and AM is constructed on the given line;therefore it is the parallelogram required. PROP. XLV.—Problem. To construct a parallelogram equal to a given rectilineal figure (ABCD ), and having an angle equal to a given rectilineal angle (X). Sol.—Join BD. Construct a parallelogram EG [xlii.] equal to the triangle ABD, and having the angle E equal to the given angle X; and to the right line GH apply the parallelogram HI equal to the triangle BCD , and having the angle GHK equal to X [xliv.], and so on for additional triangles if there be any. Then EI is a parallelogram fulfilling the required conditions. 41",
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    {
      "ref": "PG21076.B00052",
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      "text": "[PDF page 52] Dem.—Because the angles GHK , F EH are each equal to X (const.), they are equal to one another: to each add the angle GHE , and we have the sum of the angles GHK , GHE equal to the sum of the angles F EH, GHE ; but since HG is parallel to EF , and EH intersects them, the sum of F EH, GHE is two right angles [ xxix.]. Hence the sum of GHK , GHE is two right angles; therefore EH , HK are in the same right line [ xiv.]. Again, because GH intersects the parallels F G, EK, the alternate angles F GH, GHK are equal [ xxix.]: to each add the angle HGI , and we have the sum of the angles F GH, HGI equal to the sum of the angles GHK , HGI ; but since GI is parallel to HK , and GH intersects them, the sum of the angles GHK , HGI is equal to two right angles [ xxix.]. Hence the sum of the angles F GH, HGI is two right angles; therefore F G and GI are in the same right line [xiv.]. Again, because EG and HI are parallelograms, EF and KI are each parallel to GH; hence [xxx.] EF is parallel to KI , and the opposite sides EK and F I are parallel; therefore EI is a parallelogram; and because the parallelogram EG (const.) is equal to the triangle ABD, and HI to the triangle BCD , the whole parallelogram EI is equal to the rectilineal figure ABCD , and it has the angle E equal to the given angle X. Hence EI is a parallelogram fulfilling the required conditions. It would simplify Problems xliv., xlv., if they were stated as the constructing of rectan- gles, and in this special form they would be better understood by the student, since rectangles are the simplest areas to which others are referred. Exercises. 1. Construct a rectangle equal to the sum of two or any number of rectilineal figures. 2. Construct a rectangle equal to the difference of two given figures. PROP. XLVI.—Problem. On a given right line (AB) to describe a square. Sol.—Erect AD at right angles to AB [xi.], and make it equal to AB [iii.]. Through D draw DC parallel to AB [xxxi.], and through B draw BC parallel to AD; then AC is the square required. Dem.—Because AC is a parallelogram, AB is equal to CD [xxxiv.]; but AB is equal to AD (const.); there- fore AD is equal to CD, and AD is equal to BC [xxxiv.]. Hence the four sides are equal; therefore AC is a lozenge, and the angle A is a right angle. Therefore AC is a square (Def. xxx.). 42",
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      "text": "[PDF page 53] Exercises. 1. The squares on equal lines are equal; and, conversely, the sides of equal squares are equal. 2. The parallelograms about the diagonal of a square are squares. 3. If on the four sides of a square, or on the sides produced, points be taken equidistant from the four angles, they will be the angular points of another square, and similarly for a regular pentagon, hexagon, &c. 4. Divide a given square into five equal parts; namely, four right-angled triangles, and a square. PROP. XLVII.—Theorem. In a right-angled triangle (ABC) the square on the hypotenuse (AB) is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two sides (AC, BC ). Dem.—On the sides AB, BC, CA describe squares [ xlvi.]. Draw CL parallel to AG. Join CG, BK. Then because the angle ACB is right (hyp.), and ACH is right, being the angle of a square, the sum of the an- gles ACB, ACH is two right angles; therefore BC, CH are in the same right line [xiv.]. In like manner AC, CD are in the same right line. Again, because BAG is the angle of a square it is a right angle: in like manner CAK is a right angle. Hence BAG is equal to CAK : to each add BAC, and we get the angle CAG equal to KAB. Again, since BG and CK are squares, BA is equal to AG, and CA to AK. Hence the two triangles CAG, KAB have the sides CA, AG in one respec- tively equal to the sides KA, AB in the other, and the contained angles CAG, KAB also equal. Therefore [ iv.] the triangles are equal; but the parallelogram AL is double of the triangle CAG [xli.], because they are on the same base AG, and between the same parallels AG and CL. In like manner the parallelogram AH is double of the triangle KAB, because they are on the same base AK, and between the same parallels AK and BH; and since doubles of equal things are equal (Axiom vi.), the parallelogram AL is equal to AH. In like manner it can be proved that the parallelogram BL is equal to BD. Hence the whole square AF is equal to the sum of the two squares AH and BD. 43",
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      "text": "[PDF page 54] Or thus: Let all the squares be made in reversed di- rections. Join CG, BK, and through C draw OL parallel to AG. Now, taking the ∠BAC from the right ∠s BAG, CAK, the remaining ∠s CAG, BAK are equal. Hence the △s CAG, BAK have the side CA = AK, and AG = AB, and the ∠CAG = BAK; therefore [iv.] they are equal; and since [xli.] the s AL, AH are respectively the doubles of these triangles, they are equal. In like manner the s BL, BD are equal; hence the whole square AF is equal to the sum of the two squares AH, BD. This proof is shorter than the usual one, since it is not necessary to prove that AC, CD are in one right line. In a similar way the Proposition may be proved by taking any of the eight figures formed by turning the squares in all possible directions. Another simplification of the proof would be got by considering that the point A is such that one of the △s CAG, BAK can be turned round it in its own plane until it coincides with the other; and hence that they are congruent. Exercises. 1. The square on AC is equal to the rectangle AB . AO, and the square on BC = AB . BO. 2. The square on CO = AO . OB. 3. AC2 − BC 2 = AO2 − BO 2. 4. Find a line whose square shall be equal to the sum of two given squares. 5. Given the base of a triangle and the difference of the squares of its sides, the locus of its vertex is a right line perpendicular to the base. 6. The transverse lines BK, CG are perpendicular to each other. 7. If EG be joined, its square is equal to AC2 + 4BC 2. 8. The square described on the sum of the sides of a right-angled triangle exceeds the square on the hypotenuse by four times the area of the triangle ( see fig., xlvi., Ex. 3). More generally, if the vertical angle of a triangle be equal to the angle of a regular polygon of n sides, then the regular polygon of n sides, described on a line equal to the sum of its sides, exceeds the area of the regular polygon of n sides described on the base by n times the area of the triangle. 9. If AC and BK intersect in P , and through P a line be drawn parallel to BC, meeting AB in Q; then CP is equal to P Q. 10. Each of the triangles AGK and BEF , formed by joining adjacent corners of the squares, is equal to the right-angled triangle ABC. 11. Find a line whose square shall be equal to the difference of the squares on two lines. 12. The square on the difference of the sides AC, CB is less than the square on the hypotenuse by four times the area of the triangle. 13. If AE be joined, the lines AE, BK, CL, are concurrent. 14. In an equilateral triangle, three times the square on any side is equal to four times the square on the perpendicular to it from the opposite vertex. 15. On BE, a part of the side BC of a square ABCD , is described the square BEF G, having its side BG in the continuation of AB; it is required to divide the figure AGF ECD into three parts which will form a square. 16. Four times the sum of the squares on the medians which bisect the sides of a right- angled triangle is equal to five times the square on the hypotenuse. 17. If perpendiculars be let fall on the sides of a polygon from any point, dividing each side into two segments, the sum of the squares on one set of alternate segments is equal to the sum of the squares on the remaining set. 18. The sum of the squares on lines drawn from any point to one pair of opposite angles of a rectangle is equal to the sum of the squares on the lines from the same point to the remaining pair. 19. Divide the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle into two parts, such that the difference between their squares shall be equal to the square on one of the sides. 44",
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      "text": "[PDF page 55] 20. From the extremities of the base of a triangle perpendiculars are let fall on the opposite sides; prove that the sum of the rectangles contained by the sides and their lower segments is equal to the square on the base. PROP. XLVIII.—Theorem. If the square on one side (AB) of a triangle be equal to the sum of the squares on the remaining sides (AC, CB ), the angle (C) opposite to that side is a right angle. Dem.—Erect CD at right angles toCB [xi.], and make CD equal to CA [iii.]. Join BD. Then because AC is equal to CD, the square on AC is equal to the square on CD: to each add the square on CB, and we have the sum of the squares on AC, CB equal to the sum of the squares on CD, CB; but the sum of the squares on AC, CB is equal to the square on AB (hyp.), and the sum of the squares on CD, CB is equal to the square on BD [xlvii.]. Therefore the square on AB is equal to the square on BD. Hence AB is equal to BD [xlvi., Ex. 1]. Again, because AC is equal to CD (const.), and CB common to the two triangles ACB, DCB , and the base AB equal to the base DB, the angle ACB is equal to the angle DCB ; but the angle DCB is a right angle (const.). Hence the angle ACB is a right angle. The foregoing proof forms an exception to Euclid’s demonstrations of converse propositions, for it is direct. The following is an indirect proof:—If CB be not at right angles to AC, let CD be perpendicular to it. Make CD = CB. Join AD. Then, as before, it can be proved that AD is equal to AB, and CD is equal to CB (const.). This is contrary to Prop. vii. Hence the angle ACB is a right angle. Questions for Examination on Book I. 1. What is Geometry? 2. What is geometric magnitude? Ans. That which has extension in space. 3. Name the primary concepts of geometry. Ans. Points, lines, surfaces, and solids. 4. How may lines be divided? Ans. Into straight and curved. 5. How is a straight line generated? Ans. By the motion of a point which has the same direction throughout. 6. How is a curved line generated? Ans. By the motion of a point which continually changes its direction. 7. How may surfaces be divided? Ans. Into planes and curved surfaces. 8. How may a plane surface be generated. Ans. By the motion of a right line which crosses another right line, and moves along it without changing its direction. 9. Why has a point no dimensions? 10. Why has a line neither breadth nor thickness? 11. How many dimensions has a surface? 12. What is Plane Geometry? 45",
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      "text": "[PDF page 59] BOOK II. THEORY OF RECTANGLES Every Proposition in the Second Book has either a square or a rectangle in its enunciation. Before commencing it the student should read the following preliminary explanations: by their assistance it will be seen that this Book, which is usually considered difficult, will be rendered not only easy, but almost intuitively evident. 1. As the linear unit is that by which we express all linear measures, so the square unit is that to which all superficial measures are referred. Again, as there are different linear units in use, such as in this country, inches, feet, yards, miles, &c., and in France, metres, and their multiples or sub-multiples, so different square units are employed. 2. A square unit is the square described on a line whose length is the linear unit. Thus a square inch is the square described on a line whose length is an inch; a square foot is the square described on a line whose length is a foot, &c. 3. If we take a linear foot, describe a square on it, divide two adjacent sides each into twelve equal parts, and draw parallels to the sides, we evidently divide the square foot into square inches; and as there will manifestly be 12 rectangular parallelograms, each containing 12 square inches, the square foot contains 144 square inches. In the same manner it can be shown that a square yard contains 9 square feet; and so in general the square described on any line contains n2 times the square described on the nth part of the line. Thus, as a simple case, the square on a line is four times the square on its half. On account of this property the second power of a quantity is called its square; and, conversely, the square on a line AB is expressed symbolically by AB2. 4. If a rectangular parallelogram be such that two adjacent sides contain respectively m and n linear units, by dividing one side into m and the other into n equal parts, and drawing parallels to the sides, the whole area is evidently divided into mn square units. Hence the area of the parallelogram is found by multiplying its length by its breadth, and this explains why we say (see Def. iv.) a rectangle is contained by any two adjacent sides; for if we multiply the length of one by the length of the other we have the area. Thus, if AB, AD be two adjacent sides of a rectangle, the rectangle is expressed by AB . AD. Definitions. i. If a point C be taken in a line AB, the parts AC, CB are called segments, and C a point of division. ii. If C be taken in the line AB produced, AC, CB are still called the segments of the line AB; but C is called a point of external division. iii. A parallelogram whose angles are right angles is called a rectangle. iv. A rectangle is said to be contained by any two adjacent sides. Thus the rectangle ABCD is said to be contained by AB, AD, or by AB, BC, &c. v. The rectangle contained by two sepa- rate lines such as AB and CD is the parallel- ogram formed by erecting a perpendicular to 49",
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      "text": "[PDF page 60] AB, at A, equal to CD, and drawing parallels: the area of the rectangle will be AB . CD. vi. In any parallelogram the figure which is composed of either of the parallelograms about a diagonal and the two complements [see I., xliii.] is called a gnomon. Thus, if we take away either of the parallelograms AO, OC from the parallelogram AC, the remain- der is called a gnomon. PROP. I.—Theorem. If there be two lines (A, BC ), one of which is divided into any number of parts (BD, DE, EC ), the rectangle contained by the two lines (A, BC ), is equal to the sum of the rectangles contained by the undivided line (A) and the several parts of the divided line. Dem.—Erect BF at right an- gles to BC [I., xi.] and make it equal to A. Complete the parallel- ogram BK (Def. v.). Through D, E draw DG, EH parallel to BF . Because the angles at B, D, E are right angles, each of the quadrilat- erals BG, DH, EK is a rectangle. Again, since A is equal to BF (const.), the rectangle contained by A and BC is the rectangle contained by BF and BC (Def. v.); but BK is the rectangle contained by BF and BC. Hence the rectangle contained by A and BC is BK. In like manner the rectangle contained by A and BD is BG. Again, since A is equal to BF (const.), and BF is equal to DG [I. xxxiv.], A is equal to DG. Hence the rectangle contained by A and DE is the figure DH (Def. v.). In like manner the rectangle contained by A and EC is the figure EK. Hence we have the following identities:— Rectangle contained by A and BD ≡ BG. ,, ,, A ,, DE ≡ DH. ,, ,, A ,, EC ≡ EK. ,, ,, A ,, BC ≡ BK. But BK is equal to the sum of BG, DH, EK (I., Axiom ix.). Therefore the rectangle contained by A and BC is equal to the sum of the rectangles contained by A and BD, A and DE, A and EC . If we denote the lines BD, DE, EC by a, b, c, the Proposition asserts that the rectangle contained by A, and a + b + c is equal to the sum of the rectangles contained by A and a, A 50",
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      "text": "[PDF page 61] and b, A and c, or, as it may be written, A(a + b + c) = Aa + Ab + Ac. This corresponds to the distributive law in multiplication, and shows that rectangles in Geometry, and products in Arithmetic and Algebra, are subject to the same rules. Illustration.—Suppose A to be 6 inches; BD, 5 inches; DE, 4 inches; EC, 3 inches; then BC will be 12 inches; and the rectangles will have the following values:— Rectangle A . BC = 6 × 12 = 72 square inches. ,, A . BD = 6 × 5 = 30 ,, ,, A . DE = 6 × 4 = 24 ,, ,, A . EC = 6 × 3 = 18 ,, Now the sum of the three last rectangles, viz. 30, 24, 18, is 72. Hence the rectangle A . BC = A . BD + A . DE + A . EC. The Second Book is occupied with the relations between the segments of a line divided in various ways. All these can be proved in the most simple man- ner by Algebraic Multiplication. We recommend the student to make himself acquainted with the proofs by this method as well as with those of Euclid. He will thus better understand the meaning of each Proposition. Cor. 1.—The rectangle contained by a line and the difference of two others is equal to the difference of the rectangles contained by the line and each of the others. Cor. 2.—The area of a triangle is equal to half the rectangle contained by its base and perpendicular. Dem.—From the vertex C let fall the per- pendicular CD. Draw EF parallel to AB, and AE, BF each parallel to CD. Then AF is the rectangle contained by AB and BF ; but BF is equal to CD. Hence AF = AB . CD; but [I. xli.] the triangle ABC is = half the parallelogram AF . Therefore the triangle ABC is = 1 2 AB . CD. PROP. II.—Theorem. If a line (AB) be divided into any two parts (at C), the square on the whole line is equal to the sum of the rectangles contained by the whole and each of the segments (AC, CB ). Dem.—On AB describe the square ABDF [I. xlvi.], and through C draw CE parallel to AF [I. xxxi.]. Now, since AB is equal to AF , the rectan- gle contained by AB and AC is equal to the rectangle contained by AF and AC; but AE is the rectangle contained by AF and AC. Hence the rectangle con- tained by AB and AC is equal to AE. In like manner the rectangle contained by AB and CB is equal to the figure CD. Therefore the sum of the two rectangles AB . AC, AB . CB is equal to the square on AB. Or thus: AB = AC + CB, and AB = AB. Hence, multiplying, we get AB2 = AB . AC + AB . CB. 51",
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      "text": "[PDF page 62] This Proposition is the particular case of i. when the divided and undivided lines are equal, hence it does not require a separate Demonstration. PROP. III.—Theorem. If a line (AB) be divided into two segments (at C), the rectangle contained by the whole line and either segment (CB) is equal to the square on that segment together with the rectangle contained by the segments. Dem.—On BC describe the square BCDE [I. xlvi.]. Through A draw AF parallel to CD: produce ED to meet AF in F . Now since CB is equal to CD, the rectangle contained by AC, CB is equal to the rectangle contained by AC, CD; but the rectangle contained by AC, CD is the figure AD. Hence the rectangle AC . CB is equal to the figure AD, and the square on CB is the figure CE. Hence the rectangle AC . CB, together with the square on CB, is equal to the figure AE. Again, since CB is equal to BE, the rectangle AB . CB is equal to the rectangle AB . BE; but the rectangle AB . BE is equal to the figure AE. Hence the rectangle AB . CB is equal to the figure AE. And since things which are equal to the same are equal to one another, the rectangle AC . CB , together with the square on CB, is equal to the rectangle AB . CB. Or thus: AB = AC + CB, CB = CB. Hence AB . CB = AC . CB + CB 2. Prop. iii. is the particular case of Prop. i., when the undivided line is equal to a segment of the divided line. PROP. IV.—Theorem. If a line (AB) be divided into any two parts (at C), the square on the whole line is equal to the sum of the squares on the parts (AC, CB ), together with twice their rectangle. Dem.—On AB describe a square ABDE. Join EB; through C draw CF parallel to AE, intersecting BE in G; and through G draw HI parallel to AB. Now since AE is equal to AB, the angle ABE is equal to AEB [I. v.]; but since BE intersects the parallels AE, CF , the angle AEB is equal to CGB [I. xxix.]. Hence the angle CBG is equal to CGB, and therefore [I. vi.] CG is equal to CB; but CG is equal to BI and CB to GI. Hence the figure CBIG is a lozenge, and the angle CBI is right. Hence (I., Def. xxx.) it is a square. In like manner the figure EF GH is a square. 52",
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      "text": "[PDF page 63] Again, since CB is equal to CG, the rectangle AC . CB is equal to the rectangle AC . CG; but AC . CG is the figure AG (Def. iv.). Therefore the rectangle AC . CB is equal to the figure AG. Now the figures AG, GD are equal [I. xliii.], being the complements about the diagonal of the parallelogram AD. Hence the parallelograms AG, GD are together equal to twice the rectangle AC . CB. Again, the figure HF is the square on HG, and HG is equal to AC. Therefore HF is equal to the square on AC, and CI is the square on CB; but the whole figure AD, which is the square on AB, is the sum of the four figures HF , CI , AG, GD. Therefore the square on AB is equal to the sum of the squares on AC, CB, and twice the rectangle AC . CB . Or thus: On AB describe the square ABDE, and cut off AH, EG, DF each equal to CB. Join CF , F G, GH, HC . Now the four △s ACH , CBF , F DG, GEH are evidently equal; therefore their sum is equal to four times the △ACH ; but the △ACH is half the rectangle AC . AH (i. Cor. 2)—that is, equal to half the rectangle AC . CB. Therefore the sum of the four triangles is equal to 2 AC . CB. Again, the figure CF GH is a square [I. xlvi., Cor. 3], and equal to AC2 + AH 2 [I. xlvii.]—that is, equal to AC2 + CB 2. Hence the whole figure ABDE = AC2 + CB 2 + 2AC . CB . Or thus: AB = AC + CB. Squaring, we get AB2 =AC2 + 2AC . CB + CB 2. Cor. 1.—The parallelograms about the diagonal of a square are squares. Cor. 2.—The square on a line is equal to four times the square on its half. For let AB = 2AC, then AB2 = 4AC 2. This Cor. may be proved by the First Book thus: Erect CD at right angles to AB, and make CD = AC or CB. Join AD, DB. Then AD2 = AC 2 + CD 2 = 2AC 2 In like manner, DB 2 = 2CB 2; therefore AD2 + DB 2 = 2AC 2 + 2CB 2 = 4AC 2. But since the angle ADB is right, AD2 + DB 2 = AB2; therefore AB2 = 4AC 2. Cor. 3.—If a line be divided into any number of parts, the square on the whole is equal to the sum of the squares on all the parts, together with twice the sum of the rectangles contained by the several distinct pairs of parts. 53",
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      "text": "[PDF page 76] Questions for Examination on Book II. 1. What is the subject-matter of Book II.? Ans. Theory of rectangles. 2. What is a rectangle? A gnomon? 3. What is a square inch? A square foot? A square perch? A square mile? Ans. The square described on a line whose length is an inch, a foot, a perch, &c. 4. What is the difference between linear and superficial measurement? Ans. Linear mea- surement has but one dimension; superficial has two. 5. When is a line said to be divided internally? When externally? 6. How is the area of a rectangle found? 7. How is a line divided so that the rectangle contained by its segments may be a maxi- mum? 8. How is the area of a parallelogram found? 9. What is the altitude of a parallelogram whose base is 65 metres and area 1430 square metres? 10. How is a line divided when the sum of the squares on its segments is a minimum? 11. The area of a rectangle is 108.60 square metres and its perimeter is 48.20 linear metres; find its dimensions. 12. What Proposition in Book II. expresses the distributive law of multiplication? 13. On what proposition is the rule for extracting the square root founded? 14. Compare I. xlvii. and II. xii. and xiii. 15. If the sides of a triangle be expressed byx2+1, x2 −1, and 2x linear units, respectively; prove that it is right-angled. 16. How would you construct a square whose area would be exactly an acre? Give a solution by I. xlvii. 17. What is meant by incommensurable lines? Give an example from Book II. 18. Prove that a side and the diagonal of a square are incommensurable. 19. The diagonals of a lozenge are 16 and 30 metres respectively; find the length of a side. 20. The diagonal of a rectangle is 4.25 perches, and its area is 7.50 square perches; what are its dimensions? 21. The three sides of a triangle are 8, 11, 15; prove that it has an obtuse angle. 22. The sides of a triangle are 13, 14, 15; find the lengths of its medians; also the lengths of its perpendiculars, and prove that all its angles are acute. 23. If the sides of a triangle be expressed by m2 + n2, m2 − n2, and 2 mn linear units, respectively; prove that it is right-angled. 24. If on each side of a square containing 5.29 square perches we measure from the corners respectively a distance of 1.5 linear perches; find the area of the square formed by joining the points thus found. Exercises on Book II. 1. The squares on the diagonals of a quadrilateral are together double the sum of the squares on the lines joining the middle points of opposite sides. 2. If the medians of a triangle intersect in O, AB2 + BC 2 + CA2 = 3(OA2 + OB 2 + OC 2). 3. Through a given point O draw three lines OA, OB, OC of given lengths, such that their extremities may be collinear, and that AB = BC. 4. If in any quadrilateral two opposite sides be bisected, the sum of the squares on the other two sides, together with the sum of the squares on the diagonals, is equal to the sum of the squares on the bisected sides, together with four times the square on the line joining the points of bisection. 5. If squares be described on the sides of any triangle, the sum of the squares on the lines joining the adjacent corners is equal to three times the sum of the squares on the sides of the triangle. 6. Divide a given line into two parts, so that the rectangle contained by the whole and one segment may be equal to any multiple of the square on the other segment. 7. If P be any point in the diameter AB of a semicircle, and CD any parallel chord, then CP 2 + P D2 = AP 2 + P B2. 66",
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      "text": "[PDF page 77] 8. If A, B, C, D be four collinear points taken in order, AB . CD + BC . AD = AC . BD. 9. Three times the sum of the squares on the sides of any pentagon exceeds the sum of the squares on its diagonals, by four times the sum of the squares on the lines joining the middle points of the diagonals. 10. In any triangle, three times the sum of the squares on the sides is equal to four times the sum of the squares on the medians. 11. If perpendiculars be drawn from the angular points of a square to any line, the sum of the squares on the perpendiculars from one pair of opposite angles exceeds twice the rectangle of the perpendiculars from the other pair by the area of the square. 12. If the base AB of a triangle be divided in D, so that mAD = nBD, then mAC2 + nBC 2 = mAD2 + nDB 2 + (m + n)CD 2. 13. If the point D be taken in AB produced, so that mAD = nDB, then mAC2 − nBC 2 = mAD2 − nDB 2 + (m − n)CD 2. 14. Given the base of a triangle in magnitude and position, and the sum or the difference of m times the square on one side and n times the square on the other side, in magnitude, the locus of the vertex is a circle. 15. Any rectangle is equal to half the rectangle contained by the diagonals of squares described on its adjacent sides. 16. If A, B, C. &c., be any number of fixed points, and P a variable point, find the locus of P , if AP 2 + BP 2 + CP 2+ &c., be given in magnitude. 17. If the area of a rectangle be given, its perimeter is a minimum when it is a square. 18. If a transversal cut in the points A, C, B three lines issuing from a point D, prove that BC . AD 2 + AC . BD 2 − AB . CD 2 = AB . BC . CA. 19. Upon the segments AC, CB of a line AB equilateral triangles are described: prove that if D, D′ be the centres of circles described about these triangles, 6DD′2 = AB2 + AC2 + CB 2. 20. If a, b, p denote the sides of a right-angled triangle about the right angle, and the perpendicular from the right angle on the hypotenuse, 1 a2 + 1 b2 = 1 p2 . 21. If, upon the greater segment AB of a line AC, divided in extreme and mean ratio, an equilateral triangle ABD be described, and CD joined, CD 2 = 2AB2. 22. If a variable line, whose extremities rest on the circumferences of two given concentric circles, subtend a right angle at any fixed point, the locus of its middle point is a circle. 67",
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      "text": "[PDF page 78] BOOK III. THEORY OF THE CIRCLE DEFINITIONS. i. Equal circles are those whose radii are equal. This is a theorem, and not a definition. For if two circles have equal radii, they are evidently congruent figures, and therefore equal. From this way of proving this theorem Props. xxvi.–xxix. follow as immediate inferences. ii. A chord of a circle is the line joining two points in its circumference. If the chord be produced both ways, the whole line is called a secant, and each of the parts into which a secant divides the circumference is called an arc—the greater the major conjugate arc, and the lesser the minor conjugate arc.—Newcomb. iii. A right line is said to touch a circle when it meets the circle, and, being produced both ways, does not cut it; the line is called a tangent to the circle, and the point where it touches it the point of contact. In Modern Geometry a curve is considered as made up of an infinite number of points, which are placed in order along the curve, and then the secant through two consecutive points is a tangent. Euclid’s definition for a tangent is quite inadequate for any curve but the circle, and those derived from it by projection (the conic sections); and even for these the modern definition is better. iv. Circles are said to touch one an- other when they meet, but do not inter- sect. There are two species of contact:— 1. When each circle is external to the other. 2. When one is inside the other. The following is the modern definition of curve-contact:— When two curves have two, three, four, &c., consecutive points common, they have contact of the first, second, third, &c., orders. v. A segment of a circle is a figure bounded by a chord and one of the arcs into which it divides the circumference. vi. Chords are said to be equally distant from the centre when the perpen- diculars drawn to them from the centre are equal. vii. The angle contained by two lines, drawn from any point in the circum- ference of a segment to the extremities of its chord, is called an angle in the segment. 68",
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      "text": "[PDF page 79] viii. The angle of a segment is the angle contained between its chord and the tangent at either extremity. A theorem is tacitly assumed in this Definition, namely, that the angles which the chord makes with the tangent at its extremities are equal. We shall prove this further on. ix. An angle in a segment is said to stand on its conjugate arc. x. Similar segments of circles are those that contain equal angles. xi. A sector of a circle is formed of two radii and the arc included between them. To a pair of radii may belong either of the two conjugate arcs into which their ends divide the circle.— Newcomb. xii. Concentric circles are those that have the same centre. xiii. Points which lie on the circumference of a circle are said to beconcyclic. xiv. A cyclic quadrilateral is one which is inscribed in a circle. xv. It will be proper to give here an explanation of the extended meaning of the word angle in Modern Geometry. This extension is necessary in Trigonom- etry, in Mechanics—in fact, in every application of Geometry, and has been partly given in I. Def. ix. Thus, if a line OA revolve about the point O, as in figures 1, 2, 3, 4, until it comes into the position OB, the amount of the rotation from OA to OB is called an angle. From the diagrams we see that in fig. 1 it is less than two right angles; in fig. 2 it is equal to two right angles; in fig. 3 greater than two right angles, but less than four; and in fig. 4 it is greater than four right angles. The arrow-heads denote the direction or sense, as it is technically termed, in which the line OA turns. It is usual to call the direction indicated in the above figures positive, and the opposite negative. A line such as OA, which turns about a fixed point, is called a ray, and then we have the following definition:— xvi. A ray which turns in the senseopposite to the hands of a watch describes a positive angle , and one which turns in the same direction as the hands, a negative angle. PROP. I.—Problem. To find the centre of a given circle (ADB). 69",
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      "text": "[PDF page 80] Sol.—Take any two points A, B in the circumfer- ence. Join AB. Bisect it in C. Erect CD at right angles to AB. Produce DC to meet the circle again in E. Bisect DE in F . Then F is the centre. Dem.—If possible, let any other point G be the centre. Join GA, GC, GB. Then in the triangles ACG, BCG we have AC equal to CB (const.), CG common, and the base GA equal to GB, because they are drawn from G, which is, by hypothesis, the centre, to the circumference. Hence [I. viii.] the angle ACG is equal to the adjacent angle BCG, and therefore [I. Def. xiii.] each is a right angle; but the angle ACD is right (const.); therefore ACD is equal to ACG—a part equal to the whole—which is absurd. Hence no point can be the centre which is not in the line DE. Therefore F , the middle point of DE, must be the centre. The foregoing proof may be abridged as follows:— Because ED bisects AB at right angles, every point equally distant from, the points A, B must lie in ED [I. x. Ex. 2]; but the centre is equally distant from A and B; hence the centre must be in ED; and since it must be equally distant from E and D, it must be the middle point of DE. Cor. 1.—The line which bisects any chord of a circle perpendicularly passes through the centre of the circle. Cor. 2.—The locus of the centres of the circles which pass through two fixed points is the line bisecting at right angles that connecting the two points. Cor. 3.—If A, B, C be three points in the circumference of a circle, the lines bisecting perpendicularly the chords AB, BC intersect in the centre. PROP. II.—Theorem. If any two points (A, B ) be taken in the circumference of a circle—1. The segment (AB) of the indefinite line through these points which lies between them falls within the circle. 2. The remaining parts of the line are without the circle. Dem.—1. Let C be the centre. Take any point D in AB. Join CA, CD, CB . Now the angle ADC is [I. xvi.] greater than ABC; but the angle ABC is equal to CAB [I. v.], because the triangle CAB is isosceles; there- fore the angle ADC is greater than CAD. Hence AC is greater than CD [I. xix.]; there- fore CD is less than the radius of the circle, consequently the point D must be within the circle (note on I. Def. xxxiii.). In the same manner every other point between A and B lies within the circle. 2. Take any point E in AB produced either way. Join CE. Then the angle ABC is greater than AEC [I. xvi.]; therefore CAB is greater than AEC. Hence CE is greater than CA, and the point E is without the circle. 70",
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      "text": "[PDF page 124] 27. If ρ, ρ′ be the radii of two circles, touching each other at the centre of the inscribed circle of a triangle, and each touching the circumscribed circle, prove 1 ρ + 1 ρ′ = 2 r , and state and prove corresponding theorems for the escribed circles. 28. If from any point in the circumference of the circle, circumscribed about a regular polygon of n sides, lines be drawn to its angular points, the sum of their squares is equal to 2n times the square of the radius. 29. In the same case, if the lines be drawn from any point in the circumference of the inscribed circle, prove that the sum of their squares is equal to n times the sum of the squares of the radii of the inscribed and the circumscribed circles. 30. State the corresponding theorem for the sum of the squares of the lines drawn from any point in the circumference of any concentric circle. 31. If from any point in the circumference of any concentric circle perpendiculars be let fall on all the sides of any regular polygon, the sum of their squares is constant. 32. For the inscribed circle, the constant is equal to 3n 2 times the square of the radius. 33. For the circumscribed circle, the constant is equal to n times the square of the radius of the inscribed circle, together with 1 2 n times the square of the radius of the circumscribed circle. 34. If the circumference of a circle whose radius is R be divided into seventeen equal parts, and AO be the diameter drawn from one of the points of division ( A), and if ρ1, ρ2 . . . . . . ρ8 denote the chords from O to the points of division, A1, A2 . . . . . . A8 on one side of AO, then ρ1ρ2ρ4ρ8 = R4; and ρ3ρ5ρ6ρ7 = R4.—Catalan. Dem.—Let the supplemental chords corresponding to ρ1, ρ2, &c., be denoted by r1, r2, &c.; then [III. xxxv. Ex. 2], we have ρ1r1 = Rr2, ρ2r2 = Rr4, ρ4r4 = Rr8, ρ8r8 = Rr1, Hence ρ1ρ2ρ4ρ8 = R4. And it may be proved in the same manner that ρ1ρ2ρ3ρ4ρ5ρ6ρ7ρ8 = R8. Therefore ρ3ρ5ρ6ρ7 = R4. 35. If from the middle point of the line joining any two of four concyclic points a perpen- dicular be let fall on the line joining the remaining two, the six perpendiculars thus obtained are concurrent. 36. The greater the number of sides of a regular polygon circumscribed about a given circle, the less will be its perimeter. 37. The area of any regular polygon of more than four sides circumscribed about a circle is less than the square of the diameter. 38. Four concyclic points taken three by three determine four triangles, the centres of whose nine-points circles are concyclic. 39. If two sides of a triangle be given in position, and if their included angle be equal to an angle of an equilateral triangle, the locus of the centre of its nine-points circle is a right line. 40. If, in the hypothesis and notation of Ex. 34, α, β denote any two suffixes whose sum is less than 8, and of which α is the greater, ραρβ = R(ρα−β + ρα+β). For instance, ρ1ρ4 = R(ρ3 + ρ5) [III. xxxv., Ex. 7]. 114",
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      "text": "[PDF page 125] In the same case, if the suffixes be greater than 8, ρα . ρβ = R(ρα−β − ρ17−α−β). For instance, ρ8ρ2 = R(ρ6 − ρ7) [III. xxxv., Ex. 6]. 41. Two lines are given in position: draw a transversal through a given point, forming with the given lines a triangle of given perimeter. 42. Given the vertical angle and perimeter of a triangle, construct it with either of the following data: 1. The bisector of the vertical angle; 2. the perpendicular from the vertical angle on the base; 3. the radius of the inscribed circle. 43. In a given circle inscribe a triangle so that two sides may pass through two given points, and that the third side may be a maximum or a minimum. 44. If s be the semiperimeter of a triangle, r′, r′′, r′′′, the radii of its escribed circles, r′r′′ + r′′r′′′ + r′′′r′ = s2. 45. The feet of the perpendiculars from the extremities of the base on either bisector of the vertical angle, the middle point of the base, and the foot of the perpendicular from the vertical angle on the base, are concyclic. 46. Given the base of a triangle and the vertical angle; find the locus of the centre of the circle passing through the centres of the escribed circles. 47. The perpendiculars from the centres of the escribed circles of a triangle on the corre- sponding sides are concurrent. 48. If AB be the diameter of a circle, and P Q any chord cutting AB in O, and if the lines AP , AQ intersect the perpendicular to AB at O, in D and E respectively, the points A, B, D, E are concyclic. 49. If the sides of a triangle be in arithmetical progression, and if R, r be the radii of the circumscribed and inscribed circles; then 6 Rr is equal to the rectangle contained by the greatest and least sides. 50. Inscribe in a given circle a triangle having its three sides parallel to three given lines. 51. If the sides AB, BC, &c., of a regular pentagon be bisected in the points A′, B′, C′, D′, E′, and if the two pairs of alternate sides, BC, AE; AB, DE, meet in the points A′′, E′′, respectively, prove △ A′′AE′′ − △ A′AE′ = pentagon A′B′C′D′E′. 52. In a circle, prove that an equilateral inscribed polygon is regular, and also an equilateral circumscribed polygon, if the number of sides be odd. 53. Prove also that an equiangular circumscribed polygon is regular, and an equiangular inscribed polygon, if the number of sides be odd. 54. The sum of the perpendiculars drawn to the sides of an equiangular polygon from any point inside the figure is constant. 55. Express the sides of a triangle in terms of the radii of its escribed circles. 115",
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      "text": "[PDF page 126] BOOK V. THEORY OF PROPORTION DEFINITIONS. Introduction.—Every proposition in the theories of ratio and proportion is true for all descriptions of magnitude. Hence it follows that the proper treatment is the Algebraic. It is, at all events, the easiest and the most satisfactory. Euclid’s proofs of the propositions, in the Theory of Proportion , possess at present none but a historical interest, as no student reads them now. But although his demonstrations are abandoned, his propositions are quoted by every writer, and his nomenclature is universally adopted. For these reasons it appears to us that the best method is to state Euclid’s definitions, explain them, or prove them when necessary, for some are theorems under the guise of definitions, and then supply simple algebraic proofs of his propositions. i. A less magnitude is said to be apart or submultiple of a greater magnitude, when the less measures the greater—that is, when the less is contained a certain number of times exactly in the greater. ii. A greater magnitude is said to be a multiple of a less when the greater is measured by the less—that is, when the greater contains the less a certain number of times exactly. iii. Ratio is the mutual relation of two magnitudes of the same kind with respect to quantity. iv. Magnitudes are said to have a ratio to one another when the less can be multiplied so as to exceed the greater. These definitions require explanation, especially Def. iii., which has the fault of conveying no precise meaning—being, in fact, unintelligible. The following annotations will make them explicit:— 1. If an integer be divided into any number of equal parts, one, or the sum of any number of these parts, is called a fraction. Thus, if the line AB represent the integer, and if it be divided into four equal parts in the points C, D, E, then AC is 1 4 ; AD, 2 4 ; AE, 3 4 . Thus, a fraction is denoted by two numbers parted by a horizontal line; the lower, called the denominator, denotes the number of equal parts into which the integer is divided; and the upper, called the numerator, denotes the number of these equal parts which are taken. Hence it follows, that if the numerator be less than the denominator, the fraction is less than unity. If the numerator be equal to the denominator, the fraction is equal to unity; and if greater than the denominator, it is greater than unity. It is evident that a fraction is an abstract quantity—that is, that its value is independent of the nature of the integer which is divided. 2. If we divide each of the equal parts AC, CD, DE, EB into two equal parts, the whole, AB, will be divided into eight equal parts; and we see that AC = 2 8 ; AD = 4 8 ; AE = 6 8 ; AB = 8 8 ; Now, we saw in 1, that AE = 3 4 of the integer, and we have just shown that it is equal to 6 8 . Hence 3 4 = 6 8 ; but 6 8 would be got from 3 4 by multiplying its terms (numerator and denominator) by 2. Hence we infer generally that multiplying the terms of any fraction by 2 does not alter its value. In like manner it may be shown that multiplying the terms of 116",
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      "text": "[PDF page 127] a fraction by any whole number does not alter its value. Hence it follows conversely, that dividing the terms of a fraction by a whole number does not alter the value. Hence we have the following important and fundamental theorem:— Two transformations can be made on any fraction without changing its value; namely, its terms can be either multiplied or divided by any whole number, and in either case the value of the new fraction is equal to the value of the original one. 3. If we take any number, such as 3, and multiply it by any whole number, the product is called a multiple of 3. Thus 6, 9, 12, 15, &c., are multiples of 3; but 10, 13, 17, &c., are not, because the multiplication of 3 by any whole number will not produce them. Conversely, 3 is a submultiple, or measure, or part of 6, 9, 12, 15, &c., because it is contained in each of these without a remainder; but not of 10, 13, 17, &c., because in each case it leaves a remainder. 4. If we consider two magnitudes of the same kind, such as two lines AB, CD, and if we sup- pose that AB is equal to 3 4 of CD, it is evident, if AB be divided into 3 equal parts, and CD into 4 equal parts, that one of the parts into which AB is divided is equal to one of the parts into which CD is divided. And as there are 3 parts in AB, and 4 in CD, we express this relation by saying that AB has to CD the ratio of 3 to 4; and we denote it thus, 3 : 4. Hence the ratio 3 : 4 expresses the same idea as the fraction 3 4 . In fact, both are different ways of expressing and writing the same thing. When written 3 : 4 it is called a ratio, and when 3 4 a fraction. In the same manner it can be shown that every ratio whose terms are commensurable can be converted into a fraction; and, conversely, every fraction can be turned into a ratio. From this explanation we see that the ratio of any two commensurable magnitudes is the same as the ratio of the numerical quantities which denote these magnitudes. Thus, the ratio of two commensurable lines is the ratio of the numbers which express their lengths, measured with the same unit. And this may be extended to the case where the lines are incommensurable. Thus, if a be the side and b the diagonal of a square, the ratio of a : b is a b , or 1√ 2 . When two quantities are incommensurable, such as the diagonal and the side of a square, although their ratio is not equal to that of any two commensurable numbers, yet a series of pairs of fractions can be found whose difference is continually diminishing, and which ultimately becomes indefinitely small; such that the ratio of the incommensurable quantities is greater than one, and less than the other fraction of each pair. These fractions are called convergents. By their means we can approximate as nearly as we please to the exact value of the ratio. In the case of the diagonal and the side of a square, the following are the pairs of convergents:— 14 10 , 15 10 ; 141 100 , 142 100 ; 1414 1000 , 1415 1000 ; & c., and the ratio is intermediate to each pair. It is evident we may continue the series as far as we please. Now if we denote the first of any of the foregoing pairs of fractions by m n , the second will be m + 1 n ; and in general, in the case of two incommensurable quantities, two fractions m n and m + 1 n can always be found, where n can be made as large as we please, one of which is less and the other greater than the true value of the ratio. For let a and b be the incommensurable quantities; then, evidently, we cannot find two multiples na, mb, such that na = mb. In this case, take any multiple of a, such as na, then this quantity must lie between some two consecutive multiples of b, such as mb, and (m + 1)b; therefore na mb is greater than unity, and na (m + 1)b less than unity. Hence a b lies between m n and m + 1 n . Now, since the difference between m n and m + 1 n namely, 1 n becomes small as n increases, we see that the difference between the ratio of two incommensurable quantities and that of two commensurable numbers 117",
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      "text": "[PDF page 128] m and n can be made as small as we please. Hence, ultimately, the ratio of incommensurable quantities may be regarded as the limit of the ratio of commensurable quantities. 5. The two terms of a ratio are called theantecedent and the consequent. These correspond to the numerator and the denominator of a fraction. Hence we have the following definition:— “A ratio is the fraction got by making the antecedent the numerator and the consequent the denominator.” 6. The reciprocal of a ratio is the ratio obtained by interchanging the antecedent and the consequent. Thus, 4 : 3 is the reciprocal of the ratio 3 : 4. Hence we have the following theorem:—“The product of a ratio and its reciprocal is unity. ” 7. If we multiply any two numbers, as 5 and 7, by any number such as 4, the products 20, 28 are called equimultiples of 5 and 7. In like manner, 10 and 15 are equimultiples of 2 and 3, and 18 and 30 of 3 and 5, &c. v. The first of four magnitudes has to the second the same ratio which the third has to the fourth, when any equimultiples whatsoever of the first and third being taken, and any equimultiples whatsoever of the second and fourth, if, according as the multiple of the first is greater than, equal to, or less than the multiple of the second, the multiple of the third is greater than, equal to, or less than the multiple of the fourth. vi. Magnitudes which have the same ratio are called proportionals. When four magnitudes are proportionals, it is usually expressed by saying, “The first is to the second as the third is to the fourth.” viii. Analogy or proportion is the similitude of ratios. We have given the foregoing definitions in the order of Euclid, as given by Simson, Lardner, and others; 2 but it is evidently an inverted order; for vi. viii. are definitions of proportion, and v. is only a test of proportion, and is not a definition but a theorem, and one which, instead of being taken for granted, requires proof. The following explanations will give the student clear conceptions of their meaning:— 1. If we take two ratios, such as 6 : 9 and 10 : 15, which are each equal to the same thing (in this example each is equal to 2 3 ), they are equal to one another (I. Axiom i.). Then we may write it thus— 6 : 9 = 10 : 15. This would be the most intelligible way, but it is not the usual one, which is as follows:— 6 : 9 :: 10 : 15. In this form it is called a proportion. Hence a proportion consists of two ratios which are asserted by it to be equal. Its four terms consist of two antecedents and two consequents. The 1st and 3rd terms are the antecedents, and the 2nd and 4th the consequents. Also the first and last terms are called the extremes, and the two middle terms the means. 2. Since a proportion consists of two equal ratios, and each ratio can be written as a fraction, whenever we have a proportion such as a : b :: c : d, we can write it in the form of two equal fractions. Thus: a b = c d . Conversely, an equation between two fractions can be put into a proportion. By means of these simple principles all the various properties of proportion can be proved in the most direct and easy manner. 3. If we take the proportion a : b :: c : d, and multiply the first and third terms, each by m, and second and fourth, each by n, we get the four multiples, ma, nb, mc, nd; and we want to prove that if ma is greater than nb, mc is greater than nd; if equal, equal; and if less, less. Dem.—Since a : b :: c : d, we have a b = c d . 2Except that viii. is put before vii., because it relates, as v. and vi., to the equality of ratios, whereas vii. is a test of their inequality. 118",
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      "text": "[PDF page 129] Hence, multiplying each by m n we get ma nb = mc nd . Now, it is evident that if ma nb is greater than unity, mc nd is greater than unity; but if ma nb is greater than unity, ma is greater than nb; and if mc nd is greater than unity, mc is greater than nd. In like manner, if ma be equal to nb, mc is equal to nd; and if less, less. The foregoing is an easy proof of the converse of the theorem which is contained in Euclid’s celebrated Fifth Definition. Next, to prove Euclid’s theorem—that if, according as the multiple of the first of four magnitudes is greater than, equal to, or less than the multiple of the second, the multiple of the third is greater than, equal to, or less than the multiple of the fourth; the ratio of the first to the second is equal to the ratio of the third to the fourth. Dem.—Let, a, b, c, d be the four magnitudes. First suppose that a and b are commen- surable, then it is evident that we can take multiples na, mb, such that na = mb. Hence, by hypothesis, nc = md. Thus, na mb = 1, nc md = 1; therefore a b = c d . Next, suppose a and b are incommensurable. Then, as in a recent note, we can find two numbers m and n, such that na mb is greater than unity, but na (m + 1)b less than unity. Hence a b lies between m n and m + 1 n . Now, since by hypothesis, when na mb is greater than unity, nc md is greater than unity; and when na (m + 1)b is less than unity, nc (m + 1)d is less than unity. Hence, since a b lies between m n and m + 1 n , c d lies between the same quantities. Therefore the difference between a b and c d is less than 1 n ; and since n may be as large as we please, the difference is nothing; therefore a b = c d . vii. When of the multiples of four magnitudes (taken as in Def. v.) the multiple of the first is greater than that of the second, but the multiple of the third not greater than that of the fourth, the first has to the second a greater ratio than the third has to the fourth. This, instead of being a definition, is a theorem. We have altered the last clause from that given in Simson’s Euclid, which runs thus:—“The first is said to have to the second a greater ratio than the third has to the fourth.” This is misleading, as it implies that it is, by convention, that the first ratio is greater than the second, whereas, in fact, such is not the case; for it follows from the hypothesis that the first ratio is greater than the second; and if it did not, it could not be made so by definition. We have made a similar change in the enunciation of the Fifth Definition. Let a, b, c, d be the four magnitudes, and m and n the multiples taken, it is required to prove, that if ma be greater than nb, but mc not greater than nd, that the ratio a : b is greater than the ratio c : d. Dem.—Since ma is greater than nb, but mc not greater than nd, it is evident that ma nb is greater than mc nd ; therefore a b is greater than c d ; that is, the ratio a : b is greater than the ratio c : d. 119",
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      "text": "[PDF page 130] ix. Proportion consists of three terms at least. This has the same fault as some of the others—it is not a definition, but an inference. It occurs when the means in a proportion are equal, so that, in fact, there are four terms. As an illustration, let us take the numbers 4, 6, 9. Here the ratio of 4 : 6 is 2 3 , and the ratio of 6 : 9 is 2 3 , so that 4, 6, 9 are continued proportionals; but, in reality, there are four terms, for the full proportion is 4 : 6 :: 6 : 9. x. When three magnitudes are continual proportionals, the first is said to have to the third the duplicate ratio of that which it has to the second. xi. When four magnitudes are continual proportionals, the first is said to have to the fourth the triplicate ratio of that which it has to the second. xii. When there is any number of magnitudes of the same kind greater than two, the first is said to have to the last the ratio compounded of the ratios of the first to the second, of the second to the third, of the third to the fourth, &c. We have placed these definitions in a group; but their order is inverted, and, as we shall see, Def. xii. is a theorem, and x. and xi. are only inferences from it. 1. If we have two ratios, such as 5 : 7 and 3 : 4, and if we convert each ratio into a fraction, and multiply these fractions together, we get a result which is called the ratio compounded of the two ratios; viz. in this example it is 15 28 , or 15 : 28. It is evident we get the same result if we multiply the two antecedents together for a new antecedent, and the two consequents for a new consequent. Hence we have the following definition:—“ The ratio compounded of any number of ratios it the ratio of the product of all the antecedents to the product of all the consequents.” 2. To prove the theorem contained in Def. xii. Let the magnitudes be a, b, c, d. Then the ratio of 1st : 2nd = a b , 2nd : 3rd = b c , 3rd : 4th = c d . Hence the ratio compounded of the ratio of 1st : 2nd, of 2nd : 3rd, of 3rd : 4th = abc bcd = a d = ratio of 1st : 4th . 3. If three magnitudes be proportional, the ratio of the 1st : 3rd is equal to the square of the ratio of the 1st : 2nd. For the ratio of the 1st : 3rd is compounded of the ratio of the 1st : 2nd, and of the ratio of the 2nd : 3rd; and since these ratios are equal, the ratio compounded of them will be equal to the square of one of them. Or thus : Let the proportionals be a, b, c, that is, let a : b :: b : c; hence we have b c = a b . And multiplying each by a b , we get a c = a2 b2 ; or a : c :: a2 : b2—that is, 1st : 3rd :: square of 1st : square of 2nd. Now, the ratio of 1st : 3rd is, by Def. x., the duplicate ratio of 1st : 2nd. Hence the duplicate ratio of two magnitudes means the square of their ratio, or, what is the same thing, the ratio of their squares (see Book VI. xx.). 4. If four magnitudes be continual proportionals, the ratio of 1st : 4th is equal to the cube of the ratio of 1st : 2nd. This may be proved exactly like 3. Hence we see that what Euclid calls triplicate ratio of two magnitudes is the ratio of their cubes, or the cube of their ratio. 120",
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      "text": "[PDF page 131] We also see that there is no necessity to introduce extraneous magnitudes for the purpose of defining duplicate and triplicate ratios, as Euclid does. In fact, the definitions by squares and cubes are more explicit. xiii. In proportionals, the antecedent terms are called homologous to one another; as also the consequents to one another. If one proportion be given, from it an indefinite number of other proportions can be inferred, and a great part of the theory of proportion consists in proving the truth of these derived proportions. Geometers make use of certain technical terms to denote the most important of these processes. We shall indicate these terms by including them in parentheses in connexion with the Propositions to which they refer. They are useful as indicating, by one word, the whole enunciation of a theorem. Every Proposition in the Fifth Book is a Theorem. PROP. I.—Theorem. If any number of magnitudes of the same kind (a, b, c, &c.), be equimultiples of as many others (a′, b ′, c ′, &c.), then the sum of the first magnitudes (a+ b+ c, &c.) shall be the same multiple of the sum of the second which any magnitude of the first system is of the corresponding magnitude of the second system. Dem.—Let m denote the multiple which the magnitudes of the first system are of those of the second system. Then we have a = ma′ (hyp.), b = mb′, c = mc′. &c., &c. Hence, by addition, (a + b + c + &c.) = m(a′ + b′ + c′, &c.). PROP. II.—Theorem. If two magnitudes of the same kind (a, b ) be the same multiples of another (c) which two corresponding magnitudes (a′, b ′) are of another (c′), then the sum of the two first is the same multiple of their submultiple which the sum of their corresponding magnitudes is of their submultiple. Dem.—Let m and n be the multiples which a and b are of c. Then we have a = mc and a′ = mc′, b = nc and b′ = nc′. Therefore (a + b) = (m + n)c, and ( a′ + b′) = (m + n)c′. Hence a + b is the same multiple of c that a′ + b′ is of c′. This Proposition is evidently true for any number of multiples. 121",
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      "text": "[PDF page 143] and similarly for any number of magnitudes in each set. This Proposition and the preceding one may be included in one enunciation, thus: “ Ratios compounded of equal ratios are equal. ” PROP. XXIV.—Theorem. If two magnitudes of the same kind (a, b ) have to a third magnitude (c) ratios equal to those which two other magnitudes (a′, b ′) have to a third (c′), then the sum (a + b) of the first two has the same ratio to their third (c) which the sum (a′ + b′) of the other two magnitudes has to their third (c′). Dem.—Since a : c :: a′ : c′, we have a c = a′ c′ . In like manner, b c = b′ c′ ; therefore, adding, a + b c = a′ + b′ c′ . Hence a + b : c :: a′ + b′ : c′. PROP. XXV.—Theorem. If four magnitudes of the same kind be proportionals, the sum of the greatest and least is greater than the sum of the other two. Let a : b :: c : d; then, if a be the greatest, d will be the least [ xiv. and a]. It is required to prove that a + d is greater than b + c. Dem.—Since a : b :: c : d, a : c :: b : d [alternando]; therefore a : a − c :: b : b − d [E].; but a is greater than b (hyp.), therefore a − c is greater than b − d [xiv.]. Hence a + d is greater than b + c. Questions for Examination on Book V. 1. What is the subject-matter of this book? 2. When is one magnitude said to be a multiple of another? 3. What is a submultiple or measure? 4. What are equimultiples? 5. What is the ratio of two commensurable magnitudes? 6. What is meant by the ratio of incommensurable magnitudes? 7. Give an Illustration of the ratio of incommensurables. 8. What are the terms of a ratio called? 133",
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      "text": "[PDF page 144] 9. What is a ratio of greater inequality? 10. What is a ratio of lesser inequality? 11. What is the product of two ratios called? Ans. The ratio compounded of these ratios. 12. What is duplicate ratio? 13. What is Euclid’s definition of duplicate ratio? 14. Give another definition. 15. Define triplicate ratio. 16. What is proportion? Ans. equality of ratios. 17. Give Euclid’s definition of proportion. 18. How many ratios in a proportion? 19. What are the Latin terms in use to denote some of the Propositions of Book V.? 20. When is a line divided harmonically? 21. When a line is divided harmonically, what are corresponding pairs of points called? Ans. Harmonic conjugates. 22. What are reciprocal ratios? 23. Give one enunciation that will include Propositions xxii., xxiii. of Book V. Exercises on Book V. Def. I.—A ratio whose antecedent is greater than its consequent is calleda ratio of greater inequality; and a ratio whose antecedent is less than its consequent,a ratio of lesser inequality. Def. II. —A right line is said to be cut harmonically when it is divided internally and externally in any ratios that are equal in magnitude. 1. A ratio of greater inequality is increased by diminishing its terms by the same quantity, and diminished by increasing its terms by the same quantity. 2. A ratio of lesser inequality is diminished by diminishing its terms by the same quantity, and increased by increasing its terms by the same quantity. 3. If four magnitudes be proportionals, the sum of the first and second is to their difference as the sum of the third and fourth is to their difference ( componendo et dividendo ). 4. If two sets of four magnitudes be proportionals, and if we multiply corresponding terms together, the products are proportionals. 5. If two sets of four magnitudes be proportionals, and if we divide corresponding terms, the quotients are proportionals. 6. If four magnitudes be proportionals, their squares, cubes, &c., are proportionals. 7. It two proportions have three terms of one respectively equal to three corresponding terms of the other, the remaining term of the first is equal to the remaining term of the second. 8. If three magnitudes be continual proportionals, the first is to the third as the square of the difference between the first and second is to the square of the difference between the second and third. 9. If a line AB, cut harmonically in C and D, be bisected in O; prove OC, OB, OD are continual proportionals. 10. In the same case, if O′ be the middle point of CD; prove OO′2 = OB 2 + O′D2. 11. And AB(AC + AD) = 2AC . AD, or 1 AC + 1 AD = 2 AB . 12. And CD(AD + BD) = 2AD . BD, or 1 BD + 1 AD = 2 CD . 13. And AB . CD = 2AD . CB. 134",
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      "text": "[PDF page 145] BOOK VI. APPLICATION OF THE THEORY OF PROPORTION DEFINITIONS. i. Similar Rectilineal Figures are those whose several angles are equal, each to each, and whose sides about the equal angles are proportional. Similar figures agree in shape; if they agree also in size, they are congruent. 1. When the shape of a figure is given, it is said to be given in species. Thus a triangle whose angles are given is given in species. Hence similar figures are of the same species. 2. When the size of a figure is given, it is said to be given in magnitude; for instance, a square whose side is of given length. 3. When the place which a figure occupies is known, it is said to be given in position. ii. A right line is said to be cut at a point in extreme and mean ratio when the whole line is to the greater segment as the greater segment is to the less. iii. If three quantities of the same kind be in continued proportion, the middle term is called a mean proportional between the other two. Magnitudes in continued proportion are also said to be in geometrical pro- gression. iv. If four quantities of the same kind be in continued proportion, the two middle terms are called two mean proportionals between the other two. v. The altitude of any figure is the length of the perpendicular from its highest point to its base. vi. Two corresponding angles of two figures have the sides about them reciprocally proportional, when a side of the first is to a side of the second as the remaining side of the second is to the remaining side of the first. This is evidently equivalent to saying that a side of the first is to a side of the second in the reciprocal ratio of the remaining side of the first to the remaining side of the second. PROP. I.—Theorem. Triangles (ABC, ACD ) and parallelograms (EC, CF ) which have the same altitude are to one another as their bases (BC, CD ). Dem.—Produce BD both ways, and cut off any number of parts BG, GH, &c., each equal to CB, and any number DK, KL, each equal to CD. Join AG, AH, AK, AL. Now, since the several bases CB, BG, GH are all equal, the triangles ACB, ABG, AGH are also all equal [I. xxxviii.]. Therefore the triangle ACH is the same multiple of ACB that the base CH is of the base CB. In like manner, 135",
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      "text": "[PDF page 146] the triangle ACL is the same multiple of ACD that the base CL is of the base CD; and it is evident that [I. xxxviii.] if the base HC be greater than CL, the triangle HAC is greater than CAL; if equal, equal; and if less, less. Now we have four magnitudes: the base BC is the first, the base CD the second, the triangle ABC the third, and the triangle ACD the fourth. We have taken equimultiples of the first and third, namely, the base CH , and the triangle ACH ; also equimultiples of the second and fourth, namely, the base CL, and the triangle ACL; and we have proved that according as the multiple of the first is greater than, equal to, or less than the multiple of the second, the multiple of the third is greater than, equal to, or less than the multiple of the fourth. Hence [V. Def. v.] the base BC : CD :: the triangle ABC : ACD. 2. The parallelogram EC is double of the triangle ABC [I. xxxiv.], and the parallelogram CF is double of the triangle ACD. Hence [V. xv.] EC : CF :: the triangle ABC : ACD; but ABC : ACD :: BC : CD (Part I.). Therefore [V. xi.] EC : CF :: the base BC : CD. Or thus: Let A, A′ denote the areas of the triangles ABC, ACD, respectively, and P their common altitude; then [II. i., Cor. 1], A = 1 2 P . BC, A ′ = 1 2 P . CD. Hence A A′ = BC CD , or A : A′ :: BC : CD. In extending this proof to parallelograms we have only to use P instead of 1 2 P . PROP. II.—Theorem. If a line (DE) be parallel to a side (BC) of a triangle (ABC), it divides the remaining sides, measured from the opposite angle (A), proportionally; and, conversely, If two sides of a triangle, measured from an angle, be cut propor- tionally, the line joining the points of section is parallel to the third side. 1. It is required to prove that AD : DB :: AE : EC. Dem.—Join BE, CD. The triangles BDE, CED are on the same base DE, and between the same par- allels BC, DE. Hence [I. xxxvii.] they are equal, and therefore [V. vii.] the triangle ADE : BDE :: ADE : CDE ; but ADE : BDE :: AD : DB [i.], and ADE : CDE :: AE : EC [i.]. Hence AD : DB :: AE : EC. 2. If AD : DB :: AE : EC, it is required to prove that DE is parallel to BC. Dem.—Let the same construction be made; then AD : DB :: the triangle ADE : BDE [i.]. and AE : EC :: the triangle ADE : CDE [i.]; but AD : DB :: AE : EC (hyp.). Hence ADE : BDE :: ADE : CDE. 136",
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      "text": "[PDF page 147] Therefore [V. ix.] the triangle BDE is equal to CDE , and they are on the same base DE, and on the same side of it; hence they are between the same parallels [I. xxxix.]. Therefore DE is parallel to BC. Observation.—The line DE may cut the sides AB, AC produced through B, C, or through the angle A; but evidently a separate figure for each of these cases is unnecessary. Exercise. If two lines be cut by three or more parallels, the intercepts on one are proportional to the corresponding intercepts on the other. PROP. III.—Theorem. If a line (AD) bisect any angle (A) of a triangle (ABC), it divides the opposite side (BC) into segments proportional to the adjacent sides. Conversely, If the segments (BD, DC ) into which a line (AD) drawn from any angle (A) of a triangle divides the opposite side be proportional to the adjacent sides, that line bisects the angle (A). Dem.—1. Through C draw CE parallel to AD, to meet BA produced in E. Because BA meets the parallels AD, EC, the angle BAD [I. xxix.] is equal to AEC; and because AC meets the parallels AD, EC, the angle DAC is equal to ACE; but the angle BAD is equal to DAC (hyp.); therefore the angle ACE is equal to AEC; therefore AE is equal to AC [I. vi.]. Again, because AD is parallel to EC, one of the sides of the triangle BEC , BD : DC :: BA : AE [ii.]; but AE has been proved equal to AC. Therefore BD : DC :: BA : AC. 2. If BD : DC :: BA : AC, the angle BAC is bisected. Dem.—Let the same construction be made. Because AD is parallel to EC, BA : AE :: BD : DC [ii.]; but BD : DC :: BA : AC (hyp.). Therefore [V. xi.] BA : AE :: BA : AC, and hence [V. ix.] AE is equal to AC; therefore the angle AEC is equal to ACE; but AEC is equal to BAD [I. xxix.], and ACE to DAC; hence BAD is equal to DAC, and the line AD bisects the angle BAC. Exercises. 1. If the lineAD bisect the external vertical angle CAE, BA : AC :: BD : DC, and conversely. Dem.—Cut off AE = AC. Join ED. Then the triangles ACD, AED are evidently congruent; therefore the angle EDB is bisected; hence [iii.] BA : AE :: BD : DE; or BA : AC :: BD : DC. 2. Exercise 1 has been proved by quoting Propo- sition iii. Prove it independently, and prove iii. as an inference from it. 3. The internal and the external bisectors of the vertical angle of a triangle divide the base harmonically (see Definition, p. 191). 137",
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      "text": "TRANSITION FROM THE COMMON RATIONAL KNOWLEDGE",
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      "text": "OF MORALITY TO THE PHILOSOPHICAL",
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      "text": "Nothing can possibly be conceived in the world, or even out of it, which can be called good, without qualification, except a good will. Intelligence, wit, judgement, and the other talents of the mind, however they may be named, or courage, resolution, perseverance, as qualities of temperament, are undoubtedly good and desirable in many respects; but these gifts of nature may also become extremely bad and mischievous if the will which is to make use of them, and which, therefore, constitutes what is called character, is not good. It is the same with the gifts of fortune. Power, riches, honour, even health, and the general well-being and contentment with one's condition which is called happiness, inspire pride, and often presumption, if there is not a good will to correct the influence of these on the mind, and with this also to rectify the whole principle of acting and adapt it to its end. The sight of a being who is not adorned with a single feature of a pure and good will, enjoying unbroken prosperity, can never give pleasure to an impartial rational spectator. Thus a good will appears to constitute the indispensable condition even of being worthy of happiness.",
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      "text": "There are even some qualities which are of service to this good will itself and may facilitate its action, yet which have no intrinsic unconditional value, but always presuppose a good will, and this qualifies the esteem that we justly have for them and does not permit us to regard them as absolutely good. Moderation in the affections and passions, self-control, and calm deliberation are not only good in many respects, but even seem to constitute part of the intrinsic worth of the person; but they are far from deserving to be called good without qualification, although they have been so unconditionally praised by the ancients. For without the principles of a good will, they may become extremely bad, and the coolness of a villain not only makes him far more dangerous, but also directly makes him more abominable in our eyes than he would have been without it.",
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      "text": "A good will is good not because of what it performs or effects, not by its aptness for the attainment of some proposed end, but simply by virtue of the volition; that is, it is good in itself, and considered by itself is to be esteemed much higher than all that can be brought about by it in favour of any inclination, nay even of the sum total of all inclinations. Even if it should happen that, owing to special disfavour of fortune, or the niggardly provision of a step-motherly nature, this will should wholly lack power to accomplish its purpose, if with its greatest efforts it should yet achieve nothing, and there should remain only the good will (not, to be sure, a mere wish, but the summoning of all means in our power), then, like a jewel, it would still shine by its own light, as a thing which has its whole value in itself. Its usefulness or fruitlessness can neither add nor take away anything from this value. It would be, as it were, only the setting to enable us to handle it the more conveniently in common commerce, or to attract to it the attention of those who are not yet connoisseurs, but not to recommend it to true connoisseurs, or to determine its value.",
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      "text": "There is, however, something so strange in this idea of the absolute value of the mere will, in which no account is taken of its utility, that notwithstanding the thorough assent of even common reason to the idea, yet a suspicion must arise that it may perhaps really be the product of mere high-flown fancy, and that we may have misunderstood the purpose of nature in assigning reason as the governor of our will. Therefore we will examine this idea from this point of view.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00032",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "In the physical constitution of an organized being, that is, a being adapted suitably to the purposes of life, we assume it as a fundamental principle that no organ for any purpose will be found but what is also the fittest and best adapted for that purpose. Now in a being which has reason and a will, if the proper object of nature were its conservation, its welfare, in a word, its happiness, then nature would have hit upon a very bad arrangement in selecting the reason of the creature to carry out this purpose. For all the actions which the creature has to perform with a view to this purpose, and the whole rule of its conduct, would be far more surely prescribed to it by instinct, and that end would have been attained thereby much more certainly than it ever can be by reason. Should reason have been communicated to this favoured creature over and above, it must only have served it to contemplate the happy constitution of its nature, to admire it, to congratulate itself thereon, and to feel thankful for it to the beneficent cause, but not that it should subject its desires to that weak and delusive guidance and meddle bunglingly with the purpose of nature. In a word, nature would have taken care that reason should not break forth into practical exercise, nor have the presumption, with its weak insight, to think out for itself the plan of happiness, and of the means of attaining it. Nature would not only have taken on herself the choice of the ends, but also of the means, and with wise foresight would have entrusted both to instinct.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00034",
      "bookId": 5682,
      "start": 20197,
      "end": 21782,
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      "text": "For as reason is not competent to guide the will with certainty in regard to its objects and the satisfaction of all our wants (which it to some extent even multiplies), this being an end to which an implanted instinct would have led with much greater certainty; and since, nevertheless, reason is imparted to us as a practical faculty, i.e., as one which is to have influence on the will, therefore, admitting that nature generally in the distribution of her capacities has adapted the means to the end, its true destination must be to produce a will, not merely good as a means to something else, but good in itself, for which reason was absolutely necessary. This will then, though not indeed the sole and complete good, must be the supreme good and the condition of every other, even of the desire of happiness. Under these circumstances, there is nothing inconsistent with the wisdom of nature in the fact that the cultivation of the reason, which is requisite for the first and unconditional purpose, does in many ways interfere, at least in this life, with the attainment of the second, which is always conditional, namely, happiness. Nay, it may even reduce it to nothing, without nature thereby failing of her purpose. For reason recognizes the establishment of a good will as its highest practical destination, and in attaining this purpose is capable only of a satisfaction of its own proper kind, namely that from the attainment of an end, which end again is determined by reason only, notwithstanding that this may involve many a disappointment to the ends of inclination.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00035",
      "bookId": 5682,
      "start": 21784,
      "end": 22474,
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      "text": "We have then to develop the notion of a will which deserves to be highly esteemed for itself and is good without a view to anything further, a notion which exists already in the sound natural understanding, requiring rather to be cleared up than to be taught, and which in estimating the value of our actions always takes the first place and constitutes the condition of all the rest. In order to do this, we will take the notion of duty, which includes that of a good will, although implying certain subjective restrictions and hindrances. These, however, far from concealing it, or rendering it unrecognizable, rather bring it out by contrast and make it shine forth so much the brighter.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00036",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "I omit here all actions which are already recognized as inconsistent with duty, although they may be useful for this or that purpose, for with these the question whether they are done from duty cannot arise at all, since they even conflict with it. I also set aside those actions which really conform to duty, but to which men have no direct inclination, performing them because they are impelled thereto by some other inclination. For in this case we can readily distinguish whether the action which agrees with duty is done from duty, or from a selfish view. It is much harder to make this distinction when the action accords with duty and the subject has besides a direct inclination to it. For example, it is always a matter of duty that a dealer should not over charge an inexperienced purchaser; and wherever there is much commerce the prudent tradesman does not overcharge, but keeps a fixed price for everyone, so that a child buys of him as well as any other. Men are thus honestly served; but this is not enough to make us believe that the tradesman has so acted from duty and from principles of honesty: his own advantage required it; it is out of the question in this case to suppose that he might besides have a direct inclination in favour of the buyers, so that, as it were, from love he should give no advantage to one over another. Accordingly the action was done neither from duty nor from direct inclination, but merely with a selfish view.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00037",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "On the other hand, it is a duty to maintain one's life; and, in addition, everyone has also a direct inclination to do so. But on this account the often anxious care which most men take for it has no intrinsic worth, and their maxim has no moral import. They preserve their life as duty requires, no doubt, but not because duty requires. On the other hand, if adversity and hopeless sorrow have completely taken away the relish for life; if the unfortunate one, strong in mind, indignant at his fate rather than desponding or dejected, wishes for death, and yet preserves his life without loving it- not from inclination or fear, but from duty- then his maxim has a moral worth.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00038",
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      "text": "To be beneficent when we can is a duty; and besides this, there are many minds so sympathetically constituted that, without any other motive of vanity or self-interest, they find a pleasure in spreading joy around them and can take delight in the satisfaction of others so far as it is their own work. But I maintain that in such a case an action of this kind, however proper, however amiable it may be, has nevertheless no true moral worth, but is on a level with other inclinations, e.g., the inclination to honour, which, if it is happily directed to that which is in fact of public utility and accordant with duty and consequently honourable, deserves praise and encouragement, but not esteem. For the maxim lacks the moral import, namely, that such actions be done from duty, not from inclination. Put the case that the mind of that philanthropist were clouded by sorrow of his own, extinguishing all sympathy with the lot of others, and that, while he still has the power to benefit others in distress, he is not touched by their trouble because he is absorbed with his own; and now suppose that he tears himself out of this dead insensibility, and performs the action without any inclination to it, but simply from duty, then first has his action its genuine moral worth. Further still; if nature has put little sympathy in the heart of this or that man; if he, supposed to be an upright man, is by temperament cold and indifferent to the sufferings of others, perhaps because in respect of his own he is provided with the special gift of patience and fortitude and supposes, or even requires, that others should have the same- and such a man would certainly not be the meanest product of nature- but if nature had not specially framed him for a philanthropist, would he not still find in himself a source from whence to give himself a far higher worth than that of a good-natured temperament could be? Unquestionably. It is just in this that the moral worth of the character is brought out which is incomparably the highest of all, namely, that he is beneficent, not from inclination, but from duty.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00039",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "sha256": "81ffdf59e31b3f579dd69a1c615d96bc926d75b7c0c24c5b0a4f77c1212436c8",
      "text": "To secure one's own happiness is a duty, at least indirectly; for discontent with one's condition, under a pressure of many anxieties and amidst unsatisfied wants, might easily become a great temptation to transgression of duty. But here again, without looking to duty, all men have already the strongest and most intimate inclination to happiness, because it is just in this idea that all inclinations are combined in one total. But the precept of happiness is often of such a sort that it greatly interferes with some inclinations, and yet a man cannot form any definite and certain conception of the sum of satisfaction of all of them which is called happiness. It is not then to be wondered at that a single inclination, definite both as to what it promises and as to the time within which it can be gratified, is often able to overcome such a fluctuating idea, and that a gouty patient, for instance, can choose to enjoy what he likes, and to suffer what he may, since, according to his calculation, on this occasion at least, he has not sacrificed the enjoyment of the present moment to a possibly mistaken expectation of a happiness which is supposed to be found in health. But even in this case, if the general desire for happiness did not influence his will, and supposing that in his particular case health was not a necessary element in this calculation, there yet remains in this, as in all other cases, this law, namely, that he should promote his happiness not from inclination but from duty, and by this would his conduct first acquire true moral worth.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00040",
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      "end": 28881,
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      "text": "It is in this manner, undoubtedly, that we are to understand those passages of Scripture also in which we are commanded to love our neighbour, even our enemy. For love, as an affection, cannot be commanded, but beneficence for duty's sake may; even though we are not impelled to it by any inclination- nay, are even repelled by a natural and unconquerable aversion. This is practical love and not pathological- a love which is seated in the will, and not in the propensions of sense- in principles of action and not of tender sympathy; and it is this love alone which can be commanded.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00041",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "The second proposition is: That an action done from duty derives its moral worth, not from the purpose which is to be attained by it, but from the maxim by which it is determined, and therefore does not depend on the realization of the object of the action, but merely on the principle of volition by which the action has taken place, without regard to any object of desire. It is clear from what precedes that the purposes which we may have in view in our actions, or their effects regarded as ends and springs of the will, cannot give to actions any unconditional or moral worth. In what, then, can their worth lie, if it is not to consist in the will and in reference to its expected effect? It cannot lie anywhere but in the principle of the will without regard to the ends which can be attained by the action. For the will stands between its a priori principle, which is formal, and its a posteriori spring, which is material, as between two roads, and as it must be determined by something, it follows that it must be determined by the formal principle of volition when an action is done from duty, in which case every material principle has been withdrawn from it.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00042",
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      "text": "The third proposition, which is a consequence of the two preceding, I would express thus: Duty is the necessity of acting from respect for the law. I may have inclination for an object as the effect of my proposed action, but I cannot have respect for it, just for this reason, that it is an effect and not an energy of will. Similarly I cannot have respect for inclination, whether my own or another's; I can at most, if my own, approve it; if another's, sometimes even love it; i.e., look on it as favourable to my own interest. It is only what is connected with my will as a principle, by no means as an effect- what does not subserve my inclination, but overpowers it, or at least in case of choice excludes it from its calculation- in other words, simply the law of itself, which can be an object of respect, and hence a command. Now an action done from duty must wholly exclude the influence of inclination and with it every object of the will, so that nothing remains which can determine the will except objectively the law, and subjectively pure respect for this practical law, and consequently the maxim * that I should follow this law even to the thwarting of all my inclinations.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00043",
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      "text": "* A maxim is the subjective principle of volition. The objective principle (i.e., that which would also serve subjectively as a practical principle to all rational beings if reason had full power over the faculty of desire) is the practical law.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00044",
      "bookId": 5682,
      "start": 31499,
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      "text": "Thus the moral worth of an action does not lie in the effect expected from it, nor in any principle of action which requires to borrow its motive from this expected effect. For all these effects- agreeableness of one's condition and even the promotion of the happiness of others- could have been also brought about by other causes, so that for this there would have been no need of the will of a rational being; whereas it is in this alone that the supreme and unconditional good can be found. The pre-eminent good which we call moral can therefore consist in nothing else than the conception of law in itself, which certainly is only possible in a rational being, in so far as this conception, and not the expected effect, determines the will. This is a good which is already present in the person who acts accordingly, and we have not to wait for it to appear first in the result. *",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00057",
      "bookId": 5682,
      "start": 45955,
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      "text": "Moreover, we cannot better serve the wishes of those who ridicule all morality as a mere chimera of human imagination over stepping itself from vanity, than by conceding to them that notions of duty must be drawn only from experience (as from indolence, people are ready to think is also the case with all other notions); for or is to prepare for them a certain triumph. I am willing to admit out of love of humanity that even most of our actions are correct, but if we look closer at them we everywhere come upon the dear self which is always prominent, and it is this they have in view and not the strict command of duty which would often require self-denial. Without being an enemy of virtue, a cool observer, one that does not mistake the wish for good, however lively, for its reality, may sometimes doubt whether true virtue is actually found anywhere in the world, and this especially as years increase and the judgement is partly made wiser by experience and partly, also, more acute in observation. This being so, nothing can secure us from falling away altogether from our ideas of duty, or maintain in the soul a well-grounded respect for its law, but the clear conviction that although there should never have been actions which really sprang from such pure sources, yet whether this or that takes place is not at all the question; but that reason of itself, independent on all experience, ordains what ought to take place, that accordingly actions of which perhaps the world has hitherto never given an example, the feasibility even of which might be very much doubted by one who founds everything on experience, are nevertheless inflexibly commanded by reason; that, e.g., even though there might never yet have been a sincere friend, yet not a whit the less is pure sincerity in friendship required of every man, because, prior to all experience, this duty is involved as duty in the idea of a reason determining the will by a priori principles.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00058",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "When we add further that, unless we deny that the notion of morality has any truth or reference to any possible object, we must admit that its law must be valid, not merely for men but for all rational creatures generally, not merely under certain contingent conditions or with exceptions but with absolute necessity, then it is clear that no experience could enable us to infer even the possibility of such apodeictic laws. For with what right could we bring into unbounded respect as a universal precept for every rational nature that which perhaps holds only under the contingent conditions of humanity? Or how could laws of the determination of our will be regarded as laws of the determination of the will of rational beings generally, and for us only as such, if they were merely empirical and did not take their origin wholly a priori from pure but practical reason?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00059",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "Nor could anything be more fatal to morality than that we should wish to derive it from examples. For every example of it that is set before me must be first itself tested by principles of morality, whether it is worthy to serve as an original example, i.e., as a pattern; but by no means can it authoritatively furnish the conception of morality. Even the Holy One of the Gospels must first be compared with our ideal of moral perfection before we can recognise Him as such; and so He says of Himself, \"Why call ye Me (whom you see) good; none is good (the model of good) but God only (whom ye do not see)?\" But whence have we the conception of God as the supreme good? Simply from the idea of moral perfection, which reason frames a priori and connects inseparably with the notion of a free will. Imitation finds no place at all in morality, and examples serve only for encouragement, i.e., they put beyond doubt the feasibility of what the law commands, they make visible that which the practical rule expresses more generally, but they can never authorize us to set aside the true original which lies in reason and to guide ourselves by examples.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00060",
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      "text": "If then there is no genuine supreme principle of morality but what must rest simply on pure reason, independent of all experience, I think it is not necessary even to put the question whether it is good to exhibit these concepts in their generality (in abstracto) as they are established a priori along with the principles belonging to them, if our knowledge is to be distinguished from the vulgar and to be called philosophical.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00061",
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      "sha256": "e13fbcd6d8aecb3f5ba3860c19cfa63045496be4a45a755fb65be92bf495bc56",
      "text": "In our times indeed this might perhaps be necessary; for if we collected votes whether pure rational knowledge separated from everything empirical, that is to say, metaphysic of morals, or whether popular practical philosophy is to be preferred, it is easy to guess which side would preponderate.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00072",
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      "text": "* The dependence of the desires on sensations is called inclination, and this accordingly always indicates a want. The dependence of a contingently determinable will on principles of reason is called an interest. This therefore, is found only in the case of a dependent will which does not always of itself conform to reason; in the Divine will we cannot conceive any interest. But the human will can also take an interest in a thing without therefore acting from interest. The former signifies the practical interest in the action, the latter the pathological in the object of the action. The former indicates only dependence of the will on principles of reason in themselves; the second, dependence on principles of reason for the sake of inclination, reason supplying only the practical rules how the requirement of the inclination may be satisfied. In the first case the action interests me; in the second the object of the action (because it is pleasant to me). We have seen in the first section that in an action done from duty we must look not to the interest in the object, but only to that in the action itself, and in its rational principle (viz., the law).",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00073",
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      "text": "A perfectly good will would therefore be equally subject to objective laws (viz., laws of good), but could not be conceived as obliged thereby to act lawfully, because of itself from its subjective constitution it can only be determined by the conception of good. Therefore no imperatives hold for the Divine will, or in general for a holy will; ought is here out of place, because the volition is already of itself necessarily in unison with the law. Therefore imperatives are only formulae to express the relation of objective laws of all volition to the subjective imperfection of the will of this or that rational being, e.g., the human will.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00074",
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      "text": "Now all imperatives command either hypothetically or categorically. The former represent the practical necessity of a possible action as means to something else that is willed (or at least which one might possibly will). The categorical imperative would be that which represented an action as necessary of itself without reference to another end, i.e., as objectively necessary.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00075",
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      "text": "Since every practical law represents a possible action as good and, on this account, for a subject who is practically determinable by reason, necessary, all imperatives are formulae determining an action which is necessary according to the principle of a will good in some respects. If now the action is good only as a means to something else, then the imperative is hypothetical; if it is conceived as good in itself and consequently as being necessarily the principle of a will which of itself conforms to reason, then it is categorical.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00076",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "Thus the imperative declares what action possible by me would be good and presents the practical rule in relation to a will which does not forthwith perform an action simply because it is good, whether because the subject does not always know that it is good, or because, even if it know this, yet its maxims might be opposed to the objective principles of practical reason.",
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      "text": "Accordingly the hypothetical imperative only says that the action is good for some purpose, possible or actual. In the first case it is a problematical, in the second an assertorial practical principle. The categorical imperative which declares an action to be objectively necessary in itself without reference to any purpose, i.e., without any other end, is valid as an apodeictic (practical) principle.",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00078",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "Whatever is possible only by the power of some rational being may also be conceived as a possible purpose of some will; and therefore the principles of action as regards the means necessary to attain some possible purpose are in fact infinitely numerous. All sciences have a practical part, consisting of problems expressing that some end is possible for us and of imperatives directing how it may be attained. These may, therefore, be called in general imperatives of skill. Here there is no question whether the end is rational and good, but only what one must do in order to attain it. The precepts for the physician to make his patient thoroughly healthy, and for a poisoner to ensure certain death, are of equal value in this respect, that each serves to effect its purpose perfectly. Since in early youth it cannot be known what ends are likely to occur to us in the course of life, parents seek to have their children taught a great many things, and provide for their skill in the use of means for all sorts of arbitrary ends, of none of which can they determine whether it may not perhaps hereafter be an object to their pupil, but which it is at all events possible that he might aim at; and this anxiety is so great that they commonly neglect to form and correct their judgement on the value of the things which may be chosen as ends.",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00079",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "There is one end, however, which may be assumed to be actually such to all rational beings (so far as imperatives apply to them, viz., as dependent beings), and, therefore, one purpose which they not merely may have, but which we may with certainty assume that they all actually have by a natural necessity, and this is happiness. The hypothetical imperative which expresses the practical necessity of an action as means to the advancement of happiness is assertorial. We are not to present it as necessary for an uncertain and merely possible purpose, but for a purpose which we may presuppose with certainty and a priori in every man, because it belongs to his being. Now skill in the choice of means to his own greatest well-being may be called prudence, * in the narrowest sense. And thus the imperative which refers to the choice of means to one's own happiness, i.e., the precept of prudence, is still always hypothetical; the action is not commanded absolutely, but only as means to another purpose.",
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      "text": "* The word prudence is taken in two senses: in the one it may bear the name of knowledge of the world, in the other that of private prudence. The former is a man's ability to influence others so as to use them for his own purposes. The latter is the sagacity to combine all these purposes for his own lasting benefit. This latter is properly that to which the value even of the former is reduced, and when a man is prudent in the former sense, but not in the latter, we might better say of him that he is clever and cunning, but, on the whole, imprudent.",
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      "text": "Finally, there is an imperative which commands a certain conduct immediately, without having as its condition any other purpose to be attained by it. This imperative is categorical. It concerns not the matter of the action, or its intended result, but its form and the principle of which it is itself a result; and what is essentially good in it consists in the mental disposition, let the consequence be what it may. This imperative may be called that of morality.",
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      "text": "There is a marked distinction also between the volitions on these three sorts of principles in the dissimilarity of the obligation of the will. In order to mark this difference more clearly, I think they would be most suitably named in their order if we said they are either rules of skill, or counsels of prudence, or commands (laws) of morality. For it is law only that involves the conception of an unconditional and objective necessity, which is consequently universally valid; and commands are laws which must be obeyed, that is, must be followed, even in opposition to inclination. Counsels, indeed, involve necessity, but one which can only hold under a contingent subjective condition, viz., they depend on whether this or that man reckons this or that as part of his happiness; the categorical imperative, on the contrary, is not limited by any condition, and as being absolutely, although practically, necessary, may be quite properly called a command. We might also call the first kind of imperatives technical (belonging to art), the second pragmatic * (to welfare), the third moral (belonging to free conduct generally, that is, to morals).",
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      "text": "* It seems to me that the proper signification of the word pragmatic may be most accurately defined in this way. For sanctions are called pragmatic which flow properly not from the law of the states as necessary enactments, but from precaution for the general welfare. A history is composed pragmatically when it teaches prudence, i.e., instructs the world how it can provide for its interests better, or at least as well as, the men of former time.",
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      "text": "When I conceive a hypothetical imperative, in general I do not know beforehand what it will contain until I am given the condition. But when I conceive a categorical imperative, I know at once what it contains. For as the imperative contains besides the law only the necessity that the maxims * shall conform to this law, while the law contains no conditions restricting it, there remains nothing but the general statement that the maxim of the action should conform to a universal law, and it is this conformity alone that the imperative properly represents as necessary.",
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      "text": "* A maxim is a subjective principle of action, and must be distinguished from the objective principle, namely, practical law. The former contains the practical rule set by reason according to the conditions of the subject (often its ignorance or its inclinations), so that it is the principle on which the subject acts; but the law is the objective principle valid for every rational being, and is the principle on which it ought to act that is an imperative.",
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      "text": "There is therefore but one categorical imperative, namely, this: Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law.",
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      "text": "Now if all imperatives of duty can be deduced from this one imperative as from their principle, then, although it should remain undecided what is called duty is not merely a vain notion, yet at least we shall be able to show what we understand by it and what this notion means.",
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      "text": "Since the universality of the law according to which effects are produced constitutes what is properly called nature in the most general sense (as to form), that is the existence of things so far as it is determined by general laws, the imperative of duty may be expressed thus: Act as if the maxim of thy action were to become by thy will a universal law of nature.",
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      "text": "* It must be noted here that I reserve the division of duties for a future metaphysic of morals; so that I give it here only as an arbitrary one (in order to arrange my examples). For the rest, I understand by a perfect duty one that admits no exception in favour of inclination and then I have not merely external but also internal perfect duties. This is contrary to the use of the word adopted in the schools; but I do not intend to justify there, as it is all one for my purpose whether it is admitted or not.",
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      "text": "1. A man reduced to despair by a series of misfortunes feels wearied of life, but is still so far in possession of his reason that he can ask himself whether it would not be contrary to his duty to himself to take his own life. Now he inquires whether the maxim of his action could become a universal law of nature. His maxim is: \"From self-love I adopt it as a principle to shorten my life when its longer duration is likely to bring more evil than satisfaction.\" It is asked then simply whether this principle founded on self-love can become a universal law of nature. Now we see at once that a system of nature of which it should be a law to destroy life by means of the very feeling whose special nature it is to impel to the improvement of life would contradict itself and, therefore, could not exist as a system of nature; hence that maxim cannot possibly exist as a universal law of nature and, consequently, would be wholly inconsistent with the supreme principle of all duty.",
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      "text": "2. Another finds himself forced by necessity to borrow money. He knows that he will not be able to repay it, but sees also that nothing will be lent to him unless he promises stoutly to repay it in a definite time. He desires to make this promise, but he has still so much conscience as to ask himself: \"Is it not unlawful and inconsistent with duty to get out of a difficulty in this way?\" Suppose however that he resolves to do so: then the maxim of his action would be expressed thus: \"When I think myself in want of money, I will borrow money and promise to repay it, although I know that I never can do so.\" Now this principle of self-love or of one's own advantage may perhaps be consistent with my whole future welfare; but the question now is, \"Is it right?\" I change then the suggestion of self-love into a universal law, and state the question thus: \"How would it be if my maxim were a universal law?\" Then I see at once that it could never hold as a universal law of nature, but would necessarily contradict itself. For supposing it to be a universal law that everyone when he thinks himself in a difficulty should be able to promise whatever he pleases, with the purpose of not keeping his promise, the promise itself would become impossible, as well as the end that one might have in view in it, since no one would consider that anything was promised to him, but would ridicule all such statements as vain pretences.",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00100",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "3. A third finds in himself a talent which with the help of some culture might make him a useful man in many respects. But he finds himself in comfortable circumstances and prefers to indulge in pleasure rather than to take pains in enlarging and improving his happy natural capacities. He asks, however, whether his maxim of neglect of his natural gifts, besides agreeing with his inclination to indulgence, agrees also with what is called duty. He sees then that a system of nature could indeed subsist with such a universal law although men (like the South Sea islanders) should let their talents rest and resolve to devote their lives merely to idleness, amusement, and propagation of their species- in a word, to enjoyment; but he cannot possibly will that this should be a universal law of nature, or be implanted in us as such by a natural instinct. For, as a rational being, he necessarily wills that his faculties be developed, since they serve him and have been given him, for all sorts of possible purposes.",
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      "text": "4. A fourth, who is in prosperity, while he sees that others have to contend with great wretchedness and that he could help them, thinks: \"What concern is it of mine? Let everyone be as happy as Heaven pleases, or as he can make himself; I will take nothing from him nor even envy him, only I do not wish to contribute anything to his welfare or to his assistance in distress!\" Now no doubt if such a mode of thinking were a universal law, the human race might very well subsist and doubtless even better than in a state in which everyone talks of sympathy and good-will, or even takes care occasionally to put it into practice, but, on the other side, also cheats when he can, betrays the rights of men, or otherwise violates them. But although it is possible that a universal law of nature might exist in accordance with that maxim, it is impossible to will that such a principle should have the universal validity of a law of nature. For a will which resolved this would contradict itself, inasmuch as many cases might occur in which one would have need of the love and sympathy of others, and in which, by such a law of nature, sprung from his own will, he would deprive himself of all hope of the aid he desires.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00102",
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      "text": "These are a few of the many actual duties, or at least what we regard as such, which obviously fall into two classes on the one principle that we have laid down. We must be able to will that a maxim of our action should be a universal law. This is the canon of the moral appreciation of the action generally. Some actions are of such a character that their maxim cannot without contradiction be even conceived as a universal law of nature, far from it being possible that we should will that it should be so. In others this intrinsic impossibility is not found, but still it is impossible to will that their maxim should be raised to the universality of a law of nature, since such a will would contradict itself It is easily seen that the former violate strict or rigorous (inflexible) duty; the latter only laxer (meritorious) duty. Thus it has been completely shown how all duties depend as regards the nature of the obligation (not the object of the action) on the same principle.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00103",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "If now we attend to ourselves on occasion of any transgression of duty, we shall find that we in fact do not will that our maxim should be a universal law, for that is impossible for us; on the contrary, we will that the opposite should remain a universal law, only we assume the liberty of making an exception in our own favour or (just for this time only) in favour of our inclination. Consequently if we considered all cases from one and the same point of view, namely, that of reason, we should find a contradiction in our own will, namely, that a certain principle should be objectively necessary as a universal law, and yet subjectively should not be universal, but admit of exceptions. As however we at one moment regard our action from the point of view of a will wholly conformed to reason, and then again look at the same action from the point of view of a will affected by inclination, there is not really any contradiction, but an antagonism of inclination to the precept of reason, whereby the universality of the principle is changed into a mere generality, so that the practical principle of reason shall meet the maxim half way. Now, although this cannot be justified in our own impartial judgement, yet it proves that we do really recognise the validity of the categorical imperative and (with all respect for it) only allow ourselves a few exceptions, which we think unimportant and forced from us.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00104",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "We have thus established at least this much, that if duty is a conception which is to have any import and real legislative authority for our actions, it can only be expressed in categorical and not at all in hypothetical imperatives. We have also, which is of great importance, exhibited clearly and definitely for every practical application the content of the categorical imperative, which must contain the principle of all duty if there is such a thing at all. We have not yet, however, advanced so far as to prove a priori that there actually is such an imperative, that there is a practical law which commands absolutely of itself and without any other impulse, and that the following of this law is duty.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00110",
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      "text": "The will is conceived as a faculty of determining oneself to action in accordance with the conception of certain laws. And such a faculty can be found only in rational beings. Now that which serves the will as the objective ground of its self-determination is the end, and, if this is assigned by reason alone, it must hold for all rational beings. On the other hand, that which merely contains the ground of possibility of the action of which the effect is the end, this is called the means. The subjective ground of the desire is the spring, the objective ground of the volition is the motive; hence the distinction between subjective ends which rest on springs, and objective ends which depend on motives valid for every rational being. Practical principles are formal when they abstract from all subjective ends; they are material when they assume these, and therefore particular springs of action. The ends which a rational being proposes to himself at pleasure as effects of his actions (material ends) are all only relative, for it is only their relation to the particular desires of the subject that gives them their worth, which therefore cannot furnish principles universal and necessary for all rational beings and for every volition, that is to say practical laws. Hence all these relative ends can give rise only to hypothetical imperatives.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00111",
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      "text": "Supposing, however, that there were something whose existence has in itself an absolute worth, something which, being an end in itself, could be a source of definite laws; then in this and this alone would lie the source of a possible categorical imperative, i.e., a practical law.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00112",
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      "text": "Now I say: man and generally any rational being exists as an end in himself, not merely as a means to be arbitrarily used by this or that will, but in all his actions, whether they concern himself or other rational beings, must be always regarded at the same time as an end. All objects of the inclinations have only a conditional worth, for if the inclinations and the wants founded on them did not exist, then their object would be without value. But the inclinations, themselves being sources of want, are so far from having an absolute worth for which they should be desired that on the contrary it must be the universal wish of every rational being to be wholly free from them. Thus the worth of any object which is to be acquired by our action is always conditional. Beings whose existence depends not on our will but on nature's, have nevertheless, if they are irrational beings, only a relative value as means, and are therefore called things; rational beings, on the contrary, are called persons, because their very nature points them out as ends in themselves, that is as something which must not be used merely as means, and so far therefore restricts freedom of action (and is an object of respect). These, therefore, are not merely subjective ends whose existence has a worth for us as an effect of our action, but objective ends, that is, things whose existence is an end in itself; an end moreover for which no other can be substituted, which they should subserve merely as means, for otherwise nothing whatever would possess absolute worth; but if all worth were conditioned and therefore contingent, then there would be no supreme practical principle of reason whatever.",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00113",
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      "text": "If then there is a supreme practical principle or, in respect of the human will, a categorical imperative, it must be one which, being drawn from the conception of that which is necessarily an end for everyone because it is an end in itself, constitutes an objective principle of will, and can therefore serve as a universal practical law. The foundation of this principle is: rational nature exists as an end in itself. Man necessarily conceives his own existence as being so; so far then this is a subjective principle of human actions. But every other rational being regards its existence similarly, just on the same rational principle that holds for me: * so that it is at the same time an objective principle, from which as a supreme practical law all laws of the will must be capable of being deduced. Accordingly the practical imperative will be as follows: So act as to treat humanity, whether in thine own person or in that of any other, in every case as an end withal, never as means only. We will now inquire whether this can be practically carried out.",
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      "text": "* This proposition is here stated as a postulate. The ground of it will be found in the concluding section.",
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      "text": "To abide by the previous examples:",
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      "text": "Firstly, under the head of necessary duty to oneself: He who contemplates suicide should ask himself whether his action can be consistent with the idea of humanity as an end in itself. If he destroys himself in order to escape from painful circumstances, he uses a person merely as a mean to maintain a tolerable condition up to the end of life. But a man is not a thing, that is to say, something which can be used merely as means, but must in all his actions be always considered as an end in himself. I cannot, therefore, dispose in any way of a man in my own person so as to mutilate him, to damage or kill him. (It belongs to ethics proper to define this principle more precisely, so as to avoid all misunderstanding, e. g., as to the amputation of the limbs in order to preserve myself, as to exposing my life to danger with a view to preserve it, etc. This question is therefore omitted here.)",
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      "text": "Secondly, as regards necessary duties, or those of strict obligation, towards others: He who is thinking of making a lying promise to others will see at once that he would be using another man merely as a mean, without the latter containing at the same time the end in himself. For he whom I propose by such a promise to use for my own purposes cannot possibly assent to my mode of acting towards him and, therefore, cannot himself contain the end of this action. This violation of the principle of humanity in other men is more obvious if we take in examples of attacks on the freedom and property of others. For then it is clear that he who transgresses the rights of men intends to use the person of others merely as a means, without considering that as rational beings they ought always to be esteemed also as ends, that is, as beings who must be capable of containing in themselves the end of the very same action. *",
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      "text": "* Let it not be thought that the common \"quod tibi non vis fieri, etc.\" could serve here as the rule or principle. For it is only a deduction from the former, though with several limitations; it cannot be a universal law, for it does not contain the principle of duties to oneself, nor of the duties of benevolence to others (for many a one would gladly consent that others should not benefit him, provided only that he might be excused from showing benevolence to them), nor finally that of duties of strict obligation to one another, for on this principle the criminal might argue against the judge who punishes him, and so on.",
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      "text": "Thirdly, as regards contingent (meritorious) duties to oneself: It is not enough that the action does not violate humanity in our own person as an end in itself, it must also harmonize with it. Now there are in humanity capacities of greater perfection, which belong to the end that nature has in view in regard to humanity in ourselves as the subject: to neglect these might perhaps be consistent with the maintenance of humanity as an end in itself, but not with the advancement of this end.",
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      "text": "Thus the principle that every human will is a will which in all its maxims gives universal laws, * provided it be otherwise justified, would be very well adapted to be the categorical imperative, in this respect, namely, that just because of the idea of universal legislation it is not based on interest, and therefore it alone among all possible imperatives can be unconditional. Or still better, converting the proposition, if there is a categorical imperative (i.e., a law for the will of every rational being), it can only command that everything be done from maxims of one's will regarded as a will which could at the same time will that it should itself give universal laws, for in that case only the practical principle and the imperative which it obeys are unconditional, since they cannot be based on any interest.",
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      "text": "* I may be excused from adducing examples to elucidate this principle, as those which have already been used to elucidate the categorical imperative and its formula would all serve for the like purpose here.",
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      "text": "Looking back now on all previous attempts to discover the principle of morality, we need not wonder why they all failed. It was seen that man was bound to laws by duty, but it was not observed that the laws to which he is subject are only those of his own giving, though at the same time they are universal, and that he is only bound to act in conformity with his own will; a will, however, which is designed by nature to give universal laws. For when one has conceived man only as subject to a law (no matter what), then this law required some interest, either by way of attraction or constraint, since it did not originate as a law from his own will, but this will was according to a law obliged by something else to act in a certain manner. Now by this necessary consequence all the labour spent in finding a supreme principle of duty was irrevocably lost. For men never elicited duty, but only a necessity of acting from a certain interest. Whether this interest was private or otherwise, in any case the imperative must be conditional and could not by any means be capable of being a moral command. I will therefore call this the principle of autonomy of the will, in contrast with every other which I accordingly reckon as heteronomy.",
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      "text": "The conception of the will of every rational being as one which must consider itself as giving in all the maxims of its will universal laws, so as to judge itself and its actions from this point of view- this conception leads to another which depends on it and is very fruitful, namely that of a kingdom of ends.",
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      "text": "By a kingdom I understand the union of different rational beings in a system by common laws. Now since it is by laws that ends are determined as regards their universal validity, hence, if we abstract from the personal differences of rational beings and likewise from all the content of their private ends, we shall be able to conceive all ends combined in a systematic whole (including both rational beings as ends in themselves, and also the special ends which each may propose to himself), that is to say, we can conceive a kingdom of ends, which on the preceding principles is possible.",
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      "text": "For all rational beings come under the law that each of them must treat itself and all others never merely as means, but in every case at the same time as ends in themselves. Hence results a systematic union of rational being by common objective laws, i.e., a kingdom which may be called a kingdom of ends, since what these laws have in view is just the relation of these beings to one another as ends and means. It is certainly only an ideal.",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00131",
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      "text": "A rational being belongs as a member to the kingdom of ends when, although giving universal laws in it, he is also himself subject to these laws. He belongs to it as sovereign when, while giving laws, he is not subject to the will of any other.",
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      "text": "A rational being must always regard himself as giving laws either as member or as sovereign in a kingdom of ends which is rendered possible by the freedom of will. He cannot, however, maintain the latter position merely by the maxims of his will, but only in case he is a completely independent being without wants and with unrestricted power adequate to his will.",
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      "text": "Morality consists then in the reference of all action to the legislation which alone can render a kingdom of ends possible. This legislation must be capable of existing in every rational being and of emanating from his will, so that the principle of this will is never to act on any maxim which could not without contradiction be also a universal law and, accordingly, always so to act that the will could at the same time regard itself as giving in its maxims universal laws. If now the maxims of rational beings are not by their own nature coincident with this objective principle, then the necessity of acting on it is called practical necessitation, i.e., duty. Duty does not apply to the sovereign in the kingdom of ends, but it does to every member of it and to all in the same degree.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00134",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "The practical necessity of acting on this principle, i.e., duty, does not rest at all on feelings, impulses, or inclinations, but solely on the relation of rational beings to one another, a relation in which the will of a rational being must always be regarded as legislative, since otherwise it could not be conceived as an end in itself. Reason then refers every maxim of the will, regarding it as legislating universally, to every other will and also to every action towards oneself; and this not on account of any other practical motive or any future advantage, but from the idea of the dignity of a rational being, obeying no law but that which he himself also gives.",
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      "text": "In the kingdom of ends everything has either value or dignity. Whatever has a value can be replaced by something else which is equivalent; whatever, on the other hand, is above all value, and therefore admits of no equivalent, has a dignity.",
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      "text": "Whatever has reference to the general inclinations and wants of mankind has a market value; whatever, without presupposing a want, corresponds to a certain taste, that is to a satisfaction in the mere purposeless play of our faculties, has a fancy value; but that which constitutes the condition under which alone anything can be an end in itself, this has not merely a relative worth, i.e., value, but an intrinsic worth, that is, dignity.",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00137",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "Now morality is the condition under which alone a rational being can be an end in himself, since by this alone is it possible that he should be a legislating member in the kingdom of ends. Thus morality, and humanity as capable of it, is that which alone has dignity. Skill and diligence in labour have a market value; wit, lively imagination, and humour, have fancy value; on the other hand, fidelity to promises, benevolence from principle (not from instinct), have an intrinsic worth. Neither nature nor art contains anything which in default of these it could put in their place, for their worth consists not in the effects which spring from them, not in the use and advantage which they secure, but in the disposition of mind, that is, the maxims of the will which are ready to manifest themselves in such actions, even though they should not have the desired effect. These actions also need no recommendation from any subjective taste or sentiment, that they may be looked on with immediate favour and satisfaction: they need no immediate propension or feeling for them; they exhibit the will that performs them as an object of an immediate respect, and nothing but reason is required to impose them on the will; not to flatter it into them, which, in the case of duties, would be a contradiction. This estimation therefore shows that the worth of such a disposition is dignity, and places it infinitely above all value, with which it cannot for a moment be brought into comparison or competition without as it were violating its sanctity.",
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      "text": "What then is it which justifies virtue or the morally good disposition, in making such lofty claims? It is nothing less than the privilege it secures to the rational being of participating in the giving of universal laws, by which it qualifies him to be a member of a possible kingdom of ends, a privilege to which he was already destined by his own nature as being an end in himself and, on that account, legislating in the kingdom of ends; free as regards all laws of physical nature, and obeying those only which he himself gives, and by which his maxims can belong to a system of universal law, to which at the same time he submits himself. For nothing has any worth except what the law assigns it. Now the legislation itself which assigns the worth of everything must for that very reason possess dignity, that is an unconditional incomparable worth; and the word respect alone supplies a becoming expression for the esteem which a rational being must have for it. Autonomy then is the basis of the dignity of human and of every rational nature.",
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      "text": "The three modes of presenting the principle of morality that have been adduced are at bottom only so many formulae of the very same law, and each of itself involves the other two. There is, however, a difference in them, but it is rather subjectively than objectively practical, intended namely to bring an idea of the reason nearer to intuition (by means of a certain analogy) and thereby nearer to feeling. All maxims, in fact, have:",
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      "text": "From what has just been said, it is easy to see how it happens that, although the conception of duty implies subjection to the law, we yet ascribe a certain dignity and sublimity to the person who fulfils all his duties. There is not, indeed, any sublimity in him, so far as he is subject to the moral law; but inasmuch as in regard to that very law he is likewise a legislator, and on that account alone subject to it, he has sublimity. We have also shown above that neither fear nor inclination, but simply respect for the law, is the spring which can give actions a moral worth. Our own will, so far as we suppose it to act only under the condition that its maxims are potentially universal laws, this ideal will which is possible to us is the proper object of respect; and the dignity of humanity consists just in this capacity of being universally legislative, though with the condition that it is itself subject to this same legislation.",
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      "text": "The Autonomy of the Will as the Supreme Principle of Morality",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00149",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "Autonomy of the will is that property of it by which it is a law to itself (independently of any property of the objects of volition). The principle of autonomy then is: \"Always so to choose that the same volition shall comprehend the maxims of our choice as a universal law.\" We cannot prove that this practical rule is an imperative, i.e., that the will of every rational being is necessarily bound to it as a condition, by a mere analysis of the conceptions which occur in it, since it is a synthetical proposition; we must advance beyond the cognition of the objects to a critical examination of the subject, that is, of the pure practical reason, for this synthetic proposition which commands apodeictically must be capable of being cognized wholly a priori. This matter, however, does not belong to the present section. But that the principle of autonomy in question is the sole principle of morals can be readily shown by mere analysis of the conceptions of morality. For by this analysis we find that its principle must be a categorical imperative and that what this commands is neither more nor less than this very autonomy.",
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      "text": "Heteronomy of the Will as the Source of all spurious Principles",
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      "text": "of Morality",
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      "text": "If the will seeks the law which is to determine it anywhere else than in the fitness of its maxims to be universal laws of its own dictation, consequently if it goes out of itself and seeks this law in the character of any of its objects, there always results heteronomy. The will in that case does not give itself the law, but it is given by the object through its relation to the will. This relation, whether it rests on inclination or on conceptions of reason, only admits of hypothetical imperatives: \"I ought to do something because I wish for something else.\" On the contrary, the moral, and therefore categorical, imperative says: \"I ought to do so and so, even though I should not wish for anything else.\" E.g., the former says: \"I ought not to lie, if I would retain my reputation\"; the latter says: \"I ought not to lie, although it should not bring me the least discredit.\" The latter therefore must so far abstract from all objects that they shall have no influence on the will, in order that practical reason (will) may not be restricted to administering an interest not belonging to it, but may simply show its own commanding authority as the supreme legislation. Thus, e.g., I ought to endeavour to promote the happiness of others, not as if its realization involved any concern of mine (whether by immediate inclination or by any satisfaction indirectly gained through reason), but simply because a maxim which excludes it cannot be comprehended as a universal law in one and the same volition.",
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      "text": "Classification of all Principles of Morality which can be",
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      "text": "founded on the Conception of Heteronomy",
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      "text": "The will is a kind of causality belonging to living beings in so far as they are rational, and freedom would be this property of such causality that it can be efficient, independently of foreign causes determining it; just as physical necessity is the property that the causality of all irrational beings has of being determined to activity by the influence of foreign causes.",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00170",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "The preceding definition of freedom is negative and therefore unfruitful for the discovery of its essence, but it leads to a positive conception which is so much the more full and fruitful.",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00171",
      "bookId": 5682,
      "start": 135821,
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      "text": "Since the conception of causality involves that of laws, according to which, by something that we call cause, something else, namely the effect, must be produced; hence, although freedom is not a property of the will depending on physical laws, yet it is not for that reason lawless; on the contrary it must be a causality acting according to immutable laws, but of a peculiar kind; otherwise a free will would be an absurdity. Physical necessity is a heteronomy of the efficient causes, for every effect is possible only according to this law, that something else determines the efficient cause to exert its causality. What else then can freedom of the will be but autonomy, that is, the property of the will to be a law to itself? But the proposition: \"The will is in every action a law to itself,\" only expresses the principle: \"To act on no other maxim than that which can also have as an object itself as a universal law.\" Now this is precisely the formula of the categorical imperative and is the principle of morality, so that a free will and a will subject to moral laws are one and the same.",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00172",
      "bookId": 5682,
      "start": 136923,
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      "text": "On the hypothesis, then, of freedom of the will, morality together with its principle follows from it by mere analysis of the conception. However, the latter is a synthetic proposition; viz., an absolutely good will is that whose maxim can always include itself regarded as a universal law; for this property of its maxim can never be discovered by analysing the conception of an absolutely good will. Now such synthetic propositions are only possible in this way: that the two cognitions are connected together by their union with a third in which they are both to be found. The positive concept of freedom furnishes this third cognition, which cannot, as with physical causes, be the nature of the sensible world (in the concept of which we find conjoined the concept of something in relation as cause to something else as effect). We cannot now at once show what this third is to which freedom points us and of which we have an idea a priori, nor can we make intelligible how the concept of freedom is shown to be legitimate from principles of pure practical reason and with it the possibility of a categorical imperative; but some further preparation is required.",
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      "text": "Freedom must be presupposed as a Property of the Will",
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      "text": "of all Rational Beings",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00175",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "It is not enough to predicate freedom of our own will, from Whatever reason, if we have not sufficient grounds for predicating the same of all rational beings. For as morality serves as a law for us only because we are rational beings, it must also hold for all rational beings; and as it must be deduced simply from the property of freedom, it must be shown that freedom also is a property of all rational beings. It is not enough, then, to prove it from certain supposed experiences of human nature (which indeed is quite impossible, and it can only be shown a priori), but we must show that it belongs to the activity of all rational beings endowed with a will. Now I say every being that cannot act except under the idea of freedom is just for that reason in a practical point of view really free, that is to say, all laws which are inseparably connected with freedom have the same force for him as if his will had been shown to be free in itself by a proof theoretically conclusive. * Now I affirm that we must attribute to every rational being which has a will that it has also the idea of freedom and acts entirely under this idea. For in such a being we conceive a reason that is practical, that is, has causality in reference to its objects. Now we cannot possibly conceive a reason consciously receiving a bias from any other quarter with respect to its judgements, for then the subject would ascribe the determination of its judgement not to its own reason, but to an impulse. It must regard itself as the author of its principles independent of foreign influences. Consequently as practical reason or as the will of a rational being it must regard itself as free, that is to say, the will of such a being cannot be a will of its own except under the idea of freedom. This idea must therefore in a practical point of view be ascribed to every rational being.",
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      "text": "* I adopt this method of assuming freedom merely as an idea which rational beings suppose in their actions, in order to avoid the necessity of proving it in its theoretical aspect also. The former is sufficient for my purpose; for even though the speculative proof should not be made out, yet a being that cannot act except with the idea of freedom is bound by the same laws that would oblige a being who was actually free. Thus we can escape here from the onus which presses on the theory.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00177",
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      "text": "Of the Interest attaching to the Ideas of Morality",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00178",
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      "text": "We have finally reduced the definite conception of morality to the idea of freedom. This latter, however, we could not prove to be actually a property of ourselves or of human nature; only we saw that it must be presupposed if we would conceive a being as rational and conscious of its causality in respect of its actions, i.e., as endowed with a will; and so we find that on just the same grounds we must ascribe to every being endowed with reason and will this attribute of determining itself to action under the idea of its freedom.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00180",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "It seems then as if the moral law, that is, the principle of autonomy of the will, were properly speaking only presupposed in the idea of freedom, and as if we could not prove its reality and objective necessity independently. In that case we should still have gained something considerable by at least determining the true principle more exactly than had previously been done; but as regards its validity and the practical necessity of subjecting oneself to it, we should not have advanced a step. For if we were asked why the universal validity of our maxim as a law must be the condition restricting our actions, and on what we ground the worth which we assign to this manner of acting- a worth so great that there cannot be any higher interest; and if we were asked further how it happens that it is by this alone a man believes he feels his own personal worth, in comparison with which that of an agreeable or disagreeable condition is to be regarded as nothing, to these questions we could give no satisfactory answer.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00181",
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      "text": "We find indeed sometimes that we can take an interest in a personal quality which does not involve any interest of external condition, provided this quality makes us capable of participating in the condition in case reason were to effect the allotment; that is to say, the mere being worthy of happiness can interest of itself even without the motive of participating in this happiness. This judgement, however, is in fact only the effect of the importance of the moral law which we before presupposed (when by the idea of freedom we detach ourselves from every empirical interest); but that we ought to detach ourselves from these interests, i.e., to consider ourselves as free in action and yet as subject to certain laws, so as to find a worth simply in our own person which can compensate us for the loss of everything that gives worth to our condition; this we are not yet able to discern in this way, nor do we see how it is possible so to act- in other words, whence the moral law derives its obligation.",
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      "text": "It must be freely admitted that there is a sort of circle here from which it seems impossible to escape. In the order of efficient causes we assume ourselves free, in order that in the order of ends we may conceive ourselves as subject to moral laws: and we afterwards conceive ourselves as subject to these laws, because we have attributed to ourselves freedom of will: for freedom and self-legislation of will are both autonomy and, therefore, are reciprocal conceptions, and for this very reason one must not be used to explain the other or give the reason of it, but at most only logical purposes to reduce apparently different notions of the same object to one single concept (as we reduce different fractions of the same value to the lowest terms).",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00183",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "One resource remains to us, namely, to inquire whether we do not occupy different points of view when by means of freedom we think ourselves as causes efficient a priori, and when we form our conception of ourselves from our actions as effects which we see before our eyes.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00184",
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      "text": "It is a remark which needs no subtle reflection to make, but which we may assume that even the commonest understanding can make, although it be after its fashion by an obscure discernment of judgement which it calls feeling, that all the \"ideas\" that come to us involuntarily (as those of the senses) do not enable us to know objects otherwise than as they affect us; so that what they may be in themselves remains unknown to us, and consequently that as regards \"ideas\" of this kind even with the closest attention and clearness that the understanding can apply to them, we can by them only attain to the knowledge of appearances, never to that of things in themselves. As soon as this distinction has once been made (perhaps merely in consequence of the difference observed between the ideas given us from without, and in which we are passive, and those that we produce simply from ourselves, and in which we show our own activity), then it follows of itself that we must admit and assume behind the appearance something else that is not an appearance, namely, the things in themselves; although we must admit that as they can never be known to us except as they affect us, we can come no nearer to them, nor can we ever know what they are in themselves. This must furnish a distinction, however crude, between a world of sense and the world of understanding, of which the former may be different according to the difference of the sensuous impressions in various observers, while the second which is its basis always remains the same, Even as to himself, a man cannot pretend to know what he is in himself from the knowledge he has by internal sensation. For as he does not as it were create himself, and does not come by the conception of himself a priori but empirically, it naturally follows that he can obtain his knowledge even of himself only by the inner sense and, consequently, only through the appearances of his nature and the way in which his consciousness is affected. At the same time beyond these characteristics of his own subject, made up of mere appearances, he must necessarily suppose something else as their basis, namely, his ego, whatever its characteristics in itself may be. Thus in respect to mere perception and receptivity of sensations he must reckon himself as belonging to the world of sense; but in respect of whatever there may be of pure activity in him (that which reaches consciousness immediately and not through affecting the senses), he must reckon himself as belonging to the intellectual world, of which, however, he has no further knowledge. To such a conclusion the reflecting man must come with respect to all the things which can be presented to him: it is probably to be met with even in persons of the commonest understanding, who, as is well known, are very much inclined to suppose behind the objects of the senses something else invisible and acting of itself. They spoil it, however, by presently sensualizing this invisible again; that is to say, wanting to make it an object of intuition, so that they do not become a whit the wiser.",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00186",
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      "text": "For this reason a rational being must regard himself qua intelligence (not from the side of his lower faculties) as belonging not to the world of sense, but to that of understanding; hence he has two points of view from which he can regard himself, and recognise laws of the exercise of his faculties, and consequently of all his actions: first, so far as he belongs to the world of sense, he finds himself subject to laws of nature (heteronomy); secondly, as belonging to the intelligible world, under laws which being independent of nature have their foundation not in experience but in reason alone.",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00187",
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      "text": "As a rational being, and consequently belonging to the intelligible world, man can never conceive the causality of his own will otherwise than on condition of the idea of freedom, for independence of the determinate causes of the sensible world (an independence which reason must always ascribe to itself) is freedom. Now the idea of freedom is inseparably connected with the conception of autonomy, and this again with the universal principle of morality which is ideally the foundation of all actions of rational beings, just as the law of nature is of all phenomena.",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00188",
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      "text": "Now the suspicion is removed which we raised above, that there was a latent circle involved in our reasoning from freedom to autonomy, and from this to the moral law, viz.: that we laid down the idea of freedom because of the moral law only that we might afterwards in turn infer the latter from freedom, and that consequently we could assign no reason at all for this law, but could only [present] it as a petitio principii which well disposed minds would gladly concede to us, but which we could never put forward as a provable proposition. For now we see that, when we conceive ourselves as free, we transfer ourselves into the world of understanding as members of it and recognise the autonomy of the will with its consequence, morality; whereas, if we conceive ourselves as under obligation, we consider ourselves as belonging to the world of sense and at the same time to the world of understanding.",
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      "sha256": "f70bc2d67ffbb04dd8f0ded7db0a592c5aa8ce8d21b791010eed507c938da5b6",
      "text": "How is a Categorical Imperative Possible?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00190",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "Every rational being reckons himself qua intelligence as belonging to the world of understanding, and it is simply as an efficient cause belonging to that world that he calls his causality a will. On the other side he is also conscious of himself as a part of the world of sense in which his actions, which are mere appearances [phenomena] of that causality, are displayed; we cannot, however, discern how they are possible from this causality which we do not know; but instead of that, these actions as belonging to the sensible world must be viewed as determined by other phenomena, namely, desires and inclinations. If therefore I were only a member of the world of understanding, then all my actions would perfectly conform to the principle of autonomy of the pure will; if I were only a part of the world of sense, they would necessarily be assumed to conform wholly to the natural law of desires and inclinations, in other words, to the heteronomy of nature. (The former would rest on morality as the supreme principle, the latter on happiness.) Since, however, the world of understanding contains the foundation of the world of sense, and consequently of its laws also, and accordingly gives the law to my will (which belongs wholly to the world of understanding) directly, and must be conceived as doing so, it follows that, although on the one side I must regard myself as a being belonging to the world of sense, yet on the other side I must recognize myself as subject as an intelligence to the law of the world of understanding, i.e., to reason, which contains this law in the idea of freedom, and therefore as subject to the autonomy of the will: consequently I must regard the laws of the world of understanding as imperatives for me and the actions which conform to them as duties.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00200",
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      "text": "Hence it comes to pass that man claims the possession of a will which takes no account of anything that comes under the head of desires and inclinations and, on the contrary, conceives actions as possible to him, nay, even as necessary which can only be done by disregarding all desires and sensible inclinations. The causality of such actions lies in him as an intelligence and in the laws of effects and actions [which depend] on the principles of an intelligible world, of which indeed he knows nothing more than that in it pure reason alone independent of sensibility gives the law; moreover since it is only in that world, as an intelligence, that he is his proper self (being as man only the appearance of himself), those laws apply to him directly and categorically, so that the incitements of inclinations and appetites (in other words the whole nature of the world of sense) cannot impair the laws of his volition as an intelligence. Nay, he does not even hold himself responsible for the former or ascribe them to his proper self, i.e., his will: he only ascribes to his will any indulgence which he might yield them if he allowed them to influence his maxims to the prejudice of the rational laws of the will.",
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      "ref": "PG5682.B00201",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "When practical reason thinks itself into a world of understanding, it does not thereby transcend its own limits, as it would if it tried to enter it by intuition or sensation. The former is only a negative thought in respect of the world of sense, which does not give any laws to reason in determining the will and is positive only in this single point that this freedom as a negative characteristic is at the same time conjoined with a (positive) faculty and even with a causality of reason, which we designate a will, namely a faculty of so acting that the principle of the actions shall conform to the essential character of a rational motive, i.e., the condition that the maxim have universal validity as a law. But were it to borrow an object of will, that is, a motive, from the world of understanding, then it would overstep its bounds and pretend to be acquainted with something of which it knows nothing. The conception of a world of the understanding is then only a point of view which reason finds itself compelled to take outside the appearances in order to conceive itself as practical, which would not be possible if the influences of the sensibility had a determining power on man, but which is necessary unless he is to be denied the consciousness of himself as an intelligence and, consequently, as a rational cause, energizing by reason, that is, operating freely. This thought certainly involves the idea of an order and a system of laws different from that of the mechanism of nature which belongs to the sensible world; and it makes the conception of an intelligible world necessary (that is to say, the whole system of rational beings as things in themselves). But it does not in the least authorize us to think of it further than as to its formal condition only, that is, the universality of the maxims of the will as laws, and consequently the autonomy of the latter, which alone is consistent with its freedom; whereas, on the contrary, all laws that refer to a definite object give heteronomy, which only belongs to laws of nature and can only apply to the sensible world.",
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      "text": "But reason would overstep all its bounds if it undertook to explain how pure reason can be practical, which would be exactly the same problem as to explain how freedom is possible.",
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      "text": "For we can explain nothing but that which we can reduce to laws, the object of which can be given in some possible experience. But freedom is a mere idea, the objective reality of which can in no wise be shown according to laws of nature, and consequently not in any possible experience; and for this reason it can never be comprehended or understood, because we cannot support it by any sort of example or analogy. It holds good only as a necessary hypothesis of reason in a being that believes itself conscious of a will, that is, of a faculty distinct from mere desire (namely, a faculty of determining itself to action as an intelligence, in other words, by laws of reason independently on natural instincts). Now where determination according to laws of nature ceases, there all explanation ceases also, and nothing remains but defence, i.e., the removal of the objections of those who pretend to have seen deeper into the nature of things, and thereupon boldly declare freedom impossible. We can only point out to them that the supposed contradiction that they have discovered in it arises only from this, that in order to be able to apply the law of nature to human actions, they must necessarily consider man as an appearance: then when we demand of them that they should also think of him qua intelligence as a thing in itself, they still persist in considering him in this respect also as an appearance. In this view it would no doubt be a contradiction to suppose the causality of the same subject (that is, his will) to be withdrawn from all the natural laws of the sensible world. But this contradiction disappears, if they would only bethink themselves and admit, as is reasonable, that behind the appearances there must also lie at their root (although hidden) the things in themselves, and that we cannot expect the laws of these to be the same as those that govern their appearances.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00204",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "The subjective impossibility of explaining the freedom of the will is identical with the impossibility of discovering and explaining an interest * which man can take in the moral law. Nevertheless he does actually take an interest in it, the basis of which in us we call the moral feeling, which some have falsely assigned as the standard of our moral judgement, whereas it must rather be viewed as the subjective effect that the law exercises on the will, the objective principle of which is furnished by reason alone.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00205",
      "bookId": 5682,
      "start": 167762,
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      "text": "* Interest is that by which reason becomes practical, i.e., a cause determining the will. Hence we say of rational beings only that they take an interest in a thing; irrational beings only feel sensual appetites. Reason takes a direct interest in action then only when the universal validity of its maxims is alone sufficient to determine the will. Such an interest alone is pure. But if it can determine the will only by means of another object of desire or on the suggestion of a particular feeling of the subject, then reason takes only an indirect interest in the action, and, as reason by itself without experience cannot discover either objects of the will or a special feeling actuating it, this latter interest would only be empirical and not a pure rational interest. The logical interest of reason (namely, to extend its insight) is never direct, but presupposes purposes for which reason is employed.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00206",
      "bookId": 5682,
      "start": 168677,
      "end": 170403,
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      "text": "In order indeed that a rational being who is also affected through the senses should will what reason alone directs such beings that they ought to will, it is no doubt requisite that reason should have a power to infuse a feeling of pleasure or satisfaction in the fulfilment of duty, that is to say, that it should have a causality by which it determines the sensibility according to its own principles. But it is quite impossible to discern, i.e., to make it intelligible a priori, how a mere thought, which itself contains nothing sensible, can itself produce a sensation of pleasure or pain; for this is a particular kind of causality of which as of every other causality we can determine nothing whatever a priori; we must only consult experience about it. But as this cannot supply us with any relation of cause and effect except between two objects of experience, whereas in this case, although indeed the effect produced lies within experience, yet the cause is supposed to be pure reason acting through mere ideas which offer no object to experience, it follows that for us men it is quite impossible to explain how and why the universality of the maxim as a law, that is, morality, interests. This only is certain, that it is not because it interests us that it has validity for us (for that would be heteronomy and dependence of practical reason on sensibility, namely, on a feeling as its principle, in which case it could never give moral laws), but that it interests us because it is valid for us as men, inasmuch as it had its source in our will as intelligences, in other words, in our proper self, and what belongs to mere appearance is necessarily subordinated by reason to the nature of the thing in itself.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00207",
      "bookId": 5682,
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      "text": "The question then, \"How a categorical imperative is possible,\" can be answered to this extent, that we can assign the only hypothesis on which it is possible, namely, the idea of freedom; and we can also discern the necessity of this hypothesis, and this is sufficient for the practical exercise of reason, that is, for the conviction of the validity of this imperative, and hence of the moral law; but how this hypothesis itself is possible can never be discerned by any human reason. On the hypothesis, however, that the will of an intelligence is free, its autonomy, as the essential formal condition of its determination, is a necessary consequence. Moreover, this freedom of will is not merely quite possible as a hypothesis (not involving any contradiction to the principle of physical necessity in the connexion of the phenomena of the sensible world) as speculative philosophy can show: but further, a rational being who is conscious of causality through reason, that is to say, of a will (distinct from desires), must of necessity make it practically, that is, in idea, the condition of all his voluntary actions. But to explain how pure reason can be of itself practical without the aid of any spring of action that could be derived from any other source, i.e., how the mere principle of the universal validity of all its maxims as laws (which would certainly be the form of a pure practical reason) can of itself supply a spring, without any matter (object) of the will in which one could antecedently take any interest; and how it can produce an interest which would be called purely moral; or in other words, how pure reason can be practical- to explain this is beyond the power of human reason, and all the labour and pains of seeking an explanation of it are lost.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00208",
      "bookId": 5682,
      "start": 172186,
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      "text": "It is just the same as if I sought to find out how freedom itself is possible as the causality of a will. For then I quit the ground of philosophical explanation, and I have no other to go upon. I might indeed revel in the world of intelligences which still remains to me, but although I have an idea of it which is well founded, yet I have not the least knowledge of it, nor an I ever attain to such knowledge with all the efforts of my natural faculty of reason. It signifies only a something that remains over when I have eliminated everything belonging to the world of sense from the actuating principles of my will, serving merely to keep in bounds the principle of motives taken from the field of sensibility; fixing its limits and showing that it does not contain all in all within itself, but that there is more beyond it; but this something more I know no further. Of pure reason which frames this ideal, there remains after the abstraction of all matter, i.e., knowledge of objects, nothing but the form, namely, the practical law of the universality of the maxims, and in conformity with this conception of reason in reference to a pure world of understanding as a possible efficient cause, that is a cause determining the will. There must here be a total absence of springs; unless this idea of an intelligible world is itself the spring, or that in which reason primarily takes an interest; but to make this intelligible is precisely the problem that we cannot solve.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG5682.B00209",
      "bookId": 5682,
      "start": 173668,
      "end": 174840,
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      "text": "Here now is the extreme limit of all moral inquiry, and it is of great importance to determine it even on this account, in order that reason may not on the one hand, to the prejudice of morals, seek about in the world of sense for the supreme motive and an interest comprehensible but empirical; and on the other hand, that it may not impotently flap its wings without being able to move in the (for it) empty space of transcendent concepts which we call the intelligible world, and so lose itself amidst chimeras. For the rest, the idea of a pure world of understanding as a system of all intelligences, and to which we ourselves as rational beings belong (although we are likewise on the other side members of the sensible world), this remains always a useful and legitimate idea for the purposes of rational belief, although all knowledge stops at its threshold, useful, namely, to produce in us a lively interest in the moral law by means of the noble ideal of a universal kingdom of ends in themselves (rational beings), to which we can belong as members then only when we carefully conduct ourselves according to the maxims of freedom as if they were laws of nature.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00127",
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      "text": "Professor Thurston, an eminent authority on the steam-engine, has estimated that a plain cylindrical boiler carrying 100 lbs. pressure to the square inch contains sufficient stored energy to project it into the air a vertical distance of 3-1/2 miles. In the case of a Lancashire boiler at equal pressure the distance would be 2-1/2 miles; of a locomotive boiler, at 125 lbs., 1-1/2 miles; of a steam tubular boiler, at 75 lbs., 1 mile. According to the same writer, a cubic foot of heated water under a pressure of from 60 to 70 lbs. per square inch has _about the same energy as one pound of gunpowder_.",
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      "ref": "PG28553.B00128",
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      "text": "Steam is a good servant, but a terrible master. It must be kept under strict control. However strong a boiler may be, it will burst if the steam pressure in it be raised to a certain point; and some device must therefore be fitted on it which will give the steam free egress before that point is reached. A device of this kind is called a _safety-valve_. It usually blows off at less than half the greatest pressure that the boiler has been proved by experiment to be capable of withstanding.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00129",
      "bookId": 28553,
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      "text": "In principle the safety-valve denotes an orifice closed by an accurately-fitting plug, which is pressed against its seat on the boiler top by a weighted lever, or by a spring. As soon as the steam pressure on the face of the plug exceeds the counteracting force of the weight or spring, the plug rises, and steam escapes until equilibrium of the opposing forces is restored.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00130",
      "bookId": 28553,
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      "text": "On stationary engines a lever safety-valve is commonly employed (Fig. 11). The blowing-off point can be varied by shifting the weight along the arm so as to give it a greater or less leverage. On locomotive and marine boilers, where shocks and movements have to be reckoned with, weights are replaced by springs, set to a certain tension, and locked up so that they cannot be tampered with.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00131",
      "bookId": 28553,
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      "sha256": "8158802254bd63f283222eee2289daafbad4598c9bc3ae372ee14663105a018a",
      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 11.--A LEVER SAFETY-VALVE. V, valve; S, seating; P, pin; L, lever; F, fulcrum; W, weight. The figures indicate the positions at which the weight should be placed for the valve to act when the pressure rises to that number of pounds per square inch.]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00140",
      "bookId": 28553,
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      "text": "On many boilers two water-gauges are fitted, since any gauge may work badly at times. The glasses are tested to a pressure of 3,000 lbs. or more to the square inch before use.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00141",
      "bookId": 28553,
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      "sha256": "8c9686d40de071b4f68b33a30581304074ecb3e834c21545b8804e758e93e4ea",
      "text": "THE STEAM-GAUGE.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00142",
      "bookId": 28553,
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      "sha256": "2575a875734dead4cfe495382cd8576fdebb7801bf2454b05ed4eefd42cfcb04",
      "text": "It is of the utmost importance that a person in charge of a boiler should know what pressure the steam has reached. Every boiler is therefore fitted with one _steam-gauge_; many with two, lest one might be unreliable. There are two principal types of steam-gauge:--(1) The Bourdon; (2) the Schaeffer-Budenberg. The principle of the Bourdon is illustrated by Fig. 13, in which A is a piece of rubber tubing closed at one end, and at the other drawn over the nozzle of a cycle tyre inflator. If bent in a curve, as shown, the section of the tube is an oval. When air is pumped in, the rubber walls endeavour to assume a circular section, because this shape encloses a larger area than an oval of equal circumference, and therefore makes room for a larger volume of air. In doing so the tube straightens itself, and assumes the position indicated by the dotted lines. Hang an empty \"inner tube\" of a pneumatic tyre over a nail and inflate it, and you will get a good illustration of the principle.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00143",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 35613,
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      "sha256": "03a3e978dc211f3060c99f993cf631cab8922d14a92dbb1cf8c1c3699dc99809",
      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Showing the principle of the steam-gauge.]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00144",
      "bookId": 28553,
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      "sha256": "90897795c29b038b4247c023b7da61157b5919528b298f3a3a2ac289b6ad6236",
      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 14.--Bourdon steam-gauge. Part of dial removed to show mechanism.]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00169",
      "bookId": 28553,
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      "text": "Locomotive, marine, and all other engines which must be started in any position have at least _two_ cylinders, and as many cranks set at an angle to one another. Fig. 19 demonstrates that when one crank, C_1, of a double-cylinder engine is at a \"dead point,\" the other, C_2, has reached a position at which the piston exerts the maximum of turning power. In Fig. 20 each crank is at 45 deg. with the horizontal, and both pistons are able to do work. The power of one piston is constantly increasing while that of the other is decreasing. If _single_-action cylinders are used, at least _three_ of these are needed to produce a perpetual turning movement, independently of a fly-wheel.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00170",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 43882,
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      "sha256": "1844dbe0b10181bd7ba85dca3ae838662b05e1776f2956773425961c478f618b",
      "text": "THE FUNCTION OF THE FLY-WHEEL.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00171",
      "bookId": 28553,
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      "sha256": "61551ddb941c43f94edfdb6d3da5d808405388388644b353c223a309066e6553",
      "text": "A fly-wheel acts as a _reservoir of energy_, to carry the crank of a single-cylinder engine past the \"dead points.\" It is useful in all reciprocating engines to produce steady running, as a heavy wheel acts as a drag on the effects of a sudden increase or decrease of steam pressure. In a pump, mangold-slicer, cake-crusher, or chaff-cutter, the fly-wheel helps the operator to pass _his_ dead points--that is, those parts of the circle described by the handle in which he can do little work.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG28553.B00172",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 44421,
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      "text": "THE CYLINDER.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00173",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 44438,
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      "sha256": "ee636ca360fb9cf85c5401f419f62c9b929730feb3405268c43f15ee566ee106",
      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 21.--Diagrammatic section of a cylinder and its slide-valve.]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00218",
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      "sha256": "55f0db78d39cb8b061a287fdafbaf75867591d521a7738c4626709d75d525d97",
      "text": "SPEED GOVERNORS.",
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      "ref": "PG28553.B00219",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 63425,
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      "sha256": "3b73d98fb5582b1852aa3da98ba63c88d7bde1221ae84a0f1f94f213033a3bac",
      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 33.--A speed governor.]",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00220",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 63472,
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      "text": "Practically all engines except locomotives and those known as \"donkey-engines\"--used on cranes--are fitted with some device for keeping the rotatory speed of the crank constant within very narrow limits. Perhaps you have seen a pair of balls moving round on a seating over the boiler of a threshing-engine. They form part of the \"governor,\" or speed-controller, shown in principle in Fig. 33. A belt driven by a pulley on the crank shaft turns a small pulley, P, at the foot of the governor. This transmits motion through two bevel-wheels, G, to a vertical shaft, from the top of which hang two heavy balls on links, K K. Two more links, L L, connect the balls with a weight, W, which has a deep groove cut round it at the bottom. When the shaft revolves, the balls fly outwards by centrifugal force, and as their velocity increases the quadrilateral figure contained by the four links expands laterally and shortens vertically. The angles between K K and L L become less and less obtuse, and the weight W is drawn upwards, bringing with it the fork C of the rod A, which has ends engaging with the groove. As C rises, the other end of the rod is depressed, and the rod B depresses rod O, which is attached to the spindle operating a sort of shutter in the steam-pipe. Consequently the supply of steam is throttled more and more as the speed increases, until it has been so reduced that the engine slows, and the balls fall, opening the valve again. Fig. 34 shows the valve fully closed. This form of governor was invented by James Watt. A spring is often used instead of a weight, and the governor is arranged horizontally so that it may be driven direct from the crank shaft without the intervention of bevel gearing.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
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      "sha256": "9bc63a1463343082f5c8d85926d15cc940aaec85ac63a1faf7cf52b22bc119f2",
      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 34.]",
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      "sha256": "b17aedd279f3a252c67e3424939009d31ef7e00fc465ea4a9d5fb11e70cb6cb9",
      "text": "The Hartwell governor employs a link motion. You must here picture the balls raising and lowering the _free end_ of the valve rod, which carries a block moving in a link connected with the eccentric rod. The link is pivoted at the upper end, and the eccentric rod is attached to the lower. When the engine is at rest the end of the valve rod and its block are dropped till in a line with the eccentric rod; but when the machinery begins to work the block is gradually drawn up by the governor, diminishing the movement of the valve, and so shortening the period of steam admission to the cylinder.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "end": 66341,
      "sha256": "6a2e4d0b31e17d0ca5f81ba606678a7e709660a6feb35facd026f0abc944167a",
      "text": "Governors are of special importance where the _load_ of an engine is constantly varying, as in the case of a sawmill. A good governor will limit variation of speed within two per cent.--that is, if the engine is set to run at 100 revolutions a minute, it will not allow it to exceed 101 or fall below 99. In _very_ high-speed engines the governing will prevent variation of less than one per cent., even when the load is at one instant full on, and the next taken completely off.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00224",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 66347,
      "end": 66364,
      "sha256": "abd72d9adc549897e8becdf99138ad00647fb0fad58417117fa9acf0df46ae91",
      "text": "MARINE GOVERNORS.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00225",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 66368,
      "end": 67323,
      "sha256": "66cbda31c18ed0e0d273a069cc47a0a6e4909626d9d3df2e7b7f7c74a14aa989",
      "text": "These must be more quick-acting than those used on engines provided with fly-wheels, which prevent very sudden variations of speed. The screw is light in proportion to the engine power, and when it is suddenly raised from the water by the pitching of the vessel, the engine would race till the screw took the water again, unless some regulating mechanism were provided. Many types of marine governors have been tried. The most successful seems to be one in which water is being constantly forced by a pump driven off the engine shaft into a cylinder controlling a throttle-valve in the main steam-pipe. The water escapes through a leak, which is adjustable. As long as the speed of the engine is normal, the water escapes from the cylinder as fast as it is pumped in, and no movement of the piston results; but when the screw begins to race, the pump overcomes the leak, and the piston is driven out, causing a throttling of the steam supply.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00226",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 67329,
      "end": 67340,
      "sha256": "ef74aecccf39b484fff1c4e30d3f15cf841426fd0cbd9a34d93889b278b2b1fe",
      "text": "CONDENSERS.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00227",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 67344,
      "end": 67732,
      "sha256": "1fbd445bc580b70a5a5a2e34c785b09370310ddf5e99c3d4e4c28f89d0131959",
      "text": "The _condenser_ serves two purposes:--(1) It makes it possible to use the same water over and over again in the boilers. On the sea, where fresh water is not obtainable in large quantities, this is a matter of the greatest importance. (2) It adds to the power of a compound engine by exerting a back pull on the piston of the low-pressure cylinder while the steam is being exhausted.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00228",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 67736,
      "end": 67783,
      "sha256": "289078a30c6145486c84f1565ee4411e26eea9e62bacb17b3dcf5f2ee932143b",
      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 35.--The marine condenser.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00229",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 67787,
      "end": 68662,
      "sha256": "5b0cc641f3faf176aa9616494e3da10e0fb1235027eed5ee8fa625065fe6db31",
      "text": "Fig. 35 is a sectional illustration of a marine condenser. Steam enters the condenser through the large pipe E, and passes among a number of very thin copper tubes, through which sea-water is kept circulating by a pump. The path of the water is shown by the featherless arrows. It comes from the pump through pipe A into the lower part of a large cap covering one end of the condenser and divided transversely by a diaphragm, D. Passing through the pipes, it reaches the cap attached to the other end, and flows back through the upper tubes to the outlet C. This arrangement ensures that, as the steam condenses, it shall meet colder and colder tubes, and finally be turned to water, which passes to the well through the outlet F. In some condensers the positions of steam and water are reversed, steam going through the tubes outside which cold water circulates.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00230",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 68668,
      "end": 68692,
      "sha256": "f7b4b79bc7977ccf5d20d3bdbab150116f0a2020d8696d2698d19efd6a55be59",
      "text": "[3] Also called _ports_.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00231",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 68696,
      "end": 68798,
      "sha256": "1a14b858951bad3a35ba8665b5ccbbd03ddc0fac202dd6fd7c515963725a37f4",
      "text": "[4] The bores of the cylinders are in the proportion of 4: 6: 9. The stroke of all three is the same.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00299",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 95607,
      "end": 96376,
      "sha256": "df319843e632dc48a5e51fe6436f23c3f8da7aea077c4e28740a8467ad580a85",
      "text": "A sketch of a neat governor, with regulating attachment, is given in Fig. 47. The governor shaft is driven from the engine. As the balls, B B, increase their velocity, they fly away from the shaft and move the arms, A A, and a sliding tube, C, towards the right. This rocks the lever R, and allows the valves in the inlet pipe to close and reduce the supply of air and gas. A wedge, W, which can be raised or lowered by lever L, intervenes between the end of R and the valve stem. If this lever be lifted to its highest position, the governing commences at a lower speed, as the valve then has but a short distance to travel before closing completely. For high speeds the driver depresses L, forces the wedge down, and so minimizes the effect of the governor.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00300",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 96382,
      "end": 96393,
      "sha256": "61637f1e48d501f26cb6060184aff13874027ac1256dab682c66b5bbd32f6ca7",
      "text": "THE CLUTCH.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00301",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 96397,
      "end": 97059,
      "sha256": "134f0020ce0717bbc60f64ef8cb94c7dba65072027bf117fcbfd608bfcbfd1e6",
      "text": "The engine shaft has on its rear end the fly-wheel, which has a broad and heavy rim, turned to a conical shape inside. Close to this, revolving loosely on the shaft, is the clutch plate, a heavy disc with a broad edge so shaped as to fit the inside of a fly-wheel. It is generally faced with leather. A very strong spring presses the plate into the fly-wheel, and the resulting friction is sufficient to prevent any slip. Projections on the rear of the clutch engage with the gear-box shaft. The driver throws out the clutch by depressing a lever with his foot. Some clutches dispense with the leather lining. These are termed _metal to metal_ clutches.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00302",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 97065,
      "end": 97078,
      "sha256": "922049985447b42b1c3fec310d5b7c852d708cb6a72da20b5c84605c2a215a40",
      "text": "THE GEAR-BOX.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00303",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 97082,
      "end": 98230,
      "sha256": "409da770dcb9c19d8afc4c7e4bc33cd98e7a195d5d9b49517292d6646af147f0",
      "text": "We now come to a very interesting detail of the motor car, the gear-box. The steam-engine has its speed increased by admitting more steam to the cylinders. But an explosion engine must be run at a high speed to develop its full power, and when heavier work has to be done on a hill it becomes necessary to alter the speed ratio of engine to driving-wheels. Our illustration (Fig. 48) gives a section of a gear-box, which will serve as a typical example. It provides three forward speeds and one reverse. To understand how it works, we must study the illustration carefully. Pinion 1 is mounted on a hollow shaft turned by the clutch. Into the hollow shaft projects the end of another shaft carrying pinions 6 and 4. Pinion 6 slides up and down this shaft, which is square at this point, but round inside the _loose_ pinion 4. Pinions 2 and 3 are keyed to a square secondary shaft, and are respectively always in gear with 1 and 4; but 5 can be slid backwards and forwards so as to engage or disengage with 6. In the illustration no gear is \"in.\" If the engine is working, 1 revolves 2, 2 turns 3, and 3 revolves 4 idly on its shaft.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00304",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 98234,
      "end": 98288,
      "sha256": "346bfdd624c8e09c47fc97781489d9d8582b5a74c0d2aebd7c71afaf074735ac",
      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 48.--The gear-box of a motor car.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00305",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 98292,
      "end": 98812,
      "sha256": "eaf6f49249f69cf51eacf425e6387ff5c01364a9f3635e420f668acc41b12892",
      "text": "To get the lowest, or \"first,\" speed the driver moves his lever and slides 5 into gear with 6. The transmission then is: 1 turns 2, 2 turns 5, 5 turns 6, 6 turns the propeller shaft through the universal joint. For the second speed, 5 and 6 are disengaged, and 6 is moved up the page, as it were, till projections on it interlock with slots in 4; thus driving 1, 2, 3, 4, shaft. For the third, or \"solid,\" speed, 6 is pulled down into connection with 1, and couples the engine shaft direct to the propeller shaft.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00307",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 99086,
      "end": 99110,
      "sha256": "a7e9d421f4eb1fdcfd8193e470d204fcd4de189b093a6e86cd1faa5160baae1a",
      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 49.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00308",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 99116,
      "end": 99138,
      "sha256": "ba199f4100d3ff923029c5b711af1d5dcd1bdd8ff3e822a815b493017d90f89c",
      "text": "THE COMPENSATING GEAR.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00309",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 99142,
      "end": 100595,
      "sha256": "cc0367426a156af1e1ce6728026b8c71814989b7bd45a876bde2685c41ee4fd2",
      "text": "Every axle of a railway train carries a wheel at each end, rigidly attached to it. When rounding a corner the outside wheel has further to travel than the other, and consequently one or both wheels must slip. The curves are made so gentle, however, that the amount of slip is very small. But with a traction-engine, motor car, or tricycle the case is different, for all have to describe circles of very small diameter in proportion to the length of the vehicle. Therefore in every case a _compensating gear_ is fitted, to allow the wheels to turn at different speeds, while permitting them both to drive. Fig. 49 is an exaggerated sketch of the gear. The axles of the moving wheels turn inside tubes attached to the springs and a central casing (not shown), and terminate in large bevel-wheels, C and D. Between these are small bevels mounted on a shaft supported by the driving drum. If the latter be rotated, the bevels would turn C and D at equal speeds, assuming that both axles revolve without friction in their bearings. We will suppose that the drum is turned 50 times a minute. Now, if one wheel be held, the other will revolve 100 times a minute; or, if one be slowed, the other will increase its speed by a corresponding amount. The _average_ speed remains 50. It should be mentioned that drum A has incorporated with it on the outside a bevel-wheel (not shown) rotated by a smaller bevel on the end of the propeller shaft.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00310",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 100601,
      "end": 100614,
      "sha256": "7c787cff1f65619095c7887c841383a75cde027cad4ccab209f0dfb210235bc8",
      "text": "THE SILENCER.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00311",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 100618,
      "end": 101456,
      "sha256": "9f5c159b8c74f45c06e9272d210823b489b69b4bd4aeb7d2b692f566d3f5541d",
      "text": "The petrol-engine, as now used, emits the products of combustion at a high pressure. If unchecked, they expand violently, and cause a partial vacuum in the exhaust pipe, into which the air rushes back with such violence as to cause a loud noise. Devices called _silencers_ are therefore fitted, to render the escape more gradual, and split it up among a number of small apertures. The simplest form of silencer is a cylindrical box, with a number of finely perforated tubes passing from end to end of it. The exhaust gases pouring into the box maintain a constant pressure somewhat higher than that of the atmosphere, but as the gases are escaping from it in a fairly steady stream the noise becomes a gentle hiss rather than a \"pop.\" There are numerous types of silencers, but all employ this principle in one form or another.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00376",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 126090,
      "end": 126109,
      "sha256": "c468ddd2be7cf3b44b55632aea1aadd2b8b4ac9a6d6614efad791a20c349339c",
      "text": "TELEGRAPHIC RELAYS.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00377",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 126113,
      "end": 126309,
      "sha256": "19505396c2291e4a1c0b1782d74697328fd9c6aaacb27eababb8a16086dc008a",
      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 58.--Section of a telegraph wire insulator on its arm. The shaded circle is the line wire, the two blank circles indicate the wire which ties the line wire to the insulator.]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00378",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 126313,
      "end": 126862,
      "sha256": "9e4afafb74b8cb2eab2ddd90d8551c32c9147485a6990e55a0088223573a253d",
      "text": "When an electric current has travelled for a long distance through a wire its strength is much reduced on account of the resistance of the wire, and may be insufficient to cause the electro-magnet of the sounder to move the heavy lever. Instead, therefore, of the current acting directly on the sounder magnet, it is used to energize a small magnet, or _relay_, which pulls down a light bar and closes a second \"local\" circuit--that is, one at the receiver end--worked by a separate battery, which has sufficient power to operate the sounder.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00379",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 126868,
      "end": 126889,
      "sha256": "d22a2eeae2e031a3a49dbee11cf85199a44982567559dc2f4d6745825017006e",
      "text": "RECORDING TELEGRAPHS.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00380",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 126893,
      "end": 127309,
      "sha256": "bb0c447c95b836fe3b333c767e9862a98a750941897e9900397030ac2e3f63cc",
      "text": "By attaching a small wheel to the end of a Morse-sounder lever, by arranging an ink-well for the wheel to dip into when the end falls, and by moving a paper ribbon slowly along for the wheel to press against when it rises, a self-recording Morse inker is produced. The ribbon-feeding apparatus is set in motion automatically by the current, and continues to pull the ribbon along until the message is completed.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00578",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 195016,
      "end": 195099,
      "sha256": "4fade7375da116e27a4eed05aa88346b771433719251d1c38ce2a6e14d75dc53",
      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 92.--Showing position of signals. Those at the top are \"off.\"]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00579",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 195105,
      "end": 195126,
      "sha256": "68a182d77e41394c0afc93338d60def8f3dd79f0835033b070519fb038121d40",
      "text": "INTERLOCKING SIGNALS.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00580",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 195130,
      "end": 195890,
      "sha256": "92b0d2b3c7b4f965bb6caaae78f6d160557c8c721f0875d3c743cf0f02e38b5a",
      "text": "A signalman cannot lower or restore his signals to their normal positions in any order he likes. He is compelled to lower them as follows:--Starting and home; _then_ distant. And restore them--distant; _then_ starting and home. If a signalman were quite independent, he might, after the passage of a train, restore the home or starting, but forget all about the distant, so that the next train, which he wants to stop, would dash past the distant without warning and have to pull up suddenly when the home came in sight. But by a mechanical arrangement he is prevented from restoring the home or starting until the distant is at danger; and, _vice versa_, he cannot lower the last until the other two are off. This mechanism is called _locking gear_.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00581",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 195896,
      "end": 195909,
      "sha256": "7dfac91f26223f1f43a1294d574eae3aeee3dbeda49c9d1cd76cae4224eb68ae",
      "text": "LOOKING GEAR.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00582",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 195913,
      "end": 196359,
      "sha256": "1c9b6affa2b6c8ec54dbb106a4a5e3002742c9937fd3af66c1d68dc99a78de36",
      "text": "There are many different types of locking gear in use. It is impossible to describe them all, or even to give particulars of an elaborate locking-frame of any one type. But if we confine ourselves to the simplest combination of a stud-locking apparatus, such as is used in small boxes on the Great Western Railway, the reader will get an insight into the general principles of these safety devices, as the same principles underlie them all.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00595",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 199547,
      "end": 199900,
      "sha256": "89f2465c21804fc6e3008ad9e9d0ead88ea49fd9581c4b3a937100ab09fafa09",
      "text": "It might be thought that the wheels would bump badly when they reach the point B, where there is a gap. This is prevented, however, by the bent ends E E (Fig. 98), on which the tread of the wheel rests until it has reached some distance along the point of V. The safety rails S R keep the outer wheel up against its rail until the V has been passed.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00596",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 199906,
      "end": 199940,
      "sha256": "26c46c61041219f6b7636a67c72c915d541c55a965163e5ddbd1c2314b2ee0c4",
      "text": "POINTS AND SIGNALS IN COMBINATION.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00597",
      "bookId": 28553,
      "start": 199944,
      "end": 201004,
      "sha256": "03b8fc5ffb3e30b91b07b804f4837e74af664703c0aeb6f43114385b4e6cd22a",
      "text": "Let us suppose that a train is approaching the junction shown in Figs. 98 and 99 from the left. It is not enough that the driver should know that the tracks are clear. He must also be assured that the track, main or branch, as the case may be, along which he has to go, is open; and on the other hand, if he were approaching from the right, he would want to be certain that no train on the other line was converging on his. Danger is avoided and assurance given by interlocking the points and signals. To the left of the junction the home and distant signals are doubled, there being two semaphore arms on each post. These are interlocked with the points in such a manner that the signals referring to either line can be pulled off only when the points are set to open the way to that line. Moreover, before any shifting of points can be made, the signals behind must be put to danger. The convergence of trains is prevented by interlocking, which renders it impossible to have both sets of distant and home signals at \"All right\" simultaneously.",
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      "text": "WORKING OF BLOCK SYSTEM.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG28553.B00599",
      "bookId": 28553,
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      "text": "We may now pass to the working of the block system of signalling trains from station to station on one line of a double track. Each signal-box (except, of course, those at termini) has electric communication with the next box in both directions. The instruments used vary on different systems, but the principle is the same; so we will concentrate our attention on those most commonly employed on the Great Western Railway. They are:--(1.) Two tapper-bell instruments, connected with similar instruments in the adjacent boxes on both sides. Each of these rings one beat in the corresponding box every time its key is depressed. (2.) Two Spagnoletti disc instruments--one, having two keys, communicating with the box in the rear; and the other, in connection with the forward box, having no keys. Their respective functions are to give signals and receive them. In the centre of the face of each is a square opening, behind which moves a disc carrying two \"flags\"--\"Train on line\" in white letters on red ground, and \"Line clear\" in black letters on a white ground. The keyed instrument has a red and a white key. When the red key is depressed, \"Train on line\" appears at the opening; also in that of a keyless disc at the adjacent signal-box. A depression of the white key similarly gives \"Line clear.\" A piece of wire with the ends turned over and passed through two eyes slides over the keys, and can be made to hold either down. In addition to these, telephonic and telegraphic instruments are provided to enable the signalmen to converse.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 111.]",
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      "ref": "PG28553.B00671",
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      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 112.]",
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      "ref": "PG28553.B00672",
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      "text": "This defect can fortunately be corrected by the method shown in Fig. 112. A _compound_ lens is needed, made up of a _crown_ glass convex element, B, and a concave element, A, of _flint_ glass. For the sake of illustration the two parts are shown separated; in practice they would be cemented together, forming one optical body, thicker in the centre than at the edges--a meniscus lens in fact, since A is not so concave as B is convex. Now, it was discovered by a Mr. Hall many years ago that if white light passed through two similar prisms, one of flint glass the other of crown glass, the former had the greater effect in separating the spectrum colours--that is, violet rays were bent aside more suddenly compared with the red rays than happened with the crown-glass prism. Look at Fig. 112. The red rays passing through the flint glass are but little deflected, while the violet rays turn suddenly outwards. This is just what is wanted, for it counteracts the unequal inward refraction by B, and both sets of rays come to a focus in the same plane. Such a lens is called _achromatic_, or colourless. If you hold a common reading-glass some distance away from large print you will see that the letters are edged with coloured bands, proving that the lens is not achromatic. A properly corrected photographic lens would not show these pretty edgings. Colour correction is necessary also for lenses used in telescopes and microscopes.",
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      "text": "SPHERICAL ABERRATION.",
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      "ref": "PG28553.B00674",
      "bookId": 28553,
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      "text": "A lens which has been corrected for colour is still imperfect. If rays pass through all parts of it, those which strike it near the edge will be refracted more than those near the centre, and a blurred focus results. This is termed _spherical aberration_. You will be able to understand the reason from Figs. 113 and 114. Two rays, A, are parallel to the axis and enter the lens near the centre (Fig. 113). These meet in one plane. Two other rays, B, strike the lens very obliquely near the edge, and on that account are both turned sharply upwards, coming to a focus in a plane nearer the lens than A. If this happened in a camera the results would be very bad. Either A or B would be out of focus. The trouble is minimized by placing in front of the lens a plate with a central circular opening in it (denoted by the thick, dark line in Fig. 114). The rays B of Fig. 113 are stopped by this plate, which is therefore called a _stop_. But other rays from the same point pass through the hole. These, however, strike the lens much more squarely above the centre, and are not unduly refracted, so that they are brought to a focus in the same plane as rays A.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 113.]",
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      "bookId": 28553,
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      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 114.]",
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      "ref": "PG28553.B01009",
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      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 179.]",
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      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 180.--The cylinder and ram of a hydraulic press.]",
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      "text": "The hydraulic press is an application of this law. Cylinder B is represented by a force pump of small bore, capable of delivering water at very high pressures (up to 10 tons per square inch). In the place of A we have a stout cylinder with a solid plunger, P (Fig. 180), carrying the _table_ on which the object to be pressed is placed. Bramah, the inventor of the hydraulic press, experienced great difficulty in preventing the escape of water between the top of the cylinder and the plunger. If a \"gland\" packing of the type found in steam-cylinders were used, it failed to hold back the water unless it were screwed down so tightly as to jam the plunger. He tried all kinds of expedients without success; and his invention, excellent though it was in principle, seemed doomed to failure, when his foreman, Henry Maudslay,[35] solved the problem in a simple but most masterly manner. He had a recess turned in the neck of the cylinder at the point formerly occupied by the stuffing-box, and into this a leather collar of U-section (marked solid black in Fig. 180) was placed with its open side downwards. When water reached it, it forced the edges apart, one against the plunger, the other against the walls of the recess, with a degree of tightness proportionate to the pressure. On water being released from the cylinder the collar collapsed, allowing the plunger to sink without friction.",
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      "text": "The principle of the hydraulic press is employed in lifts; in machines for bending, drilling, and riveting steel plates, or forcing wheels on or off their axles; for advancing the \"boring shield\" of a tunnel; and for other purposes too numerous to mention.",
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      "text": "HOUSEHOLD WATER-SUPPLY FITTINGS.",
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      "text": "THE ESCAPEMENT.",
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      "bookId": 28553,
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      "text": "[Illustration: FIG. 202.]",
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      "ref": "PG28553.B01129",
      "bookId": 28553,
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      "text": "The spring or weight transmits its power through a train of cogs to the _escapement_, or device for regulating the rate at which the wheels are to revolve. In clocks a _pendulum_ is generally used as the controlling agent. Galileo, when a student at Pisa, noticed that certain hanging lamps in the cathedral there swung on their cords at an equal rate; and on investigation he discovered the principle that the shorter a pendulum is the more quickly will it swing to and fro. As has already been observed, Huygens first applied the principle to the governing of clocks. In Fig. 202 we have a simple representation of the \"dead-beat\" escapement commonly used in clocks. The escape-wheel is mounted on the shaft of the last cog of the driving train, the pallet on a spindle from which depends a split arm embracing the rod and the pendulum. We must be careful to note that the pendulum _controls_ motion only; it does not cause movement.",
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      "ref": "PG28553.B01130",
      "bookId": 28553,
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      "text": "The escape-wheel revolves in a clockwise direction. The two pallets _a_ and _b_ are so designed that only one can rest on the teeth at one time. In the sketch the sloping end of _b_ has just been forced upwards by the pressure of a tooth. This swings the pallet and the pendulum. The momentum of the latter causes _a_ to descend, and at the instant when _b_ clears its tooth _a_ catches and holds another. The left-hand side of _a_, called the _locking-face_, is part of a circle, so that the escape-wheel is held motionless as long as it touches _a_: hence the term, \"dead beat\"--that is, brought to a dead stop. As the pendulum swings back, to the left, under the influence of gravity, _a_ is raised and frees the tooth. The wheel jerks round, and another tooth is caught by the locking-face of _b_. Again the pendulum swings to the right, and the sloping end of _b_ is pushed up once more, giving the pendulum fresh impetus. This process repeats itself as long as the driving power lasts--for weeks, months, or years, as the case may be, and the mechanism continues to be in good working order.",
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      "text": "COMPENSATING PENDULUMS.",
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      "ref": "PG52823.B00103",
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      "text": "The general causes which checked the progress of this science and thus made it fall behind the others can readily be stated:--",
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      "ref": "PG52823.B00104",
      "bookId": 52823,
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      "text": "“The boundaries of the Soul you cannot find, though you pace off all its streets, so deep a foundation has it,” runs a sentence of Heraclitus, and it hits the truth more fully than its author could ever have expected. The structures and functions of our mental life present the greatest difficulties to scientific investigation, greater even than those presented by the phenomena, in many respects similar, of the bodily life of the higher organisms. These structures and processes change so unceasingly, are so fleeting, so enormously complex, and dependent on so many factors hidden yet undoubtedly influential, that it is difficult even to seize upon them and describe their true substance, still more difficult to gain an insight into their causal connections and to understand their significance. We are just now beginning to recognize the full force of these difficulties. Wherever in recent years research in any of the many branches of psychology has made any considerable advance,--as in vision, audition, memory, judgment,--the first conclusion reached by all investigators has been, that matters are incomparably finer and richer and fuller of meaning than even a keen fancy would previously have been able to imagine.",
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      "ref": "PG52823.B00105",
      "bookId": 52823,
      "start": 12647,
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      "text": "There is, besides, a second obstacle. However difficult it may be to investigate the nature and causal connections of mental phenomena, everybody has a superficial knowledge of their external manifestations. Long before these phenomena were considered scientifically, it was necessary for practical human intercourse and for the understanding of human character, that language should give names to the most important mental complexes occurring in the various situations of daily life, such as judgment, attention, imagination, passion, conscience, and so forth; and we are constantly using these names as if everybody understood them perfectly. What is customary and commonplace comes to be self-evident to us and is quietly accepted; it arouses no wonder at its strangeness, no curiosity which might lead us to examine it more closely. Popular psychology remains unconscious of the fact that there are mysteries and problems in these complexes. It loses sight of the complications because of the simplicity of the names. When it has arranged the mental phenomena in any particular case under the familiar designations, and has perhaps said that some one has “paid attention,” or has “given free rein to his imagination,” it considers the whole matter explained and the subject closed.",
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      "text": "Still a third condition has retarded the advance of psychology, and will probably long continue to do so. Toward some of its weightiest problems it is almost impossible for us to be open-minded; we take too much practical interest in arriving at one answer rather than the other. King Frederick William I was not the only person who could be persuaded of the danger of the doctrine that every mental condition is governed by fixed law, and that in consequence all of our actions are fully determined--a doctrine fundamental to serious psychological research. He believed that such a teaching undermined the foundations of order in state and army, and that according to it he would no longer be justified in punishing deserters from his tall grenadiers. There are even to-day numerous thinkers who brand such a doctrine dangerous. They believe that it destroys all possibility of punishment and reward, makes all education, admonition, and advice meaningless, paralyzes our action, and must because of all these consequences be rejected.",
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      "text": "In a similar way the discussion of other fundamental questions, such as the real nature of mind, the relation of mind and body in life and death, becomes prejudiced and confused on account of their connection with the deepest-rooted sentiments and longings of the human race. In recent years this has been the case especially in connection with the question of the evolution of mental life from its lower forms in the animals to its higher in man. What ought to be taught and investigated on its own merits as pure scientific theory, as the probable meaning of experienced facts, comes to be a matter of belief and good character, or is considered a sign of courageous independence of spirit and superiority to superstition and traditional prejudice. All of this is quite comprehensible when we consider the enormous practical importance of the questions at issue. Yet such an attitude will scarcely be of much help in finding answers most correct from a purely objective standpoint; it rather discourages the advance of research along definite lines.",
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      "text": "Fechner’s work called forth numberless books and articles, confirming, opposing, discussing it, or carrying its conclusions still further. The chief question which they discussed, the question whether the law formulated by Fechner was correct or not, has gradually lost its importance, and made way for other problems. Quite aside from this question, which originally formed the center of interest, Fechner’s work has made itself felt in three different ways. Herbart’s mathematical fiction of the combat among ideas had made such an impression upon the thinkers of the time, that--incredible as it may seem--as late as 1852 Lotze confessed that he would prefer it to formulas found by experiment. For this fiction Fechner substituted a scientific law derived from actual measurement of physical forces. Further, he gave to these facts their proper place in a broad system, showed their significance for the deepest psychological problems, and thus compelled even those psychologists who had affiliated themselves with philosophy and had previously remained unaffected by the physiology of the senses, to take notice of the new movement in their science. And finally, he worked out a methodical procedure for all psychophysical investigations, which was far superior to the methods then employed by psychologists and which continues to be of great use for the study of sensation and perception.",
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      "text": "At about the same time, in the sixties, psychology received a third kind of impulse. Although weaker than the two just mentioned, it contributed not a little toward increasing the number of psychological problems to which experimental methods could be applied.",
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      "text": "In the year 1796 the Reverend Nevil Maskelyne, director of the Greenwich observatory, noticed that the transits recorded by his assistant, Kinnebrook, showed a gradually increasing difference from his own, finally amounting to almost a full second. He suspected his assistant of having deviated from the prescribed method of observation, the so-called eye and ear method, and of having substituted some unreliable method of his own. He admonished the young man to return to the correct method and do better in the future. But his admonition was in vain, and he found himself obliged to part with his otherwise satisfactory assistant. Kinnebrook lost his position on account of the deficient psychological knowledge of his time. It was not until two decades later that Bessel discovered that such differences between the results of observations by different individuals were quite general and normal, and that in Kinnebrook’s case they were only unusually great. They depend on the manner of giving attention to both the sound of the pendulum and the sight of the moving star, which naturally differs in different individuals.",
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      "text": "At first this question of the so-called personal equation remained a purely practical astronomical problem. But a few decades later it gave rise to two classes of investigations of psychological importance, both of the experimental kind. The first was an investigation of a comparatively simple problem--the duration of the mental processes. Among such processes measured were the simple perception, the discrimination of several perceptions, the simple reaction to them, the reproduction of any suggested idea, the reproduction of a specific suggested idea, and so forth. Not only was the duration of these processes studied, but also their dependence on differences of stimulation, the accompanying circumstances, the individual differences, the subject’s trend of thought. The second class of investigations was concerned with the more complex mental processes of attending and willing. As examples may be mentioned inquiries into the attention of a person confronted by a multitude of impressions, a study of the order in which the several impressions are perceived, a determination of the largest number of impressions perceptible as a mental unit, and research into the causal relations between ideas and actions.",
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      "text": "A more recent contribution of natural science to the advancement of psychology has come from investigations in the physiology and pathology of the central nervous system since the discovery about 1870 of the so-called speech center by Broca, and of the motor areas of the brain cortex by Fritsch and Hitzig. Some have placed a rather low value on this contribution and, noticing the errors and immature conceptions of this or that investigator, have arrived at the conclusion that psychology can learn nothing worth mentioning from the work of these men. This, it seems to me, is a great mistake.",
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      "text": "Quite aside from innumerable details, psychology owes to the investigations made in recent years concerning the physiology of the brain two fundamental conceptions. In the first place it has come to be generally recognized that the search of centuries for the exact seat of the soul in the brain--for the point where mind and body come into interaction--is without an object. There is no seat of the soul in this sense; the brain is the embodiment of almost absolute decentralization. Our mind receives the impressions of the external world by means of widely separated parts of the brain, as different sensations, according to the peripheral organs stimulated. And our mind controls our actions by means of widely separated parts of the brain according to the local differences of the muscle groups which are called into action. All the parts of the brain are connected, but they function in relative independence, without being controlled from a single point. Now, it is clear that insight into this fact is of no little significance for our conception of the nature of mind.",
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      "text": "_B. THE FUNDAMENTAL LAWS OF MENTAL LIFE_",
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      "text": "§ 8. ATTENTION",
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      "text": "A ship, under the influence of several forces--the screw, the wind, the current--follows all of them simultaneously, and the place which it reaches after a certain time is the same as that which it would have reached if these forces had acted, each for the same length of time, but one after the other. External things, whenever they are under the influence of several forces, are governed by the law of the resultant. The mind’s mode of response is entirely different. When there are many things to see, as a crowd of actors on the stage, many things to hear, as a chorus and orchestra, and in addition some whispered words of our neighbor, the result is by no means the same as if all these impressions acted upon our mind successively. If time enough is given, our mind will successively respond to each of these impressions of sight and hearing. But if the response must occur quickly and be done with, it is restricted to a part of the impressions made by the external objects. A few of these impressions, specially favored by circumstances, affect our consciousness at the expense of the others. The latter are not entirely lost for our mind; but they fail to call forth separate responses, they fuse into a mere background upon which the favored impressions make their appearance. They are often spoken of as the fringe of the clearly conscious mental states.",
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      "text": "One might call this selective effect the narrowness or focalness of consciousness; in ordinary life it is called attention. We say that attention is given to certain contents, and that the others are not attended to, that they are under the influence of inattention. There is no similar phenomenon in the whole inorganic world. In our mental life nothing is more ordinary. I look up and notice many things. But many more are projected upon my retina without succeeding in becoming noticed. When reading a book I cannot accomplish everything that I wish I could. Giving attention to the meaning, I fail to become conscious of the beauty of style. Looking for typographical errors, I fail to understand the logical connection of the sentences. For each purpose a new reading is necessary. Mental work requires the exclusion of piano music and crying babies. Thinking is not so easy while we are performing a gymnastic feat or walking at a rapid gait. When we are listening to difficult music, we shut our eyes. When a momentous question, a dangerous task, presents itself, we are in danger of losing our head; that is, being occupied by ideas of the magnitude of the event, we fail to become conscious of thoughts and memories of the simplest and most ordinary kind.",
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      "ref": "PG52823.B00387",
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      "text": "The popular view of attention is that it is an independent being, separate from the contents of the mind. Attention stands at the helm, and as the mind desires these or those contents, attention changes the ship’s course. This, of course, is pure mythology. The enhancement and impairment of impressions to which we refer in speaking of attention and inattention are not a peculiar activity of mind; they are simply the effects of peculiar relations existing between the impressions themselves. A few of these relations may be briefly discussed.",
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      "text": "Whatever situation is capable of being a source of pleasantness or unpleasantness, is also likely to become enhanced in vividness, so that one may say that the value of an impression for our life of feeling is one of the factors determining attention. Any remark of a person near by, although merely whispered and hardly perceived by others, quickly rises to a high degree of consciousness in my mind if it concerns my reputation. That which we have experienced frequently, no longer causes much pleasantness or unpleasantness; and in accordance with this, it is not likely to be attended to.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "This parallelism between feeling and attention is expressed in the word _interest_. We are interested in those things which conform to our habits of thinking. Because of this conformity they are useful to us at the present moment of our life, and therefore pleasant. Because of this conformity with our habits they become vividly conscious--they are attended to. What is unrelated to our habits of thinking is not useful to us at the moment and is therefore indifferent; and being unrelated, it attracts no attention. Everybody knows how readily the average member of a political party assents to the assertions made by the party leader, how readily the adherent of a religious faith accepts instances proving its correctness, how he unintentionally ignores anything which he cannot accept without opposition or discomfort.",
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      "text": "Another factor determining attention is the relation of a new impression to the thoughts occupying the mind at the moment when the impression was made. That which is conscious prepares the path over which everything related may enter. Ordinarily the ticking of a clock remains unnoticed. But let the person think of the clock, or of time, and the next tick is clearly perceived. In order to notice a weak tone in a complicated chord, or a melody in polyphonic music, it is well to hear the tone or the melody first in isolation and try to keep it in mind until the chord or the music is played. A slight difference in the color of two leaves remains unnoticed; but if we are thinking of a color difference just before the leaves are shown to us, it becomes at once vivid in our consciousness. The puzzle pictures common in certain popular magazines would never convey the intended meaning to us, if we were not invited by the text to think of various things which they might represent. If we know beforehand in what order a lecturer will present his arguments to us, we can pay attention to the lecture much more easily and understand it better.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG52823.B00391",
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      "text": "Attention is usually accompanied by numerous instinctive muscular activities, which contribute toward the continuation and toward a greater distinctness or intensity of the impression. When our visual organs are stimulated, the head and the eyes turn so that the impression may be received at the point of keenest vision. If the ear is stimulated, the head turns so that both ears assume the most favorable position with respect to the source of sound. When images occupy the mind, the eyes are directed at an indifferent, uninteresting object, or they are closed, the lips are pressed together, the limbs assume a position of rest. All this tends to keep away avoidable stimulation of the sense organs of the body. These instinctive movements are, of course, perceived as kinesthetic sensations, as varied forms of strain, of activity. Thus they give rise to the erroneous view that attention is a peculiar activity of the mind’s own content. This view is most emphatically expressed in the phrase “voluntary attention.” It often happens that we become conscious of the muscular adaptation characteristic of attention before the mental state to which attention is given has appeared. For example, we see lightning and at once imagine the thunder and the muscular adaptions of the ear and other parts of the body which generally occur when it thunders. Or we hear our teacher’s voice telling us that he will give an explanation, and we imagine the strain, the activity of our muscles, which begins as soon as he starts giving the explanation. This foreseeing of our activities we have above called willing. _The foreseeing of our attention is the will to give attention, is voluntary attention._",
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      "ref": "PG52823.B00392",
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      "text": "It is a peculiar fact that vividness of a certain thought or even a class of thoughts is never much prolonged. Other impressions or ideas take the place of those which are now focal. Under the most favorable conditions, the same ideas reappear again and again. This limited duration of attention is most conspicuous in children and is one of the greatest obstacles which the teacher has to overcome. Repeated orders to be attentive are of small value. They tend to call up a general notion of the matter which is being taught, and thus make it easier for the ideas presented by the teacher to enter consciousness. But the effect is not lasting because the very thought of being attentive cannot itself have a long duration. It is therefore preferable to take into account the nature of attending, and in accordance with it, to provide a certain change in the ideas presented--to present the matter in an interesting way.",
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      "text": "94. What practical problems are connected with the law of the duration of attention?",
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      "text": "§ 9. MEMORY",
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      "text": "While attention means limitation, memory means expansion. From the enormous number of impressions calling simultaneously for response, the mind selects a small group of those related to its present needs. But the mind may go beyond the limits of that which is presented and respond to impressions of a former time. We then speak of memory. When I hear the first verse of a poem which I have previously heard or read more than once, I continue to hear, in imagination, the following verses although the reader has stopped. When I see a black cloud drawing over the sky and the trees bowing under the pressure of the wind, I know that a thunderstorm is approaching. When I smell carbolic acid or iodoform, I look for a person wearing a bandage. In every case the mind tends toward expansion beyond the limits of the data presented at the moment. The mind thus restores the connections in which the accidentally isolated object of present interest has been experienced with other objects in the past.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG52823.B00403",
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      "text": "We refer to this ability of expansion by the term _memory_, to the actual process of expansion by _reproduction_ or _association_. The immense importance of memory for life is easily understood. Nature repeats itself--not without some variations of the accompanying phenomena; but no group of phenomena, aside from such variations, fails to recur at frequent intervals. In reproducing what previously existed under similar conditions, our mind possesses, as a rule, a real knowledge of what now exists but happens to remain hidden, and of what is about to occur. Thus our mind adapts itself to those parts of the world which are for spatial or temporal reasons beyond the reach of our sense organs.",
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      "ref": "PG52823.B00404",
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      "text": "A special case of reproduction deserves to be mentioned because of its frequency of application. Two things may possess one common part while completely differing in other parts: for example, two words that rhyme, or a photograph and an oil portrait, or either of these and the face of the original. Let us call the parts of one thing _abcd_, those of another _cdef_. It easily happens that by mediation of the common parts, _cd_, the train of thought is carried from _ab_ to _ef_. Thus we may say that our train of thought is determined, not only by simultaneity of previous experience, which is often quite fortuitous, but also by similarity, by essential connection, by relationship.",
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      "text": "The possibilities of reproduction are, of course, very numerous in each case of experience. At present I see before me some books of reference, on the hill at a distance a house partly hidden by trees, and many other things. All these have previously been in my mind, each in various temporal or essential connections with other things. An immense number of images might therefore be reproduced now in my mind. That as a matter of fact I do not become conscious of all of them needs no further explanation. It has been spoken of before when we discussed the limitation, the focalness of consciousness, that is, attention. We have also stated some of the rules determining the selection among these many possibilities. Let us here state these rules more definitely.",
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      "text": "Whatever tends to bring about strong feeling, also tends to be reproduced. A brilliant success, but also a humiliating defeat, are not easily forgotten. They are always lying in ambush, so to speak, ready for the least opportunity. As in attention, so here even more, pleasant thoughts show this tendency more strongly than unpleasant ones. What is unpleasant is soon repressed. This is illustrated by such facts as the healing power of time, the painting of the future in glowing colors, the unfailing belief that advancing age has in the good old time.",
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      "ref": "PG52823.B00407",
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      "text": "A second law governing reproduction may be called the set of the mind. When a railway train enters a large station, there are many paths over which it might pass; but its actual path depends on the position which was given to the switches immediately before the train’s arrival. In a similar manner the path taken by the mind depends on the set established just a few seconds or minutes before by the contents of the mind. If during a conversation in English a French word is unexpectedly pronounced by some one, the other people, though perfectly familiar with the French language, may fail to understand it. The French sounds are unexpected--the track is there, but the switch is not properly set--and consequently the sounds remain ineffective. A certain book seen on my desk calls up associated ideas very different from those which are produced when I see it in the bookstore. The same thought leads to one conclusion in the dark or in a dream, to another conclusion in daylight or in the waking state. Every student is familiar with the difficulty of becoming conscious of the right kind of ideas after having just gone from one recitation room to another. After a few minutes the new set of the mind is established, and the difficulty has disappeared.",
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      "ref": "PG52823.B00408",
      "bookId": 52823,
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      "text": "Many other factors are to be mentioned as influencing the train of thought. During the last decades many experimental investigations have been devoted, with much success, to their exact determination. Numerous methods have been used, some being only slight modifications of the conditions under which ideas are reproduced in ordinary life, others being more artificial in order to yield answers to special questions to which the other methods are not applicable. The common involuntary reproduction of ideas by words or pictures shown has been used in order to determine how this reproduction varies with different individuals under different circumstances, how much time it requires, and so on. Voluntary reproduction of impressions that have just been made (as used in school in dictation) has been used by presenting, optically or through speech, words, syllables, numbers, or pictures and telling the subject to write down everything remembered. The quantity of the matter retained, and the number and kind of errors, then permit many important conclusions. Also whole poems or pieces of prose have been memorized, and answers have been found to questions as to the length of time necessary for such memorizing under different conditions, and the number of additional repetitions needed to make the material learned available again after a greater number of days or weeks. The acquisition of the vocabulary of a foreign language or of a set of historical dates has been developed into a special method of hitting or missing. The material to be learned has been presented in pairs, and the number of pairs has been counted of which one element causes the mental reproduction of the other. By all these methods psychologists have definitely secured many rules which had been derived from earlier, less reliable experiences. Many new facts have also been discovered. Let us give a brief account of the results of this work.",
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      "text": "That which has been in consciousness most recently is, other conditions being equal, reproduced most readily. For some time the memorized material is reproduced so easily that it seems to have found a permanent place in our mind. Soon, however, it begins to be forgotten. At first this forgetting goes on with great rapidity; but it becomes slower and slower, so that a person retains very little less after thirteen months than after twelve. Even after twenty years definite traces of a single former memorizing have been proved to exist. Nothing, therefore, is likely to be completely lost, although voluntary reproduction has long since become impossible.",
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      "text": "The most important factor contributing toward certainty of reproduction is frequent repetition, of course with attention, for without attention no memorizing is possible. The experimental investigation of the influence of repetition has yielded, among minor ones, two particularly interesting results. One of them justifies an educational practice which had already been adopted by teachers because it seemed to be advisable. In order to memorize any material we should not try to force the desired end by accumulated repetition without pause. It is much more economical to devote a short time to learning, long enough for a few repetitions, to do this again after a pause of some hours or days and again after the same interval, until the desired effect is obtained. The total time required for obtaining this effect would be much greater if the total process of memorizing were to occur at one time without intermission.",
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      "text": "Another result of experimental investigation is contrary to the tradition of educational practice. It has been proved that, in order to learn a long poem, monologue, or piece of prose, this should not be divided into smaller parts. It is uneconomical to learn each stanza or sentence separately. The whole should always be read from the beginning to the end, without introducing points of division which are not desired at the time of reproduction.",
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      "text": "The method of involuntary reproduction has recently been applied to a problem of much practical significance. The attempt has been made to reveal thus associations of ideas which have been firmly established, but which the subject has strong reasons for keeping secret, for instance, the ideas forming the memory of a crime which he has committed. He is asked to tell or write as quickly as possible a word suggested by each of a great number of words presented to him in succession. Among these latter words are given some which have a special relation to the knowledge which the subject is suspected of possessing. If the suspicion is correct, it is likely to be shown in either of two ways in the answers to these test words. Either the expected (for instance incriminating) answers are actually given and reveal thus the subject’s knowledge; or if these answers are inhibited and voluntarily replaced by others of a more innocent appearance, the time of answering, the reaction time, is considerably increased. It may also happen that the subject, under these conditions, becomes confused and gives absolutely meaningless answers.",
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      "ref": "PG52823.B00413",
      "bookId": 52823,
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      "text": "That the individual differences in the ability to memorize are very great, has always been observed. Modern psychology, however, has added to this knowledge an insight into the various kinds of differences and their proper causes. Let us notice the perception and imagery types. There are people who perceive and imagine very readily visual sensation groups. They give attention to the shape and color of the things rather than to any other sensible qualities, and they imagine visual shape or color very vividly so that the right and left, the above and below, of their imagery is clearly in their minds. In others auditory perception and auditory imagery are very vivid; in a third class of persons the same is to be said of kinesthetic mental states. We therefore distinguish visual, auditory, and kinesthetic types of consciousness. There may be also gustatory, olfactory, and other types, but they are of little practical importance. Extreme cases, where one of these classes of mental states is extraordinarily developed at the expense of all others, are rare. Eminent ability in art or music probably depends on such development. Generally, one kind of imagery is but slightly superior to the rest.",
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      "text": "§ 10. PRACTICE",
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      "text": "The word _practice_ refers to a number of different phenomena having this in common, that they occur when the same mental function is frequently repeated, either in immediate succession or with moderately long intermissions. To a large extent practice is identical with the selective and supplementing functions of the mind which are discussed above. But certain effects included in the term _practice_ cannot be understood thus and must be regarded as the signs of a more fundamental law of the mind. Setting aside, however, the distinction between fundamental and secondary regularities of mental function, two facts should be mentioned here.",
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      "bookId": 52823,
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      "text": "The more frequently the same task is imposed upon our mind, the more perfectly--this is the first fact--is it carried out. But perfection has various aspects. So far as sense perception is concerned, perfection means a lowering of the so-called threshold of perception and of discrimination, especially the latter. Weaker sounds, lights, tastes are perceived; smaller differences of color, tone, weight, movement, size are correctly named. Perfection means also greater quickness of response. The same number of elements is perceived in less time, is memorized or reproduced more quickly. The rapidity of reading, thinking, writing, and other skillful movements is increased. Perfection means, further, an enlargement of the scope of the situation responded to. We are conscious of a greater number of its parts after having perceived a certain thing repeatedly. Of different things a greater number are simultaneously perceived. After repeated performance of a certain act, we take into account a greater number of circumstances and adapt it to them. That a certain activity which has been engaged in repeatedly can be continued longer at one time, may also be mentioned in this connection. So far as definite purposes are concerned, these are accomplished more and more economically and accurately, that is, with less expenditure of energy, with stricter avoidance of unnecessary movements, with a decreasing number of errors.",
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      "ref": "PG52823.B00428",
      "bookId": 52823,
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      "text": "A second phenomenon of practice is the simplification of the conscious processes preceding purposive action. Unless there are particular causes, as anticipatory ideas or an extraordinary special interest, that which has often occurred tends to remain unconscious, so that the response may be called automatic. The ticking of a clock, the noise of a street, the laughing of a mountain stream, soon cease to be attended to, although attention to them is always possible. Reading, writing, arithmetical work, when being learned, include a vast number of states of consciousness which no longer occur when these activities are performed by a grown person. After thousand-fold repetition great rapidity of execution results from the omission of a multitude of mental states without which the performance could not originally have been brought about. But the original effects of those lost mental states are not at all lost. The same movements are carried out with the same accuracy as if they were governed by those mental states. Each single letter, even each word, is not found in the consciousness of a person who reads rapidly, and yet he pronounces the word correctly. Each single note or printed chord is not in the consciousness of the pianist, and yet he plays the chord correctly. The same holds for all complex movements that are slowly learned and often repeated, as knitting, sewing, swimming, horseback riding, dancing, skating. They finally require a minimum of mental energy. They become comparable in this respect to the native, instinctive movements; but in order to distinguish them from the native movements independent of consciousness, we call them automatic movements.",
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      "text": "Practice, therefore, is a general term referring to the wonderful adaptation of mind to the external world for the purpose of self-preservation. By association and reproduction mind adapts itself to frequently recurring events and anticipates them. By practice it adapts itself to those events which recur with particular frequency and which are of particular importance. These events are through practice comprehended more delicately, more quickly, and more inclusively. They are responded to in a manner tested as the most fitting and most prompt, and yet requiring only a minimum of mental energy, of which more than a limited amount is at no time available. Without having to neglect the ordinary and as such important, mind has energy left to devote to that which is new, unusual, surprising.",
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      "text": "QUESTIONS",
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      "text": "105. Illustrate how practice simplifies thought.",
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      "text": "§ 11. FATIGUE",
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    {
      "ref": "PG52823.B00434",
      "bookId": 52823,
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      "text": "The conditions of fatigue are similar to those of practice. Fatigue occurs when mental functions are repeated too many times in immediate succession. But the result is not perfection, but deterioration of the performance. The sensitivity for weak stimuli or small differences of stimuli disappears. Attention is decreased, that is, fewer mental states are vivid, and they are also less vivid. New ideas do not easily enter consciousness. Reproduction, as in the processes of reading and arithmetic, is slow and inaccurate. Action becomes slow and awkward, and may cease altogether.",
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      "ref": "PG52823.B00435",
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      "text": "Fatigue is obviously a protective measure. When the continued performance of a task threatens to exhaust the organs, their resistance to the call for action increases, and finally they completely refuse to respond. Because of the continuity of all organic processes, this refusal in extreme cases is impossible without a lesser degree of refusal before the extreme is reached. The first indications of fatigue thus appear soon after a prolonged mental activity has begun, as a diminution of the effects of practice. This leads often to the astonishing consequence that a certain performance is executed better at the beginning of a practice period than at the end of the preceding period. The acquired practice is then still effective, while the effect of fatigue is absent. This experience does not justify the conclusion that skill has increased during the time of intermission.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG52823.B00436",
      "bookId": 52823,
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      "text": "Because of the great importance of fatigue for mental and bodily health, numerous investigators have in recent years undertaken to study it more closely by experimental methods. Especially fatigue caused by school work has been much under discussion in scientific and popular periodicals and even in the daily press. Little progress, however, has been made in our knowledge of fatigue. It has proved difficult to find reliable methods of measuring it, and the great complexity of the conditions has interfered with the interpretation of the experimental results. The attempt has been made to measure mental fatigue indirectly by measuring the muscular fatigue caused by repeatedly lifting a weight; or by measuring the minimum distance of two touches on the skin recognizable as two. Although there are probably relations of cutaneous sensitivity and of muscular fatigue to mental fatigue, they are not definitely known, and by some their very existence is doubted. Other tests used for the measurement of fatigue are adding numbers of several digits, adding a long series of digits, and taking dictation. In these tests the mental work is very one-sided and too simple to permit conclusions with regard to fatigue under ordinary conditions of mental activity. A disturbing element in these tests is the rapid perfection of the work under the influence of practice. If we choose more complicated tasks such as translation into another language, mathematical problems, or filling in words which have been omitted from a certain text, we cannot easily make two tasks sufficiently alike to be able to compare the results obtained from them.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG52823.B00494",
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      "text": "The total process of selective grouping and of furnishing the groups formed with additional mental contents has often been called _apperception_. But this meaning of the term apperception is not universally adopted. Some mean by apperception mainly the selective grouping of the elements, others mean by it exclusively the furnishing with ideational contents. Because of its ambiguity the term _apperception_ has been entirely omitted from the present book, and the term _perception_ is used in its broadest sense, including both the processes just mentioned. Perception thus means the working over by the mind of any aggregate of sensational elements given at the time through the sense organs.",
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      "text": "2. _Illusions_",
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      "text": "While the laws of perception are, on the whole, of the greatest benefit to the organism surrounded by a confusing multitude of physical elements bound together into a large number of more or less stable compounds, of things, there are exceptional cases in which these same laws lead the mind into a reaction not suitable to the situation presented.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG52823.B00497",
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      "text": "That which has often occurred is likely to recur. But it does not regularly recur in the same manner. There are exceptions. It happens that certain things occur in surroundings different from their usual surroundings. These things are then perceived, that is, grouped together and supplemented by images, in harmony with their usual surroundings. But the perception is then in discord with the actual surroundings. To the inhabitant of the plains the colors of things appear rather saturated, and the outlines sharp, when these things are at a small distance from the observer. Walking toward them, he is soon able to lay hands on them. But when the air happens to be unusually moist, and because of its diminished weight, free from the particles of dust which have settled because of their weight, things look unusually near, and on walking toward them he discovers that it takes more time to reach them than he expected. The same happens when he goes to the mountains for his vacation, because there the air is always comparatively free from dust. We have here a foreseeing of what ordinarily becomes the subsequent experience, but fails to become it in this instance.",
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      "ref": "PG52823.B00498",
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      "text": "There is another kind of illusion based on the fact that sensations which have been imagined just before the stimuli became effective, are thereby favored and become unusually vivid. This law of attention holds good also when the stimuli are not in exact correspondence with the preceding images. In such a case the perception is more or less assimilated to those images, so that the same stimuli result in somewhat different percepts according to circumstances. “How heavy it is!” said a friend of Davy’s, when the discoverer of potassium placed a little piece of this metal on his finger. Potassium is so light that it floats on water, but the metallic appearance produced the image of pressure and changed the sensation into a percept of something heavy. When two pieces of gray paper, equally bright but of slightly different coloring, are put before me side by side, and I ask myself: is not the yellowish paper lighter than the bluish paper, immediately it seems to be lighter. But I begin to doubt and ask myself: is not the yellowish paper darker than the other; and immediately it looks darker.",
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      "ref": "PG52823.B00499",
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      "text": "Let no one say that this is only “imaginary,” meaning by this word that there are in my mind both the objectively true impression and an incorrect image of something similar. Such is not the case. There is no duality of consciousness. There is one unitary experience. Only scientific reflection reveals the fact that this unitary experience has two sources, one in the external stimulation, the other in the central nervous excitation. The result of these sources, the percept, does not betray the doubleness of its origin any more than a stream at its mouth shows the doubleness of its sources. It is a universal property of perception to be determined not by sensory stimulation alone, although this is the primary factor, but also by images, by nervous dispositions. The more vivid such images, the greater is their influence--now and then their _deceptive_ influence--on our consciousness of the objectively existing. Suggestion is a name which has recently been accepted for such an influence. Illusion is another name for it, in case it is rather pronounced and ill adapted to the object.",
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      "text": "QUESTIONS",
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      "text": "125. What kinds of mental states are called perceptions?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG52823.B00626",
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      "text": "We call a verbal statement _proved_ as soon as the connection between it and our present experience has been established in such a manner that the idea of reality is aroused in our mind. The believing of that which has been proved is called _knowing_. Belief is often used in a narrower sense, excluding that which is known and including only that which does not arouse either an idea of reality or an idea of unreality. Both usages are justifiable, the narrower one and also the wider one. Knowledge and belief are opposed as well as related. It is of much practical importance to distinguish that which has been proved from that which has not been proved. But it is also of practical importance to distinguish that which is surely unreal from that which is merely unproved. It is quite impossible in human life to prove every statement before we permit it to affect our thought and our action.",
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      "text": "The chief thing which a man must have learned when he arrives at maturity is this: that the number of facts to be believed is very much smaller than he thought originally. The belief of childhood and youth is subject to continuous losses. Something is, indeed, confirmed and strengthened by growing experience; but it was believed before it was known, and cannot properly be called an additional belief. Much that has been believed for some time is recognized as unreal. That apparent errors have to be recognized as truths happens much more rarely. Experience makes a man more and more skeptical, cautious. This is of great advantage to him in his adaptation to the world, and higher institutions of learning to a large extent have their purpose in aiding the young to develop cautious, critical habits of thinking. A student goes to college not merely in order to cram himself with bare facts, but to be trained in the habit of seeing men and things in the abundance of their relations, of asking for their passports before granting them free passage.",
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      "text": "Thus the original tendency to believe is gradually limited, more in one individual, less in another. But it is never perfectly eradicated. This, indeed, would not be advantageous. A limited tendency to believe is indispensable. Two conditions contribute chiefly toward the retention of a belief which can be neither proved nor disproved: authority and personal needs.",
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      "text": "“He told us so” is reported to have been a common remark among the disciples of Pythagoras. And to the present time disciples of any master have not failed to quote their master. It is not even necessary to be a master in order to be a prophet. A strong voice, significant gesticulation, and impressive speech are sufficient to guide the belief of the masses of the people. When everybody holds a certain belief and gives expression to it, no member of the crowd can escape the influence of the constant repetition of the thought. I cannot help believing what my friends or my associates in a profession believe. Even if I begin to reflect on the reasonableness of accepting as a truth what I have merely often heard, I can hardly free myself of the belief. Is it not highly improbable that all of them should have been led into error without noticing it? On the consensus of everybody, philosophers have frequently founded their highest doctrines. Cicero calls it the voice of nature. On the other hand, narrow-minded people often attempt to fight a truth which they dislike by pointing out partial disagreements among its adherents.",
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      "text": "But the belief in statements which are neither proved nor disproved is not always based on authority; that is, produced by emphatic and often-repeated expression of these statements by the people among whom we live. It is frequently the result of strong and deep-seated needs of the human mind. As long as these needs make themselves felt, they call up in the mind ideas of remedies and means in harmony with analogous experiences; and unless these remedies and means are contradicted by other experiences, they are believed. One may call this, in distinction from the authoritative belief, practical or emotional belief.",
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      "text": "Every one believes in his own destiny. Every mother believes in her son. Napoleon believed in his star. A general who doubts if he is going to win the impending battle has already half lost it. Can he prove it, that is, can he interpret what he sees and what is reported to him in such a manner that the idea of his winning the battle cannot appear in his mind without the idea of reality? He is probably very far from giving his experiences such an interpretation. Of course, he will do his best in order to make victory come his way. But his knowledge constantly informs him that the outcome is dubious. Yet this knowledge does not keep him from believing that it is not dubious. He cannot help believing it. His whole existence depends on this belief. His honor, his future career, his nation, all is lost unless he wins. The idea of loss is impossible. It is inhibited by the idea of success, by that idea which alone can give him the prudence and presence of mind that are needed.",
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      "text": "Or the mother who believes that her son will turn out a respectable man, does she do it because of her experiences? Her experiences are perhaps opposed to her belief; she believes, nevertheless. Circumstances were unfavorable to her son, his father does not understand his real nature, he merely enjoys his youth: thus she comforts herself. Experience is not the foundation of her belief, but her belief interprets her experience. The belief is founded on the fact that she needs it. The idea of a wayward son would deprive her of the most valued part of her existence. Therefore she cannot believe it.",
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      "text": "Hui Tzŭ",
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      "text": "A celebrated schoolman, contemporary with and antagonistic to Chuang Tzŭ. For an account of his theories, see ch. xxxiii.",
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      "text": "said to Chuang Tzŭ, \"The Prince of Wei gave me a seed of a large-sized kind of gourd. I planted it, and it bore a fruit as big as a five-bushel measure. Now had I used this for holding liquids, it would have been too heavy to lift; and had I cut it in half for ladles, the ladles would have been ill adapted for such purpose. It was uselessly large, so I broke it up.\"",
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      "text": "\"Sir,\" replied Chuang Tzŭ, \"it was rather you who did not know how to use large things. There was a man of Sung who had a recipe for salve for chapped hands, his family having been silk-washers for generations. Well, a stranger who had heard of it, came and offered him 100 _oz._ of silver for this recipe; whereupon he called together his clansmen and said, 'We have never made much money by silk-washing. Now, we can make 100 _oz._ in a single day. Let the stranger have the recipe.'",
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      "text": "\"So the stranger got it, and went and informed the Prince of Wu who was just then at war with the Yüeh State. Accordingly, the Prince used it in a naval battle fought at the beginning of winter with the Yüeh State, the result being that the latter was totally defeated.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "They suffered from chapped hands, while their rivals of the Wu State were protected by their patent salve.",
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      "text": "The stranger was rewarded with territory and a title. Thus, while the efficacy of the salve to cure chapped hands was in both cases the same, its application was different. Here, it secured a title; there, a capacity for washing silk.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "\"Now as to your five-bushel gourd, why did you not make a boat of it, and float about over river and lake? You could not then have complained of its not holding anything! But I fear you are rather woolly inside.\"",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "Like it. This, of course, is a sneer. Hui Tzŭ could not see that the greatness of a thing depends upon the greatness of its application.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "Hui Tzŭ said to Chuang Tzŭ, \"Sir, I have a large tree, of a worthless kind. Its trunk is so irregular and knotty that it cannot be measured out for planks; while its branches are so twisted as to admit of no geometrical subdivision whatever. It stands by the roadside, but no carpenter will look at it. And your words, sir, are like that tree;--big and useless, not wanted by anybody.\"",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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      "text": "\"Sir,\" rejoined Chuang Tzŭ, \"have you never seen a wild cat, crouching down in wait for its prey? Right and left it springs from bough to bough, high and low alike,--until perchance it gets caught in a trap or dies in a snare. On the other hand, there is the yak with its great huge body. It is big enough in all conscience, but it cannot catch mice.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "The adaptability of a thing is oft-times its bane. The inability of the yak to catch mice saves it from the snare which is fatal to the wild cat.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "5d590696e302c835dd67b6b6046ac9ecc7efc6bd5103dbf0e30a1bda0fe8d9d6",
      "text": "\"Now if you have a big tree and are at a loss what to do with it, why not plant it in the domain of non-existence,",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00293",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "d654ee5631e0bf5339225d241b2b5cb32b7e7c1a1bb2699b47bc3db512a643ca",
      "text": "Beyond the limits of our external world. Referring to the conditions of mental abstraction in which alone true happiness is to be found.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00294",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "767602c5a1fcbeabf4821a1d95c5730f5c9de43adfe03fe5354b5042a5ca03c3",
      "text": "whither you might betake yourself to inaction by its side, to blissful repose beneath its shade?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00295",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 65898,
      "end": 65986,
      "sha256": "6b378cee10710080260840df5f23e83df4d989ade1fd68a5bbaef6e57e2b2056",
      "text": "\"Why does the horizon hold me fast, with my joy and grief in this centre?\"--_Emerson._",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00340",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 72767,
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      "sha256": "e4c751d376a9458637ffd3fb3d3b7cfb4f049dda9c230403100059875c4a8744",
      "text": "See p. 13.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00341",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "27fecf28e5bb4fd719df5cbeb8b8716d1611d392a4e0171155d84f67a942c680",
      "text": "\"TAO is obscured by our want of grasp. Speech is obscured by the gloss of this world.",
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      "sha256": "38e71204152bc1b22a117b853365e04b0dd6522c0a7a3771904420532afd5792",
      "text": "_I.e._ by the one-sided meanings attached to words and phrases.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00343",
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      "sha256": "67a3b7adbb0b9f6082236233db8dab5e0086df0ebbe6245f375222f943224469",
      "text": "Hence the affirmatives and negatives of the Confucian and Mihist schools,",
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      "text": "Mih Tzŭ was a philosopher of the fourth century B.C., who propounded various theories which were vigorously attacked by the Confucianists under Mencius. We shall hear more of him by-and-by.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00345",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "text": "each denying what the other affirmed and affirming what the other denied. But he who would reconcile affirmative with negative and negative with affirmative,",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00346",
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      "sha256": "e38d5949f68a71a7556a75cefb52357f0d43f1ebe90ce2aba906675d63dbb76c",
      "text": "The \"union of impossibilities,\" which Emerson credits to Plato alone.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00347",
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      "text": "must do so by the light of nature.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00348",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "text": "_I.e._ Have no established mental criteria, and thus see all things as ONE.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00349",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "3d9e0ef9e34e7235fccc5de9351438e3ff06710b3857e612a033905a5671ff97",
      "text": "\"There is nothing which is not objective: there is nothing which is not subjective. But it is impossible to start from the objective. Only from subjective knowledge is it possible to proceed to objective knowledge. Hence it has been said,",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00350",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "text": "By Hui Tzŭ.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00351",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "text": "'The objective emanates from the subjective; the subjective is consequent upon the objective. This is the _Alternation Theory_.' Nevertheless, when one is born, the other dies. When one is possible, the other is impossible. When one is affirmative the other is negative. Which being the case, the true sage rejects all distinctions of this and that. He takes his refuge in GOD, and places himself in subjective relation with all things.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00352",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "6a6a400f17765ba0d61bc3a08320f334d8d3801f5a50e392af92ff3e7a215b73",
      "text": "It was to this end that Tzŭ Ch'i \"buried himself.\"",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00353",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 74337,
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      "sha256": "889190713095c15bb56442c1917af5aa6162c91ed8e2a8a370e08bae6eef52bf",
      "text": "\"And inasmuch as the subjective is also objective, and the objective also subjective, and as the contraries under each are indistinguishably blended, does it not become impossible for us to say whether subjective and objective really exist at all?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00354",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "text": "What is positive under the one will be negative under the other. Yet as subjective and objective are really one and the same, their positives and negatives must also be one and the same.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00355",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "7dbfe2de3f702d64bb3fefa0e06156f0c3e67b895e268511cc5ac848da5500e7",
      "text": "It is as though we were to view them through a kind of mental Pseudoscope, by which means each would appear to be the other.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00356",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 74917,
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      "text": "\"When subjective and objective are both without their correlates, that is the very axis of TAO. And when that axis passes through the centre at which all Infinities converge, positive and negative alike blend into an infinite ONE. Hence it has been said that there is nothing like the light of nature.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00357",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 75227,
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      "sha256": "79574c0781e145c2a0e965ecbfca0f1b05eeee912bda25e7fd4664b42bd97b8c",
      "text": "Probably an allusion to Lao Tzŭ's \"Use the light that is within you to revert to your natural clearness of sight.\" We should then be able to view things in their true light. See _Tao-Tê-Ching_, ch. lii., and _The Remains of Lao Tzŭ_, p. 34.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00358",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "5fd3ecb8d7afbf77abfab75be1b7a3071e9d4136e0ec19aba16dacc6962a3426",
      "text": "\"To take a finger in illustration of a finger not being a finger is not so good as to take something which is not a finger. To take a horse in illustration of a horse not being a horse is not so good as to take something which is not a horse.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00359",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "db8789b093e2d921042b24a6e23831bc3773bd3e5d3a7a3b6ae3b7be36bb5dfc",
      "text": "\"So with the universe and all that in it is. These things are but fingers and horses in this sense. The possible is possible: the impossible is impossible. TAO operates, and given results follow. Things receive names and are what they are. They achieve this by their natural affinity for what they are and their natural antagonism to what they are not. For all things have their own particular constitutions and potentialities. Nothing can exist without these.",
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      "text": "These last few sentences are repeated in ch. xxvii. _ad init._",
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      "text": "\"We can never know anything but phenomena. Things are what they are, and their consequences will be what they will be.\"--_J. S. Mill._",
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      "text": "\"Therefore it is that, viewed from the standpoint of TAO, a beam and a pillar are identical.",
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      "text": "The horizontal with the vertical.",
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      "text": "How can I tell why I do one thing, or why I do not do another?\"",
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      "text": "Showing how two or more may be the phenomena of one.",
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      "text": "Once upon a time, I, Chuang Tzŭ, dreamt I was a butterfly, fluttering hither and thither, to all intents and purposes a butterfly. I was conscious only of following my fancies as a butterfly, and was unconscious of my individuality as a man. Suddenly, I awaked, and there I lay, myself again. Now I do not know whether I was then a man dreaming I was a butterfly, or whether I am now a butterfly dreaming I am a man. Between a man and a butterfly there is necessarily a barrier. The transition is called _Metempsychosis_.",
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      "text": "Showing how one may appear to be either of two.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER III.",
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      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "6d491e06d68bb6c76951bd10913cb9d2e44dada3d4b98ecdc0e3db4cc36425a2",
      "text": "NOURISHMENT OF THE SOUL.",
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      "text": "My life has a limit, but my knowledge is without limit. To drive the limited in search of the limitless, is fatal; and the knowledge of those who do this is fatally lost.",
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      "text": "In striving for others, avoid fame. In striving for self, avoid disgrace. Pursue a middle course. Thus you will keep a sound body, and a sound mind, fulfil your duties, and work out your allotted span.",
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      "text": "Prince Hui's cook was cutting up a bullock. Every blow of his hand, every heave of his shoulders, every tread of his foot, every thrust of his knee, every _whshh_ of rent flesh, every _chhk_ of the chopper, was in perfect harmony,--rhythmical like the dance of the Mulberry Grove, simultaneous like the chords of the Ching Shou.",
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      "text": "Commentators are divided in their identifications of these ancient _morceaux_.",
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      "text": "\"Well done!\" cried the Prince. \"Yours is skill indeed.\"",
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      "text": "\"Sire,\" replied the cook; \"I have always devoted myself to TAO. It is better than skill. When I first began to cut up bullocks, I saw before me simply _whole_ bullocks. After three years' practice, I saw no more whole animals.",
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      "sha256": "7c52ab67779194b6e606607d13a3516753e738a762ff497bef43cc93d5e34604",
      "text": "Meaning that he saw them, so to speak, in sections.",
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      "text": "And now I work with my mind and not with my eye. When my senses bid me stop, but my mind urges me on, I fall back upon eternal principles. I follow such openings or cavities as there may be, according to the natural constitution of the animal. I do not attempt to cut through joints: still less through large bones.",
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      "text": "For a curious parallelism, see Plato's _Phædrus_, 265.",
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      "text": "\"A good cook changes his chopper once a year,--because he cuts. An ordinary cook, once a month,--because he hacks. But I have had this chopper nineteen years, and although I have cut up many thousand bullocks, its edge is as if fresh from the whetstone. For at the joints there are always interstices, and the edge of a chopper being without thickness, it remains only to insert that which is without thickness into such an interstice.",
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      "text": "These words help to elucidate a much-vexed passage in ch. xliii of the _Tao-Tê-Ching_. See _The Remains of Lao Tzŭ_, p. 30.",
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      "text": "By these means the interstice will be enlarged, and the blade will find plenty of room. It is thus that I have kept my chopper for nineteen years as though fresh from the whetstone.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B00470",
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      "text": "\"Nevertheless, when I come upon a hard part where the blade meets with a difficulty, I am all caution. I fix my eye on it. I stay my hand, and gently apply my blade, until with a _hwah_ the part yields like earth crumbling to the ground. Then I take out my chopper, and stand up, and look around, and pause, until with an air of triumph I wipe my chopper and put it carefully away.\"",
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      "text": "\"Bravo!\" cried the Prince. \"From the words of this cook I have learnt how to take care of my life.\"",
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      "sha256": "4ead9d5d1929a5f044ca495ff877700f7005692cd749eb2e19fbf0e767464982",
      "text": "Meaning that which informs life, _sc._ the soul.",
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      "text": "When Hsien, of the Kung-wên family, beheld a certain official, he was horrified, and said, \"Who is that man? How came he to lose a foot? Is this the work of God, or of man?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "By Inaction, one can become the centre of thought, the focus of responsibility, the arbiter of wisdom. Full allowance must be made for others, while remaining unmoved oneself. There must be a thorough compliance with divine principles, without any manifestation thereof.",
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      "text": "Non mihi res, sed me rebus, subjungere conar.",
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      "text": "All of which may be summed up in the one word _passivity_. For the perfect man employs his mind as a mirror. It grasps nothing: it refuses nothing. It receives, but does not keep. And thus he can triumph over matter, without injury to himself.",
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      "text": "Without the wear and tear suffered by those who allow their activities free play.",
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      "text": "* * * * *",
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      "text": "The ruler of the southern sea was called Shu. The ruler of the northern sea was called Hu. The ruler of the central zone was called Hun Tun.",
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      "text": "This term is generally used to denote the condition of matter before separation and subdivision into the phenomena of the visible universe.",
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      "text": "Shu and Hu often met on Hun Tun's territory, and being always well treated by him, determined to repay his kindness.",
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      "text": "They said, \"All men have seven holes,--for seeing, hearing, eating, and breathing. Hun Tun alone has none. We will bore some for him.\"",
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      "text": "So every day they bored one hole; but on the seventh day Hun Tun died.",
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      "sha256": "e4278af6efbdeaf40580c30e487532d1b421050046a2ae21ed854a11e2498d0d",
      "text": "Illustrating the perils of action. \"The empire,\" says Lao Tzŭ, \"is a divine trust, and may not be ruled. He who rules, ruins. He who holds by force, loses.\"",
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      "text": "\"Men's actions,\" says Emerson, \"are too strong for them.\"",
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      "sha256": "bca03014f347740b8f933d7dea18dccac9c7a69e2f727226cde9612483388886",
      "text": "HORSES' HOOFS.",
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      "text": "_Argument_:--Superiority of the natural over the artificial--Application of this principle to government.",
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      "text": "Horses have hoofs to carry them over frost and snow; hair, to protect them from wind and cold. They eat grass and drink water, and fling up their heels over the champaign. Such is the real nature of horses. Palatial dwellings are of no use to them.",
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      "text": "* * * * *",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01013",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 188106,
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      "sha256": "f9993a7348433e05cc3cbf58ec2e7af61ed3a825137a5105c2351213a95db4da",
      "text": "One day Poh Loh",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01014",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 188126,
      "end": 188175,
      "sha256": "a9e6c436958033a49fd7776abb596e95f64b552dca21ae412f3276f23c608087",
      "text": "A Chinese Rarey, of somewhat legendary character.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01015",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 188179,
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      "sha256": "3f95df649c3733f3538e0ab26d7abce584a4e276c7990a312d5a71ccffede316",
      "text": "appeared, saying, \"I understand the management of horses.\"",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01016",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 188241,
      "end": 188702,
      "sha256": "18411f8e91296bd7d4e2c7e021293ed332986fb53bce655de675764086118bf9",
      "text": "So he branded them, and clipped them, and pared their hoofs, and put halters on them, tying them up by the head and shackling them by the feet, and disposing them in stables, with the result that two or three in every ten died. Then he kept them hungry and thirsty, trotting them and galloping them, and grooming, and trimming, with the misery of the tasselled bridle before and the fear of the knotted whip behind, until more than half of them were dead.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01017",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 188706,
      "end": 188820,
      "sha256": "569602ab2a194f01c2073d9a2c4eed60cd3e1f3b69817dcd38f3f89565c5d6b6",
      "text": "The potter says, \"I can do what I will with clay. If I want it round, I use compasses; if rectangular, a square.\"",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01018",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 188824,
      "end": 188934,
      "sha256": "1eddcb1469e7e641885932c4f1e1fb55b6bf03bead350e4132b66dae9a372f19",
      "text": "The carpenter says, \"I can do what I will with wood. If I want it curved, I use an arc; if straight, a line.\"",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01019",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 188938,
      "end": 189263,
      "sha256": "55080ff25fc18bda7899a1d74886f4d1a7686a3b870e26b884ca19c84b31fe37",
      "text": "But on what grounds can we think that the natures of clay and wood desire this application of compasses and square, of arc and line? Nevertheless, every age extols Poh Loh for his skill in managing horses, and potters and carpenters for their skill with clay and wood. Those who _govern_ the empire make the same mistake.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01020",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 189267,
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      "sha256": "791415f2199e81308c983c12396733ffe063585b23fc082e60f88ca83da38e6e",
      "text": "Now I regard government of the empire from quite a different point of view.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01481",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 272755,
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      "sha256": "8a7ab8a76c14f29de3072ef06ef3dc7ac906aba0253749f3ddbd6fd7354d8092",
      "text": "The first half of this last sentence has been pitchforked _à propos de bottes_ into ch. lvi of the _Tao-Tê-Ching_. See _The Remains of Lao Tzŭ_, pp. 7 and 38.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01482",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 272924,
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      "sha256": "b4fa0c80ff3f7aaeb82002caae094e421cb387936cac0b8287ab0bfbf873a862",
      "text": "Duke Huan.",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01483",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 272939,
      "end": 273002,
      "sha256": "dbb7b8db6d36a25f0b012b1e868bab6767e59e6bd9524dbabbf054737b12b3cb",
      "text": "The famous ruler of the Ch'i State. Flourished 7th century B.C.",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01484",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 273006,
      "end": 273081,
      "sha256": "5c3548b0619fc99e3e646ac49d341f032321178ecfc94de4311e9e42e6aae0f5",
      "text": "was one day reading in his hall, when a wheelwright who was working below,",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01485",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 273086,
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      "sha256": "2442efe1277b2ecc16d895756c35fcca0300d64167f3643accd0f6d2390bb235",
      "text": "Below the covered dais, termed \"hall,\" which has an open frontage, in full view of which such work might be carried on.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01486",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 273211,
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      "sha256": "2a727556a92271012a80556cf88cade2e38671970e8ceb8bfc2ecf6550efd114",
      "text": "flung down his hammer and chisel, and mounting the steps said, \"What words may your Highness be studying?\"",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01487",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "f5ae1083a2e0eefa911dffab7bd00ca8c958724f1d6e2507fac086dc9a915fdf",
      "text": "\"I am studying the words of the Sages,\" replied the Duke.",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01488",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 273383,
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      "sha256": "dcb8a1486f29b919dfd92d4c1503150050abebb6958e6a76dbbfdd5f1288ba00",
      "text": "\"Are the Sages alive?\" asked the wheelwright.",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01489",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 273432,
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      "sha256": "f9e200391877547bdd31b260e35c660136e3ed46caff7d8a5cd0cff83cc932a7",
      "text": "\"No,\" answered the Duke; \"they are dead.\"",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01490",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 273477,
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      "sha256": "e70cd72c0e02abf92b605beccf012a5b7ee6c76a8245c50827e6139e276e3249",
      "text": "\"Then the words your Highness is studying,\" rejoined the wheelwright, \"are only the dregs of the ancients.\"",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01491",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "9229687cac20242b8fa4dd12f63ed6e1dd9f2e40121d6fffd7db1263e291d8d3",
      "text": "\"What do you mean, sirrah!\" cried the Duke, \"by interfering with what I read? Explain yourself, or you shall die.\"",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01492",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "208b1f3659de623169794334f5680674b947991f7e8cf58e6cc61aa5263a5fb3",
      "text": "\"Let me take an illustration,\" said the wheelwright, \"from my own trade. In making a wheel, if you work too slowly, you can't make it firm; if you work too fast, the spokes won't fit in. You must go neither too slowly nor too fast. There must be co-ordination of mind and hand. Words cannot explain what it is, but there is some mysterious art herein. I cannot teach it to my son; nor can he learn it from me. Consequently, though seventy years of age, I am still making wheels in my old age. If the ancients, together with what they could not impart, are dead and gone, then what your Highness is studying must be the dregs.\"",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01493",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "text": "This episode of the wheelwright is to be found in the works of Huai Nan Tzŭ, of the 2nd century B.C. He used it to illustrate the opening words of the _Tao-Tê-Ching_; and in _The Remains of Lao Tzŭ_, p. 6, it is stated that he stole it from Chuang Tzŭ without acknowledgment.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01494",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "text": "When that statement was made I had not come to the conclusion, now forced upon me, that the above chapter is not from the hand of Chuang Tzŭ. As one critic remarks, the style is generally admirable; but it is not the style of Chuang Tzŭ.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01914",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 343762,
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      "sha256": "76d54522b465acb55d7689e27b4fc80ba0c718f5d2cc4d5f6ff71d494f2b3d64",
      "text": "of old which I highly esteem: 'Small bags won't hold big things; short ropes won't reach down deep wells.' Thus, destiny is a pre-arrangement, just as form has its limitations. From neither, to neither, can you either take away or add. And I fear lest Hui, on his visit to the prince of Ch'i, should preach the Tao of Yao and Shun, and dwell on the words of Sui Jen and Shên Nung. The prince will then search within himself, but will not find. And not finding, he will doubt. And when a man doubts, he will kill.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "sha256": "33217838ea1a61aefe0faa88184af01e39b6a092fedab5438a7c520bc4a58fd4",
      "text": "_Lit._ \"he will die.\" But the verb \"to die\" is often used in the sense of \"to make to die;\" and this seems to be the only available sense here.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "sha256": "92618efe0d9981c2e0f4ba0e2254b3f490d5a9bdd8c60ddde6a22d3070916bd3",
      "text": "\"Besides, have you not heard that of old when a sea-bird alighted outside the capital of Lu, the prince went out to receive it, and gave it wine in the temple, and had the _Chiu Shao_",
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      "sha256": "7dff0b6a0d321ed984e639adcf6ec0bda7d5bb6dd5bb3b5e84853ededdbf8e17",
      "text": "Music composed by the legendary Emperor Shun.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B01918",
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      "sha256": "d73bd9ea0e14e675708069aebf0f617418c6e50fa1eb323698903a239a7e48fa",
      "text": "played to amuse it, and a bullock slaughtered to feed it? But the bird was dazed and too timid to eat or drink anything; and in three days it was dead. This was treating the bird like oneself, and not as a bird would treat a bird. Had he treated it as a bird would have treated a bird, he would have put it to roost in a deep forest, to wander over a plain, to swim in a river or lake, to feed upon fish, to fly in order, and to settle leisurely. When the bird was already terrified at human voices, fancy adding music! Play the _Hsien Ch'ih_",
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      "sha256": "2d25c66f9a30d9a5f55678d7330b38e5d91ddebf910e96ac931f9ffc23311e80",
      "text": "Music of the Yellow Emperor.",
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      "sha256": "d707896d50f6bfdf3cf262b8998624ea8fe8cda13ed06bd9e9ee71cbd07e2401",
      "text": "or the _Chiu Shao_ in the wilds of Tung-t'ing, and birds will fly away, beasts will take themselves off, and fishes will dive down below. But men will collect to hear.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "sha256": "383fe6e9042b31f705b4e5abec4afcf3703b473ad56c0dce1607bcd5cf6c6e96",
      "text": "See p. 244.",
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    {
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      "sha256": "54f0e2e63284c0fa6d8c1aba28b5cbe1af1810936848ed7fc6759fc5d7dcbc20",
      "text": "\"Water, which is life to fishes, is death to man. Being differently constituted, their likes and dislikes are different. Therefore the Sages of the past favoured not uniformity of skill or of occupation. Reputation was commensurate with reality; means were adapted to the end. This was called a due relationship with others coupled with advantage to oneself.\"",
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      "ref": "PG59709.B01923",
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      "text": "Several sentences of the above are clearly in imitation of parts of ch. ii. The whole episode is beyond doubt a forgery.",
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      "sha256": "92bf9343d426ee004c3cb7caa3f283036b2f3626f071d4807d38518427facd12",
      "text": "* * * * *",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B02068",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 369133,
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      "sha256": "5a5f483224bae4e926766d3b3933ac23908db2f77dd3459bab300273509cc397",
      "text": "MOUNTAIN TREES.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B02069",
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      "start": 369153,
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      "text": "_Argument_:--The alternatives of usefulness and uselessness--TAO a _tertium quid_--The human a hindrance to the divine--Altruism--Adaptation--Destiny--Illustrations.",
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    {
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      "sha256": "0a0a4d0aa6bd3414e09a38a94d431155c595511a4a9b50bd3447120fe65e892b",
      "text": "[This chapter is supplementary to chapter iv.]",
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      "text": "Chuang Tzŭ was travelling over a mountain when he saw a huge tree well covered with foliage. A woodsman had stopped near by, not caring to take it; and on Chuang Tzŭ enquiring the reason, he was told that it was of no use.",
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      "text": "\"This tree,\" cried Chuang Tzŭ, \"by virtue of being good for nothing succeeds in completing its allotted span.\"",
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      "text": "When Chuang Tzŭ left the mountain, he put up at the house of an old friend. The latter was delighted, and ordered a servant to kill a goose and cook it.",
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      "text": "\"Which shall I kill?\" enquired the servant; \"the one that cackles or the one that doesn't?\"",
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      "text": "His master told him to kill the one which did not cackle. And accordingly, the next day, a disciple asked Chuang Tzŭ, saying, \"Yesterday, that tree on the mountain, because good for nothing, was to succeed in completing its allotted span. But now, our host's goose, which is good for nothing, has to die. Upon which horn of the dilemma will you rest?\"",
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      "text": "\"I rest,\" replied Chuang Tzŭ with a smile, \"halfway between the two. In that position, appearing to be what I am not, it is impossible to avoid the troubles of mortality;",
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      "bookId": 59709,
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      "text": "The text is here doubtful, and commentators explain according to the fancy of each. When a Chinese commentator does not understand his text, he usually slurs it over. He never says \"I do not understand.\" Chu Fu Tzŭ alone could rise to this height.",
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      "ref": "PG59709.B02078",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "4140fc0a6537a1b1f6d425a6d3a1b84b759915d3a7da91755f4487c4c3cb7bcb",
      "text": "though, if charioted upon TAO and floating far above mortality, this would not be so. No praise, no blame; both great and small; changing with the change of time, but ever without special effort; both above and below; making for harmony with surroundings; reaching creation's First Cause; swaying all things and swayed by none;--how then shall such troubles come? This was the method of Shên Nung and Huang Ti.",
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      "bookId": 59709,
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      "text": "\"If another guest had happened to arrive,\" says Lin Hsi Chung, \"I fancy the chance even of the cackling goose would have been small.\"",
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      "bookId": 59709,
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      "text": "\"But amidst the mundane passions and relationships of man, such would not be the case. For where there is union, there is also separation; where there is completion, there is also destruction; where there is purity, there is also oppression; where there is honour, there is also disparagement; where there is doing, there is also undoing; where there is openness, there is also underhandedness; and where there is no semblance, there is also deceit. How then can there be any fixed point? Alas indeed! Take note, my disciples, that such is to be found only in the domain of TAO.\"",
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      "text": "upon which the various feudal princes mourned for three years,",
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      "sha256": "c5a5f1aaf3c6b9f868263297250f962b9b4b2c18945bafb8fe3f64df8887df88",
      "text": "They did not resign their fiefs at his example.",
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      "text": "and Shên T'u Ti had the river filled up.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B03146",
      "bookId": 59709,
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      "sha256": "b6abb9600da97bcbf2670a676a444f7449e5dd59fbbcd80bda18b89dd44ec9ee",
      "text": "Fearing similar ill-advised acts. For names, see pp. 6, 72.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B03147",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 517460,
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      "sha256": "913b3d28e0e8bd27778d13a2fd8d345c82a18ed9ae36005c09aab4fdbc6e645b",
      "text": "\"The _raison d'être_ of a fish-trap is the fish. When the fish is caught, the trap may be ignored. The _raison d'être_ of a rabbit-snare is the rabbit. When the rabbit is caught the snare may be ignored. The _raison d'être_ of language is an idea to be expressed. When the idea is expressed, the language may be ignored. But where shall I find a man to ignore language, with whom I may be able to converse?\"",
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    {
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      "sha256": "50ab90135c5efc02d83b85c1c3f11128eed4535e48b4e5cc26aabaa9ca30220d",
      "text": "CHAPTER XXVII.",
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    {
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      "bookId": 59709,
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      "end": 517912,
      "sha256": "dfe658b9f8c295c16061879158a66b0fb9d99de6a0462f6379546ef4ebe454ad",
      "text": "LANGUAGE.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG59709.B03150",
      "bookId": 59709,
      "start": 517917,
      "end": 518078,
      "sha256": "4684cc0ad8f6f724293210dbfbcaf1541471dd6f8074b5597b3e3a0c9fed1372",
      "text": "_Argument_:--Speech, natural and artificial--Natural speech in harmony with the divine--Destiny--The ultimate cause--Purification of the soul--Illustrations.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00016",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 1802,
      "end": 1966,
      "sha256": "9dd71eb11da5f890e49762ec724af41202d59aaeb499e56e675b3ae773ddd336",
      "text": "Lecture X has two subheads--Successions After Death and Successions Inter Vivos. Lecture XI is also titled Successions Inter Vivos. This conforms to the original.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00017",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 1976,
      "end": 2015,
      "sha256": "3507fa6514259f6404bc120a970cfeaea7fd868f2e20e5dcc063e8980cd957ec",
      "text": "LECTURE I. -- EARLY FORMS OF LIABILITY.",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00018",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 2019,
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      "sha256": "f01c09d04d690f9f3c0f63a6c1fe285c3ff93c450a7e5b04b8889ba9a6fc4438",
      "text": "[1] The object of this book is to present a general view of the Common Law. To accomplish the task, other tools are needed besides logic. It is something to show that the consistency of a system requires a particular result, but it is not all. The life of the law has not been logic: it has been experience. The felt necessities of the time, the prevalent moral and political theories, intuitions of public policy, avowed or unconscious, even the prejudices which judges share with their fellow-men, have had a good deal more to do than the syllogism in determining the rules by which men should be governed. The law embodies the story of a nation's development through many centuries, and it cannot be dealt with as if it contained only the axioms and corollaries of a book of mathematics. In order to know what it is, we must know what it has been, and what it tends to become. We must alternately consult history and existing theories of legislation. But the most difficult labor will be to understand the combination of the two into new products at every stage. The substance of the law at any given time pretty nearly [2] corresponds, so far as it goes, with what is then understood to be convenient; but its form and machinery, and the degree to which it is able to work out desired results, depend very much upon its past.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00019",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 3373,
      "end": 3707,
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      "text": "In Massachusetts today, while, on the one hand, there are a great many rules which are quite sufficiently accounted for by their manifest good sense, on the other, there are some which can only be understood by reference to the infancy of procedure among the German tribes, or to the social condition of Rome under the Decemvirs.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00020",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 3711,
      "end": 4389,
      "sha256": "92d6e5bb13d50bd7fe4129fb211334597893ab1281a331c436e353cdd1d8fef8",
      "text": "I shall use the history of our law so far as it is necessary to explain a conception or to interpret a rule, but no further. In doing so there are two errors equally to be avoided both by writer and reader. One is that of supposing, because an idea seems very familiar and natural to us, that it has always been so. Many things which we take for granted have had to be laboriously fought out or thought out in past times. The other mistake is the opposite one of asking too much of history. We start with man full grown. It may be assumed that the earliest barbarian whose practices are to be considered, had a good many of the same feelings and passions as ourselves.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00021",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "The first subject to be discussed is the general theory of liability civil and criminal. The Common Law has changed a good deal since the beginning of our series of reports, and the search after a theory which may now be said to prevail is very much a study of tendencies. I believe that it will be instructive to go back to the early forms of liability, and to start from them.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00022",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "It is commonly known that the early forms of legal procedure were grounded in vengeance. Modern writers [3] have thought that the Roman law started from the blood feud, and all the authorities agree that the German law begun in that way. The feud led to the composition, at first optional, then compulsory, by which the feud was bought off. The gradual encroachment of the composition may be traced in the Anglo-Saxon laws, /1/ and the feud was pretty well broken up, though not extinguished, by the time of William the Conqueror. The killings and house-burnings of an earlier day became the appeals of mayhem and arson. The appeals de pace et plagis and of mayhem became, or rather were in substance, the action of trespass which is still familiar to lawyers. /2/ But as the compensation recovered in the appeal was the alternative of vengeance, we might expect to find its scope limited to the scope of vengeance. Vengeance imports a feeling of blame, and an opinion, however distorted by passion, that a wrong has been done. It can hardly go very far beyond the case of a harm intentionally inflicted: even a dog distinguishes between being stumbled over and being kicked.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00024",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "It will be seen that this order of development is not quite consistent with an opinion which has been held, that it was a characteristic of early law not to penetrate beyond the external visible fact, the damnum corpore corpori datum. It has been thought that an inquiry into the internal condition of the defendant, his culpability or innocence, implies a refinement of juridical conception equally foreign to Rome before the Lex Aquilia, and to England when trespass took its shape. I do not know any very satisfactory evidence that a man was generally held liable either in Rome /4/ or England for the accidental consequences even of his own act. But whatever may have been the early law, the foregoing account shows the starting-point of the system with which we have to deal. Our system of private liability for the consequences of a man's own acts, that is, for his trespasses, started from the notion of actual intent and actual personal culpability.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00025",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "The original principles of liability for harm inflicted by [5] another person or thing have been less carefully considered hitherto than those which governed trespass, and I shall therefore devote the rest of this Lecture to discussing them. I shall try to show that this liability also had its root in the passion of revenge, and to point out the changes by which it reached its present form. But I shall not confine myself strictly to what is needful for that purpose, because it is not only most interesting to trace the transformation throughout its whole extent, but the story will also afford an instructive example of the mode in which the law has grown, without a break, from barbarism to civilization. Furthermore, it will throw much light upon some important and peculiar doctrines which cannot be returned to later.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00026",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "end": 9805,
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      "text": "A very common phenomenon, and one very familiar to the student of history, is this. The customs, beliefs, or needs of a primitive time establish a rule or a formula. In the course of centuries the custom, belief, or necessity disappears, but the rule remains. The reason which gave rise to the rule has been forgotten, and ingenious minds set themselves to inquire how it is to be accounted for. Some ground of policy is thought of, which seems to explain it and to reconcile it with the present state of things; and then the rule adapts itself to the new reasons which have been found for it, and enters on a new career. The old form receives a new content, and in time even the form modifies itself to fit the meaning which it has received. The subject under consideration illustrates this course of events very clearly.",
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      "text": "I will begin by taking a medley of examples embodying as many distinct rules, each with its plausible and seemingly sufficient ground of policy to explain it.",
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      "text": "[6] A man has an animal of known ferocious habits, which escapes and does his neighbor damage. He can prove that the animal escaped through no negligence of his, but still he is held liable. Why? It is, says the analytical jurist, because, although he was not negligent at the moment of escape, he was guilty of remote heedlessness, or negligence, or fault, in having such a creature at all. And one by whose fault damage is done ought to pay for it.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00080",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 50150,
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      "text": "The same thing is true of other maritime dealings with the vessel, whether by way of contract or otherwise. If salvage service is rendered to a vessel, the admiralty court will hold the vessel, although it has been doubted whether an action of contract would lie, if the owners were sued at law. So the ship is bound by the master's contract to carry cargo, just as in case of collision, although she was under lease at the time. In such cases, also, according to our Supreme Court, the master may bind the vessel when he cannot bind the general owners. /4/ \"By custom the ship is bound to the merchandise, and the merchandise to the ship.\" /5/ \"By the maritime law every contract of the master implies an hypothecation.\" /6/ It might be urged, no doubt, with force, that, so far as the usual maritime contracts are concerned, the dealing must be on the security of the ship or merchandise in many cases, and therefore [33] that it is policy to give this security in all cases; that the risk to which it subjects ship-owners is calculable, and that they must take it into account when they let their vessels. Again, in many cases, when a party asserts a maritime lien by way of contract, he has improved the condition of the thing upon which the lien is claimed, and this has been recognized as a ground for such a lien in some systems. But this is not true universally, nor in the most important cases. It must be left to the reader to decide whether ground has not been shown for believing that the same metaphysical confusion which naturally arose as to the ship's wrongful acts, affected the way of thinking as to her contracts. The whole manner of dealing with vessels obviously took the form which prevailed in the eases first mentioned. Pardessus, a high authority, says that the lien for freight prevails even against the owner of stolen goods, \"as the master deals less with the person than the thing.\" /2/ So it was said in the argument of a famous English case, that \"the ship is instead of the owner, and therefore is answerable.\" /3/ In many cases of contract, as well as tort, the vessel was not only the security for the debt, but the limit of the owner's liability.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00081",
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      "end": 53087,
      "sha256": "25d8871eedf8a3ce11f57449c196e8327adb57cc55631332000076dd002cd657",
      "text": "The principles of the admiralty are embodied in its form of procedure. A suit may be brought there against a vessel by name, any person interested in it being at liberty to come in and defend, but the suit, if successful, ending in a sale of the vessel and a payment of the plaintiff's claim out of the proceeds. As long ago as the time of James I. it was said that \"the libel ought to be only [34] against the ship and goods, and not against the party.\" /1/ And authority for the statement was cited from the reign of Henry VI., the same reign when, as we have seen, the Admiral claimed a forfeiture of ships for causing death. I am bound to say, however, that I cannot find such an authority of that date.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00082",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "We have now followed the development of the chief forms of liability in modern law for anything other than the immediate and manifest consequences of a man's own acts. We have seen the parallel course of events in the two parents,--the Roman law and the German customs, and in the offspring of those two on English soil with regard to servants, animals, and inanimate things. We have seen a single germ multiplying and branching into products as different from each other as the flower from the root. It hardly remains to ask what that germ was. We have seen that it was the desire of retaliation against the offending thing itself. Undoubtedly, it might be argued that many of the rules stated were derived from a seizure of the offending thing as security for reparation, at first, perhaps, outside the law. That explanation, as well as the one offered here; would show that modern views of responsibility had not yet been attained, as the owner of the thing might very well not have been the person in fault. But such has not been the view of those most competent to judge. A consideration of the earliest instances will show, as might have been expected, that vengeance, not compensation, and vengeance on the offending thing, was the original object. The ox in Exodus was to be stoned. The axe in the Athenian law was to be banished. The tree, in Mr. Tylor's instance, was to be chopped to pieces. The [35] slave under all the systems was to be surrendered to the relatives of the slain man, that they might do with him what they liked. /1/ The deodand was an accursed thing. The original limitation of liability to surrender, when the owner was before the court, could not be accounted for if it was his liability, and not that of his property, which was in question. Even where, as in some of the cases, expiation seems to be intended rather than vengeance, the object is equally remote from an extrajudicial distress.",
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      "text": "The foregoing history, apart from the purposes for which it has been given, well illustrates the paradox of form and substance in the development of law. In form its growth is logical. The official theory is that each new decision follows syllogistically from existing precedents. But just as the clavicle in the cat only tells of the existence of some earlier creature to which a collar-bone was useful, precedents survive in the law long after the use they once served is at an end and the reason for them has been forgotten. The result of following them must often be failure and confusion from the merely logical point of view.",
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      "ref": "PG2449.B00084",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "On the other hand, in substance the growth of the law is legislative. And this in a deeper sense than that what the courts declare to have always been the law is in fact new. It is legislative in its grounds. The very considerations which judges most rarely mention, and always with an apology, are the secret root from which the law draws all the juices of life. I mean, of course, considerations of what is expedient for the community concerned. Every important principle which is developed by litigation is in fact and at bottom the result of more or less definitely understood views of public policy; most generally, to be sure, [36] under our practice and traditions, the unconscious result of instinctive preferences and inarticulate convictions, but none the less traceable to views of public policy in the last analysis. And as the law is administered by able and experienced men, who know too much to sacrifice good sense to a syllogism, it will be found that, when ancient rules maintain themselves in the way that has been and will be shown in this book, new reasons more fitted to the time have been found for them, and that they gradually receive a new content, and at last a new form, from the grounds to which they have been transplanted.",
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      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "But hitherto this process has been largely unconscious. It is important, on that account, to bring to mind what the actual course of events has been. If it were only to insist on a more conscious recognition of the legislative function of the courts, as just explained, it would be useful, as we shall see more clearly further on. /1/",
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      "text": "What has been said will explain the failure of all theories which consider the law only from its formal side; whether they attempt to deduce the corpus from a priori postulates, or fall into the humbler error of supposing the science of the law to reside in the elegantia juris, or logical cohesion of part with part. The truth is, that the law always approaching, and never reaching, consistency. It is forever adopting new principles from life at one end, and it always retains old ones from history at the other, which have not yet been absorbed or sloughed off. It will become entirely consistent only when it ceases to grow.",
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      "text": "The study upon which we have been engaged is necessary both for the knowledge and for the revision of the law. [37] However much we may codify the law into a series of seemingly self-sufficient propositions, those propositions will be but a phase in a continuous growth. To understand their scope fully, to know how they will be dealt with by judges trained in the past which the law embodies, we must ourselves know something of that past. The history of what the law has been is necessary to the knowledge of what the law is.",
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      "text": "Again, the process which I have described has involved the attempt to follow precedents, as well as to give a good reason for them. When we find that in large and important branches of the law the various grounds of policy on which the various rules have been justified are later inventions to account for what are in fact survivals from more primitive times, we have a right to reconsider the popular reasons, and, taking a broader view of the field, to decide anew whether those reasons are satisfactory. They may be, notwithstanding the manner of their appearance. If truth were not often suggested by error, if old implements could not be adjusted to new uses, human progress would be slow. But scrutiny and revision are justified.",
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      "text": "But none of the foregoing considerations, nor the purpose of showing the materials for anthropology contained in the history of the law, are the immediate object here. My aim and purpose have been to show that the various forms of liability known to modern law spring from the common ground of revenge. In the sphere of contract the fact will hardly be material outside the cases which have been stated in this Lecture. But in the criminal law and the law of torts it is of the first importance. It shows that they have started from a moral basis, from the thought that some one was to blame.",
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      "text": "[38] It remains to be proved that, while the terminology of morals is still retained, and while the law does still and always, in a certain sense, measure legal liability by moral standards, it nevertheless, by the very necessity of its nature, is continually transmuting those moral standards into external or objective ones, from which the actual guilt of the party concerned is wholly eliminated.",
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      "text": "[39]",
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      "sha256": "5b2d3175f42ca1fb5cb5c028fbf651186524afb114045922f7bd2d3841c8a279",
      "text": "LECTURE II. -- THE CRIMINAL LAW.",
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    {
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      "text": "Again, there are cases where there are no means of enforcing indemnity. In Macaulay's draft of the Indian Penal Code, breaches of contract for the carriage of passengers, were made criminal. The palanquin-bearers of India were too poor to pay damages, and yet had to be [41] trusted to carry unprotected women and children through wild and desolate tracts, where their desertion would have placed those under their charge in great danger.",
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      "text": "In all these cases punishment remains as an alternative. A pain can be inflicted upon the wrong-doer, of a sort which does not restore the injured party to his former situation, or to another equally good, but which is inflicted for the very purpose of causing pain. And so far as this punishment takes the place of compensation, whether on account of the death of the person to whom the wrong was done, the indefinite number of persons affected, the impossibility of estimating the worth of the suffering in money, or the poverty of the criminal, it may be said that one of its objects is to gratify the desire for vengeance. The prisoner pays with his body.",
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      "text": "The statement may be made stronger still, and it may be said, not only that the law does, but that it ought to, make the gratification of revenge an object. This is the opinion, at any rate, of two authorities so great, and so opposed in other views, as Bishop Butler and Jeremy Bentham. /1/ Sir James Stephen says, \"The criminal law stands to the passion of revenge in much the same relation as marriage to the sexual appetite.\" /2/",
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      "ref": "PG2449.B00104",
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      "text": "The first requirement of a sound body of law is, that it should correspond with the actual feelings and demands of the community, whether right or wrong. If people would gratify the passion of revenge outside of the law, if the law did not help them, the law has no choice but to satisfy the craving itself, and thus avoid the greater evil of private [42] retribution. At the same time, this passion is not one which we encourage, either as private individuals or as lawmakers. Moreover, it does not cover the whole ground. There are crimes which do not excite it, and we should naturally expect that the most important purposes of punishment would be coextensive with the whole field of its application. It remains to be discovered whether such a general purpose exists, and if so what it is. Different theories still divide opinion upon the subject.",
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      "text": "It has been thought that the purpose of punishment is to reform the criminal; that it is to deter the criminal and others from committing similar crimes; and that it is retribution. Few would now maintain that the first of these purposes was the only one. If it were, every prisoner should be released as soon as it appears clear that he will never repeat his offence, and if he is incurable he should not be punished at all. Of course it would be hard to reconcile the punishment of death with this doctrine.",
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      "text": "The main struggle lies between the other two. On the one side is the notion that there is a mystic bond between wrong and punishment; on the other, that the infliction of pain is only a means to an end. Hegel, one of the great expounders of the former view, puts it, in his quasi mathematical form, that, wrong being the negation of right, punishment is the negation of that negation, or retribution. Thus the punishment must be equal, in the sense of proportionate to the crime, because its only function is to destroy it. Others, without this logical apparatus, are content to rely upon a felt necessity that suffering should follow wrong-doing.",
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      "ref": "PG2449.B00107",
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      "text": "It is objected that the preventive theory is immoral, because it overlooks the ill-desert of wrong-doing, and furnishes [43] no measure of the amount of punishment, except the lawgiver's subjective opinion in regard to the sufficiency of the amount of preventive suffering. /1/ In the language of Kant, it treats man as a thing, not as a person; as a means, not as an end in himself. It is said to conflict with the sense of justice, and to violate the fundamental principle of all free communities, that the members of such communities have equal rights to life, liberty, and personal security. /2/",
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      "text": "In spite of all this, probably most English-speaking lawyers would accept the preventive theory without hesitation. As to the violation of equal rights which is charged, it may be replied that the dogma of equality makes an equation between individuals only, not between an individual and the community. No society has ever admitted that it could not sacrifice individual welfare to its own existence. If conscripts are necessary for its army, it seizes them, and marches them, with bayonets in their rear, to death. It runs highways and railroads through old family places in spite of the owner's protest, paying in this instance the market value, to be sure, because no civilized government sacrifices the citizen more than it can help, but still sacrificing his will and his welfare to that of the rest. /3/",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00233",
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      "start": 170307,
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      "text": "The quotations which were made above in favor of the strict doctrine from Sir T. Raymond, in Bessey v. Olliot, and from Sir William Blackstone, in Scott v. Shepherd, are both taken from dissenting opinions. In the latter case it is pretty clear that the majority of the court considered that to repel personal danger by instantaneously tossing away a squib thrown by another upon one's stall was not a trespass, although a new motion was thereby imparted to the squib, and the plaintiff's eye was put out in consequence. The last case cited above, in stating the arguments for absolute responsibility, was Leame v. Bray. /2/ The question under discussion was whether the action (for running down the plaintiff) should not have been case rather than trespass, the defendant founding his objection to trespass on the ground that the injury happened through his neglect, but was not done wilfully. There was therefore no question of absolute responsibility for one's acts [105] before the court, as negligence was admitted; and the language used is all directed simply to the proposition that the damage need not have been done intentionally.",
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      "text": "In Wakeman v. Robinson, /1/another runaway case, there was evidence that the defendant pulled the wrong rein, and that he ought to have kept a straight course. The jury were instructed that, if the injury was occasioned by an immediate act of the defendant, it was immaterial whether the act was wilful or accidental. On motion for a new trial, Dallas, C. J. said, \"If the accident happened entirely without default on the part of the defendant, or blame imputable to him, the action does not lie ....The accident was clearly occasioned by the default of the defendant. The weight of evidence was all that way. I am now called upon to grant a new trial, contrary to the justice of the case, upon the ground, that the jury were not called on to consider whether the accident was unavoidable, or occasioned by the fault of the defendant. There can be no doubt that the learned judge who presided would have taken the opinion of the jury on that ground, if he had been requested so to do.\" This language may have been inapposite under the defendant's plea (the general issue), but the pleadings were not adverted to, and the doctrine is believed to be sound.",
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      "text": "In America there have been several decisions to the point. In Brown v. Kendall, /2/ Chief Justice Shaw settled the question for Massachusetts. That was trespass for assault and battery, and it appeared that the defendant, while trying to separate two fighting dogs, had raised his stick over his shoulder in the act of striking, and had accidentally hit the plaintiff in the eye, inflicting upon him a [106] severe injury. The case was stronger for the plaintiff than if the defendant had been acting in self-defence; but the court held that, although the defendant was bound by no duty to separate the dogs, yet, if he was doing a lawful act, he was not liable unless he was wanting in the care which men of ordinary prudence would use under the circumstances, and that the burden was on the plaintiff to prove the want of such care.",
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      "text": "In such a matter no authority is more deserving of respect than that of Chief Justice Shaw, for the strength of that great judge lay in an accurate appreciation of the requirements of the community whose officer he was. Some, indeed many, English judges could be named who have surpassed him in accurate technical knowledge, but few have lived who were his equals in their understanding of the grounds of public policy to which all laws must ultimately be referred. It was this which made him, in the language of the late Judge Curtis, the greatest magistrate which this country has produced.",
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      "text": "Brown v. Kendall has been followed in Connecticut, /1/ in a case where a man fired a pistol, in lawful self-defence as he alleged, and hit a bystander. The court was strongly of opinion that the defendant was not answerable on the general principles of trespass, unless there was a failure to use such care as was practicable under the circumstances. The foundation of liability in trespass as well as case was said to be negligence. The Supreme Court of the United States has given the sanction of its approval to the same doctrine. /2/ The language of Harvey v. Dunlop /3/ has been [107] quoted, and there is a case in Vermont which tends in the same direction. /1/",
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      "text": "Supposing it now to be conceded that the general notion upon which liability to an action is founded is fault or blameworthiness in some sense, the question arises, whether it is so in the sense of personal moral shortcoming, as would practically result from Austin's teaching. The language of Rede, J., which has been quoted from the Year Book, gives a sufficient answer. \"In trespass the intent\" (we may say more broadly, the defendant's state of mind) \"cannot be construed.\" Suppose that a defendant were allowed to testify that, before acting, he considered carefully what would be the conduct of a prudent man under the circumstances, and, having formed the best judgment he could, acted accordingly. If the story was believed, it would be conclusive against the defendant's negligence judged by a moral standard which would take his personal characteristics into account. But supposing any such evidence to have got before the jury, it is very clear that the court would say, Gentlemen, the question is not whether the defendant thought his conduct was that of a prudent man, but whether you think it was. /2/",
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      "text": "Some middle point must be found between the horns of this dilemma.",
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      "text": "[108 The standards of the law are standards of general application. The law takes no account of the infinite varieties of temperament, intellect, and education which make the internal character of a given act so different in different men. It does not attempt to see men as God sees them, for more than one sufficient reason. In the first place, the impossibility of nicely measuring a man's powers and limitations is far clearer than that of ascertaining his knowledge of law, which has been thought to account for what is called the presumption that every man knows the law. But a more satisfactory explanation is, that, when men live in society, a certain average of conduct, a sacrifice of individual peculiarities going beyond a certain point, is necessary to the general welfare. If, for instance, a man is born hasty and awkward, is always having accidents and hurting himself or his neighbors, no doubt his congenital defects will be allowed for in the courts of Heaven, but his slips are no less troublesome to his neighbors than if they sprang from guilty neglect. His neighbors accordingly require him, at his proper peril, to come up to their standard, and the courts which they establish decline to take his personal equation into account.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00241",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "The rule that the law does, in general, determine liability by blameworthiness, is subject to the limitation that minute differences of character are not allowed for. The law considers, in other words, what would be blameworthy in the average man, the man of ordinary intelligence and prudence, and determines liability by that. If we fall below the level in those gifts, it is our misfortune; so much as that we must have at our peril, for the reasons just given. But he who is intelligent and prudent does not act at his peril, in theory of law. On the contrary, it is [109] only when he fails to exercise the foresight of which he is capable, or exercises it with evil intent, that he is answerable for the consequences.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00242",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 178002,
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      "text": "There are exceptions to the principle that every man is presumed to possess ordinary capacity to avoid harm to his neighbors, which illustrate the rule, and also the moral basis of liability in general. When a man has a distinct defect of such a nature that all can recognize it as making certain precautions impossible, he will not be held answerable for not taking them. A blind man is not required to see at his peril; and although he is, no doubt, bound to consider his infirmity in regulating his actions, yet if he properly finds himself in a certain situation, the neglect of precautions requiring eyesight would not prevent his recovering for an injury to himself, and, it may be presumed, would not make him liable for injuring another. So it is held that, in cases where he is the plaintiff, an infant of very tender years is only bound to take the precautions of which an infant is capable; the same principle may be cautiously applied where he is defendant. /1/ Insanity is a more difficult matter to deal with, and no general rule can be laid down about it. There is no doubt that in many cases a man may be insane, and yet perfectly capable of taking the precautions, and of being influenced by the motives, which the circumstances demand. But if insanity of a pronounced type exists, manifestly incapacitating the sufferer from complying with the rule which he has broken, good sense would require it to be admitted as an excuse.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00243",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 179472,
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      "text": "Taking the qualification last established in connection with the general proposition previously laid down, it will [110] now be assumed that, on the one hand, the law presumes or requires a man to possess ordinary capacity to avoid harming his neighbors, unless a clear and manifest incapacity be shown; but that, on the other, it does not in general hold him liable for unintentional injury, unless, possessing such capacity, he might and ought to have foreseen the danger, or, in other words, unless a man of ordinary intelligence and forethought would have been to blame for acting as he did. The next question is, whether this vague test is all that the law has to say upon the matter, and the same question in another form, by whom this test is to be applied.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00244",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "Notwithstanding the fact that the grounds of legal liability are moral to the extent above explained, it must be borne in mind that law only works within the sphere of the senses. If the external phenomena, the manifest acts and omissions, are such as it requires, it is wholly indifferent to the internal phenomena of conscience. A man may have as bad a heart as he chooses, if his conduct is within the rules. In other words, the standards of the law are external standards, and, however much it may take moral considerations into account, it does so only for the purpose of drawing a line between such bodily motions and rests as it permits, and such as it does not. What the law really forbids, and the only thing it forbids, is the act on the wrong side of the line, be that act blameworthy or otherwise.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00245",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "end": 182083,
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      "text": "Again, any legal standard must, in theory, be one which would apply to all men, not specially excepted, under the same circumstances. It is not intended that the public force should fall upon an individual accidentally, or at the whim of any body of men. The standard, that is, [111] must be fixed. In practice, no doubt, one man may have to pay and another may escape, according to the different feelings of different juries. But this merely shows that the law does not perfectly accomplish its ends. The theory or intention of the law is not that the feeling of approbation or blame which a particular twelve may entertain should be the criterion. They are supposed to leave their idiosyncrasies on one side, and to represent the feeling of the community. The ideal average prudent man, whose equivalent the jury is taken to be in many cases, and whose culpability or innocence is the supposed test, is a constant, and his conduct under given circumstances is theoretically always the same.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00246",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 182087,
      "end": 182290,
      "sha256": "6acf6d6225802254b8f38ab67b88995200953d02f1b7dd0632b5f564f6c7a229",
      "text": "Finally, any legal standard must, in theory, be capable of being known. When a man has to pay damages, he is supposed to have broken the law, and he is further supposed to have known what the law was.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00247",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 182294,
      "end": 183597,
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      "text": "If, now, the ordinary liabilities in tort arise from failure to comply with fixed and uniform standards of external conduct, which every man is presumed and required to know, it is obvious that it ought to be possible, sooner or later, to formulate these standards at least to some extent, and that to do so must at last be the business of the court. It is equally clear that the featureless generality, that the defendant was bound to use such care as a prudent man would do under the circumstances, ought to be continually giving place to the specific one, that he was bound to use this or that precaution under these or those circumstances. The standard which the defendant was bound to come up to was a standard of specific acts or omissions, with reference to the specific circumstances in which he found himself. If in the whole department of [112] unintentional wrongs the courts arrived at no further utterance than the question of negligence, and left every case, without rudder or compass, to the jury, they would simply confess their inability to state a very large part of the law which they required the defendant to know, and would assert, by implication, that nothing could be learned by experience. But neither courts nor legislatures have ever stopped at that point.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00248",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 183601,
      "end": 184103,
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      "text": "From the time of Alfred to the present day, statutes and decisions have busied themselves with defining the precautions to be taken in certain familiar cases; that is, with substituting for the vague test of the care exercised by a prudent man, a precise one of specific acts or omissions. The fundamental thought is still the same, that the way prescribed is that in which prudent men are in the habit of acting, or else is one laid down for cases where prudent men might otherwise be in doubt.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00249",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 184107,
      "end": 185253,
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      "text": "It will be observed that the existence of the external tests of liability which will be mentioned, while it illustrates the tendency of the law of tort to become more and more concrete by judicial decision and by statute, does not interfere with the general doctrine maintained as to the grounds of liability. The argument of this Lecture, although opposed to the doctrine that a man acts or exerts force at his peril, is by no means opposed to the doctrine that he does certain particular acts at his peril. It is the coarseness, not the nature, of the standard which is objected to. If, when the question of the defendant's negligence is left to a jury, negligence does not mean the actual state of the defendant's mind, but a failure to act as a prudent man of average intelligence would have done, he is required to conform to an objective standard at his [113] peril, even in that case. When a more exact and specific rule has been arrived at, he must obey that rule at his peril to the same extent. But, further, if the law is wholly a standard of external conduct, a man must always comply with that standard at his peril.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00459",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 344945,
      "end": 346630,
      "sha256": "95b8ae377e71f04e1ce94ef68cfbb28aa155f09975fd78c23ddc97ea2f6d807a",
      "text": "[212] The courts have said but little on the subject. It was laid down in one case that it was an extension of the protection which the law throws around the person, and on that ground held that trespass quare clausum did not pass to an assignee in bankruptcy. /1/ So it has been said, that to deny a bankrupt trover against strangers for goods coming to his possession after his bankruptcy would be \"an invitation to all the world to scramble for the possession of them\"; and reference was made to \"grounds of policy and convenience.\" /2/ I may also refer to the cases of capture, some of which will be cited again. In the Greenland whale-fishery, by the English custom, if the first striker lost his hold on the fish, and it was then killed by another, the first had no claim; but he had the whole if he kept fast to the whale until it was struck by the other, although it then broke from the first harpoon. By the custom in the Gallipagos, on the other hand, the first striker had half the whale, although control of the line was lost. /3/ Each of these customs has been sustained and acted on by the English courts, and Judge Lowell has decided in accordance with still a third, which gives the whale to the vessel whose iron first remains in it, provided claim be made before cutting in. /4/ The ground as put by Lord Mansfield is simply that, were it not for such customs, there must be a sort of warfare perpetually subsisting between the adventurers. /5/ If courts adopt different rules on similar facts, according to the point at which men will fight in the [213] several cases, it tends, so far as it goes, to shake an a priori theory of the matter.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00460",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 346634,
      "end": 347669,
      "sha256": "3add70e246f787eac17334ff2ad0d5390e0b230ec2e48d611dd8463b02a54ca6",
      "text": "Those who see in the history of law the formal expression of the development of society will be apt to think that the proximate ground of law must be empirical, even when that ground is the fact that a certain ideal or theory of government is generally entertained. Law, being a practical thing, must found itself on actual forces. It is quite enough, therefore, for the law, that man, by an instinct which he shares with the domestic dog, and of which the seal gives a most striking example, will not allow himself to be dispossessed, either by force or fraud, of what he holds, without trying to get it back again. /1/ Philosophy may find a hundred reasons to justify the instinct, but it would be totally immaterial if it should condemn it and bid us surrender without a murmur. As long as the instinct remains, it will be more comfortable for the law to satisfy it in an orderly manner, than to leave people to themselves. If it should do otherwise, it would become a matter for pedagogues, wholly devoid of reality.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00461",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "end": 348254,
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      "text": "I think we are now in a position to begin the analysis of possession. It will be instructive to say a word in the first place upon a preliminary question which has been debated with much zeal in Germany. Is possession a fact or a right? This question must be taken to mean, by possession and right, what the law means by those words, and not something else which philosophers or moralists may mean by them; for as lawyers we have nothing to do with either, except in a legal sense. If this had always been borne steadily in mind, the question would hardly have been asked.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00462",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "[214] A legal right is nothing but a permission to exercise certain natural powers, and upon certain conditions to obtain protection, restitution, or compensation by the aid of the public force. Just so far as the aid of the public force is given a man, he has a legal right, and this right is the same whether his claim is founded in righteousness or iniquity. Just so far as possession is protected, it is as much a source of legal rights as ownership is when it secures the same protection.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00463",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "end": 349600,
      "sha256": "84bcfe4a361af0cfeb070386a8e7e04ad51b7dc77ee6f5e328138cc0fb276169",
      "text": "Every right is a consequence attached by the law to one or more facts which the law defines, and wherever the law gives any one special rights not shared by the body of the people, it does so on the ground that certain special facts, not true of the rest of the world, are true of him. When a group of facts thus singled out by the law exists in the case of a given person, he is said to be entitled to the corresponding rights; meaning, thereby, that the law helps him to constrain his neighbors, or some of them, in a way in which it would not, if all the facts in question were not true of him. Hence, any word which denotes such a group of facts connotes the rights attached to it by way of legal consequences, and any word which denotes the rights attached to a group of facts connotes the group of facts in like manner.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00464",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 349604,
      "end": 351019,
      "sha256": "41e13fa342c8f8315ff7056cbe50b0d1776e7b0e2f8f5c62ada69486f3e98991",
      "text": "The word \"possession\" denotes such a group of facts. Hence, when we say of a man that he has possession, we affirm directly that all the facts of a certain group are true of him, and we convey indirectly or by implication that the law will give him the advantage of the situation. Contract, or property, or any other substantive notion of the law, may be analyzed in the same way, and should be treated in the same order. The only difference is, that, [215] while possession denotes the facts and connotes the consequence, property always, and contract with more uncertainty and oscillation, denote the consequence and connote the facts. When we say that a man owns a thing, we affirm directly that he has the benefit of the consequences attached to a certain group of facts, and, by implication, that the facts are true of him. The important thing to grasp is, that each of these legal compounds, possession, property, and contract, is to be analyzed into fact and right, antecedent and consequent, in like manner as every other. It is wholly immaterial that one element is accented by one word, and the other by the other two. We are not studying etymology, but law. There are always two things to be asked: first, what are the facts which make up the group in question; and then, what are the consequences attached by the law to that group. The former generally offers the only difficulties.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00465",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 351023,
      "end": 351524,
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      "text": "Hence, it is almost tautologous to say that the protection which the law attaches by way of consequence to possession, is as truly a right in a legal sense as those consequences which are attached to adverse holding for the period of prescription, or to a promise for value or under seal. If the statement is aided by dramatic reinforcement, I may add that possessory rights pass by descent or devise, as well as by conveyance, /1/ and that they are taxed as property in some of the States. /2/",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00466",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 351528,
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      "text": "We are now ready to analyze possession as understood by the common law. In order to discover the facts which constitute it, it will be found best to study them at the moment when possession is first gained. For then they must [216] all be present in the same way that both consideration and promise must be present at the moment of making a contract. But when we turn to the continuance of possessory rights, or, as is commonly said, the continuance of possession, it will be agreed by all schools that less than all the facts required to call those rights into being need continue presently true in order to keep them alive.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00467",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 352166,
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      "sha256": "a2facd82a408d09e2de7d1e493cce047620f9224b65ec26450070ca36cf08c60",
      "text": "To gain possession, then, a man must stand in a certain physical relation to the object and to the rest of the world, and must have a certain intent. These relations and this intent are the facts of which we are in search.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00468",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "The physical relation to others is simply a relation of manifested power coextensive with the intent, and will need to have but little said about it when the nature of the intent is settled. When I come to the latter, I shall not attempt a similar analysis to that which has been pursued with regard to intent as an element of liability. For the principles developed as to intent in that connection have no relation to the present subject, and any such analysis so far as it did not fail would be little more than a discussion of evidence. The intent inquired into here must be overtly manifested, perhaps, but all theories of the grounds on which possession is protected would seem to agree in leading to the requirement that it should be actual, subject, of course, to the necessary limits of legal investigation.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00469",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "But, besides our power and intent as towards our fellow-men, there must be a certain degree of power over the object. If there were only one other man in the world, and he was safe under lock and key in jail, the person having the key would not possess the swallows that flew over the prison. This element is illustrated by cases of capture, [217] although no doubt the point at which the line is drawn is affected by consideration of the degree of power obtained as against other people, as well as by that which has been gained over the object. The Roman and the common law agree that, in general, fresh pursuit of wild animals does not give the pursuer the rights of possession. Until escape has been made impossible by some means, another may step in and kill or catch and carry off the game if he can. Thus it has been held that an action does not lie against a person for killing and taking a fox which had been pursued by another, and was then actually in the view of the person who had originally found, started, and chased it. /1/ The Court of Queen's Bench even went so far as to decide, notwithstanding a verdict the other way, that when fish were nearly surrounded by a seine, with an opening of seven fathoms between the ends, at which point boats were stationed to frighten them from escaping, they were not reduced to possession as against a stranger who rowed in through the opening and helped himself. /2/ But the difference between the power over the object which is sufficient for possession, and that which is not, is clearly one of degree only, and the line may be drawn at different places at different times on grounds just referred to. Thus we are told that the legislature of New York enacted, in 1844, that any one who started and pursued deer in certain counties of that State should be deemed in possession of the game so long as he continued in fresh pursuit of it, /3/ and to that extent modified the New York decisions just cited. So, while Justinian decided that a wild beast so [218] badly wounded that it might easily be taken must be actually taken before it belongs to the captors, /1/ Judge Lowell, with equal reason, has upheld the contrary custom of the American whalemen in the Arctic Ocean, mentioned above, which gives a whale to the vessel whose iron first remains in it, provided claim be made before cutting in. /2/",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00496",
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      "text": "German writers are a little apt to value a theory of possession somewhat in proportion to the breadth of the distinction which it draws between juridical possession and actual detention; but, from the point of view taken here, it will be seen that the grounds for denying possession and the possessory remedies to servants and agents holding as such--if, indeed, the latter have not those remedies--are merely historical, and that the general theory can only take account of the denial as an anomaly. It will also be perceived that the ground on which servants and depositaries have been often likened to each other, namely, that they both hold for the benefit of another and not for themselves, is wholly without influence on our law, which has always treated depositaries as having possession; and is not the true explanation of the Roman doctrine, which did not decide either case upon that ground, and which decided each for reasons different from those on which it decided the other.",
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    {
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      "end": 382173,
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      "text": "It will now be easy to deal with the question of power as to third persons. This is naturally a power coextensive with the intent. But we must bear in mind that the law deals only or mainly with manifested facts; and hence, when we speak of a power to exclude others, we mean no more than a power which so appears in its manifestation. [235] A ruffian may be within equal reach and sight when a child picks up a pocket-book; but if he does nothing, the child has manifested the needful power as well as if it had been backed by a hundred policemen. Thus narrowed, it might be suggested that the manifestation of is only important as a manifestation of intent. But the two things are distinct, and the former becomes decisive when there are two contemporaneous and conflicting intents. Thus, where two parties, neither having title, claimed a crop of corn adversely to each other, and cultivated it alternately, and the plaintiff gathered and threw it in small piles in the same field, where it lay for a week, and then each party simultaneously began to carry it away, it was held the plaintiff had not gained possession. /1/ But the first interference of the defendant had been after the gathering into piles, the plaintiff would probably have recovered. /2/ So where trustees possessed of a schoolroom put in a schoolmaster, and he was afterwards dismissed, but the next day (June 30) re-entered by force; on the fourth of July he was required by notice to depart, and was not ejected until the eleventh; it was considered that the schoolmaster never got possession as against the trustees. /3/",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00498",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "We are led, in this connection, to the subject of the continuance of the rights acquired by gaining possession. To gain possession, it has been seen, there must be certain physical relations, as explained, and a certain intent. It remains to be inquired, how far these facts must continue [236] to be presently true of a person in order that he may keep the rights which follow from their presence. The prevailing view is that of Savigny. He thinks that there must be always the same animus as at the moment of acquisition, and a constant power to reproduce at will the original physical relations to the object. Every one agrees that it is not necessary to have always a present power over the thing, otherwise one could only possess what was under his hand. But it is a question whether we cannot dispense with even more. The facts which constitute possession are in their nature capable of continuing presently true for a lifetime. Hence there has arisen an ambiguity of language which has led to much confusion of thought. We use the word \"possession,\" indifferently, to signify the presence of all the facts needful to gain it, and also the condition of him who, although some of them no longer exist, is still protected as if they did. Consequently it has been only too easy to treat the cessation of the facts as the loss of the right, as some German writers very nearly do. /1/",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00499",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 383587,
      "end": 385352,
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      "text": "But it no more follows, from the single circumstance that certain facts must concur in order to create the rights incident to possession, that they must continue in order to keep those rights alive, than it does, from the necessity of a consideration and a promise to create a right ex contractu, that the consideration and promise must continue moving between the parties until the moment of performance. When certain facts have once been made manifest which confer a right, there is no general ground on which the law need hold the right at an end except the manifestation of some fact inconsistent with its continuance, [237] the reasons for conferring the particular right have great weight in determining what facts shall be to be so. Cessation of the original physical relations to the object might be treated as such a fact; but it never has been, unless in times of more ungoverned violence than the present. On the same principle, it is only a question of tradition or policy whether a cessation of the power to reproduce the original physical relations shall affect the continuance of the rights. It does not stand on the same ground as a new possession adversely taken by another. We have adopted the Roman law as to animals ferae naturae, but the general tendency of our law is to favor appropriation. It abhors the absence of proprietary or possessory rights as a kind of vacuum. Accordingly, it has been expressly decided, where a man found logs afloat and moored them, but they again broke loose and floated away, and were found by another, that the first finder retained the rights which sprung from his having taken possession, and that he could maintain trover against the second finder, who refused to give them up. /1/",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00500",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "Suppose that a finder of a purse of gold has left it in his country-house, which is lonely and slightly barred, and he is a hundred miles away, in prison. The only person within twenty miles is a thoroughly equipped burglar at his front door, who has seen the purse through a window, and who intends forthwith to enter and take it. The finder's power to reproduce his former physical relation to the gold is rather limited, yet I believe that no one would say that his possession was at an end until the burglar, by an overt [238] act, had manifested his power and intent to exclude others from the purse. The reason for this is the same which has been put with regard to the power to exclude at the moment of gaining possession. The law deals, for the most part, with overt acts and facts which can be known by the senses. So long as the burglar has not taken the purse, he has not manifested his intent; and until he breaks through the barrier which measures the present possessor's power of excluding him, he has not manifested his power. It may be observed further, that, according to the tests adopted in this Lecture, the owner of the house has a present possession in the strictest sense, because, although he has not the power which Savigny says is necessary, he has the present intent and power to exclude others.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00501",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 386702,
      "end": 387007,
      "sha256": "78e4ffe486069276e18eed4187c705cf585462251f438d4b1415603dabc219ed",
      "text": "It is conceivable that the common law should go so far as to deal with possession in the same way as a title, and should hold that, when it has once been acquired, rights are acquired which continue to prevail against all the world but one, until something has happened sufficient to divest ownership.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00502",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "The possession of rights, as it is called, has been a fighting-ground for centuries on the Continent. It is not uncommon for German writers to go so far as to maintain that there may be a true possession of obligations; this seeming to accord with a general view that possession and right are in theory coextensive terms; that the mastery of the will over an external object in general (be that object a thing or another will), when in accord with the general will, and consequently lawful, is called right, when merely de facto is possession. /1/ Bearing in mind what was [239] said on the question whether possession was a fact or right, it will be seen that such an antithesis between possession and right cannot be admitted as a legal distinction. The facts constituting possession generate rights as truly as do the facts which constitute ownership, although the rights a mere possessor are less extensive than those of an owner.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00503",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 387964,
      "end": 388641,
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      "text": "Conversely, rights spring from certain facts supposed to be true of the person entitled to such rights. Where these facts are of such a nature that they can be made successively true of different persons, as in the case of the occupation of land, the corresponding rights may be successively enjoyed. But when the facts are past and gone, such as the giving of a consideration and the receiving of a promise, there can be no claim to the resulting rights set up by any one except the party of whom the facts were originally true--in the case supposed, the original contractee,--because no one but the original contractee can fill the situation from which they spring.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00504",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 388645,
      "end": 389961,
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      "text": "It will probably be granted by English readers, that one of the essential constituent facts consists in a certain relation to a material object. But this object may be a slave, as well as a horse; /1/ and conceptions originated in this way may be extended by a survival to free services. It is noticeable that even Bruns, in the application of his theory, does not seem to go beyond cases of status and those where, in common language, land is bound for the services in question, as it is for rent. Free services being [240] so far treated like servile, even by our law, that the master has a right of property in them against all the world, it is only a question of degree where the line shall be drawn. It would be possible to hold that, as one might be in possession of a slave without title, so one might have all the rights of an owner in free services rendered without contract. Perhaps there is something of that sort to be seen when a parent recovers for the seduction of a daughter over twenty-one, although there is no actual contract of service. /1/ So, throughout the whole course of the canon law and in the early law of England, rents were regarded as so far a part of the realty as to be capable of possession and disseisin, and they could be recovered like land by all assize. /2/",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00613",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "sha256": "47f7bdd2ecc8fa83a94ae2f02e3c3aaa7a6998f99e6fe066070f43ee44b3c11d",
      "text": "LECTURE VIII. -- CONTRACT. II. ELEMENTS.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00614",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "end": 466305,
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      "text": "THE general method to be pursued in the analysis of contract is the same as that already explained with regard to possession. Wherever the law gives special rights to one, or imposes special burdens on another, it does so on the ground that certain special facts are true of those individuals. In all such cases, therefore, there is a twofold task. First, to determine what are the facts to which the special consequences are attached; second, to ascertain the consequences. The first is the main field of legal argument. With regard to contracts the facts are not always the same. They may be that a certain person has signed, sealed, and delivered a writing of a certain purport. They may be that he has made an oral promise, and that the promisee has furnished him a consideration.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00615",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 466309,
      "end": 466807,
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      "text": "The common element of all contracts might be said to be a promise, although even a promise was not necessary to a liability in debt as formerly understood. But as it will not be possible to discuss covenants further, and as consideration formed the main topic of the last Lecture, I will take up that first. Furthermore, as there is an historical difference between consideration in debt and in assumpsit, I shall confine myself to the latter, which is the later and more philosophical form.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00616",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "It is said that any benefit conferred by the promisee on the promisor, or any detriment incurred by the promisee, [290] may be a consideration. It is also thought that every consideration may be reduced to a case of the latter sort, using the word \"detriment\" in a somewhat broad sense.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00617",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 467105,
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      "text": "To illustrate the general doctrine, suppose that a man is desirous of having a cask of brandy carried from Boston to Cambridge, and that a truckman, either out of kindness or from some other motive, says that he will carry it, and it is delivered to him accordingly. If he carelessly staves in the cask, there would perhaps be no need to allege that he undertook to carry it, and on principle, and according to the older cases, if an undertaking was alleged, no consideration for the assumpsit need be stated. /1/ The ground of complaint in that case would be a wrong, irrespective of contract. But if the complaint was that he did not carry it as agreed, the plaintiff's difficulty would be that the truckman was not bound to do so unless there was a consideration for his promise. Suppose, therefore, that it was alleged that he promised to do so in consideration of the delivery to him. Would this be a sufficient consideration? The oldest cases, going on the notion of benefit to the promisor, said that it could not be, for it was a trouble, not a benefit. /2/ Then take it from the side of detriment. The delivery is a necessary condition to the promisor's doing the kindness, and if he does it, the delivery, so far from being a detriment to the promisee, is a clear benefit to him.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00618",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "But this argument is a fallacy. Clearly the delivery would be sufficient consideration to enable the owner to declare in assumpsit for the breach of those duties which [291] arose, irrespective of contract, from the defendant's having undertaken to deal with the thing. /1/ It would be a sufficient consideration for any promise not involving a dealing with the thing for its performance, for instance, to pay a thousand dollars. /2/ And the law has not pronounced the consideration good or bad according to the nature of the promise founded upon it. The delivery is a sufficient consideration for any promise. /3/",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00619",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "end": 469568,
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      "text": "The argument on the other side leaves out of sight the point of time at which the sufficiency of the consideration is to be determined. This is the moment when the consideration is furnished. At that moment the delivery of the cask is a detriment in the strictest sense. The owner of the cask has given up a present control over it, which he has a right to keep, and he has got in return, not a performance for which a delivery was necessary, but a mere promise of performance. The performance is still future. /4/",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00620",
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      "text": "But it will be seen that, although the delivery may be a consideration, it will not necessarily be one. A promise to carry might be made and accepted on the understanding that it was mere matter of favor, without consideration, and not legally binding. In that case the detriment of delivery would be incurred by the promisee as before, but obviously it would be incurred for the sole purpose of enabling the promisor to carry as agreed.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00622",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "The same caution should be observed in construing the terms of an agreement. It is hard to see the propriety of erecting any detriment which an instrument may disclose or provide for, into a consideration, unless the parties have dealt with it on that footing. In many cases a promisee may incur a detriment without thereby furnishing a consideration. The detriment may be nothing but a condition precedent to performance of the promise, as where a man promises another to pay him five hundred dollars if he breaks his leg. /2/",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00623",
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      "text": "The courts, however, have gone far towards obliterating this distinction. Acts which by a fair interpretation of language would seem to have been contemplated as only the compliance with a condition, have been treated as the consideration of the promise. /3/ And so have counter promises in an agreement which expressly stated other matters as the consideration. /4/ So it should be mentioned, subject [293] to the question whether there may not be a special explanation for the doctrine, that it is said that an assignment of a leasehold cannot be voluntary under the statute of 27 Elizabeth, c. 4, because the assignee comes into the obligations of the tenant. /1/ Yet the assignee's incurring this detriment may not be contemplated as the inducement of the assignment, and in many cases only amounts to a deduction from the benefit conferred, as a right of way would be, especially if the only obligation is to pay rent, which issues out of the land in theory of law.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00624",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "But although the courts may have sometimes gone a little far in their anxiety to sustain agreements, there can be no doubt of the Principle which I have laid down, that the same thing may be a consideration or not, as it is dealt with by the parties. This raises the question how a thing must be dealt with, in order to make it a consideration.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00625",
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      "text": "It is said that consideration must not be confounded with motive. It is true that it must not be confounded with what may be the prevailing or chief motive in actual fact. A man may promise to paint a picture for five hundred dollars, while his chief motive may be a desire for fame. A consideration may be given and accepted, in fact, solely for the purpose of making a promise binding. But, nevertheless, it is the essence of a consideration, that, by the terms of the agreement, it is given and accepted as the motive or inducement of the promise. Conversely, the promise must be made and accepted as the conventional motive or inducement for furnishing the consideration. The root of the whole matter is the relation of reciprocal [294] conventional inducement, each for the other, between consideration and promise.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00626",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "A good example of the former branch of the proposition is to be found in a Massachusetts case. The plaintiff refused to let certain wood be removed from his land by one who had made an oral bargain and given his note for it, unless he received additional security. The purchaser and the plaintiff accordingly went to the defendant, and the defendant put his name upon the note. The plaintiff thereupon let the purchaser carry off the wood. But, according to the testimony, the defendant signed without knowing that the plaintiff was to alter his position in any way on the faith of the signature, and it was held that, if that story was believed, there was no consideration. /1/",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00627",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "text": "An illustration of the other half of the rule is to be found in those cases where a reward is offered for doing something, which is afterwards done by a person acting in ignorance of the offer. In such a case the reward cannot be claimed, because the alleged consideration has not been furnished on the faith of the offer. The tendered promise has not induced the furnishing of the consideration. The promise cannot be set up as a conventional motive when it was not known until after the alleged consideration was performed. /2/",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00628",
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      "text": "Both sides of the relation between consideration and promise, and the conventional nature of that relation, may be illustrated by the case of the cask. Suppose that the [295] truckman is willing to carry the cask, and the owner to let him carry it, without any bargain, and that each knows the other's state of mind; but that the truckman, seeing his own advantage in the matter, says to the owner, \"In consideration of your delivering me the cask, and letting me carry it, I promise to carry it,\" and that the owner thereupon delivers it. I suppose that the promise would be binding. The promise is offered in terms as the inducement for the delivery, and the delivery is made in terms as the inducement for the promise. It may be very probable that the delivery would have been made without a promise, and that the promise would have been made in gratuitous form if it had not been accepted upon consideration; but this is only a guess after all. The delivery need not have been made unless the owner chose, and having been made as the term of a bargain, the promisor cannot set up what might have happened to destroy the effect of what did happen. It would seem therefore that the same transaction in substance and spirit might be voluntary or obligatory, according to the form of words which the parties chose to employ for the purpose of affecting the legal consequences.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00629",
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      "text": "If the foregoing principles be accepted, they will be seen to explain a doctrine which has given the courts some trouble to establish. I mean the doctrine that an executed consideration will not sustain a subsequent promise. It has been said, to be sure, that such a consideration was sufficient if preceded by a request. But the objections to the view are plain. If the request was of such a nature, and so put, as reasonably to imply that the other person was to have a reward, there was an express promise, although not put in words, and that promise was made at [296] the same time the consideration was given, and not afterwards. If, on the other hand, the words did not warrant the understanding that the service was to be paid for, the service was a gift, and a past gift can no more be a consideration than any other act of the promisee not induced by the promise.",
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      "text": "The source of the error can be traced partially, at least, in history. Some suggestions touching the matter were made in the last Lecture. A few words should be added here. In the old cases of debt, where there was some question whether the plaintiff had showed enough to maintain his action, a \"contract precedent\" was spoken of several times as raising the duty. Thus, where a man had granted that he would be bound in one hundred shillings to pay his servant on a certain day for his services, and for payments made by the servant on his account, it was argued that there was no contract precedent, and that by parol the party is not obliged; and, further, that, so far as appeared, the payments were made by the servant out of his own head and at no request, from which no duty could commence. /1/",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00631",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 477702,
      "end": 477971,
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      "text": "So when debt was brought on a deed to pay the plaintiff ten marks, if he would take the defendant's daughter to wife, and it was objected that the action should have been covenant, it was answered that the plaintiff had a contract precedent which gave him debt. /2/",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00632",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 477975,
      "end": 479381,
      "sha256": "e1750e3173272594a0a3be0eb987d49fbfe453567c98f6dd1361a76174b1871b",
      "text": "The first case in assumpsit /3/ only meant to adopt this long familiar thought. A man went bail for his friend's servant, who had been arrested. Afterwards the master [297] promised to indemnify the bail, and on his failure to do so was sued by him in assumpsit. It was held that there was no consideration wherefore the defendant should be charged unless the master had first promised to indemnify the plaintiff before the servant was bailed; \"for the master did never make request to the plaintiff for his servant to do so much, but he did it of his own head.\" This is perfectly plain sailing, and means no more than the case in the Year Books. The report, however, also states a case in which it was held that a subsequent promise, in consideration that the plaintiff at the special instance of the defendant had married the defendant's cousin, was binding, and that the marriage was \"good cause... because [it] ensued the request of the defendant.\" Whether this was intended to establish a general principle, or was decided with reference to the peculiar consideration of marriage, /1/ it was soon interpreted in the broader sense, as was shown in the last Lecture. It was several times adjudged that a past and executed matter was a sufficient consideration for a promise at a later day, if only the matter relied on had been done or furnished at the request of the promisor. /2/",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00633",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 479385,
      "end": 479559,
      "sha256": "1b8a6b9980a708bcc2e2373172803cf67dd66ae8db1a6aff6c1f7d39b21bf35e",
      "text": "It is now time to analyze the nature of a promise, which is the second and most conspicuous element in a simple contract. The Indian Contract Act, 1872, Section 2,8 says:--",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00634",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 479564,
      "end": 479780,
      "sha256": "d6f114c17c5b022c81666d3a54d826350cb18492f0f9ebc0b7eea47a5876897c",
      "text": "\"(a.) When one person signifies to another his willingness [298] to do or to abstain from doing anything, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal:",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00635",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 479785,
      "end": 479949,
      "sha256": "7031d5ce7cfa3fcb03d833e5e4d31b2c8cfc91dfbc272a6d7360872cb7231226",
      "text": "\"(b.) When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted. A proposal when accepted becomes a promise.\"",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00636",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 479953,
      "end": 480595,
      "sha256": "45c69b1b5d8340db25ccb5ef41b5f86d701b5148ff6e48335135e06eb4c6407f",
      "text": "According to this definition the scope of promises is confined to conduct on the part of the promisor. If this only meant that the promisor alone must bear the legal burden which his promise may create, it would be true. But this is not the meaning. For the definition is of a promise, not of a legally binding promise. We are not seeking for the legal effects of a contract, but for the possible contents of a promise which the law may or may not enforce. We must therefore only consider the question what can possibly be promised in a legal sense, not what will be the secondary consequence of a promise binding, but not performed.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00637",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 480599,
      "end": 481345,
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      "text": "An assurance that it shall rain to-morrow, /1/ or that a third person shall paint a picture, may as well be a promise as one that the promisee shall receive from some source one hundred bales of cotton, or that the promisor will pay the promisee one hundred dollars. What is the difference in the cases? It is only in the degree of power possessed by the promisor over the event. He has none in the first case. He has equally little legal authority to make a man paint a picture, although he may have larger means of persuasion. He probably will be able to make sure that the promisee has the cotton. Being a rich man, he is certain [299] to be able to pay the one hundred dollars, except in the event of some most improbable accident.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00638",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 481349,
      "end": 482366,
      "sha256": "2722089e26701cc174b867e8de9709a024af139f4dad475df0cdefcaab693bd9",
      "text": "But the law does not inquire, as a general thing, how far the accomplishment of an assurance touching the future is within the power of the promisor. In the moral world it may be that the obligation of a promise is confined to what lies within reach of the will of the promisor (except so far as the limit is unknown on one side, and misrepresented on the other). But unless some consideration of public policy intervenes, I take it that a man may bind himself at law that any future event shall happen. He can therefore promise it in a legal sense. It may be said that when a man covenants that it shall rain to-morrow, or that A shall paint a picture, he only says, in a short form, I will pay if it does not rain, or if A does not paint a picture. But that is not necessarily so. A promise could easily be framed which would be broken by the happening of fair weather, or by A not painting. A promise, then, is simply an accepted assurance that a certain event or state of things shall come to pass.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00639",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 482370,
      "end": 483021,
      "sha256": "f8f21275bf85de5089f4c294b19f7ba176b97feb87aaa172073d8916b323b8ac",
      "text": "But if this be true, it has more important bearings than simply to enlarge the definition of the word promise. It concerns the theory of contract. The consequences of a binding promise at common law are not affected by the degree of power which the promisor possesses over the promised event. If the promised event does not come to pass, the plaintiff's property is sold to satisfy the damages, within certain limits, which the promisee has suffered by the failure. The consequences are the same in kind whether the promise is that it shall rain, or that another man shall paint a picture, or that the promisor will deliver a bale of cotton.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00640",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "sha256": "3efac922ea34fdc99e29ab619786809c32d5536ede29789a78f82ec9972bd423",
      "text": "[300] If the legal consequence is the same in all cases, it seems proper that all contracts should be considered from the same legal point of view. In the case of a binding promise that it shall rain to-morrow, the immediate legal effect of what the promisor does is, that he takes the risk of the event, within certain defined limits, as between himself and the promisee. He does no more when he promises to deliver a bale of cotton.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00641",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "end": 485291,
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      "text": "If it be proper to state the common-law meaning of promise and contract in this way, it has the advantage of freeing the subject from the superfluous theory that contract is a qualified subjection of one will to another, a kind of limited slavery. It might be so regarded if the law compelled men to perform their contracts, or if it allowed promisees to exercise such compulsion. If, when a man promised to labor for another, the law made him do it, his relation to his promisee might be called a servitude ad hoc with some truth. But that is what the law never does. It never interferes until a promise has been broken, and therefore cannot possibly be performed according to its tenor. It is true that in some instances equity does what is called compelling specific performance. But, in the first place, I am speaking of the common law, and, in the next, this only means that equity compels the performance of certain elements of the total promise which are still capable of performance. For instance, take a promise to convey land within a certain time, a court of equity is not in the habit of interfering until the time has gone by, so that the promise cannot be performed as made. But if the conveyance is more important than the time, and the promisee prefers to have it late rather than never, the law may compel the performance of [301] that. Not literally compel even in that case, however, but put the promisor in prison unless he will convey. This remedy is an exceptional one. The only universal consequence of a legally binding promise is, that the law makes the promisor pay damages if the promised event does not come to pass. In every case it leaves him free from interference until the time for fulfilment has gone by, and therefore free to break his contract if he chooses.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00642",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 485295,
      "end": 486645,
      "sha256": "cf7ab2ff395382ffc34f6df1570801dab23f7153c4fc7f9113b3c9f4582ec773",
      "text": "A more practical advantage in looking at a contract as the taking of a risk is to be found in the light which it throws upon the measure of damages. If a breach of contract were regarded in the same light as a tort, it would seem that if, in the course of performance of the contract the promisor should be notified of any particular consequence which would result from its not being performed, he should be held liable for that consequence in the event of non-performance. Such a suggestion has been made. /1/ But it has not been accepted as the law. On the contrary, according to the opinion of a very able judge, which seems to be generally followed, notice, even at the time of making the contract, of special circumstances out of which special damages would arise in case of breach, is not sufficient unless the assumption of that risk is to be taken as having fairly entered into the contract. /2/ If a carrier should undertake to carry the machinery of a saw-mill from Liverpool to Vancouver's Island, and should fail [302] to do so, he probably would not be held liable for the rate of hire of such machinery during the necessary delay, although he might know that it could not be replaced without sending to England, unless he was fairly understood to accept \"the contract with the special condition attached to it.\" /1/",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00643",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 486649,
      "end": 487589,
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      "text": "It is true that, when people make contracts, they usually contemplate the performance rather than the breach. The express language used does not generally go further than to define what will happen if the contract is fulfilled. A statutory requirement of a memorandum in writing would be satisfied by a written statement of the promise as made, because to require more would be to run counter to the ordinary habits of mankind, as well as because the statement that the effect of a contract is the assumption of the risk of a future event does not mean that there is a second subsidiary promise to assume that risk, but that the assumption follows as a consequence directly enforced by the law, without the promisor's co-operation. So parol evidence would be admissible, no doubt, to enlarge or diminish the extent of the liability assumed for nonperformance, where it would be inadmissible to affect the scope of the promise.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00705",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 535701,
      "end": 536183,
      "sha256": "eab6b16d055a1a2911ebf37859b7632ef8383e4726e5419b5be6929a58d53d71",
      "text": "The explanation has been offered of the English doctrine with regard to sales, that, when the title has passed, the purchaser has already had some benefit from the contract, and therefore cannot wholly replace the seller in statu quo, as must be done when a contract is rescinded. /3/ This reasoning [332] seems doubtful, even to show that the contract is not voidable, but has no bearing on the argument that it is void. For if the contract is void, the title does not pass.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00706",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 536187,
      "end": 536767,
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      "text": "It might be said that there is no repugnancy in the charterer's promise, because he only promises to load a certain ship, and that the words \"now in the port of Amsterdam\" are merely matter of history when the time for loading comes, and no part of the description of the vessel which he promised to load. But the moment those words are decided to be essential they become part of the description, and the promise is to load a certain vessel which is named the Martaban, and which was in the port of Amsterdam at the date of the contract. So interpreted, it is repugnant.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00707",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 536771,
      "end": 537808,
      "sha256": "aaab6e960362b3625f64698d9a2ae8cff154ad650288cb3a789bced8e32d9274",
      "text": "Probably the true solution is to be found in practical considerations. At any rate, the fact is that the law has established three degrees in the effect of repugnancy. If one of the repugnant terms is wholly insignificant, it is simply disregarded, or at most will only found a claim for damages. The law would be loath to hold a contract void for repugnancy in present terms, when if the same terms were only promised a failure of one of them would not warrant a refusal to perform on the other side. If, on the other hand, both are of the extremest importance, so that to enforce the rest of the promise or bargain without one of them would not merely deprive one party of a stipulated incident, but would force a substantially different bargain on him, the promise will be void. There is an intermediate class of cases where it is left to the disappointed party to decide. But as the lines between the three are of this vague kind, it is not surprising that they have been differently drawn in different jurisdictions.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00708",
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      "text": "[333] The examples which have been given of undertakings for a present state of facts have been confined to those touching the present condition of the subject-matter of the contract. Of course there is no such limit to the scope of their employment. A contract may warrant the existence of other facts as well, and examples of this kind probably might be found or imagined where it would be clear that the only effect of the warranty was to attach a condition to the contract, in favor of the other side, and where the question would be avoided whether there was not something more than a condition,--a repugnancy which prevented the formation of any contract at all. But the preceding illustrations are enough for the present purpose.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00709",
      "bookId": 2449,
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      "sha256": "e1c343ba81919791d3ba50d3e49274822e05159bc97aed36a574139fae82b550",
      "text": "We may now pass from undertakings that certain facts are true at the time of making the contract, to undertakings that certain facts shall be true at some later time,--that is, to promises properly so called. The question is when performance of the promise on one side is a condition to the obligation of the contract on the other. In practice, this question is apt to be treated as identical with another, which, as has been shown earlier, is a distinct point; namely, when performance on one side is a condition of the right to call for performance on the other. It is of course conceivable that a promise should be limited to the case of performance of the things promised on the other side, and yet that a failure of the latter should not warrant a rescission of the contract. Wherever one party has already received a substantial benefit under a contract of a kind which cannot be restored, it is too late to rescind, however important a breach may be committed later by the other side. Yet he may be [334] excused from going farther. Suppose a contract is made for a month's labor, ten dollars to be paid down, not to be recovered except in case of rescission for the laborer's fault, and thirty dollars at the end of the month. If the laborer should wrongfully stop work at the end of a fortnight, I do not suppose that the contract could be rescinded, and that the ten dollars could be recovered as money had and received; /1/ but, on the other hand, the employer would not be bound to pay the thirty dollars, and of course he could sue for damages on the contract. /2/",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00710",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 540169,
      "end": 540838,
      "sha256": "3b76ffe3679b0964d1ab4ab2aa75e301532fe85c450229c9037c52520b6fc060",
      "text": "But, for the most part, a breach of promise which discharges the promisee from further performance on his side will also warrant rescission, so that no great harm is done by the popular confusion of the two questions. Where the promise to perform on one side is limited to the case of performance on the other, the contract is generally conditioned on it also. In what follows, I shall take up the cases which I wish to notice without stopping to consider whether the contract was in a strict sense conditioned on performance of the promise on one side, or whether the true construction was merely that the promise on the other side was limited to that event.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG2449.B00711",
      "bookId": 2449,
      "start": 540842,
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      "text": "Now, how do we settle whether such a condition exists? It is easy to err by seeking too eagerly for simplicity, and by striving too hard to reduce all cases to artificial presumptions, which are less obvious than the decisions which they are supposed to explain. The foundation of the whole matter is, after all, good sense, as the courts have often said. The law means to carry out the intention of the parties, and, so far as they have not provided [335] for the event which has happened, it has to say what they naturally would have intended if their minds had been turned to the point. It will be found that decisions based on the direct implications of the language used, and others based upon a remoter inference of what the parties must have meant, or would have said if they had spoken, shade into each other by imperceptible degrees.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00069",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 13626,
      "end": 13915,
      "sha256": "f6160d22d5375c74a4ab829d4aca842ae44f3ed82c68df8561d3dbf19e85b9f2",
      "text": "Lo, the unbounded sea, On its breast a ship starting, spreading all sails, carrying even her moonsails. The pennant is flying aloft as she speeds she speeds so stately-- below emulous waves press forward, They surround the ship with shining curving motions and foam.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00070",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 13925,
      "end": 13947,
      "sha256": "fc38f1b6a092fbee95ce75348b32b6db6f71f6be33d21744161e879605745f5e",
      "text": "I Hear America Singing",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00071",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 13953,
      "end": 14862,
      "sha256": "14b08e85d7ba9842c590ee8c4a417602d5c8d5591769df4ea028b51d42c55342",
      "text": "I hear America singing, the varied carols I hear, Those of mechanics, each one singing his as it should be blithe and strong, The carpenter singing his as he measures his plank or beam, The mason singing his as he makes ready for work, or leaves off work, The boatman singing what belongs to him in his boat, the deckhand singing on the steamboat deck, The shoemaker singing as he sits on his bench, the hatter singing as he stands, The wood-cutter’s song, the ploughboy’s on his way in the morning, or at noon intermission or at sundown, The delicious singing of the mother, or of the young wife at work, or of the girl sewing or washing, Each singing what belongs to him or her and to none else, The day what belongs to the day--at night the party of young fellows, robust, friendly, Singing with open mouths their strong melodious songs.",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00072",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 14872,
      "end": 14895,
      "sha256": "c8edbb80363686c7d9c28eb1bfa63e9a1c5c93bf5d69cb9592a2d1aa42026d76",
      "text": "What Place Is Besieged?",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00073",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 14901,
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      "sha256": "171fefd3e0e1a7db491e3b40ae5ce9b214bf0f7ddfc098ddd227ddcc80c992e6",
      "text": "What place is besieged, and vainly tries to raise the siege? Lo, I send to that place a commander, swift, brave, immortal, And with him horse and foot, and parks of artillery, And artillery-men, the deadliest that ever fired gun.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00137",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 32737,
      "end": 32980,
      "sha256": "855e0950ed48700779843c9d0e0919af5a26ce2a05ebbddee4a53f39f38fff61",
      "text": "15 With me with firm holding, yet haste, haste on. For your life adhere to me, (I may have to be persuaded many times before I consent to give myself really to you, but what of that? Must not Nature be persuaded many times?)",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00138",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 32986,
      "end": 33208,
      "sha256": "0347bcd265205dbdacd124ccbcf7b67b0fc4c55530e7b40bbf2327de9c8e6538",
      "text": "No dainty dolce affettuoso I, Bearded, sun-burnt, gray-neck’d, forbidding, I have arrived, To be wrestled with as I pass for the solid prizes of the universe, For such I afford whoever can persevere to win them.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00139",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 33219,
      "end": 33468,
      "sha256": "3ae960f18b319a8aa0d84dc2ea652c09e11f775d6f815a0db21428e64315aaeb",
      "text": "16 On my way a moment I pause, Here for you! and here for America! Still the present I raise aloft, still the future of the States I harbinge glad and sublime, And for the past I pronounce what the air holds of the red aborigines.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00140",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 33474,
      "end": 33883,
      "sha256": "d758849fe8d473d29d930e03c51baa4f2e411835d42592da7fdce9689374f66e",
      "text": "The red aborigines, Leaving natural breaths, sounds of rain and winds, calls as of birds and animals in the woods, syllabled to us for names, Okonee, Koosa, Ottawa, Monongahela, Sauk, Natchez, Chattahoochee, Kaqueta, Oronoco, Wabash, Miami, Saginaw, Chippewa, Oshkosh, Walla-Walla, Leaving such to the States they melt, they depart, charging the water and the land with names.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00141",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 33894,
      "end": 34212,
      "sha256": "7afe7df2379ac8cfbcaf39a7eee065053c55b9be5af1977f956ab8333fffde9d",
      "text": "17 Expanding and swift, henceforth, Elements, breeds, adjustments, turbulent, quick and audacious, A world primal again, vistas of glory incessant and branching, A new race dominating previous ones and grander far, with new contests, New politics, new literatures and religions, new inventions and arts.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00142",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 34218,
      "end": 34409,
      "sha256": "2421c691799aee20f2609ef538606d6d6a0d64753042432a50a3642f5e32bc93",
      "text": "These, my voice announcing--I will sleep no more but arise, You oceans that have been calm within me! how I feel you, fathomless, stirring, preparing unprecedented waves and storms.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00143",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 34420,
      "end": 35908,
      "sha256": "21a6b014fac2fae5ab901bff81b2dbf092f5e2b92c42bcc9642a537430f6a558",
      "text": "18 See, steamers steaming through my poems, See, in my poems immigrants continually coming and landing, See, in arriere, the wigwam, the trail, the hunter’s hut, the flat-boat, the maize-leaf, the claim, the rude fence, and the backwoods village, See, on the one side the Western Sea and on the other the Eastern Sea, how they advance and retreat upon my poems as upon their own shores, See, pastures and forests in my poems--see, animals wild and tame--see, beyond the Kaw, countless herds of buffalo feeding on short curly grass, See, in my poems, cities, solid, vast, inland, with paved streets, with iron and stone edifices, ceaseless vehicles, and commerce, See, the many-cylinder’d steam printing-press--see, the electric telegraph stretching across the continent, See, through Atlantica’s depths pulses American Europe reaching, pulses of Europe duly return’d, See, the strong and quick locomotive as it departs, panting, blowing the steam-whistle, See, ploughmen ploughing farms--see, miners digging mines--see, the numberless factories, See, mechanics busy at their benches with tools--see from among them superior judges, philosophs, Presidents, emerge, drest in working dresses, See, lounging through the shops and fields of the States, me well-belov’d, close-held by day and night, Hear the loud echoes of my songs there--read the hints come at last.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00145",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 36267,
      "end": 36275,
      "sha256": "06de55f2a20249a368a757d548c19d28b0b1a51874ac220d4b5bf822336bd6ce",
      "text": "BOOK III",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00146",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 36281,
      "end": 36295,
      "sha256": "8ca286b307df212edaa018660cc7ee5226d3089b1f0b21c99bc1cd79456d07cc",
      "text": "Song of Myself",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00147",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 36306,
      "end": 36444,
      "sha256": "3fb678ed2f8bc98fc9673e35ba2e32685b2a94dfa447867943d959d66f2b3675",
      "text": "1 I celebrate myself, and sing myself, And what I assume you shall assume, For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00148",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 36450,
      "end": 36543,
      "sha256": "746fc007f3d4eacb93cf5415dde50bc75a56560a8d1f0c60fb21107f0b9dab33",
      "text": "I loafe and invite my soul, I lean and loafe at my ease observing a spear of summer grass.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00149",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 36549,
      "end": 36803,
      "sha256": "34d280bd4e89862640f52713b90dccb9ebc94a95f60392e4912caa627c95fdf2",
      "text": "My tongue, every atom of my blood, form’d from this soil, this air, Born here of parents born here from parents the same, and their parents the same, I, now thirty-seven years old in perfect health begin, Hoping to cease not till death.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00150",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 36809,
      "end": 37023,
      "sha256": "4466d17ded2427e32491b295cd384a3bfcdcd8e90e083c8f6c07cee34ad53208",
      "text": "Creeds and schools in abeyance, Retiring back a while sufficed at what they are, but never forgotten, I harbor for good or bad, I permit to speak at every hazard, Nature without check with original energy.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00151",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 37034,
      "end": 37252,
      "sha256": "dfb50089e4e436222092a19fce9fea4ce4661372340e20392f10dd3f56428389",
      "text": "2 Houses and rooms are full of perfumes, the shelves are crowded with perfumes, I breathe the fragrance myself and know it and like it, The distillation would intoxicate me also, but I shall not let it.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00152",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 37258,
      "end": 37519,
      "sha256": "c74e40201d172438af34ff824a73dacdd49621116ca62a0c070df630b9fc067c",
      "text": "The atmosphere is not a perfume, it has no taste of the distillation, it is odorless, It is for my mouth forever, I am in love with it, I will go to the bank by the wood and become undisguised and naked, I am mad for it to be in contact with me.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00153",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 37525,
      "end": 37869,
      "sha256": "4537e5df009daceefabbb25f985a9bd3be301b2153253a7fe452b96c9e9baf60",
      "text": "The smoke of my own breath, Echoes, ripples, buzz’d whispers, love-root, silk-thread, crotch and vine, My respiration and inspiration, the beating of my heart, the passing of blood and air through my lungs, The sniff of green leaves and dry leaves, and of the shore and dark-color’d sea-rocks, and of hay in the barn,",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00154",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 37875,
      "end": 38299,
      "sha256": "d634c8bd2c14e46e779ea2aa53cac52c045c3b2c1a205e90320864359c3f7a6c",
      "text": "The sound of the belch’d words of my voice loos’d to the eddies of the wind, A few light kisses, a few embraces, a reaching around of arms, The play of shine and shade on the trees as the supple boughs wag, The delight alone or in the rush of the streets, or along the fields and hill-sides, The feeling of health, the full-noon trill, the song of me rising from bed and meeting the sun.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00155",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 38305,
      "end": 38491,
      "sha256": "9f67b32b0acac789ab1bfe817ffbe0ff494a5e04e022c54a38898c449a1b275f",
      "text": "Have you reckon’d a thousand acres much? have you reckon’d the earth much? Have you practis’d so long to learn to read? Have you felt so proud to get at the meaning of poems?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00346",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 94412,
      "end": 95293,
      "sha256": "1d6967bc9d823cc3f70ad62f7e3592de26264422eafb3b3d047cc787f67f0f38",
      "text": "I understand the large hearts of heroes, The courage of present times and all times, How the skipper saw the crowded and rudderless wreck of the steamship, and Death chasing it up and down the storm, How he knuckled tight and gave not back an inch, and was faithful of days and faithful of nights, And chalk’d in large letters on a board, Be of good cheer, we will not desert you; How he follow’d with them and tack’d with them three days and would not give it up, How he saved the drifting company at last, How the lank loose-gown’d women look’d when boated from the side of their prepared graves, How the silent old-faced infants and the lifted sick, and the sharp-lipp’d unshaved men; All this I swallow, it tastes good, I like it well, it becomes mine, I am the man, I suffer’d, I was there.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00347",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 95299,
      "end": 95669,
      "sha256": "6ddabfa0b3cd4a65d68efda735c03da30676c559b2dbf0059c6c6a3413dbfde5",
      "text": "The disdain and calmness of martyrs, The mother of old, condemn’d for a witch, burnt with dry wood, her children gazing on, The hounded slave that flags in the race, leans by the fence, blowing, cover’d with sweat, The twinges that sting like needles his legs and neck, the murderous buckshot and the bullets, All these I feel or am.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00348",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 95675,
      "end": 96061,
      "sha256": "951bc82929931f6c7b0201e8a73d5376392229aaecbbc35980d219193ba97bfa",
      "text": "I am the hounded slave, I wince at the bite of the dogs, Hell and despair are upon me, crack and again crack the marksmen, I clutch the rails of the fence, my gore dribs, thinn’d with the ooze of my skin, I fall on the weeds and stones, The riders spur their unwilling horses, haul close, Taunt my dizzy ears and beat me violently over the head with whip-stocks.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00349",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 96067,
      "end": 96265,
      "sha256": "3fdaf2e6bcafefbeffb93c9c37f1adbb4b007a44a5a65111df33bc8594402e2c",
      "text": "Agonies are one of my changes of garments, I do not ask the wounded person how he feels, I myself become the wounded person, My hurts turn livid upon me as I lean on a cane and observe.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00350",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 96271,
      "end": 96564,
      "sha256": "d174acfccedd8c73f674df8af2a7c26f7bc31fab8eff1b264b57d1be0067c8f7",
      "text": "I am the mash’d fireman with breast-bone broken, Tumbling walls buried me in their debris, Heat and smoke I inspired, I heard the yelling shouts of my comrades, I heard the distant click of their picks and shovels, They have clear’d the beams away, they tenderly lift me forth.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00351",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 96570,
      "end": 96856,
      "sha256": "ec0001148a962f4d93d4c76177e968ae03fddb5e4542e812c13287f363132ce5",
      "text": "I lie in the night air in my red shirt, the pervading hush is for my sake, Painless after all I lie exhausted but not so unhappy, White and beautiful are the faces around me, the heads are bared of their fire-caps, The kneeling crowd fades with the light of the torches.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00352",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 96862,
      "end": 96967,
      "sha256": "06a2940e76b3d26b93b92e11aa71e1beaaa2eda06755e88815c71eafa9a281ce",
      "text": "Distant and dead resuscitate, They show as the dial or move as the hands of me, I am the clock myself.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00353",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 96973,
      "end": 97053,
      "sha256": "2a090b764b6ed391583a81511251b1ce574d1e88fff3d6c6ce928fe80a89b5f0",
      "text": "I am an old artillerist, I tell of my fort’s bombardment, I am there again.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00488",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 128553,
      "end": 128626,
      "sha256": "bfdaade84d1658ae620712cdebe5187029c3a5450a6236cc3dcb6fae991293ab",
      "text": "Perhaps I might tell more. Outlines! I plead for my brothers and sisters.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00489",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 128632,
      "end": 128767,
      "sha256": "049482abe5271a1e10bbc4f956ff425344848dcd6391f05de6793d713002a415",
      "text": "Do you see O my brothers and sisters? It is not chaos or death--it is form, union, plan--it is eternal life--it is Happiness.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00490",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 128778,
      "end": 128897,
      "sha256": "bd1db31dadecc1935095b07183f51d95a87909a120d0d209ac3e3cd4cd537c27",
      "text": "51 The past and present wilt--I have fill’d them, emptied them. And proceed to fill my next fold of the future.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00491",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 128903,
      "end": 129084,
      "sha256": "e24e8b4f20c686caeb209fbcee36e62109180f0f3347da692ccd19f32941563e",
      "text": "Listener up there! what have you to confide to me? Look in my face while I snuff the sidle of evening, (Talk honestly, no one else hears you, and I stay only a minute longer.)",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00492",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 129090,
      "end": 129191,
      "sha256": "b4125ef7cebeb228e534150ba27f4b36cf620eb0fbbf8777b20376ab8e1c4506",
      "text": "Do I contradict myself? Very well then I contradict myself, (I am large, I contain multitudes.)",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00493",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 129197,
      "end": 129262,
      "sha256": "ae5c9371237f397f1fe0141a143638b8e4f9ea032b961560173fe63182725bf1",
      "text": "I concentrate toward them that are nigh, I wait on the door-slab.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00494",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 129268,
      "end": 129374,
      "sha256": "c441416ee6bcda1a088b8780af8e6d5b806ff93a86dcdc950ea269751930f8cd",
      "text": "Who has done his day’s work? who will soonest be through with his supper? Who wishes to walk with me?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00495",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 129380,
      "end": 129445,
      "sha256": "3cdd3e885cf25da517a3881daded9df5b3b039d8ee058252125fdfdb778154cd",
      "text": "Will you speak before I am gone? will you prove already too late?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00496",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 129456,
      "end": 129552,
      "sha256": "9bb8a48848ee46079b1e6f50d84abe4e684222622628e6adced43c7e20642b2a",
      "text": "52 The spotted hawk swoops by and accuses me, he complains of my gab and my loitering.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00497",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 129558,
      "end": 129665,
      "sha256": "db7766f5289f599594a4fc4ecd5ad01398283e6083d24ac8d656433d004a6ec1",
      "text": "I too am not a bit tamed, I too am untranslatable, I sound my barbaric yawp over the roofs of the world.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00498",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 129671,
      "end": 129834,
      "sha256": "82c1df23ff7667686a69ef808aaa8d44f82f3ad0dc5c97e7a94082d311e84190",
      "text": "The last scud of day holds back for me, It flings my likeness after the rest and true as any on the shadow’d wilds, It coaxes me to the vapor and the dusk.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00499",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 129840,
      "end": 129958,
      "sha256": "59e1c0a6e841b767c63355dea3a841e2f3055801ecea4c0b5684c8c8c798be97",
      "text": "I depart as air, I shake my white locks at the runaway sun, I effuse my flesh in eddies, and drift it in lacy jags.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00500",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 129964,
      "end": 130083,
      "sha256": "4c10e9d2ec22c26244a7347458fbf94541104a64de317842c1e508180cba9046",
      "text": "I bequeath myself to the dirt to grow from the grass I love, If you want me again look for me under your boot-soles.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00501",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 130089,
      "end": 130221,
      "sha256": "bcf410718f8f7cbd9a5170fd092b417e787c71e32c606b6a079245603acf340b",
      "text": "You will hardly know who I am or what I mean, But I shall be good health to you nevertheless, And filter and fibre your blood.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00502",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 130227,
      "end": 130349,
      "sha256": "8141b9d9459a4480d49b97ee8b87b11d9f9d3623095c557001d95dd110669418",
      "text": "Failing to fetch me at first keep encouraged, Missing me one place search another, I stop somewhere waiting for you.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00503",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 130359,
      "end": 130385,
      "sha256": "5620c85e5cfc2ae5ecb5b1f889fdbff460c7e69d713c1388ffbbc1f4591ccc84",
      "text": "BOOK IV. CHILDREN OF ADAM",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00504",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 130391,
      "end": 130414,
      "sha256": "f57062204ab5948828b051d285129fc02b64b039f9bc17de81227353d1c77e39",
      "text": "To the Garden the World",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00621",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 182729,
      "end": 183689,
      "sha256": "39c90c36e2b6c984ba07996512fe86f9128bcb53a1fdac328f5352261c65c8e1",
      "text": "I saw in Louisiana a live-oak growing, All alone stood it and the moss hung down from the branches, Without any companion it grew there uttering joyous of dark green, And its look, rude, unbending, lusty, made me think of myself, But I wonder’d how it could utter joyous leaves standing alone there without its friend near, for I knew I could not, And I broke off a twig with a certain number of leaves upon it and twined around it a little moss, And brought it away, and I have placed it in sight in my room, It is not needed to remind me as of my own dear friends, (For I believe lately I think of little else than of them,) Yet it remains to me a curious token, it makes me think of manly love; For all that, and though the live-oak glistens there in Louisiana solitary in a wide in a wide flat space, Uttering joyous leaves all its life without a friend a lover near, I know very well I could not.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00622",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 183699,
      "end": 183712,
      "sha256": "ecce7f73d1763b8975433a005b12f71ddc773f45a6fccc5c863424d7cd1457e5",
      "text": "To a Stranger",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00623",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 183718,
      "end": 184517,
      "sha256": "f7a6c086c0922fd6cb79a477c384f0cb85a7da3429575025de0cdac469ce16aa",
      "text": "Passing stranger! you do not know how longingly I look upon you, You must be he I was seeking, or she I was seeking, (it comes to me as of a dream,) I have somewhere surely lived a life of joy with you, All is recall’d as we flit by each other, fluid, affectionate, chaste, matured, You grew up with me, were a boy with me or a girl with me, I ate with you and slept with you, your body has become not yours only nor left my body mine only, You give me the pleasure of your eyes, face, flesh, as we pass, you take of my beard, breast, hands, in return, I am not to speak to you, I am to think of you when I sit alone or wake at night alone, I am to wait, I do not doubt I am to meet you again, I am to see to it that I do not lose you.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00624",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 184527,
      "end": 184562,
      "sha256": "ad99048b577781a31b7acb50778e826dcfed0adbe933f81b3bc99d1774318e3c",
      "text": "This Moment Yearning and Thoughtful",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00625",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 184568,
      "end": 185063,
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      "text": "This moment yearning and thoughtful sitting alone, It seems to me there are other men in other lands yearning and thoughtful, It seems to me I can look over and behold them in Germany, Italy, France, Spain, Or far, far away, in China, or in Russia or talking other dialects, And it seems to me if I could know those men I should become attached to them as I do to men in my own lands, O I know we should be brethren and lovers, I know I should be happy with them.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00626",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 185073,
      "end": 185105,
      "sha256": "65374231073d67d67020eca42e9e980bf5ddab36aef1167d1f7eb312f965e045",
      "text": "I Hear It Was Charged Against Me",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00627",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 185111,
      "end": 185639,
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      "text": "I hear it was charged against me that I sought to destroy institutions, But really I am neither for nor against institutions, (What indeed have I in common with them? or what with the destruction of them?) Only I will establish in the Mannahatta and in every city of these States inland and seaboard, And in the fields and woods, and above every keel little or large that dents the water, Without edifices or rules or trustees or any argument, The institution of the dear love of comrades.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00755",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 227218,
      "end": 227453,
      "sha256": "118572e0043c98ba16d70f7109b56a8a38c9d02e88363212a4ec8115c846c86c",
      "text": "Camerado, I give you my hand! I give you my love more precious than money, I give you myself before preaching or law; Will you give me yourself? will you come travel with me? Shall we stick by each other as long as we live?",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00756",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 227463,
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      "sha256": "5066db4f7d94ceecad6fcdd82ef1833df9388ce2a24b9b4afa89c67d21980bed",
      "text": "BOOK VIII",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00757",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 227478,
      "end": 227501,
      "sha256": "6f127aeeb9df91be10b90c919363f1bda901c7ad7df234f4a673d0b1b3b165d2",
      "text": "Crossing Brooklyn Ferry",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00758",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 227512,
      "end": 227649,
      "sha256": "efbf12db25aedee6a20c204776d56f9eb765c74a22d99d6f75918678ee304739",
      "text": "1 Flood-tide below me! I see you face to face! Clouds of the west--sun there half an hour high--I see you also face to face.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00759",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 227655,
      "end": 228002,
      "sha256": "6d8a76fd775d15c0d90e6d40e01c22db90634fabc7c6c4e960970fccf13a2e93",
      "text": "Crowds of men and women attired in the usual costumes, how curious you are to me! On the ferry-boats the hundreds and hundreds that cross, returning home, are more curious to me than you suppose, And you that shall cross from shore to shore years hence are more to me, and more in my meditations, than you might suppose.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00760",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 228013,
      "end": 228605,
      "sha256": "75856c503d477d56885b52c3097ad22d003a37a0b4ed700f6c7b2f3a60374ac4",
      "text": "2 The impalpable sustenance of me from all things at all hours of the day, The simple, compact, well-join’d scheme, myself disintegrated, every one disintegrated yet part of the scheme, The similitudes of the past and those of the future, The glories strung like beads on my smallest sights and hearings, on the walk in the street and the passage over the river, The current rushing so swiftly and swimming with me far away, The others that are to follow me, the ties between me and them, The certainty of others, the life, love, sight, hearing of others.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00761",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 228611,
      "end": 229193,
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      "text": "Others will enter the gates of the ferry and cross from shore to shore, Others will watch the run of the flood-tide, Others will see the shipping of Manhattan north and west, and the heights of Brooklyn to the south and east, Others will see the islands large and small; Fifty years hence, others will see them as they cross, the sun half an hour high, A hundred years hence, or ever so many hundred years hence, others will see them, Will enjoy the sunset, the pouring-in of the flood-tide, the falling-back to the sea of the ebb-tide.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00762",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 229204,
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      "text": "3 It avails not, time nor place--distance avails not, I am with you, you men and women of a generation, or ever so many generations hence, Just as you feel when you look on the river and sky, so I felt, Just as any of you is one of a living crowd, I was one of a crowd, Just as you are refresh’d by the gladness of the river and the bright flow, I was refresh’d, Just as you stand and lean on the rail, yet hurry with the swift current, I stood yet was hurried, Just as you look on the numberless masts of ships and the thick-stemm’d pipes of steamboats, I look’d.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00763",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 229831,
      "end": 231734,
      "sha256": "35e2c836104d6377aa3663b9893ee080242b4b54778ad4215e6d2e1415f982ef",
      "text": "I too many and many a time cross’d the river of old, Watched the Twelfth-month sea-gulls, saw them high in the air floating with motionless wings, oscillating their bodies, Saw how the glistening yellow lit up parts of their bodies and left the rest in strong shadow, Saw the slow-wheeling circles and the gradual edging toward the south, Saw the reflection of the summer sky in the water, Had my eyes dazzled by the shimmering track of beams, Look’d at the fine centrifugal spokes of light round the shape of my head in the sunlit water, Look’d on the haze on the hills southward and south-westward, Look’d on the vapor as it flew in fleeces tinged with violet, Look’d toward the lower bay to notice the vessels arriving, Saw their approach, saw aboard those that were near me, Saw the white sails of schooners and sloops, saw the ships at anchor, The sailors at work in the rigging or out astride the spars, The round masts, the swinging motion of the hulls, the slender serpentine pennants, The large and small steamers in motion, the pilots in their pilothouses, The white wake left by the passage, the quick tremulous whirl of the wheels, The flags of all nations, the falling of them at sunset, The scallop-edged waves in the twilight, the ladled cups, the frolic-some crests and glistening, The stretch afar growing dimmer and dimmer, the gray walls of the granite storehouses by the docks, On the river the shadowy group, the big steam-tug closely flank’d on each side by the barges, the hay-boat, the belated lighter, On the neighboring shore the fires from the foundry chimneys burning high and glaringly into the night, Casting their flicker of black contrasted with wild red and yellow light over the tops of houses, and down into the clefts of streets.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00764",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 231745,
      "end": 232081,
      "sha256": "534dd4ce282c014dbc96763d0ca5b88d3780c35d75f9d4d1f23169cc1802bd8c",
      "text": "4 These and all else were to me the same as they are to you, I loved well those cities, loved well the stately and rapid river, The men and women I saw were all near to me, Others the same--others who look back on me because I look’d forward to them, (The time will come, though I stop here to-day and to-night.)",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00765",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 232092,
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      "text": "5 What is it then between us? What is the count of the scores or hundreds of years between us?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00766",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 232198,
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      "text": "Whatever it is, it avails not--distance avails not, and place avails not, I too lived, Brooklyn of ample hills was mine, I too walk’d the streets of Manhattan island, and bathed in the waters around it, I too felt the curious abrupt questionings stir within me, In the day among crowds of people sometimes they came upon me, In my walks home late at night or as I lay in my bed they came upon me, I too had been struck from the float forever held in solution, I too had receiv’d identity by my body, That I was I knew was of my body, and what I should be I knew I should be of my body.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00767",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 232836,
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      "sha256": "bc359628acdeb1cdd502f4f720ea7d052760e85b907b34b1885a2c8fb60b7dad",
      "text": "6 It is not upon you alone the dark patches fall, The dark threw its patches down upon me also, The best I had done seem’d to me blank and suspicious, My great thoughts as I supposed them, were they not in reality meagre? Nor is it you alone who know what it is to be evil, I am he who knew what it was to be evil, I too knitted the old knot of contrariety, Blabb’d, blush’d, resented, lied, stole, grudg’d, Had guile, anger, lust, hot wishes I dared not speak, Was wayward, vain, greedy, shallow, sly, cowardly, malignant, The wolf, the snake, the hog, not wanting in me. The cheating look, the frivolous word, the adulterous wish, not wanting,",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00768",
      "bookId": 1322,
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      "end": 234267,
      "sha256": "d37dee3c6a0eccbe27d2a8722051dec7aa323f85742869b5b64d3bfc8a9c5931",
      "text": "Refusals, hates, postponements, meanness, laziness, none of these wanting, Was one with the rest, the days and haps of the rest, Was call’d by my nighest name by clear loud voices of young men as they saw me approaching or passing, Felt their arms on my neck as I stood, or the negligent leaning of their flesh against me as I sat, Saw many I loved in the street or ferry-boat or public assembly, yet never told them a word, Lived the same life with the rest, the same old laughing, gnawing, sleeping, Play’d the part that still looks back on the actor or actress, The same old role, the role that is what we make it, as great as we like, Or as small as we like, or both great and small.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
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      "bookId": 1322,
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      "sha256": "dfe202366796fe3e0c6c3d611ec634e0ce28b1a29263fd0dc36ce38a31474fb1",
      "text": "7 Closer yet I approach you, What thought you have of me now, I had as much of you--I laid in my stores in advance, I consider’d long and seriously of you before you were born.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00770",
      "bookId": 1322,
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      "sha256": "787b3bdf755b1919292c00aa571573da212ee2fec7254c7712c048c688d72448",
      "text": "Who was to know what should come home to me? Who knows but I am enjoying this? Who knows, for all the distance, but I am as good as looking at you now, for all you cannot see me?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00771",
      "bookId": 1322,
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      "text": "8 Ah, what can ever be more stately and admirable to me than mast-hemm’d Manhattan? River and sunset and scallop-edg’d waves of flood-tide? The sea-gulls oscillating their bodies, the hay-boat in the twilight, and the belated lighter? What gods can exceed these that clasp me by the hand, and with voices I love call me promptly and loudly by my nighest name as approach? What is more subtle than this which ties me to the woman or man that looks in my face? Which fuses me into you now, and pours my meaning into you?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "We understand then do we not? What I promis’d without mentioning it, have you not accepted? What the study could not teach--what the preaching could not accomplish is accomplish’d, is it not?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
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    },
    {
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      "end": 237547,
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      "text": "9 Flow on, river! flow with the flood-tide, and ebb with the ebb-tide! Frolic on, crested and scallop-edg’d waves! Gorgeous clouds of the sunset! drench with your splendor me, or the men and women generations after me! Cross from shore to shore, countless crowds of passengers! Stand up, tall masts of Mannahatta! stand up, beautiful hills of Brooklyn! Throb, baffled and curious brain! throw out questions and answers! Suspend here and everywhere, eternal float of solution! Gaze, loving and thirsting eyes, in the house or street or public assembly! Sound out, voices of young men! loudly and musically call me by my nighest name! Live, old life! play the part that looks back on the actor or actress! Play the old role, the role that is great or small according as one makes it! Consider, you who peruse me, whether I may not in unknown ways be looking upon you; Be firm, rail over the river, to support those who lean idly, yet haste with the hasting current; Fly on, sea-birds! fly sideways, or wheel in large circles high in the air; Receive the summer sky, you water, and faithfully hold it till all downcast eyes have time to take it from you! Diverge, fine spokes of light, from the shape of my head, or any one’s head, in the sunlit water! Come on, ships from the lower bay! pass up or down, white-sail’d schooners, sloops, lighters! Flaunt away, flags of all nations! be duly lower’d at sunset! Burn high your fires, foundry chimneys! cast black shadows at nightfall! cast red and yellow light over the tops of the houses! Appearances, now or henceforth, indicate what you are, You necessary film, continue to envelop the soul, About my body for me, and your body for you, be hung our divinest aromas, Thrive, cities--bring your freight, bring your shows, ample and sufficient rivers, Expand, being than which none else is perhaps more spiritual, Keep your places, objects than which none else is more lasting.",
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      "ref": "PG1322.B00774",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 237553,
      "end": 238018,
      "sha256": "dfae49b6491c94d21272dfe98b3cbcfe81ac1c5188c5d210bc174ef2d7e03eed",
      "text": "You have waited, you always wait, you dumb, beautiful ministers, We receive you with free sense at last, and are insatiate henceforward, Not you any more shall be able to foil us, or withhold yourselves from us, We use you, and do not cast you aside--we plant you permanently within us, We fathom you not--we love you--there is perfection in you also, You furnish your parts toward eternity, Great or small, you furnish your parts toward the soul.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
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      "ref": "PG1322.B00775",
      "bookId": 1322,
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      "sha256": "e6b966299b053526af201ed496866cec384cb65c4a1308d52fdf79957ccbd119",
      "text": "BOOK IX",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00776",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 238041,
      "end": 238061,
      "sha256": "1da88a1ec4b378393e4831ce322e88c87d2ef66c0ea4236bbf18f10743e7d381",
      "text": "Song of the Answerer",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00922",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 301209,
      "end": 301217,
      "sha256": "5b62a57c06392937d346923ec8c6d8a0072dcb5fb8fa2938fc10460ae808bde3",
      "text": "BOOK XIV",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00923",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 301223,
      "end": 301247,
      "sha256": "cca07126c621c2e1f31706d3c880845473097aef43d17dfaa6391eb87a9f32cf",
      "text": "Song of the Redwood-Tree",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00924",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 301258,
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      "text": "1 A California song, A prophecy and indirection, a thought impalpable to breathe as air, A chorus of dryads, fading, departing, or hamadryads departing, A murmuring, fateful, giant voice, out of the earth and sky, Voice of a mighty dying tree in the redwood forest dense.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
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      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 301550,
      "end": 301672,
      "sha256": "f5b98fff428cc4994e2f57c7f2c95b677b47f29d710e5a5d5fe61d77da743d7c",
      "text": "Farewell my brethren, Farewell O earth and sky, farewell ye neighboring waters, My time has ended, my term has come.",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00926",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 301678,
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      "sha256": "7930d24110fa79a5f5edabd33bc81db972769043fc290fff286e4617ba210061",
      "text": "Along the northern coast, Just back from the rock-bound shore and the caves, In the saline air from the sea in the Mendocino country, With the surge for base and accompaniment low and hoarse, With crackling blows of axes sounding musically driven by strong arms, Riven deep by the sharp tongues of the axes, there in the redwood forest dense, I heard the might tree its death-chant chanting.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00927",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 302100,
      "end": 302353,
      "sha256": "3666b47f6be1ea0b5f53aa44d9ec03343a65c2abcb953a03054e73840b4b45c2",
      "text": "The choppers heard not, the camp shanties echoed not, The quick-ear’d teamsters and chain and jack-screw men heard not, As the wood-spirits came from their haunts of a thousand years to join the refrain, But in my soul I plainly heard.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00928",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 302359,
      "end": 302608,
      "sha256": "c3b4fed6fa9b50f4ffc07ea9bf6093bc787fa84501317de9e07c9daa2736c331",
      "text": "Murmuring out of its myriad leaves, Down from its lofty top rising two hundred feet high, Out of its stalwart trunk and limbs, out of its foot-thick bark, That chant of the seasons and time, chant not of the past only but the future.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00929",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 302614,
      "end": 303111,
      "sha256": "080aff47900ed5313e20bed2413a15437e894ec169173fb50ade6b0873c8ce72",
      "text": "You untold life of me, And all you venerable and innocent joys, Perennial hardy life of me with joys ’mid rain and many a summer sun, And the white snows and night and the wild winds; O the great patient rugged joys, my soul’s strong joys unreck’d by man, (For know I bear the soul befitting me, I too have consciousness, identity, And all the rocks and mountains have, and all the earth,) Joys of the life befitting me and brothers mine, Our time, our term has come.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00930",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 303117,
      "end": 303344,
      "sha256": "1ecd34942339ffdbd1e6c93ae7ba4772eca4d8123cc2b58af71c8c1140cbf4bf",
      "text": "Nor yield we mournfully majestic brothers, We who have grandly fill’d our time, With Nature’s calm content, with tacit huge delight, We welcome what we wrought for through the past, And leave the field for them.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00931",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 303350,
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      "sha256": "1cc4a8e1707b5675e9cca57c00fcef1b1be28cb92e29cb257dc6ba67dac36ae0",
      "text": "For them predicted long, For a superber race, they too to grandly fill their time, For them we abdicate, in them ourselves ye forest kings.’ In them these skies and airs, these mountain peaks, Shasta, Nevadas, These huge precipitous cliffs, this amplitude, these valleys, far Yosemite, To be in them absorb’d, assimilated.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00932",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 303697,
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      "text": "Then to a loftier strain, Still prouder, more ecstatic rose the chant, As if the heirs, the deities of the West, Joining with master-tongue bore part.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00933",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 303862,
      "end": 304283,
      "sha256": "abc2daa4bff93a6aa201f6648dc35dace82d7b515c4f97b44ec1424a6b3bccc7",
      "text": "Not wan from Asia’s fetiches, Nor red from Europe’s old dynastic slaughter-house, (Area of murder-plots of thrones, with scent left yet of wars and scaffolds everywhere, But come from Nature’s long and harmless throes, peacefully builded thence, These virgin lands, lands of the Western shore, To the new culminating man, to you, the empire new, You promis’d long, we pledge, we dedicate.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00934",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 304289,
      "end": 305268,
      "sha256": "f876f04bdcceded24f25979339d87ce063bdfe68f8559a4e123376d1fb90ebea",
      "text": "You occult deep volitions, You average spiritual manhood, purpose of all, pois’d on yourself, giving not taking law, You womanhood divine, mistress and source of all, whence life and love and aught that comes from life and love, You unseen moral essence of all the vast materials of America, age upon age working in death the same as life,) You that, sometimes known, oftener unknown, really shape and mould the New World, adjusting it to Time and Space, You hidden national will lying in your abysms, conceal’d but ever alert, You past and present purposes tenaciously pursued, may-be unconscious of yourselves, Unswerv’d by all the passing errors, perturbations of the surface; You vital, universal, deathless germs, beneath all creeds, arts, statutes, literatures, Here build your homes for good, establish here, these areas entire, lands of the Western shore, We pledge, we dedicate to you.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00935",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 305274,
      "end": 305700,
      "sha256": "852e532a453c5785305c6e77cf96df0a10938232d00d24626db344489d01439c",
      "text": "For man of you, your characteristic race, Here may he hardy, sweet, gigantic grow, here tower proportionate to Nature, Here climb the vast pure spaces unconfined, uncheck’d by wall or roof, Here laugh with storm or sun, here joy, here patiently inure, Here heed himself, unfold himself, (not others’ formulas heed,) here fill his time, To duly fall, to aid, unreck’d at last, To disappear, to serve.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00936",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 305706,
      "end": 306381,
      "sha256": "0c546786d62b642e27b086954917ada50d5b725dad6affe72b72c534e5bfd017",
      "text": "Thus on the northern coast, In the echo of teamsters’ calls and the clinking chains, and the music of choppers’ axes, The falling trunk and limbs, the crash, the muffled shriek, the groan, Such words combined from the redwood-tree, as of voices ecstatic, ancient and rustling, The century-lasting, unseen dryads, singing, withdrawing, All their recesses of forests and mountains leaving, From the Cascade range to the Wahsatch, or Idaho far, or Utah, To the deities of the modern henceforth yielding, The chorus and indications, the vistas of coming humanity, the settlements, features all, In the Mendocino woods I caught.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00937",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 306392,
      "end": 307343,
      "sha256": "461860fbb62bddf687c0228793bf18a36d0d118633a0821016fbbba8c8ba0aba",
      "text": "2 The flashing and golden pageant of California, The sudden and gorgeous drama, the sunny and ample lands, The long and varied stretch from Puget sound to Colorado south, Lands bathed in sweeter, rarer, healthier air, valleys and mountain cliffs, The fields of Nature long prepared and fallow, the silent, cyclic chemistry, The slow and steady ages plodding, the unoccupied surface ripening, the rich ores forming beneath; At last the New arriving, assuming, taking possession, A swarming and busy race settling and organizing everywhere, Ships coming in from the whole round world, and going out to the whole world, To India and China and Australia and the thousand island paradises of the Pacific, Populous cities, the latest inventions, the steamers on the rivers, the railroads, with many a thrifty farm, with machinery, And wool and wheat and the grape, and diggings of yellow gold.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00938",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 307354,
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      "sha256": "47360ac2cc13f962c4d267d4f4cd8e5e81e3208bbd1ec804e4cb3a4932a4ce8e",
      "text": "3 But more in you than these, lands of the Western shore, (These but the means, the implements, the standing-ground,) I see in you, certain to come, the promise of thousands of years, till now deferr’d, Promis’d to be fulfill’d, our common kind, the race.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00939",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 307640,
      "end": 307841,
      "sha256": "074821c810dc2e5864a7b5b935efc88aaa2f1eb8de0f756ad221543364a2705f",
      "text": "The new society at last, proportionate to Nature, In man of you, more than your mountain peaks or stalwart trees imperial, In woman more, far more, than all your gold or vines, or even vital air.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00940",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 307847,
      "end": 308089,
      "sha256": "916ad6de89a330255f1df9aad32ef0a7a69506acd7a556fc5472679528f76371",
      "text": "Fresh come, to a new world indeed, yet long prepared, I see the genius of the modern, child of the real and ideal, Clearing the ground for broad humanity, the true America, heir of the past so grand, To build a grander future.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B00941",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 308099,
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      "sha256": "2952e8ef79ab97b7a2967b51e4ddc8199c4237a43c3982cdd6bba57e08e1521c",
      "text": "BOOK XV",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01250",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 392163,
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      "text": "All you are doing and saying is to America dangled mirages, You have not learn’d of Nature--of the politics of Nature you have not learn’d the great amplitude, rectitude, impartiality, You have not seen that only such as they are for these States, And that what is less than they must sooner or later lift off from these States.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01251",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 392528,
      "end": 392546,
      "sha256": "5c4b348502929b1a20a2d36ebd224ee894828b64fbc2197647f6becd94954ea3",
      "text": "I Sit and Look Out",
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      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01252",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 392552,
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      "text": "I sit and look out upon all the sorrows of the world, and upon all oppression and shame, I hear secret convulsive sobs from young men at anguish with themselves, remorseful after deeds done, I see in low life the mother misused by her children, dying, neglected, gaunt, desperate, I see the wife misused by her husband, I see the treacherous seducer of young women, I mark the ranklings of jealousy and unrequited love attempted to be hid, I see these sights on the earth, I see the workings of battle, pestilence, tyranny, I see martyrs and prisoners, I observe a famine at sea, I observe the sailors casting lots who shall be kill’d to preserve the lives of the rest, I observe the slights and degradations cast by arrogant persons upon laborers, the poor, and upon negroes, and the like; All these--all the meanness and agony without end I sitting look out upon, See, hear, and am silent.",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01253",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 393538,
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      "sha256": "af55598a9743299313d474ed2110be3f8bf207864c09cb45c05b55fdc1e51925",
      "text": "To Rich Givers",
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      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01254",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 393558,
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      "sha256": "4f0a4e4bc555c53ece75eb49672b4f6374044c12c709c4b48748c67d6c636f50",
      "text": "What you give me I cheerfully accept, A little sustenance, a hut and garden, a little money, as I rendezvous with my poems, A traveler’s lodging and breakfast as journey through the States,-- why should I be ashamed to own such gifts? why to advertise for them? For I myself am not one who bestows nothing upon man and woman, For I bestow upon any man or woman the entrance to all the gifts of the universe.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01384",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 433606,
      "end": 433966,
      "sha256": "5aba54648bd2d2622ef8d272c873f57df89185166f867050108c810c7b29f2e7",
      "text": "But the mother needs to be better, She with thin form presently drest in black, By day her meals untouch’d, then at night fitfully sleeping, often waking, In the midnight waking, weeping, longing with one deep longing, O that she might withdraw unnoticed, silent from life escape and withdraw, To follow, to seek, to be with her dear dead son.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01385",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 433976,
      "end": 434019,
      "sha256": "4c1fb57896890688cd615765fc577719d9c9870b89fb43b3266188c68116c662",
      "text": "Vigil Strange I Kept on the Field One Night",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01386",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 434025,
      "end": 436122,
      "sha256": "8e166170ccf6bfd63421ccf19af089e290c708e5557f77f84da1013755ae400c",
      "text": "Vigil strange I kept on the field one night; When you my son and my comrade dropt at my side that day, One look I but gave which your dear eyes return’d with a look I shall never forget, One touch of your hand to mine O boy, reach’d up as you lay on the ground, Then onward I sped in the battle, the even-contested battle, Till late in the night reliev’d to the place at last again I made my way, Found you in death so cold dear comrade, found your body son of responding kisses, (never again on earth responding,) Bared your face in the starlight, curious the scene, cool blew the moderate night-wind, Long there and then in vigil I stood, dimly around me the battlefield spreading, Vigil wondrous and vigil sweet there in the fragrant silent night, But not a tear fell, not even a long-drawn sigh, long, long I gazed, Then on the earth partially reclining sat by your side leaning my chin in my hands, Passing sweet hours, immortal and mystic hours with you dearest comrade--not a tear, not a word, Vigil of silence, love and death, vigil for you my son and my soldier, As onward silently stars aloft, eastward new ones upward stole, Vigil final for you brave boy, (I could not save you, swift was your death, I faithfully loved you and cared for you living, I think we shall surely meet again,) Till at latest lingering of the night, indeed just as the dawn appear’d, My comrade I wrapt in his blanket, envelop’d well his form, Folded the blanket well, tucking it carefully over head and carefully under feet, And there and then and bathed by the rising sun, my son in his grave, in his rude-dug grave I deposited, Ending my vigil strange with that, vigil of night and battle-field dim, Vigil for boy of responding kisses, (never again on earth responding,) Vigil for comrade swiftly slain, vigil I never forget, how as day brighten’d, I rose from the chill ground and folded my soldier well in his blanket, And buried him where he fell.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01387",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 436132,
      "end": 436185,
      "sha256": "7cde16be18c45167bb8d2b90e9a9212df8e6e377a9980dcf575112ba01f34f82",
      "text": "A March in the Ranks Hard-Prest, and the Road Unknown",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01388",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 436191,
      "end": 438184,
      "sha256": "c271949365ba63ed9a85a825d742681fdecd6a85c17d85b94876ea0cc32b49fa",
      "text": "A march in the ranks hard-prest, and the road unknown, A route through a heavy wood with muffled steps in the darkness, Our army foil’d with loss severe, and the sullen remnant retreating, Till after midnight glimmer upon us the lights of a dim-lighted building, We come to an open space in the woods, and halt by the dim-lighted building, ’Tis a large old church at the crossing roads, now an impromptu hospital, Entering but for a minute I see a sight beyond all the pictures and poems ever made, Shadows of deepest, deepest black, just lit by moving candles and lamps, And by one great pitchy torch stationary with wild red flame and clouds of smoke, By these, crowds, groups of forms vaguely I see on the floor, some in the pews laid down, At my feet more distinctly a soldier, a mere lad, in danger of bleeding to death, (he is shot in the abdomen,) I stanch the blood temporarily, (the youngster’s face is white as a lily,) Then before I depart I sweep my eyes o’er the scene fain to absorb it all, Faces, varieties, postures beyond description, most in obscurity, some of them dead, Surgeons operating, attendants holding lights, the smell of ether, odor of blood, The crowd, O the crowd of the bloody forms, the yard outside also fill’d, Some on the bare ground, some on planks or stretchers, some in the death-spasm sweating, An occasional scream or cry, the doctor’s shouted orders or calls, The glisten of the little steel instruments catching the glint of the torches, These I resume as I chant, I see again the forms, I smell the odor, Then hear outside the orders given, Fall in, my men, fall in; But first I bend to the dying lad, his eyes open, a half-smile gives he me, Then the eyes close, calmly close, and I speed forth to the darkness, Resuming, marching, ever in darkness marching, on in the ranks, The unknown road still marching.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01398",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 440687,
      "end": 441013,
      "sha256": "c6a3e2e916740e92424695c1782f64c2194c835be319a558c6cd29c0de16b953",
      "text": "Year that trembled and reel’d beneath me! Your summer wind was warm enough, yet the air I breathed froze me, A thick gloom fell through the sunshine and darken’d me, Must I change my triumphant songs? said I to myself, Must I indeed learn to chant the cold dirges of the baffled? And sullen hymns of defeat?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01399",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 441023,
      "end": 441040,
      "sha256": "a303cd16dd9149171cd583e751ac387e215c95c8bb9d80052775c09d99466551",
      "text": "The Wound-Dresser",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01400",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 441051,
      "end": 441877,
      "sha256": "9e434bd9bae9bf1ebb030ab5128608aa7787dbe117fa3ca940b3d7bcf842f21e",
      "text": "1 An old man bending I come among new faces, Years looking backward resuming in answer to children, Come tell us old man, as from young men and maidens that love me, (Arous’d and angry, I’d thought to beat the alarum, and urge relentless war, But soon my fingers fail’d me, my face droop’d and I resign’d myself, To sit by the wounded and soothe them, or silently watch the dead;) Years hence of these scenes, of these furious passions, these chances, Of unsurpass’d heroes, (was one side so brave? the other was equally brave;) Now be witness again, paint the mightiest armies of earth, Of those armies so rapid so wondrous what saw you to tell us? What stays with you latest and deepest? of curious panics, Of hard-fought engagements or sieges tremendous what deepest remains?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01401",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 441888,
      "end": 442454,
      "sha256": "d526ec23b3a0daff17e5241f061aee0222af1949b9ca565b3941c663711f6b2f",
      "text": "2 O maidens and young men I love and that love me, What you ask of my days those the strangest and sudden your talking recalls, Soldier alert I arrive after a long march cover’d with sweat and dust, In the nick of time I come, plunge in the fight, loudly shout in the rush of successful charge, Enter the captur’d works--yet lo, like a swift-running river they fade, Pass and are gone they fade--I dwell not on soldiers’ perils or soldiers’ joys, (Both I remember well--many the hardships, few the joys, yet I was content.)",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01402",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 442460,
      "end": 442780,
      "sha256": "ac8ab1f29ae29c9cde7e27fd4d1090e2606f7eca71cfa7dbe9057fbbc0209b94",
      "text": "But in silence, in dreams’ projections, While the world of gain and appearance and mirth goes on, So soon what is over forgotten, and waves wash the imprints off the sand, With hinged knees returning I enter the doors, (while for you up there, Whoever you are, follow without noise and be of strong heart.)",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01403",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 442786,
      "end": 443337,
      "sha256": "2bc743abde12476b81454e732c29be6eb70fbf4468fe3ca6986f25a83fd389dd",
      "text": "Bearing the bandages, water and sponge, Straight and swift to my wounded I go, Where they lie on the ground after the battle brought in, Where their priceless blood reddens the grass the ground, Or to the rows of the hospital tent, or under the roof’d hospital, To the long rows of cots up and down each side I return, To each and all one after another I draw near, not one do I miss, An attendant follows holding a tray, he carries a refuse pail, Soon to be fill’d with clotted rags and blood, emptied, and fill’d again.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01404",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 443343,
      "end": 443638,
      "sha256": "c7cd4910e1e6b8a9a0d8e25b9d87e15fe2f2c997b18d315d8aebcfc1e771e436",
      "text": "I onward go, I stop, With hinged knees and steady hand to dress wounds, I am firm with each, the pangs are sharp yet unavoidable, One turns to me his appealing eyes--poor boy! I never knew you, Yet I think I could not refuse this moment to die for you, if that would save you.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01405",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 443649,
      "end": 444036,
      "sha256": "5fbba0de4a402e27118099b916371cc9b524ad9c2c83d96243ef29b0888e0d83",
      "text": "3 On, on I go, (open doors of time! open hospital doors!) The crush’d head I dress, (poor crazed hand tear not the bandage away,) The neck of the cavalry-man with the bullet through and through examine, Hard the breathing rattles, quite glazed already the eye, yet life struggles hard, (Come sweet death! be persuaded O beautiful death! In mercy come quickly.)",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01406",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 444042,
      "end": 444371,
      "sha256": "7f1ed6f68eefc18e3a54228691ba2707118f69e1461f57082c102814a2873264",
      "text": "From the stump of the arm, the amputated hand, I undo the clotted lint, remove the slough, wash off the matter and blood, Back on his pillow the soldier bends with curv’d neck and side falling head, His eyes are closed, his face is pale, he dares not look on the bloody stump, And has not yet look’d on it.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01407",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 444377,
      "end": 444525,
      "sha256": "436ad2f8a7d096d642bbb5ba5ffc6bceac40925844e6bd88e51142ecd19f40d5",
      "text": "I dress a wound in the side, deep, deep, But a day or two more, for see the frame all wasted and sinking, And the yellow-blue countenance see.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01408",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 444531,
      "end": 444758,
      "sha256": "1f06691de3bffb4f9e9c9ec3538b8695c0ddb2675fe51b890adda52a0668405b",
      "text": "I dress the perforated shoulder, the foot with the bullet-wound, Cleanse the one with a gnawing and putrid gangrene, so sickening, so offensive, While the attendant stands behind aside me holding the tray and pail.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01409",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 444764,
      "end": 444962,
      "sha256": "0279725ded55cad53b066be95eb56818c10755ff8658711f9bba40f03b431fc0",
      "text": "I am faithful, I do not give out, The fractur’d thigh, the knee, the wound in the abdomen, These and more I dress with impassive hand, (yet deep in my breast a fire, a burning flame.)",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01410",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 444973,
      "end": 445398,
      "sha256": "3a4964f5c138ff52a8b4d20c64b0f38850e5e3d5914323d005385416f22193f3",
      "text": "4 Thus in silence in dreams’ projections, Returning, resuming, I thread my way through the hospitals, The hurt and wounded I pacify with soothing hand, I sit by the restless all the dark night, some are so young, Some suffer so much, I recall the experience sweet and sad, (Many a soldier’s loving arms about this neck have cross’d and rested, Many a soldier’s kiss dwells on these bearded lips.)",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01411",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 445408,
      "end": 445430,
      "sha256": "1f185b84d35ae02d589f9625b41c6e545544408d367792b3dc45b3914ae5fbf8",
      "text": "Long, Too Long America",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01412",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 445436,
      "end": 445855,
      "sha256": "710ed26b043e413c5bfca8766c76e4789d3df5a195c758784330fa3eb59f5629",
      "text": "Long, too long America, Traveling roads all even and peaceful you learn’d from joys and prosperity only, But now, ah now, to learn from crises of anguish, advancing, grappling with direst fate and recoiling not, And now to conceive and show to the world what your children en-masse really are, (For who except myself has yet conceiv’d what your children en-masse really are?)",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01455",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 457377,
      "end": 457600,
      "sha256": "0b490e5c2b69a0c984ec91756d78e36f1b81dd9c2f5d1ea5d485da26c4102277",
      "text": "Look down fair moon and bathe this scene, Pour softly down night’s nimbus floods on faces ghastly, swollen, purple, On the dead on their backs with arms toss’d wide, Pour down your unstinted nimbus sacred moon.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01456",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 457610,
      "end": 457624,
      "sha256": "c24d50c6e956930478448e49d4c39a311d845aea4b0bd2b0355e912975294cd5",
      "text": "Reconciliation",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01457",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 457630,
      "end": 458080,
      "sha256": "b490786231a4cb69f87cfa1f253ac06871017db6edf90bdf8eb67048af2ada90",
      "text": "Word over all, beautiful as the sky, Beautiful that war and all its deeds of carnage must in time be utterly lost, That the hands of the sisters Death and Night incessantly softly wash again, and ever again, this solid world; For my enemy is dead, a man divine as myself is dead, I look where he lies white-faced and still in the coffin--I draw near, Bend down and touch lightly with my lips the white face in the coffin.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01458",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 458090,
      "end": 458138,
      "sha256": "59fb753faed953ae3fad3b23ac8b7c69a077994e4828767ff49df38d8c73a521",
      "text": "How Solemn As One by One [Washington City, 1865]",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01459",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 458144,
      "end": 458831,
      "sha256": "cbf4e3015ac2867f5d56fd7b9a886a07000022a1c7cfa3866ee06c9cc897f570",
      "text": "How solemn as one by one, As the ranks returning worn and sweaty, as the men file by where stand, As the faces the masks appear, as I glance at the faces studying the masks, (As I glance upward out of this page studying you, dear friend, whoever you are,) How solemn the thought of my whispering soul to each in the ranks, and to you, I see behind each mask that wonder a kindred soul, O the bullet could never kill what you really are, dear friend, Nor the bayonet stab what you really are; The soul! yourself I see, great as any, good as the best, Waiting secure and content, which the bullet could never kill, Nor the bayonet stab O friend.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01648",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 521023,
      "end": 521042,
      "sha256": "9170ac4d35b35eb9eadd7f5fd20537e24bf305466baffdcabc660bee4141453d",
      "text": "The City Dead-House",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01649",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 521048,
      "end": 522279,
      "sha256": "76b9460555807c2a8805ee482fe8033f511e2d00c27b3987a3bcc81b6cf13c10",
      "text": "By the city dead-house by the gate, As idly sauntering wending my way from the clangor, I curious pause, for lo, an outcast form, a poor dead prostitute brought, Her corpse they deposit unclaim’d, it lies on the damp brick pavement, The divine woman, her body, I see the body, I look on it alone, That house once full of passion and beauty, all else I notice not, Nor stillness so cold, nor running water from faucet, nor odors morbific impress me, But the house alone--that wondrous house--that delicate fair house --that ruin! That immortal house more than all the rows of dwellings ever built! Or white-domed capitol with majestic figure surmounted, or all the old high-spired cathedrals, That little house alone more than them all--poor, desperate house! Fair, fearful wreck--tenement of a soul--itself a soul, Unclaim’d, avoided house--take one breath from my tremulous lips, Take one tear dropt aside as I go for thought of you, Dead house of love--house of madness and sin, crumbled, crush’d, House of life, erewhile talking and laughing--but ah, poor house, dead even then, Months, years, an echoing, garnish’d house--but dead, dead, dead.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01650",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 522289,
      "end": 522301,
      "sha256": "da8e91853ddac3b7f9cf52958bbd3c2808d17dce64b1e7088953559e1b7bb5b4",
      "text": "This Compost",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01651",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 522312,
      "end": 522602,
      "sha256": "8e2627260b01acd0fc0f7ffc931b11df4d02e5dac071e15da5d91a3ba5093079",
      "text": "1 Something startles me where I thought I was safest, I withdraw from the still woods I loved, I will not go now on the pastures to walk, I will not strip the clothes from my body to meet my lover the sea, I will not touch my flesh to the earth as to other flesh to renew me.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01652",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 522608,
      "end": 522919,
      "sha256": "14b524a301fbc9fa13b1a7bd543a53d3389b32c8583a4ffb4f8ce0265d9bfcc7",
      "text": "O how can it be that the ground itself does not sicken? How can you be alive you growths of spring? How can you furnish health you blood of herbs, roots, orchards, grain? Are they not continually putting distemper’d corpses within you? Is not every continent work’d over and over with sour dead?",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01653",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 522925,
      "end": 523315,
      "sha256": "ab470702834d0f08c37c013059ecf61384cc5f38a781c8311f205c0fe40fb94b",
      "text": "Where have you disposed of their carcasses? Those drunkards and gluttons of so many generations? Where have you drawn off all the foul liquid and meat? I do not see any of it upon you to-day, or perhaps I am deceiv’d, I will run a furrow with my plough, I will press my spade through the sod and turn it up underneath, I am sure I shall expose some of the foul meat.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01654",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 523326,
      "end": 524306,
      "sha256": "dec5c1082c46fdd3f4a6aab9df19c2ee6193b408e70498a23fe2a78ef939f1ba",
      "text": "2 Behold this compost! behold it well! Perhaps every mite has once form’d part of a sick person--yet behold! The grass of spring covers the prairies, The bean bursts noiselessly through the mould in the garden, The delicate spear of the onion pierces upward, The apple-buds cluster together on the apple-branches, The resurrection of the wheat appears with pale visage out of its graves, The tinge awakes over the willow-tree and the mulberry-tree, The he-birds carol mornings and evenings while the she-birds sit on their nests, The young of poultry break through the hatch’d eggs, The new-born of animals appear, the calf is dropt from the cow, the colt from the mare, Out of its little hill faithfully rise the potato’s dark green leaves, Out of its hill rises the yellow maize-stalk, the lilacs bloom in the dooryards, The summer growth is innocent and disdainful above all those strata of sour dead.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
      "sourceType": "retained-layout-block",
      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": false
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01655",
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      "text": "What chemistry! That the winds are really not infectious, That this is no cheat, this transparent green-wash of the sea which is so amorous after me, That it is safe to allow it to lick my naked body all over with its tongues, That it will not endanger me with the fevers that have deposited themselves in it, That all is clean forever and forever, That the cool drink from the well tastes so good, That blackberries are so flavorous and juicy, That the fruits of the apple-orchard and the orange-orchard, that melons, grapes, peaches, plums, will none of them poison me, That when I recline on the grass I do not catch any disease, Though probably every spear of grass rises out of what was once catching disease.",
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      "text": "Now I am terrified at the Earth, it is that calm and patient, It grows such sweet things out of such corruptions, It turns harmless and stainless on its axis, with such endless successions of diseas’d corpses, It distills such exquisite winds out of such infused fetor, It renews with such unwitting looks its prodigal, annual, sumptuous crops, It gives such divine materials to men, and accepts such leavings from them at last.",
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      "ref": "PG1322.B01657",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 525559,
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      "sha256": "27d4ac4bb40b130c074c0c73f940503d70dc3f5e3aa8e714276f55ee6825479e",
      "text": "To a Foil’d European Revolutionaire",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01658",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 525602,
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      "sha256": "52d21f8c12305c76746ab4bea8c3127a154cfc5773710e254276101e5dc60ea8",
      "text": "Courage yet, my brother or my sister! Keep on--Liberty is to be subserv’d whatever occurs; That is nothing that is quell’d by one or two failures, or any number of failures, Or by the indifference or ingratitude of the people, or by any unfaithfulness, Or the show of the tushes of power, soldiers, cannon, penal statutes.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B01659",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 525960,
      "end": 526190,
      "sha256": "b5ca1a3ef5c6d49dc210559782d051b0dced1ba50365a38c96debc118e175054",
      "text": "What we believe in waits latent forever through all the continents, Invites no one, promises nothing, sits in calmness and light, is positive and composed, knows no discouragement, Waiting patiently, waiting its time.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B02022",
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      "start": 630728,
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      "sha256": "e65aaef817ed3297976b63006e09fd1d2eb8ca94715938c1a7f7a9612b66e52c",
      "text": "What Ship Puzzled at Sea",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B02023",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 630758,
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      "text": "What ship puzzled at sea, cons for the true reckoning? Or coming in, to avoid the bars and follow the channel a perfect pilot needs? Here, sailor! here, ship! take aboard the most perfect pilot, Whom, in a little boat, putting off and rowing, I hailing you offer.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B02024",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 631047,
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      "sha256": "68857730c50bf9fb75c2644a2ce09014eae6f614b09391bfb0fc9b8c6d82bbc2",
      "text": "A Noiseless Patient Spider",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "normalization": "join Unicode layout whitespace with one U+0020; no other textual changes",
      "headingCandidate": true
    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B02025",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 631079,
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      "sha256": "26c4f9c522849bee0c30ef313efa1d49f589372be3df1e475f513a89b93060a9",
      "text": "A noiseless patient spider, I mark’d where on a little promontory it stood isolated, Mark’d how to explore the vacant vast surrounding, It launch’d forth filament, filament, filament out of itself, Ever unreeling them, ever tirelessly speeding them.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    },
    {
      "ref": "PG1322.B02026",
      "bookId": 1322,
      "start": 631352,
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      "sha256": "25b12625cf61d6f7189aeb3bbc6a44cd69807e9c73fdcbc9dd6c46f17637699d",
      "text": "And you O my soul where you stand, Surrounded, detached, in measureless oceans of space, Ceaselessly musing, venturing, throwing, seeking the spheres to connect them, Till the bridge you will need be form’d, till the ductile anchor hold, Till the gossamer thread you fling catch somewhere, O my soul.",
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    {
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      "sha256": "f891188607e6748791f32a2d899b6d43fa81fdd42d606ce214efadfc9efb3484",
      "text": "O Living Always, Always Dying",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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      "ref": "PG1322.B02028",
      "bookId": 1322,
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      "sha256": "bffeeecc19034f56429bd51fe4a18b422a7b8621aa4fb1a592868ee41202ed33",
      "text": "O living always, always dying! O the burials of me past and present, O me while I stride ahead, material, visible, imperious as ever; O me, what I was for years, now dead, (I lament not, I am content;) O to disengage myself from those corpses of me, which I turn and look at where I cast them, To pass on, (O living! always living!) and leave the corpses behind.",
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      "text": "To One Shortly to Die",
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      "headingCandidate": true
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    {
      "ref": "PG63803.B00044",
      "bookId": 63803,
      "start": 15208,
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      "sha256": "c046383b9960635887831a595513c7ed81179e38522238abd9465d5ff534bfbf",
      "text": "The Easter lectures were soon abandoned; but from the date here referred to to the present time the Christmas lectures have been a marked feature of the Royal Institution.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG63803.B00045",
      "bookId": 63803,
      "start": 15385,
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      "text": "In 1871 it fell to my lot to give one of these courses. I had been frequently invited to write on Glaciers in encyclopædias, journals, and magazines, but had always declined to do so. I had also abstained from making them the subject of a course of lectures, wishing to take no advantage of my position here, and indeed to avoid writing a line or uttering a sentence on the subject for which I could not be held personally responsible. In view of the discussions which the subject had provoked, I thought this the fairest course.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG63803.B00046",
      "bookId": 63803,
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      "text": "But, in 1871, the time (I imagined) had come when, without risk of offence, I might tell our young people something about the labours of those who had unravelled for their instruction the various problems of the ice-world. My lamented friend and ever-helpful counsellor, Dr. Bence Jones, thought the subject a good one, and accordingly it was chosen. Strong in my sympathy with youth, and remembering the damage done by defective exposition to my own young mind, I sought, to the best of my ability, to confer upon these lectures clearness, thoroughness, and life.",
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      "ref": "PG63803.B00047",
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      "text": "Wishing, moreover, to render them of permanent value, I wrote out copious Notes of the course, and had them distributed among the boys and girls. In preparing these Notes I aimed at nothing less than presenting to my youthful audience, in a concentrated but perfectly digestible form, every essential point embraced in the literature of the glaciers, and some things in addition, which, derived as they were from my own recent researches, no book previously published on the subject contained.",
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      "ref": "PG63803.B00048",
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      "text": "But my theory of education agrees with that of Emerson, according to which instruction is only half the battle, what he calls _provocation_ being the other half. By this he means that power of the teacher, through the force of his character and the vitality of his thought, to bring out all the latent strength of his pupil, and to invest with interest even the driest matters of detail. In the present instance I was determined to shirk nothing essential, however dry; and, to keep my mind alive to the requirements of my pupil, I proposed a series of ideal ramblings, in which he should be always at my side. Oddly enough, though I was here dealing with what might be called the abstract idea of a boy, I realised his presence so fully as to entertain for him, before our excursions ended, an affection consciously warm and real.",
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      "ref": "PG63803.B00049",
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      "text": "The \"Notes\" here referred to were at first intended for the use of my audience alone. At the urgent request of a friend I slightly expanded them, and converted them into the little book here presented to the reader.",
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      "text": "The amount of attention bestowed upon the volume induces me to give this brief history of its origin.",
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      "text": "A German critic, whom I have no reason to regard as specially favourable to me or it, makes the following remark on the style of the book: \"This passion [for the mountains] tempts him frequently to reveal more of his Alpine wanderings than is necessary for his demonstrations. The reader, however, will not find this a disagreeable interruption of the course of thought; for the book thereby gains wonderfully in vividness.\" This, I would say, was the express aim of the breaks referred to. I desired to keep my companion fresh as well as instructed, and these interruptions were so many breathing-places where the intellectual tension was purposely relaxed and the mind of the pupil braced to fresh action.",
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      "ref": "PG63803.B00130",
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      "text": "4. Thus the Severn has its source in the Welsh Mountains; the Thames in the Cotswold Hills; the Danube in the hills of the Black Forest; the Rhine and the Rhone in the Alps; the Ganges in the Himalaya Mountains; the Euphrates near Mount Ararat; the Garonne in the Pyrenees; the Elbe in the Giant Mountains of Bohemia; the Missouri in the Rocky Mountains, and the Amazon in the Andes of Peru.",
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      "text": "5. But it is quite plain that we have not yet reached the real beginning of the rivers. Whence do the earliest streams derive their water? A brief residence among the mountains would prove to you that they are fed by rains. In dry weather you would find the streams feeble, sometimes indeed quite dried up. In wet weather you would see them foaming torrents. In general these streams lose themselves as little threads of water upon the hill sides; but sometimes you may trace a river to a definite spring. The river Albula in Switzerland, for instance, rushes at its origin in considerable volume from a mountain side. But you very soon assure yourself that such springs are also fed by rain, which has percolated through the rocks or soil, and which, through some orifice that it has found or formed, comes to the light of day.",
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      "ref": "PG63803.B00132",
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      "text": "6. But we cannot end here. Whence comes the rain which forms the mountain streams? Observation enables you to answer the question. Rain does not come from a clear sky. It comes from clouds. But what are clouds? Is there nothing you are acquainted with which they resemble? You discover at once a likeness between them and the condensed steam of a locomotive. At every puff of the engine a cloud is projected into the air. Watch the cloud sharply: you notice that it first forms at a little distance from the top of the funnel. Give close attention and you will sometimes see a perfectly clear space between the funnel and the cloud. Through that clear space the thing which makes the cloud must pass. What, then, is this thing which at one moment is transparent and invisible, and at the next moment visible as a dense opaque cloud?",
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      "ref": "PG63803.B00133",
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      "text": "7. It is the _steam_ or _vapour of water_ from the boiler. Within the boiler this steam is transparent and invisible; but to keep it in this invisible state a heat would be required as great as that within the boiler. When the vapour mingles with the cold air above the hot funnel it ceases to be vapour. Every bit of steam shrinks when chilled, to a much more minute particle of water. The liquid particles thus produced form a kind of _water-dust_ of exceeding fineness, which floats in the air, and is called _a cloud_.",
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      "text": "8. Watch the cloud-banner from the funnel of a running locomotive; you see it growing gradually less dense. It finally melts away altogether, and if you continue your observations you will not fail to notice that the speed of its disappearance depends upon the character of the day. In humid weather the cloud hangs long and lazily in the air; in dry weather it is rapidly licked up. What has become of it? It has been reconverted into true invisible vapour.",
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      "text": "9. The _drier_ the air, and the _hotter_ the air, the greater is the amount of cloud which can be thus dissolved in it. When the cloud first forms, its quantity is far greater than the air is able to maintain in an invisible state. But as the cloud mixes gradually with a larger mass of air it is more and more dissolved, and finally passes altogether from the condition of a finely-divided liquid into that of transparent vapour or gas.",
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      "text": "10. Make the lid of a kettle air-tight, and permit the steam to issue from the pipe; a cloud is precipitated in all respects similar to that issuing from the funnel of the locomotive.",
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      "text": "11. Permit the steam as it issues from the pipe to pass through the flame of a spirit-lamp, the cloud is instantly dissolved by the heat, and is not again precipitated. With a special boiler and a special nozzle the experiment may be made more striking, but not more instructive, than with the kettle.",
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      "text": "12. Look to your bedroom windows when the weather is very cold outside; they sometimes stream with water derived from the condensation of the aqueous vapour from your own lungs. The windows of railway carriages in winter show this condensation in a striking manner. Pour cold water into a dry drinking-glass on a summer's day: the outside surface of the glass becomes instantly dimmed by the precipitation of moisture. On a warm day you notice no vapour in front of your mouth, but on a cold day you form there a little cloud derived from the condensation of the aqueous vapour from the lungs.",
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      "text": "13. You may notice in a ball-room that as long as the door and windows are kept closed, and the room remains hot, the air remains clear; but when the doors or windows are opened a dimness is visible, caused by the precipitation to fog of the aqueous vapour of the ball-room. If the weather be intensely cold the entrance of fresh air may even cause _snow_ to fall. This has been observed in Russian ball-rooms; and also in the subterranean stables at Erzeroom, when the doors are opened and the cold morning air is permitted to enter.",
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      "text": "14. Even on the driest day this vapour is never absent from our atmosphere. The vapour diffused through the air of this room may be congealed to hoar-frost in your presence. This is done by filling a vessel with a mixture of pounded ice and salt, which is colder than the ice itself, and which, therefore, condenses and freezes the aqueous vapour. The surface of the vessel is finally coated with a frozen fur, so thick that it may be scraped away and formed into a snow-ball.",
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      "text": "15. To produce the cloud, in the case of the locomotive and the kettle, _heat_ is necessary. By heating the water we first convert it into steam, and then by chilling the steam we convert it into cloud. Is there any fire in nature which produces the clouds of our atmosphere? There is: the fire of the sun.",
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      "text": "16. Thus, by tracing backward, without any break in the chain of occurrences, our river from its end to its real beginnings, we come at length to the sun.",
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      "text": "§ 2.",
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      "text": "§ 7. _Tropical Rains._",
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      "text": "70. But long before the air and vapour from the equator reach the poles, precipitation occurs. Wherever a humid warm wind mixes with a cold dry one, rain falls. Indeed the heaviest rains occur at those places where the sun is vertically overhead. We must enquire a little more closely into their origin.",
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      "text": "71. Fill a bladder about two-thirds full of air at the sea level, and take it to the summit of Mont Blanc. As you ascend, the bladder becomes more and more distended; at the top of the mountain it is fully distended, and has evidently to bear a pressure from within. Returning to the sea level you find that the tightness disappears, the bladder finally appearing as flaccid as at first.",
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      "text": "72. The reason is plain. At the sea level the air within the bladder has to bear the pressure of the whole atmosphere, being thereby squeezed into a comparatively small volume. In ascending the mountain, you leave more and more of the atmosphere behind; the pressure becomes less and less, and by its expansive force the air within the bladder swells as the outside pressure is diminished. At the top of the mountain the expansion is quite sufficient to render the bladder tight, the pressure within being then actually greater than the pressure without. By means of an air-pump we can show the expansion of a balloon partly filled with air, when the external pressure has been in part removed.",
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      "text": "73. But why do I dwell upon this? Simply to make plain to you that the _unconfined air_, heated at the earth's surface, and ascending by its lightness, must expand more and more the higher it rises in the atmosphere.",
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      "text": "74. And now I have to introduce to you a new fact, towards the statement of which I have been working for some time. It is this: _The ascending air is chilled by its expansion._ Indeed this chilling is one source of the coldness of the higher atmospheric regions. And now fix your eye upon those mixed currents of air and aqueous vapour which rise from the warm tropical ocean. They start with plenty of heat to preserve the vapour as vapour; but as they rise they come into regions already chilled, and they are still further chilled by their own expansion. The consequence might be foreseen. The load of vapour is in great part precipitated, dense clouds are formed, their particles coalesce to rain-drops, which descend daily in gushes so profuse that the word \"torrential\" is used to express the copiousness of the rainfall. I could show you this chilling by expansion, and also the consequent precipitation of clouds.",
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      "text": "75. Thus long before the air from the equator reaches the poles its vapour is in great part removed from it, having redescended to the earth as rain. Still a good quantity of the vapour is carried forward, which yields hail, rain, and snow in northern and southern lands.",
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      "text": "Illustrative Experiments.",
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      "text": "76. I have said that the air is chilled during its expansion. Prove this, if you like, thus. With a condensing syringe, you can force air into an iron box furnished with a stopcock, to which the syringe is screwed. Do so till the density of the air within the box is doubled or trebled. Immediately after this condensation, both the box and the air within it are warm, and can be proved to be so by a proper thermometer. Simply turn the cock and allow the compressed air to stream into the atmosphere. The current, if allowed to strike the thermometer, visibly chills it; and with other instruments the chill may be made more evident still. Even the hand feels the chill of the expanding air.",
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      "text": "77. Throw a strong light, a concentrated sunbeam for example, across the issuing current; if the compressed air be ordinary humid air, you see the precipitation of a little cloud by the chill accompanying the expansion. This cloud-formation may, however, be better illustrated in the following way:--",
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      "text": "78. In a darkened room send a strong beam of light through a glass tube three feet long and three inches wide, stopped at its ends by glass plates. Connect the tube by means of a stopcock with a vessel of about one-fourth its capacity, from which the air has been removed by an air-pump. The exhausted cylinder of the pump itself will answer capitally. Fill the glass tube with humid air; then simply turn on the stopcock which connects it with the exhausted vessel. Having more room the air expands, cold accompanies the expansion, and, as a consequence, a dense and brilliant cloud immediately fills the tube. If the experiment be made for yourself alone you may see the cloud in ordinary daylight; indeed, the brisk exhaustion of any receiver filled with humid air is known to produce this condensation.",
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      "text": "79. Other vapours than that of water may be thus precipitated, some of them yielding clouds of intense brilliancy, and displaying iridescences, such as are sometimes, but not frequently, seen in the clouds floating over the Alps.",
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      "text": "80. In science what is true for the small is true for the large. Thus by combining the conditions observed on a large scale in nature we obtain on a small scale the phenomena of atmospheric clouds.",
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      "text": "§ 8. _Mountain Condensers._",
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      "text": "81. To complete our view of the process of atmospheric precipitation we must take into account the action of mountains. Imagine a south-west wind blowing across the Atlantic towards Ireland. In its passage it charges itself with aqueous vapour. In the south of Ireland it encounters the mountains of Kerry: the highest of these is Magillicuddy's Reeks, near Killarney. Now the lowest stratum of this Atlantic wind is that which is most fully charged with vapour. When it encounters the base of the Kerry mountains it is tilted up and flows bodily over them. Its load of vapour is therefore carried to a height, it expands on reaching the height, it is chilled in consequence of the expansion, and comes down in copious showers of rain. From this, in fact, arises the luxuriant vegetation of Killarney; to this, indeed, the lakes owe their water supply. The cold crests of the mountains also aid in the work of condensation.",
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      "text": "82. Note the consequence. There is a town called Cahirciveen to the south-west of Magillicuddy's Reeks, at which observations of the rainfall have been made, and a good distance farther to the north-east, right in the course of the south-west wind, there is another town, called Portarlington, at which observations of rainfall have also been made. But before the wind reaches the latter station it has passed over the mountains of Kerry and left a great portion of its moisture behind it. What is the result? At Cahirciveen, as shown by Dr. Lloyd, the rainfall amounts to 59 inches in a year, while at Portarlington it is only 21 inches.",
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      "text": "83. Again, you may sometimes descend from the Alps when the fall of rain and snow is heavy and incessant, into Italy, and find the sky over the plains of Lombardy blue and cloudless, the wind at the same time _blowing over the plain towards the Alps_. Below the wind is hot enough to keep its vapour in a perfectly transparent state; but it meets the mountains, is tilted up, expanded, and chilled. The cold of the higher summits also helps the chill. The consequence is that the vapour is precipitated as rain or snow, thus producing bad weather upon the heights, while the plains below, flooded with the same air, enjoy the aspect of the unclouded summer sun. Clouds blowing _from_ the Alps are also sometimes dissolved over the plains of Lombardy.",
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      "text": "84. In connection with the formation of clouds by mountains, one particularly instructive effect may be here noticed. You frequently see a streamer of cloud many hundred yards in length drawn out from an Alpine peak. Its steadiness appears perfect, though a strong wind may be blowing at the same time over the mountain head. Why is the cloud not blown away? It is blown away; its permanence is only apparent. At one end it is incessantly dissolved, at the other end it is incessantly renewed: supply and consumption being thus equalized, the cloud appears as changeless as the mountain to which it seems to cling. When the red sun of the evening shines upon these cloud-streamers they resemble vast torches with their flames blown through the air.",
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      "text": "§ 9. _Architecture of Snow._",
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      "text": "85. We now resemble persons who have climbed a difficult peak, and thereby earned the enjoyment of a wide prospect. Having made ourselves masters of the conditions necessary to the production of mountain snow, we are able to take a comprehensive and intelligent view of the phenomena of glaciers.",
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      "text": "136. Walk with me now alongside the moraine from the Jardin down towards the ice-fall. For a time our work is easy, such fissures as appear offering no impediment to our march. But the crevasses become gradually wider and wilder, following each other at length so rapidly as to leave merely walls of ice between them. Here perfect steadiness of foot is necessary a slip would be death. We look towards the fall, and observe the confusion of walls and blocks and chasms below us increasing. At length prudence and reason cry \"Halt!\" We may swerve to the right or to the left, and making our way along crests of ice, with chasms on both hands, reach either the right lateral moraine or the left lateral moraine of the glacier.",
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      "text": "§ 18. _First Questions regarding Glacier Motion. Drifting of Bodies buried in a Crevasse._",
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      "text": "137. But what are these lateral moraines? As you and I go from day to day along the glaciers, their origin is gradually made plain. We see at intervals the stones and rubbish descending from the mountain sides and arrested by the ice. All along the fringe of the glacier the stones and rubbish fall, and it soon becomes evident that we have here the source of the lateral moraines.",
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      "text": "138. But how are the medial moraines to be accounted for? How does the débris range itself upon the glacier in stripes some hundreds of yards from its edge, leaving the space between them and the edge clear of rubbish? Some have supposed the stones to have rolled over the glacier from the sides, but the supposition will not bear examination. Call to mind now our reasoning regarding the excess of snow which falls above the snow-line, and our subsequent question, How is the snow disposed of. Can it be that the entire mass is moving slowly downwards? If so, the lateral moraines would be carried along by the ice on which they rest, and when two branch glaciers unite they would lay their adjacent lateral moraines together to form a medial moraine upon the trunk glacier.",
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      "text": "139. There is, in fact, no way that we can see of disposing of the excess of snow above the snow-line; there is no way of making good the constant waste of the ice below the snow-line; there is no way of accounting for the medial moraines of the glacier, but by supposing that from the highest snow-fields of the Col du Géant, the Léchaud, and the Talèfre, to the extreme end of the Glacier des Bois, the whole mass of frozen matter is moving downwards.",
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      "text": "140. If you were older, it would give me pleasure to take you up Mont Blanc. Starting from Chamouni, we should first pass through woods and pastures, then up the steep hill-face with the Glacier des Bossons to our right, to a rock known as the _Pierre Pointue_; thence to a higher rock called the _Pierre l'Échelle_, because here a ladder is usually placed to assist in crossing the chasms of the glacier. At the Pierre l'Échelle we should strike the ice, and passing under the Aiguille du Midi, which towers to the left, and which sometimes sweeps a portion of the track with stone avalanches, we should cross the Glacier des Bossons; amid heaped-up mounds and broken towers of ice; up steep slopes; over chasms so deep that their bottoms are hid in darkness.",
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      "text": "141. We reach the rocks of the Grands Mulets, which form a kind of barren islet in the icy sea; thence to the higher snow-fields, crossing the _Petit Plateau_, which we should find cumbered by blocks of ice. Looking to the right, we should see whence they came, for rising here with threatening aspect high above us are the broken ice-crags[B] of the Dôme du Goûté. The guides wish to pass this place in silence, and it is just as well to humour them, however much you may doubt the competence of the human voice to bring the ice-crags down. From the Petit Plateau a steep snow-slope would carry us to the Grand Plateau, and at day-dawn I know nothing in the whole Alps more grand and solemn than this place.",
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      "text": "143. Is this language correct? A crevasse hardly to be distinguished from the present one undoubtedly existed here in 1820. But was it the identical crevasse now existing? Is the ice riven here to-day the same as that riven fifty-one years ago? By no means. How is this proved? By the fact that more than forty years after their interment, the remains of those three guides were found near the end of the Glacier des Bossons, many miles below the existing crevasse.",
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      "text": "144. The same observation proves to demonstration that it is the ice near the _bottom_ of the higher névé that becomes the _surface-ice_ of the glacier near its end. The waste of the surface below the snow-line brings the deeper portions of the ice more and more to the light of day.",
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      "text": "145. There are numerous obvious indications of the existence of glacier motion, though it is too slow to catch the eye at once. The crevasses change within certain limits from year to year, and sometimes from month to month; and this could not be if the ice did not move. Rocks and stones also are observed, which have been plainly torn from the mountain sides. Blocks seen to fall from particular points are afterwards observed lower down. On the moraines rocks are found of a totally different mineralogical character from those composing the mountains right and left; and in all such cases strata of the same character are found bordering the glacier higher up. Hence the conclusion that the foreign boulders have been _floated_ down by the ice. Further, the ends or \"snouts\" of many glaciers act like ploughshares on the land in front of them, overturning with slow but merciless energy huts and chalets that stand in their way. Facts like these have been long known to the inhabitants of the High Alps, who were thus made acquainted in a vague and general way with the motion of the glaciers.",
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      "text": "§ 19. _The Motion of Glaciers. Measurements by Hugi and Agassiz. Drifting of Huts on the Ice._",
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      "text": "146. But the growth of knowledge is from vagueness towards precision, and exact determinations of the rate of glacier motion were soon desired. With reference to such measurements one glacier in the Bernese Oberland will remain forever memorable. From the little town of Meyringen in Switzerland you proceed up the valley of Hasli, past the celebrated waterfall of Handeck, where the river Aar plunges into a chasm more than 200 feet deep. You approach the Grimsel Pass, but instead of crossing it you turn to the right and follow the course of the Aar upwards. Like the Rhone and the Arveiron, you find the Aar issuing from a glacier.",
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      "text": "147. Get upon the ice, or rather upon the deep moraine shingle which covers the ice, and walk upwards. It is hard walking, but after some time you get clear of the rubbish, and on to a wide glacier with a great medial moraine running along its back. This moraine is formed by the junction of two branch glaciers, the Lauteraar and the Finsteraar, which unite at a promontory called the Abschwung to form the trunk glacier of the Unteraar.",
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      "text": "148. On this great medial moraine in 1827 an intrepid and enthusiastic Swiss professor, Hugi, of Solothurm (French Soleure), built a hut with a view to observations upon the glacier. His hut moved, and he measured its motion. In the three years--from 1827 to 1830--it had moved 330 feet downwards. In 1836 it had moved 2,354 feet; and in 1841 M. Agassiz found it 4,712 feet below its first position.",
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      "text": "149. In 1840, M. Agassiz himself and some bold companions took shelter under a great overhanging slab of rock on the same moraine, to which they added side walls and other means of protection. And because he and his comrades came from Neufchâtel, the hut was called long afterwards the \"Hôtel des Neuchâtelois.\" Two years subsequent to its erection M. Agassiz found that the \"hotel\" had moved 486 feet downwards.",
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      "text": "§ 20. _Precise Measurements of Agassiz and Forbes. Motion of a Glacier proved to resemble the Motion of a River._",
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    {
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      "text": "150. We now approach an epoch in the scientific history of glaciers. Had the first observers been practically acquainted with the instruments of precision used in surveying, _accurate_ measurements of the motion of glaciers would probably have been earlier executed. We are now on the point of seeing such instruments introduced almost simultaneously by M. Agassiz on the glacier of the Unteraar, and by Professor Forbes on the Mer de Glace. Attempts had been made by M. Escher de la Linth to determine the motion of a series of wooden stakes driven into the Aletsch glacier, but the melting was so rapid that the stakes soon fell. To remedy this, M. Agassiz in 1841 undertook the great labour of carrying boring tools to his \"hotel,\" and piercing the Unteraar glacier at six different places to a depth of ten feet, in a straight line across the glacier. Into the holes six piles were so firmly driven that they remained in the glacier for a year, and in 1842 the displacements of all six were determined. They were found to be 160 feet, 225 feet, 269 feet, 245 feet, 210 feet, and 125 feet, respectively.",
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      "text": "151. A great step is here gained. You notice that the middle numbers are the largest. They correspond to the central portion of the glacier. Hence, these measurements conclusively establish, not only the fact of glacier motion, but that _the centre of a glacier, like that of a river, moves more rapidly than the sides_.",
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      "text": "152. With the aid of trained engineers M. Agassiz followed up these measurements in subsequent years. His researches are recorded in a work entitled \"Système glaciaire,\" which is accompanied by a very noble Atlas of the Glacier of the Unteraar, published in 1847.",
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      "text": "155. My object thus far is attained. I have given you proofs of glacier motion, and a historic account of its measurement. And now we must try to add a little to the knowledge of glaciers by our own labours on the ice. Resolution must not be wanting at the commencement of our work, nor steadfast patience during its prosecution. Look then at this theodolite; it consists mainly of a telescope and a graduated circle, the telescope capable of motion up and down, and the circle, carrying the telescope along with it, capable of motion right and left. When desired to make the motion exceedingly fine and minute, suitable screws, called tangent screws, are employed. The instrument is supported by three legs, movable, but firm when properly planted.",
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      "text": "156. Two spirit-levels are fixed at right angles to each other on the circle just referred to. Practice enables one to take hold of the legs of the instrument, and so to fix them that the circle shall be nearly horizontal. By means of four levelling screws we render it _accurately_ horizontal. Exactly under the centre of the instrument is a small hook from which a plummet is suspended; the point of the bob just touches a rock on which we make a mark; or if the earth be soft underneath, we drive a stake into it exactly under the plummet. By re-suspending the plummet at any future time we can find to a hairbreadth the position occupied by the instrument to-day.",
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    {
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      "text": "157. Look through the telescope; you see it crossed by two fibres of the finest spider's thread. In actual work we first direct the telescope across the glacier, until the intersection of the two fibres accurately covers some well-defined point of rock or tree at the other side of the valley. This, our fixed standard, we sketch with its surroundings in a note-book, so as to be able immediately to recognise it on our return to this place. Imagine a straight line drawn from the centre of the telescope to this point, and that this line is permitted to drop straight down upon the glacier, every point of it falling as a stone would fall; along such a line we have now to fix a series of stakes.",
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      "text": "158. A trained assistant is already upon the glacier. He erects his staff and stands behind it; the telescope is lowered without swerving to the right or to the left; in mathematical language it remains _in the same vertical plane_. The crossed fibres of the telescope probably strike the ice a little away from the staff of the assistant; by a wave of the arm he moves right or left; he may move too much, so we wave him back again. After a trial or two he knows whether he is near the proper point, and if so makes his motions small. He soon exactly strikes the point covered by the intersection of the fibres. A signal is made which tells him that he is right; he pierces the ice with an auger and drives in a stake. He then goes forward, and in precisely the same manner takes up another point. After one or two stakes have been driven in, the assistant is able to take up the other points very rapidly. Any requisite number of stakes may thus be fixed in a straight line across the glacier.",
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      "text": "159. Next morning we measure the motion of all the stakes. The theodolite is mounted in its former position and carefully levelled. The telescope is directed first upon the standard point at the opposite side of the valley, being moved by a tangent screw until the intersection of the spider's threads accurately covers the point. The telescope is then lowered to the first stake, beside which our trained assistant is already standing. He is provided with a staff with feet and inches marked on it. A glance shows us the stake has moved down. By our signals the assistant recovers the point from which we started yesterday, and then determines the distance from this point to the stake. It is, say, 6 inches; through this distance, therefore, the stake has moved.",
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      "text": "160. We are careful to note the hour and minute at which each stake is driven in, and the hour and the minute when its distance from its first position is measured; this enables us to calculate the accurate _daily motion_ of the point in question. The distances through which all the other points have moved are determined in precisely the same way.",
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      "text": "161. Thus we shall proceed to work, first making clear to our minds what is to be done, and then making sure that it shall be accurately done. To give our work reality, I will here record the actual measurements executed, and the actual thoughts suggested, on the Mer de Glace in 1857. The only unreality that I would ask you to allow, is that you and I are supposed to be making the observations together. The labour of measuring was undertaken for the most part by Mr. Hirst.",
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      "text": "§ 22. _Motion of the Mer de Glace._",
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      "text": "First Line: A A' upon the Sketch.",
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      "text": "East West Stake 1 2 3 4 5 7 9 10 Inches 12 17 23 26 25 26 27 33",
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      "text": "165. You have already assured yourself by actual contact that the body of the glacier is real ice, and you may have read that glaciers move; but the actual observation of the motion of a body apparently so rigid is strangely interesting. And not only does the ice move bodily, but one part of it moves past another; the rate of motion augmenting gradually from 12 inches a day at the side to 33 inches a day at a distance from the side. This quicker movement of the central ice of glaciers had been already observed by Agassiz and Forbes; we verify their results, and now proceed to something new. Crossing the Glacier du Géant, which occupies more than half the valley, we find that our line of stakes is not yet at an end. The 10th stake stands on the part of the ice which comes from the Talèfre.",
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      "text": "[Illustration: OUTLINE PLAN, SHOWING THE MEASURED LINES OF THE MER DE GLACE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES.]",
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      "text": "166. Now the motion of the sides is slow, because of the friction of the ice against its boundaries; but then one would think that midway between the boundaries, where the friction of the sides is least, the motion ought to be greatest. This is clearly not the case; for though the 10th stake is nearer than the 9th to the eastern or _Chapeau_ side of the valley, the 10th stake surpasses the 9th by 6 inches a day.",
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      "text": "167. Here we have something to think of; but before a natural philosopher can think with comfort he must be perfectly sure of his facts. The foregoing line ran across the glacier a little below the Montanvert. We will run another line across a little way above the hotel. On July 18 we set out this line, and to multiply our chances of discovery we place along it 31 stakes. On the subsequent day five of these were found unfit for use; but here are the distances passed over by the remaining six-and-twenty in 24 hours.",
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      "text": "Second Line: B B' upon the Sketch.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG63803.B00341",
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      "text": "172. Both the first stake and the eleventh in this series stood near the sides of the glacier. On the eastern side the motion is 20 inches, while on the western side it is only 9. It rises on the eastern side from 20 to 34 inches at the 5th stake, which we, standing upon the glacier, can see to be much nearer to the eastern than to the western side. _The united evidence of these three lines places the fact beyond doubt, that opposite the Montanvert, and for some distance above it and below it, the whole eastern side of the glacier is moving more quickly than the western side._",
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      "text": "§ 24. _Suggestion of a new Likeness of Glacier Motion to River Motion. Conjecture tested._",
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      "text": "173. Here we have cause for reflection, and facts are comparatively worthless if they do not provoke this exercise of the mind. It is because facts of nature are not isolated but connected, that science, to follow them, must also form a connected whole. The mind of the natural philosopher must, as it were, be a web of _thought_ corresponding in all its fibres with the web of _fact_ in nature.",
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      "text": "174. Let us, then, ascend to a point which commands a good view of this portion of the Mer de Glace. The ice-river we see is not straight but curved, and its curvature is _from_ the Montanvert; that is to say, its convex side is east, and its concave side is west (look to the sketch). You have already pondered the fact that a glacier, _in some respects_, moves like a river. How would a river move through a curved channel? This is known. Were the ice of the Mer de Glace displaced by water, the point of swiftest motion at the Montanvert would not be the centre, but a point east of the centre. Can it be then that this \"water-rock,\" as ice is sometimes called, acts in this respect also like water?",
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      "text": "175. This is a thought suggested on the spot; it may or it may not be true, but the means of testing it are at hand. Looking up the glacier, we see that at _les Ponts_ it also bends, but that there its convex curvature is towards the western side of the valley (look again to the sketch). If our surmise be true, the point of swiftest motion opposite _les Ponts_ ought to lie west of the axis of the glacier.",
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      "text": "176. Let us test this conjecture. On July 25 we fix in a line across this portion of the glacier seventeen stakes; every one of them has remained firm, and on the 26th we find the motion for 24 hours to be as follows:--",
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      "text": "Fourth Line: D D' upon the Sketch.",
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      "text": "East West Stake 1 2 3 4 5 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Inches 7 8 13 15 16 19 20 21 21 23 23 21 22 17 15",
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    {
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      "bookId": 63803,
      "start": 135187,
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      "text": "217. A river descending the Valley du Géant would behave in substantially the same fashion. It would have its motion on approaching Trélaporte diminished, and it would pour through the defile with a velocity greater than that of the water behind.",
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      "text": "§ 31. _Sliding and Flowing. Hard Ice and Soft Ice._",
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      "text": "218. We have thus far confined ourselves to the measurement and discussion of glacier motion; but in our excursions we have noticed many things besides. Here and there, where the ice has retreated from the mountain side, we have seen the rocks fluted, scored, and polished; thus proving that the ice had slidden over them and ground them down. At the source of the Arveiron we noticed the water rushing from beneath the glacier charged with fine matter. All glacier rivers are similarly charged. The Rhone carries its load of matter into the Lake of Geneva; the rush of the river is here arrested, the matter subsides, and the Rhone quits the lake clear and blue. The Lake of Geneva, and many other Swiss lakes, are in part filled up with this matter, and will, in all probability, finally be obliterated by it.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG63803.B00420",
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      "start": 136326,
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      "text": "219. One portion of the motion of a glacier is due to this bodily sliding of the mass over its bed.",
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      "text": "220. We have seen in our journeys over the glacier streams formed by the melting of the ice, and escaping through cracks and _crevasses_ to the bed of the glacier. The fine matter ground down is thus washed away; the bed is kept lubricated, and the sliding of the ice rendered more easy than it would otherwise be.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG63803.B00422",
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      "text": "221. As a skater also you know how much ice is weakened by a thaw. Before it actually melts it becomes rotten and unsafe. Test such ice with your penknife: you can dig the blade readily into it, or cut the ice with ease. Try good sound ice in the same way: you find it much more resistant. The one, indeed, resembles soft chalk; the other hard stone.",
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      "ref": "PG63803.B00423",
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      "start": 137111,
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      "text": "222. Now the Mer de Glace in summer is in this thawing condition. Its ice is rendered soft and yielding by the sun; its motion is thereby facilitated. We have seen that not only does the glacier slide over its bed, but that the upper layers slide over the under ones, and that the centre slides past the sides. The softer and more yielding the ice is, the more free will be this motion, and the more readily also will it be forced through a defile like Trélaporte.",
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      "text": "223. But in winter the thaw ceases; the quantity of water reaching the bed of the glacier is diminished or entirely cut off. The ice also, to a certain depth at least, is frozen hard. These considerations would justify the opinion that in winter the glacier, if it moves at all, must move more slowly than in summer. At all events, the summer measurements give no clue to the winter motion.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG63803.B00425",
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      "text": "224. This point merits examination. I will not, however, ask you to visit the Alps in mid-winter; but, if you allow me, I will be your deputy to the mountains, and report to you faithfully the aspect of the region and the behaviour of the ice.",
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      "start": 138237,
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      "sha256": "4a9e1d30cb3cfadec2e5bc877475d0aed2643326d71e9adf1b1c6e2de3b805b2",
      "text": "§ 32. _Winter on the Mer de Glace._",
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    {
      "ref": "PG63803.B00454",
      "bookId": 63803,
      "start": 147007,
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      "text": "239. The maximum motion here is nineteen inches a day. Probably the eastern side of the glacier is shallow, the retardation of the bed making the motion of the eastern stakes inconsiderable. The width of the glacier here is 9,030 links, or about a mile and a furlong. The theodolite was planted high among the rocks on the western flank of the mountain, about half a mile above the Märgelin See.",
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    {
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      "text": "§ 35. _Motion of Morteratsch Glacier._",
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    {
      "ref": "PG63803.B00456",
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      "text": "240. Far to the east of the Oberland and in that interesting part of Switzerland known as the Ober Engadin, stands a noble group of mountains, less in height than those of the Oberland, but still of commanding elevation. The group derives its name from its most dominant peak, the Piz Bernina. To reach the place we travel by railway from Basel to Zürich, and from Zürich to Chur (French Coire), whence we pass by diligence over either the Albula pass or the Julier pass to the village of Pontresina. Here we are in the immediate neighbourhood of the Bernina mountains.",
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    {
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      "text": "241. From Pontresina we may walk or drive along a good coach road over the Bernina pass into Italy. At about an hour above the village you would look from the road into the heart of the mountains, the line of vision passing through a valley, in which is couched a glacier of considerable size. Along its back you would trace a medial moraine, and you could hardly fail to notice how the moraine, from a mere narrow streak at first, widens gradually as it descends, until finally it quite covers the lower end of the glacier. Nor is this an effect of perspective; for were you to stand upon the mountain slopes which nourish the glacier, you would see thence also the widening of the streak of rubbish, though the perspective here would tend to narrow the moraine as it retreats downwards.",
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      "text": "242. The ice-stream here referred to is the Morteratsch glacier, the end of which is a short hour's walk from the village of Pontresina. We have now to determine its rate of motion and to account for the widening of its medial moraine.",
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      "text": "243. In the summer of 1864 Mr. Hirst and myself set out three lines of stakes across the glacier. The first line crossed the ice high up; the second a good distance lower down, and the third lower still. Even the third line, however, was at a considerable distance above the actual snout of the glacier. The daily motion of these three lines was as follows:--",
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      "text": "First Line.",
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      "text": "Stake 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Inches 8 12 13 13 14 13 12 12 10 7 5",
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      "text": "Second Line.",
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      "text": "Stake 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Inches 1 4 6 8 10 11 11 11 11 11 11",
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      "text": "Third Line.",
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    {
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      "text": "Stake 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Inches 1 2 4 5 6 6 7 7 5 5 4",
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      "text": "244. Compare these lines together. You notice the velocity of the first is greater than that of the second, and the velocity of the second greater than that of the third.",
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      "start": 149935,
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      "text": "245. The lines were permitted to move down wards for 100 hours, at the end of which time the spaces passed over by the points of swiftest motion of the three lines were as follows:",
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    {
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      "text": "Maximum Motion in 100 Hours.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG63803.B00469",
      "bookId": 63803,
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      "text": "First line 56 inches. Second line 45 \" Third line 30 \"",
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    {
      "ref": "PG63803.B00515",
      "bookId": 63803,
      "start": 169938,
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      "text": "281. Here indeed resides the difficulty of getting along the eastern side of the Mer de Glace: a difficulty which was one reason for our crossing the glacier opposite to the Montanvert. There are two convex sweeps on the eastern side to one on the western side, hence on the whole the eastern side of the Mer de Glace is most riven.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG63803.B00516",
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      "text": "§ 43. _Moraine-ridges, Glacier Tables, and Sand-Cones._",
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    {
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      "text": "282. When you and I first crossed the Mer de Glace from Trélaporte to the Couvercle, we found that the stripes of rocks and rubbish which constituted the medial moraines were ridges raised above the general level of the glacier to a height at some places of twenty or thirty feet. On examining these ridges we found the rubbish to be superficial, and that it rested upon a great spine of ice which ran along the back of the glacier. By what means has this ridge of ice been raised?",
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      "text": "283. Most boys have read the story of Dr. Franklin's placing bits of cloth of various colours upon snow on a sunny day. The bits of cloth sank in the snow, the dark ones most.",
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      "bookId": 63803,
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      "text": "284. Consider this experiment. The sun's rays first of all fall upon the upper surface of the cloth and warm it. The heat is then conducted through the cloth to the under surface, and the under surface passes it on to the snow, which is finally liquefied by the heat. It is quite manifest that the quantity of snow melted will altogether depend upon the amount of heat sent from the upper to the under surface of the cloth.",
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      "text": "285. Now cloth is what is called a bad conductor. It does not permit heat to travel freely through it. But where it has merely to pass through the thickness of a single bit of cloth, a good quantity of the heat gets through. But if you double or treble or quintuple the thickness of the cloth; or, what is easier, if you put several pieces one upon the other, you come at length to a point where no sensible amount of heat could get through from the upper to the under surface.",
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      "text": "286. What must occur if such a thick piece, or such a series of pieces of cloth, were placed upon snow on which a strong sun is falling? The snow round the cloth is melted, but that underneath the cloth is protected. If the action continue long enough the inevitable result will be, that the level of the snow all round the cloth will sink, and the cloth will be left behind perched upon an eminence of snow.",
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      "text": "287. If you understand this, you have already mastered the cause of the moraine-ridges. They are not produced by any swelling of the ice upwards. But the ice underneath the rocks and rubbish being protected from the sun, the glacier right and left melts away and leaves a ridge behind.",
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      "text": "288. Various other appearances upon the glacier are accounted for in the same way. Here upon the Mer de Glace we have flat slabs of rock sometimes lifted up on pillars of ice. These are the so-called _Glacier Tables_. They are produced, not by the growth of a stalk of ice out of the glacier, but by the melting of the glacier all round the ice protected by the stone. Here is a sketch of one of the Tables of the Mer de Glace.",
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      "text": "[Illustration]",
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      "text": "289. Notice moreover that a glacier table is hardly ever set square upon its pillar. It generally leans to one side, and repeated observation teaches you that it so leans as to enable you always to draw the north and south line upon the glacier. For the sun being south of the zenith at noon pours its rays against the southern end of the table, while the northern end remains in shadow. The southern end, therefore, being most warmed does not protect the ice underneath it so effectually as the northern end. The table becomes inclined, and ends by sliding bodily off its pedestal.",
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      "text": "290. In the figure opposite we have what maybe called an ideal Table. The oblique lines represent the direction of the sunbeams, and the consequent tilting of the table here shown resembles that observed upon the glaciers.",
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      "text": "291. A pebble will not rise thus: like Franklin's single bit of cloth, a dark-coloured pebble sinks in the ice. A spot of black mould will not rest upon the surface, but will sink; and various parts of the Glacier du Géant are honeycombed by the sinking of such spots of dirt into the ice.",
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      "text": "§ 61. _Regelation Theory._",
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      "text": "412. I will now describe to you an attempt that has been made of late years to reconcile the brittleness of ice with, its motion in glaciers. It is founded on the observation, made by Mr. Faraday in 1850, that when two pieces of thawing ice are placed together they freeze together at the place of contact.",
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      "text": "413. This fact may not surprise you; still it surprised Mr. Faraday and others, and men of very great distinction in science have differed in their interpretation of the fact. The difficulty is to explain where, or how, in ice already thawing the cold is to be found requisite to freeze the film of water between the two touching surfaces.",
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      "text": "414. The word _Regelation_ was proposed by Dr. Hooker to express the freezing together of two pieces of thawing ice observed by Faraday; and the memoir in which the term was first used was published by Mr. Huxley and Mr. Tyndall in the Philosophical Transactions for 1857.",
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      "text": "415. The _fact_ of regelation, and its application irrespective of the _cause_ of regelation, may be thus illustrated:--Saw two slabs from a block of ice, and bring their flat surfaces into contact; they immediately freeze together. Two plates of ice, laid one upon the other, with flannel round them overnight, are sometimes so firmly frozen in the morning that they will rather break elsewhere than along their surface of junction. If you enter one of the dripping ice-caves of Switzerland, you have only to press for a moment a slab of ice against the roof of the cave to cause it to freeze there and stick to the roof.",
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      "text": "416. Place a number of fragments of ice in a basin of water, and cause them to touch each other; they freeze together where they touch. You can form a chain of such fragments; and then, by taking hold of one end of the chain, you can draw the whole series after it. Chains of icebergs are sometimes formed in this way in the Arctic seas.",
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      "text": "417. Consider what follows from these observations. Snow consists of small particles of ice. Now if by pressure we squeeze out the air entangled in thawing snow, and bring the little ice-granules into close contact, they may be expected to freeze together; and if the expulsion of the air be complete, the squeezed snow may be expected to assume the appearance of compact ice.",
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      "text": "418. We arrive at this conclusion by reasoning; let us now test it by experiment, employing a suitable hydraulic press, and a mould to hold the snow. In exact accordance with our expectation, we convert by pressure the snow into ice.[H]",
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      "text": "[H] A similar experiment was made by the Messrs. Schlagintweit prior to the discovery which explains it, and which therefore remained unsolved.",
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      "text": "419. Place a compact mass of ice in a proper mould, and subject it to pressure. It breaks in pieces: squeeze the pieces forcibly together; they re-unite by regelation, and a compact piece of ice, totally different in shape from the first one, is taken from the press. To produce this effect the ice must be in a thawing condition. When its temperature is much below the melting point it is crushed by pressure, not into a pellucid mass of another shape, but into a white powder.",
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      "text": "420. By means of suitable moulds you may in this way change the shape of ice to any extent, turning out spheres, and cups, and rings, and twisted ropes of the substance; the change of form in these cases being effected through rude fracture and regelation.",
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      "text": "421. By applying the pressure carefully, rude fracture may be avoided, and the ice compelled slowly to change its form as if it were a plastic body.",
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      "text": "422. Now our first experiment illustrates the consolidation of the snows of the higher Alpine regions. The deeper layers of the névé have to bear the weight of all above them, and are thereby converted into more or less perfect ice. And our last experiment illustrates the changes of form observed upon the glacier, where, by the slow and constant application of pressure, the ice gradually moulds itself to the valley, which it fills.",
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      "text": "423. In glaciers, however, we have also ample illustrations of rude fracture and regelation. The opening and closing of crevasses illustrate this. The glacier is broken on the cascades and mended at their bases. When two branch glaciers lay their sides together, the regelation is so firm that they begin immediately to flow in the trunk glacier as a single stream. The medial moraine gives no indication by its slowness of motion that it is derived from the sluggish ice of the sides of the branch glaciers.",
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      "text": "424. The gist of the Regelation Theory is that the ice of glaciers changes its form and preserves its continuity under _pressure_ which keeps its particles together. But when subjected to _tension_, sooner than stretch it _breaks_, and behaves no longer as a viscous body.",
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      "text": "§ 62. _Cause of Regelation._",
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      "text": "425. Here the fact of regelation is applied to explain the plasticity of glacier ice, no attempt being made to assign the cause of regelation itself. They are two entirely distinct questions. But a little time will be well spent in looking more closely into the cause of regelation. You may feel some surprise that eminent men should devote their attention to so small a point, but we must not forget that in nature nothing is small. Laws and principles interest the scientific student most, and these may be as well illustrated by small things as by large ones.",
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      "text": "426. The question of regelation immediately connects itself with that of \"latent heat,\" already referred to (383), but which we must now subject to further examination. To melt ice, as already stated, a large amount of heat is necessary, and in the case of the glaciers this heat is furnished by the sun. Neither the ice so melted nor the water which results from its liquefaction can fall below 32° Fahrenheit. The freezing point of water and the melting point of ice touch each other, as it were, at this temperature. A hair's-breadth lower water freezes; a hair's-breadth higher ice melts.",
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      "text": "427. But if the ice could be caused to melt without this supply of solar heat, a temperature lower than that of ordinary thawing ice would result. When snow and salt, or pounded ice and salt, are mixed together, the salt causes the ice to melt, and in this way a cold of 20 or 30 degrees below the freezing point may be produced. Here, in fact, the ice consumes _its own warmth_ in the work of liquefaction. Such a mixture of ice and salt is called \"a freezing mixture.\"",
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      "text": "428. And if by any other means ice at the temperature of 32° Fahrenheit could be liquefied without access of heat from without, the water produced would be colder than the ice. Now Professor James Thomson has proved that ice may be liquefied by mere _pressure_, and his brother, Sir William Thomson, has also shown that water under pressure requires a lower temperature to freeze it than when the pressure is removed. Professor Mousson subsequently liquefied large masses of ice by a hydraulic press; and by a beautiful experiment Professor Helmholtz has proved that water in a vessel from which the air has been removed, and which is therefore relieved from the pressure of the atmosphere, freezes and forms ice-crystals when surrounded by melting ice. All these facts are summed up in the brief statement _that the freezing point of water is lowered by pressure_.[I]",
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      "text": "[I] Professor James Thomson and Professor Clausius proved this independently and almost contemporaneously.",
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      "text": "429. For our own instruction we may produce the liquefaction of ice by pressure in the following way:--You remember the beautiful flowers obtained when a sunbeam is sent through lake ice (§ 11), and you have not forgotten that the flowers always form parallel to the surface of freezing. Let us cut a prism, or small column of ice with the planes of freezing running across it at right angles; we place that prism between two slabs of wood, and bring carefully to bear upon it the squeezing force of a small hydraulic press.",
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      "text": "438. Water furnishes an eminent example of this special solidifying power. It may be cooled ten degrees and more below its freezing point without freezing. But this is not possible if the smallest fragment of ice be floating in the water. It then freezes accurately at 32° Fahr., depositing itself, however, not upon the sides of the containing vessel, but _upon the ice_. Faraday observed in a freezing apparatus thin crystals of ice growing in ice-cold water to a length of six, eight, or ten inches, at a temperature incompetent to produce their deposition upon the sides of the containing vessel.",
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      "text": "439. And now we are prepared for Faraday's view of regelation. When the surfaces of two pieces of ice, covered with a film of the water of liquefaction, are brought together, the covering film is transferred from the surface to the centre of the ice, where the point of liquefaction, as before shown, is higher than at the surface. The special solidifying power of ice upon water is now brought into play _on both sides of the film_. Under these circumstances, Faraday held that the film would congeal, and freeze the two surfaces together.",
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      "text": "440. The lowering of the freezing point by pressure amounts to no more than one-seventieth of a degree Fahrenheit for a whole atmosphere. Considering the infinitesimal fraction of this pressure which is brought into play in some cases of regelation, Faraday thought its effect insensible. He suspended pieces of ice, and brought them into contact without sensible pressure, still they froze together. Professor James Thomson, however, considered that even the capillary attraction exerted between two such masses would be sufficient to produce regelation. You may make the following experiments, in further illustration of this subject:--",
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      "text": "441. Place a small piece of ice in water, and press it underneath the surface by a second piece. The submerged piece may be so small as to render the pressure infinitesimal; still it will freeze to the under surface of the superior piece.",
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      "text": "442. Place two pieces of ice in a basin of warm water, and allow them to come together; they freeze together when they touch. The parts surrounding the place of contact melt away, but the pieces continue for a time united by a narrow bridge of ice. The bridge finally melts, and the pieces for a moment are separated. But capillary attraction immediately draws them together, and regelation sets in once more. A new bridge is formed, which in its turn is dissolved, the separated pieces again closing up. A kind of pulsation is thus established between the two pieces of ice. They touch, they freeze, a bridge is formed and melted; and thus the rhythmic action continues until the ice disappears.",
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      "text": "443. According to Professor James Thomson's theory, pressure is necessary to liquefy the ice. The heat necessary for liquefaction must be drawn from the ice itself, and the cold water must escape from the pressure to be re-frozen. Now in the foregoing experiments the cold water, instead of being allowed to freeze, _issues into the warm water_, still the floating fragments regelate in a moment. The touching surfaces may, moreover, be convex; they may be reduced practically to _points_, clasped all round by the warm water, which indeed rapidly dissolve them as they approach each other; still they freeze immediately when they touch.",
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      "text": "444. You may learn from this discussion that in scientific matters, as in all others, there is room for differences of opinion. The frame of mind to be cultivated here is a suspension of judgment as long as the meaning remains in doubt. It may be that Faraday's action and Thomson's action come both into play. I cannot do better than finish these remarks by quoting Faraday's own concluding words, which show how in his mind scientific conviction dwelt apart from dogmatism:--\"No doubt,\" he says, \"nice experiments will enable us hereafter to criticise such results as these, and separating the true from the untrue will establish the correct theory of regelation.\"",
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      "text": "§ 64. _The Blue Veins of Glaciers._",
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      "text": "445. We now approach the end, one important question only remaining to be discussed. Hitherto we have kept it back, for a wide acquaintance with the glaciers was necessary to its solution. We had also to make ourselves familiar by actual experiment with the power of ice, softened by thaw, to yield to pressure, and to liquefy under such pressure.",
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      "text": "Therefore I say to you, it is we who are called as witnesses to give evidence as to what our Nation has been to humanity. We had known the hordes of Moghals and Pathans who invaded India, but we had known them as human races, with their own religions and customs, likes and dislikes,--we had never known them as a nation. We loved and hated them as occasions arose; we fought for them and against them, talked with them in a language which was theirs as well as our own, and guided the destiny of the Empire in which we had our active share. But this time we had to deal, not with kings, not with human races, but with a nation--we, who are no nation ourselves.",
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      "text": "Now let us from our own experience answer the question, What is this Nation?",
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      "text": "A nation, in the sense of the political and economic union of a people, is that aspect which a whole population assumes when organized for a mechanical purpose. Society as such has no ulterior purpose. It is an end in itself. It is a spontaneous self-expression of man as a social being. It is a natural regulation of human relationships, so that men can develop ideals of life in co-operation with one another. It has also a political side, but this is only for a special purpose. It is for self-preservation. It is merely the side of power, not of human ideals. And in the early days it had its separate place in society, restricted to the professionals. But when with the help of science and the perfecting of organization this power begins to grow and brings in harvests of wealth, then it crosses its boundaries with amazing rapidity. For then it goads all its neighbouring societies with greed of material prosperity, and consequent mutual jealousy, and by the fear of each other's growth into powerfulness. The time comes when it can stop no longer, for the competition grows keener, organization grows vaster, and selfishness attains supremacy. Trading upon the greed and fear of man, it occupies more and more space in society, and at last becomes its ruling force.",
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      "text": "It is just possible that you have lost through habit consciousness that the living bonds of society are breaking up, and giving place to merely mechanical organization. But you see signs of it everywhere. It is owing to this that war has been declared between man and woman, because the natural thread is snapping which holds them together in harmony; because man is driven to professionalism, producing wealth for himself and others, continually turning the wheel of power for his own sake or for the sake of the universal officialdom, leaving woman alone to wither and to die or to fight her own battle unaided. And thus there where co-operation is natural has intruded competition. The very psychology of men and women about their mutual relation is changing and becoming the psychology of the primitive fighting elements, rather than of humanity seeking its completeness through the union based upon mutual self-surrender. For the elements which have lost their living bond of reality have lost the meaning of their existence. Like gaseous particles forced into a too narrow space, they come in continual conflict with each other till they burst the very arrangement which holds them in bondage.",
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      "text": "Then look at those who call themselves anarchists, who resent the imposition of power, in any form whatever, upon the individual. The only reason for this is that power has become too abstract--it is a scientific product made in the political laboratory of the Nation, through the dissolution of personal humanity.",
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      "text": "And what is the meaning of these strikes in the economic world, which like the prickly shrubs in a barren soil shoot up with renewed vigour each time they are cut down? What, but that the wealth-producing mechanism is incessantly growing into vast stature, out of proportion to all other needs of society,--and the full reality of man is more and more crushed under its weight? This state of things inevitably gives rise to eternal feuds among the elements freed from the wholeness and wholesomeness of human ideals, and interminable economic war is waged between capital and labour. For greed of wealth and power can never have a limit, and compromise of self-interest can never attain the final spirit of reconciliation. They must go on breeding jealousy and suspicion to the end--the end which only comes through some sudden catastrophe or a spiritual re-birth.",
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      "text": "When this organization of politics and commerce, whose other name is the Nation, becomes all-powerful at the cost of the harmony of the higher social life, then it is an evil day for humanity. When a father becomes a gambler and his obligations to his family take the secondary place in his mind, then he is no longer a man, but an automaton led by the power of greed. Then he can do things which, in his normal state of mind, he would be ashamed to do. It is the same thing with society. When it allows itself to be turned into a perfect organization of power, then there are few crimes which it is unable to perpetrate. Because success is the object and justification of a machine, while goodness only is the end and purpose of man. When this engine of organization begins to attain a vast size, and those who are mechanics are made into parts of the machine, then the personal man is eliminated to a phantom, everything becomes a revolution of policy carried out by the human parts of the machine, with no twinge of pity or moral responsibility. It may happen that even through this apparatus the moral nature of man tries to assert itself, but the whole series of ropes and pullies creak and cry, the forces of the human heart become entangled among the forces of the human automaton, and only with difficulty can the moral purpose transmit itself into some tortured shape of result.",
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      "text": "This abstract being, the Nation, is ruling India. We have seen in our country some brand of tinned food advertised as entirely made and packed without being touched by hand. This description applies to the governing of India, which is as little touched by the human hand as possible. The governors need not know our language, need not come into personal touch with us except as officials; they can aid or hinder our aspirations from a disdainful distance, they can lead us on a certain path of policy and then pull us back again with the manipulation of office red tape; the newspapers of England, in whose columns London street accidents are recorded with some decency of pathos, need but take the scantiest notice of calamities which happen in India over areas of land sometimes larger than the British Isles.",
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      "text": "But we, who are governed, are not a mere abstraction. We, on our side, are individuals with living sensibilities. What comes to us in the shape of a mere bloodless policy may pierce into the very core of our life, may threaten the whole future of our people with a perpetual helplessness of emasculation, and yet may never touch the chord of humanity on the other side, or touch it in the most inadequately feeble manner. Such wholesale and universal acts of fearful responsibility man can never perform, with such a degree of systematic unawareness, where he is an individual human being. These only become possible, where the man is represented by an octopus of abstractions, sending out its wriggling arms in all directions of space, and fixing its innumerable suckers even into the far-away future. In this reign of the nation, the governed are pursued by suspicions; and these are the suspicions of a tremendous mass of organized brain and muscle. Punishments are meted out, which leave a trail of miseries across a large bleeding tract of the human heart; but these punishments are dealt by a mere abstract force, in which a whole population of a distant country has lost its human personality.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00072",
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      "text": "I have not come here, however, to discuss the question as it affects my own country, but as it affects the future of all humanity. It is not a question of the British Government, but of government by the Nation--the Nation which is the organized self-interest of a whole people, where it is least human and least spiritual. Our only intimate experience of the Nation is with the British Nation, and as far as the government by the Nation goes there are reasons to believe that it is one of the best. Then, again, we have to consider that the West is necessary to the East. We are complementary to each other because of our different outlooks upon life which have given us different aspects of truth. Therefore if it be true that the spirit of the West has come upon our fields in the guise of a storm it is nevertheless scattering living seeds that are immortal. And when in India we become able to assimilate in our life what is permanent in Western civilization we shall be in the position to bring about a reconciliation of these two great worlds. Then will come to an end the one-sided dominance which is galling. What is more, we have to recognize that the history of India does not belong to one particular race but to a process of creation to which various races of the world contributed--the Dravidians and the Aryans, the ancient Greeks and the Persians, the Mohammedans of the West and those of central Asia. Now at last has come the turn of the English to become true to this history and bring to it the tribute of their life, and we neither have the right nor the power to exclude this people from the building of the destiny of India. Therefore what I say about the Nation has more to do with the history of Man than specially with that of India.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00073",
      "bookId": 40766,
      "start": 19156,
      "end": 19857,
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      "text": "This history has come to a stage when the moral man, the complete man, is more and more giving way, almost without knowing it, to make room for the political and the commercial man, the man of the limited purpose. This process, aided by the wonderful progress in science, is assuming gigantic proportion and power, causing the upset of man's moral balance, obscuring his human side under the shadow of soul-less organization. We have felt its iron grip at the root of our life, and for the sake of humanity we must stand up and give warning to all, that this nationalism is a cruel epidemic of evil that is sweeping over the human world of the present age, and eating into its moral vitality.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00074",
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      "text": "I have a deep love and a great respect for the British race as human beings. It has produced great-hearted men, thinkers of great thoughts, doers of great deeds. It has given rise to a great literature. I know that these people love justice and freedom, and hate lies. They are clean in their minds, frank in their manners, true in their friendships; in their behaviour they are honest and reliable. The personal experience which I have had of their literary men has roused my admiration not merely for their power of thought or expression but for their chivalrous humanity. We have felt the greatness of this people as we feel the sun; but as for the Nation, it is for us a thick mist of a stifling nature covering the sun itself.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG40766.B00075",
      "bookId": 40766,
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      "text": "This government by the Nation is neither British nor anything else; it is an applied science and therefore more or less similar in its principles wherever it is used. It is like a hydraulic press, whose pressure is impersonal, and on that account completely effective. The amount of its power may vary in different engines. Some may even be driven by hand, thus leaving a margin of comfortable looseness in their tension, but in spirit and in method their differences are small. Our government might have been Dutch, or French, or Portuguese, and its essential features would have remained much the same as they are now. Only perhaps, in some cases, the organization might not have been so densely perfect, and, therefore, some shreds of the human might still have been clinging to the wreck, allowing us to deal with something which resembles our own throbbing heart.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00076",
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      "text": "Before the Nation came to rule over us we had other governments which were foreign, and these, like all governments, had some element of the machine in them. But the difference between them and the government by the Nation is like the difference between the hand-loom and the power-loom. In the products of the hand-loom the magic of man's living fingers finds its expression, and its hum harmonizes with the music of life. But the power-loom is relentlessly lifeless and accurate and monotonous in its production.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00077",
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      "text": "We must admit that during the personal government of the former days there have been instances of tyranny, injustice and extortion. They caused sufferings and unrest from which we are glad to be rescued. The protection of law is not only a boon, but it is a valuable lesson to us. It is teaching us the discipline which is necessary for the stability of civilization and for continuity of progress. We are realizing through it that there is a universal standard of justice to which all men, irrespective of their caste and colour, have their equal claim.",
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      "text": "This reign of law in our present Government in India has established order in this vast land inhabited by peoples different in their races and customs. It has made it possible for these peoples to come in closer touch with one another and cultivate a communion of aspiration.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00079",
      "bookId": 40766,
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      "text": "But this desire for a common bond of comradeship among the different races of India has been the work of the spirit of the West, not that of the Nation of the West. Wherever in Asia the people have received the true lesson of the West it is in spite of the Western Nation. Only because Japan had been able to resist the dominance of this Western Nation could she acquire the benefit of the Western Civilization in fullest measure. Though China has been poisoned at the very spring of her moral and physical life by this Nation, her struggle to receive the best lessons of the West may yet be successful if not hindered by the Nation. It was only the other day that Persia woke up from her age-long sleep at the call of the West to be instantly trampled into stillness by the Nation. The same phenomenon prevails in this country also, where the people are hospitable, but the Nation has proved itself to be otherwise, making an Eastern guest feel humiliated to stand before you as a member of the humanity of his own motherland.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG40766.B00080",
      "bookId": 40766,
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      "text": "In India we are suffering from this conflict between the spirit of the West and the Nation of the West. The benefit of the Western civilization is doled out to us in a miserly measure by the Nation, which tries to regulate the degree of nutrition as near the zero-point of vitality as possible. The portion of education allotted to us is so raggedly insufficient that it ought to outrage the sense of decency of a Western humanity. We have seen in these countries how the people are encouraged and trained and given every facility to fit themselves for the great movements of commerce and industry spreading over the world, while in India the only assistance we get is merely to be jeered at by the Nation for lagging behind. While depriving us of our opportunities and reducing our education to the minimum required for conducting a foreign government, this Nation pacifies its conscience by calling us names, by sedulously giving currency to the arrogant cynicism that the East is east and the West is west and never the twain shall meet. If we must believe our schoolmaster in his taunt that, after nearly two centuries of his tutelage, India not only remains unfit for self-government but unable to display originality in her intellectual attainments, must we ascribe it to something in the nature of Western culture and our inherent incapacity to receive it or to the judicious niggardliness of the Nation that has taken upon itself the white man's burden of civilizing the East? That Japanese people have some qualities which we lack we may admit, but that our intellect is naturally unproductive compared to theirs we cannot accept even from them whom it is dangerous for us to contradict.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00081",
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      "text": "The truth is that the spirit of conflict and conquest is at the origin and in the centre of Western nationalism; its basis is not social co-operation. It has evolved a perfect organization of power, but not spiritual idealism. It is like the pack of predatory creatures that must have its victims. With all its heart it cannot bear to see its hunting-grounds converted into cultivated fields. In fact, these nations are fighting among themselves for the extension of their victims and their reserve forests. Therefore the Western Nation acts like a dam to check the free flow of Western civilization into the country of the No-Nation. Because this civilization is the civilization of power, therefore it is exclusive, it is naturally unwilling to open its sources of power to those whom it has selected for its purposes of exploitation.",
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      "bookId": 40766,
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      "text": "But all the same moral law is the law of humanity, and the exclusive civilization which thrives upon others who are barred from its benefit carries its own death-sentence in its moral limitations. The slavery that it gives rise to unconsciously drains its own love of freedom dry. The helplessness with which it weighs down its world of victims exerts its force of gravitation every moment upon the power that creates it. And the greater part of the world which is being denuded of its self-sustaining life by the Nation will one day become the most terrible of all its burdens, ready to drag it down into the bottom of destruction. Whenever Power removes all checks from its path to make its career easy, it triumphantly rides into its ultimate crash of death. Its moral brake becomes slacker every day without its knowing it, and its slippery path of ease becomes its path of doom.",
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      "text": "Of all things in Western civilization, those which this Western Nation has given us in a most generous measure are law and order. While the small feeding-bottle of our education is nearly dry, and sanitation sucks its own thumb in despair, the military organization, the magisterial offices, the police, the Criminal Investigation Department, the secret spy system, attain to an abnormal girth in their waists, occupying every inch of our country. This is to maintain order. But is not this order merely a negative good? Is it not for giving people's life greater opportunities for the freedom of development? Its perfection is the perfection of an egg-shell, whose true value lies in the security it affords to the chick and its nourishment and not in the convenience it offers to the person at the breakfast table. Mere administration is unproductive, it is not creative, not being a living thing. It is a steam-roller, formidable in its weight and power, having its uses, but it does not help the soil to become fertile. When after its enormous toil it comes to offer us its boon of peace we can but murmur under our breath that \"peace is good, but not more so than life, which is God's own great boon.\"",
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    {
      "ref": "PG40766.B00084",
      "bookId": 40766,
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      "end": 30215,
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      "text": "On the other hand, our former governments were woefully lacking in many of the advantages of the modern government. But because those were not the governments by the Nation, their texture was loosely woven, leaving big gaps through which our own life sent its threads and imposed its designs. I am quite sure in those days we had things that were extremely distasteful to us. But we know that when we walk barefooted upon ground strewn with gravel, our feet come gradually to adjust themselves to the caprices of the inhospitable earth; while if the tiniest particle of gravel finds its lodgment inside our shoes we can never forget and forgive its intrusion. And these shoes are the government by the Nation,--it is tight, it regulates our steps with a closed-up system, within which our feet have only the slightest liberty to make their own adjustments. Therefore, when you produce your statistics to compare the number of gravels which our feet had to encounter in former days with the paucity in the present régime, they hardly touch the real points. It is not a question of the number of outside obstacles but the comparative powerlessness of the individual to cope with them. This narrowness of freedom is an evil which is more radical, not because of its quantity but because of its nature. And we cannot but acknowledge this paradox, that while the spirit of the West marches under its banner of freedom, the Nation of the West forges its iron chains of organization which are the most relentless and unbreakable that have ever been manufactured in the whole history of man.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00085",
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      "text": "When the humanity of India was not under the government of the Organization, the elasticity of change was great enough to encourage men of power and spirit to feel that they had their destinies in their own hands. The hope of the unexpected was never absent, and a freer play of imagination, on the part both of the governor and the governed, had its effect in the making of history. We were not confronted with a future, which was a dead white wall of granite blocks eternally guarding against the expression and extension of our own powers, the hopelessness of which lies in the reason that these powers are becoming atrophied at their very roots by the scientific process of paralysis. For every single individual in the country of the No-Nation is completely in the grip of a whole nation,--whose tireless vigilance, being the vigilance of a machine, has not the human power to overlook or to discriminate. At the least pressing of its button the monster organization becomes all eyes, whose ugly stare of inquisitiveness cannot be avoided by a single person amongst the immense multitude of the ruled. At the least turn of its screw, by the fraction of an inch, the grip is tightened to the point of suffocation around every man, woman and child of a vast population, for whom no escape is imaginable in their own country, or even in any country outside their own.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00086",
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      "text": "It is the continual and stupendous dead pressure of this inhuman upon the living human under which the modern world is groaning. Not merely the subject races, but you who live under the delusion that you are free, are every day sacrificing your freedom and humanity to this fetich of nationalism, living in the dense poisonous atmosphere of world-wide suspicion and greed and panic.",
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      "text": "I have seen in Japan the voluntary submission of the whole people to the trimming of their minds and clipping of their freedom by their government, which through various educational agencies regulates their thoughts, manufactures their feelings, becomes suspiciously watchful when they show signs of inclining toward the spiritual, leading them through a narrow path not toward what is true but what is necessary for the complete welding of them into one uniform mass according to its own recipe. The people accept this all-pervading mental slavery with cheerfulness and pride because of their nervous desire to turn themselves into a machine of power, called the Nation, and emulate other machines in their collective worldliness.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG40766.B00088",
      "bookId": 40766,
      "start": 32747,
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      "text": "When questioned as to the wisdom of its course the newly converted fanatic of nationalism answers that \"so long as nations are rampant in this world we have not the option freely to develop our higher humanity. We must utilize every faculty that we possess to resist the evil by assuming it ourselves in the fullest degree. For the only brotherhood possible in the modern world is the brotherhood of hooliganism.\" The recognition of the fraternal bond of love between Japan and Russia, which has lately been celebrated with an immense display of rejoicing in Japan, was not owing to any sudden recrudescence of the spirit of Christianity or of Buddhism, but it was a bond established according to the modern faith in a surer relationship of mutual menace of bloodshedding. Yes, one cannot but acknowledge that these facts are the facts of the world of the Nation, and the only moral of it is that all the peoples of the earth should strain their physical, moral and intellectual resources to the utmost to defeat one another in the wrestling match of powerfulness. In the ancient days Sparta paid all her attention to becoming powerful; she did become so by crippling her humanity, and died of the amputation.",
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      "text": "But it is no consolation to us to know that the weakening of humanity from which the present age is suffering is not limited to the subject races, and that its ravages are even more radical because insidious and voluntary in peoples who are hypnotized into believing that they are free. This bartering of your higher aspirations of life for profit and power has been your own free choice, and I leave you there, at the wreckage of your soul, contemplating your protuberant prosperity. But will you never be called to answer for organizing the instincts of self-aggrandizement of whole peoples into perfection and calling it good? I ask you what disaster has there ever been in the history of man, in its darkest period, like this terrible disaster of the Nation fixing its fangs deep into the naked flesh of the world, taking permanent precautions against its natural relaxation?",
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      "text": "You, the people of the West, who have manufactured this abnormality, can you imagine the desolating despair of this haunted world of suffering man possessed by the ghastly abstraction of the organizing man? Can you put yourself into the position of the peoples, who seem to have been doomed to an eternal damnation of their own humanity, who not only must suffer continual curtailment of their manhood, but even raise their voices in pæans of praise for the benignity of a mechanical apparatus in its interminable parody of providence?",
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      "text": "Then came the age of intellect, of science. We all know that intellect is impersonal. Our life, and our heart, are one with us, but our mind can be detached from the personal man and then only can it freely move in its world of thoughts. Our intellect is an ascetic who wears no clothes, takes no food, knows no sleep, has no wishes, feels no love or hatred or pity for human limitations, who only reasons, unmoved, through the vicissitudes of life. It burrows to the roots of things, because it has no personal concern with the thing itself. The grammarian walks straight through all poetry and goes to the root of words without obstruction, because he is not seeking reality, but law. When he finds the law, he is able to teach people how to master words. This is a power,--the power which fulfils some special usefulness, some particular need of man.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00099",
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      "text": "Reality is the harmony which gives to the component parts of a thing the equilibrium of the whole. You break it, and have in your hands the nomadic atoms fighting against one another, therefore unmeaning. Those who covet power try to get mastery of these aboriginal fighting elements, and through some narrow channels force them into some violent service for some particular needs of man.",
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      "text": "This satisfaction of man's needs is a great thing. It gives him freedom in the material world. It confers on him the benefit of a greater range of time and space. He can do things in a shorter time and occupies a larger space with more thoroughness of advantage. Therefore he can easily outstrip those who live in a world of a slower time and of space less fully occupied.",
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      "text": "This progress of power attains more and more rapidity of pace. And, for the reason that it is a detached part of man, it soon outruns the complete humanity. The moral man remains behind, because it has to deal with the whole reality, not merely with the law of things, which is impersonal and therefore abstract.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00102",
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      "text": "Thus, man with his mental and material power far outgrowing his moral strength, is like an exaggerated giraffe whose head has suddenly shot up miles away from the rest of him, making normal communication difficult to establish. This greedy head, with its huge dental organization, has been munching all the topmost foliage of the world, but the nourishment is too late in reaching his digestive organs, and his heart is suffering from want of blood. Of this present disharmony in man's nature the West seems to have been blissfully unconscious. The enormity of its material success has diverted all its attention toward self-congratulation on its bulk. The optimism of its logic goes on basing the calculations of its good fortune upon the indefinite prolongation of its railway lines toward eternity. It is superficial enough to think that all to-morrows are merely to-days, with the repeated additions of twenty-four hours. It has no fear of the chasm, which is opening wider every day, between man's ever-growing storehouses and the emptiness of his hungry humanity. Logic does not know that, under the lowest bed of endless strata of wealth and comforts, earthquakes are being hatched to restore the balance of the moral world, and one day the gaping gulf of spiritual vacuity will draw into its bottom the store of things that have their eternal love for the dust.",
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      "text": "Man in his fulness is not powerful, but perfect. Therefore, to turn him into mere power, you have to curtail his soul as much as possible. When we are fully human, we cannot fly at one another's throats; our instincts of social life, our traditions of moral ideals stand in the way. If you want me to take to butchering human beings, you must break up that wholeness of my humanity through some discipline which makes my will dead, my thoughts numb, my movements automatic, and then from the dissolution of the complex personal man will come out that abstraction, that destructive force, which has no relation to human truth, and therefore can be easily brutal or mechanical. Take away man from his natural surroundings, from the fulness of his communal life, with all its living associations of beauty and love and social obligations, and you will be able to turn him into so many fragments of a machine for the production of wealth on a gigantic scale. Turn a tree into a log and it will burn for you, but it will never bear living flowers and fruit.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG40766.B00104",
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      "text": "This process of dehumanizing has been going on in commerce and politics. And out of the long birth-throes of mechanical energy has been born this fully developed apparatus of magnificent power and surprising appetite which has been christened in the West as the Nation. As I have hinted before, because of its quality of abstraction it has, with the greatest ease, gone far ahead of the complete moral man. And having the conscience of a ghost and the callous perfection of an automaton, it is causing disasters of which the volcanic dissipations of the youthful moon would be ashamed to be brought into comparison. As a result, the suspicion of man for man stings all the limbs of this civilization like the hairs of the nettle. Each country is casting its net of espionage into the slimy bottom of the others, fishing for their secrets, the treacherous secrets which brew in the oozy depths of diplomacy. And what is their secret service but the nation's underground trade in kidnapping, murder and treachery and all the ugly crimes bred in the depth of rottenness? Because each nation has its own history of thieving and lies and broken faith, therefore there can only flourish international suspicion and jealousy, and international moral shame becomes anæmic to a degree of ludicrousness. The nation's bagpipe of righteous indignation has so often changed its tune according to the variation of time and to the altered groupings of the alliances of diplomacy, that it can be enjoyed with amusement as the variety performance of the political music hall.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00105",
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      "text": "I am just coming from my visit to Japan, where I exhorted this young nation to take its stand upon the higher ideals of humanity and never to follow the West in its acceptance of the organized selfishness of Nationalism as its religion, never to gloat upon the feebleness of its neighbours, never to be unscrupulous in its behaviour to the weak, where it can be gloriously mean with impunity, while turning its right cheek of brighter humanity for the kiss of admiration to those who have the power to deal it a blow. Some of the newspapers praised my utterances for their poetical qualities, while adding with a leer that it was the poetry of a defeated people. I felt they were right. Japan had been taught in a modern school the lesson how to become powerful. The schooling is done and she must enjoy the fruits of her lessons. The West in the voice of her thundering cannon had said at the door of Japan, Let there be a nation--and there was a Nation. And now that it _has_ come into existence, why do you not feel in your heart of hearts a pure feeling of gladness and say that it is good? Why is it that I saw in an English paper an expression of bitterness at Japan's boasting of her superiority of civilization--the thing that the British, along with other nations, has been carrying on for ages without blushing? Because the idealism of selfishness must keep itself drunk with a continual dose of self-laudation. But the same vices which seem so natural and innocuous in its own life make it surprised and angry at their unpleasantness when seen in other nations. Therefore, when you see the Japanese nation, created in your own image, launched in its career of national boastfulness you shake your head and say, it is not good. Has it not been one of the causes that raise the cry on these shores for preparedness to meet one more power of evil with a greater power of injury? Japan protests that she has her _bushido_, that she can never be treacherous to America, to whom she owes her gratitude. But you find it difficult to believe her,--for the wisdom of the Nation is not in its faith in humanity but in its complete distrust. You say to yourself that it is not with Japan of the _bushido_, the Japan of the moral ideals, that you have to deal--it is with the abstraction of the popular selfishness, it is with the Nation; and Nation can only trust Nation where their interests coalesce, or at least do not conflict. In fact your instinct tells you that the advent of another people into the arena of nationality makes another addition to the evil which contradicts all that is highest in Man and proves by its success that unscrupulousness is the way to prosperity,--and goodness is good for the weak and God is the only remaining consolation of the defeated.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00106",
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      "text": "Yes, this is the logic of the Nation. And it will never heed the voice of truth and goodness. It will go on in its ring-dance of moral corruption, linking steel unto steel, and machine unto machine; trampling under its tread all the sweet flowers of simple faith and the living ideals of man.",
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      "text": "Then fell the darkness of night upon all the lands of the East. The current of time seemed to stop at once, and Asia ceased to take any new food, feeding upon its own past, which is really feeding upon itself. The stillness seemed like death, and the great voice was silenced which sent forth messages of eternal truth that have saved man's life from pollution for generations, like the ocean of air that keeps the earth sweet, ever cleansing its impurities.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00125",
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      "text": "But life has its sleep, its periods of inactivity, when it loses its movements, takes no new food, living upon its past storage. Then it grows helpless, its muscles relaxed, and it easily lends itself to be jeered at for its stupor. In the rhythm of life, pauses there must be for the renewal of life. Life in its activity is ever spending itself, burning all its fuel. This extravagance cannot go on indefinitely, but is always followed by a passive stage, when all expenditure is stopped and all adventures abandoned in favour of rest and slow recuperation.",
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      "text": "The tendency of mind is economical, it loves to form habits and move in grooves which save it the trouble of thinking anew at each of its steps. Ideals once formed make the mind lazy. It becomes afraid to risk its acquisitions in fresh endeavours. It tries to enjoy complete security by shutting up its belongings behind fortifications of habits. But this is really shutting oneself up from the fullest enjoyment of one's own possessions. It is miserliness. The living ideals must not lose their touch with the growing and changing life. Their real freedom is not within the boundaries of security, but in the highroad of adventures, full of the risk of new experiences.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00127",
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      "text": "One morning the whole world looked up in surprise when Japan broke through her walls of old habits in a night and came out triumphant. It was done in such an incredibly short time that it seemed like a change of dress and not like the building up of a new structure. She showed the confident strength of maturity, and the freshness and infinite potentiality of new life at the same moment. The fear was entertained that it was a mere freak of history, a child's game of Time, the blowing up of a soap-bubble, perfect in its rondure and colouring, hollow in its heart and without substance. But Japan has proved conclusively that this sudden revealment of her power is not a short-lived wonder, a chance product of time and tide, thrown up from the depth of obscurity to be swept away the next moment into the sea of oblivion.",
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      "text": "The truth is that Japan is old and new at the same time. She has her legacy of ancient culture from the East,--the culture that enjoins man to look for his true wealth and power in his inner soul, the culture that gives self-possession in the face of loss and danger, self-sacrifice without counting the cost or hoping for gain, defiance of death, acceptance of countless social obligations that we owe to men as social beings. In a word, modern Japan has come out of the immemorial East like a lotus blossoming in easy grace, all the while keeping its firm hold upon the profound depth from which it has sprung.",
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      "text": "And Japan, the child of the Ancient East, has also fearlessly claimed all the gifts of the modern age for herself. She has shown her bold spirit in breaking through the confinements of habits, useless accumulations of the lazy mind, which seeks safety in its thrift and its locks and keys. Thus she has come in contact with the living time and has accepted with eagerness and aptitude the responsibilities of modern civilization.",
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      "text": "This it is which has given heart to the rest of Asia. We have seen that the life and the strength are there in us, only the dead crust has to be removed. We have seen that taking shelter in the dead is death itself, and only taking all the risk of life to the fullest extent is living.",
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      "text": "I, for myself, cannot believe that Japan has become what she is by imitating the West. We cannot imitate life, we cannot simulate strength for long, nay, what is more, a mere imitation is a source of weakness. For it hampers our true nature, it is always in our way. It is like dressing our skeleton with another man's skin, giving rise to eternal feuds between the skin and the bones at every movement.",
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      "bookId": 40766,
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      "text": "The real truth is that science is not man's nature, it is mere knowledge and training. By knowing the laws of the material universe you do not change your deeper humanity. You can borrow knowledge from others, but you cannot borrow temperament.",
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      "bookId": 40766,
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      "text": "But at the imitative stage of our schooling we cannot distinguish between the essential and the non-essential, between what is transferable and what is not. It is something like the faith of the primitive mind in the magical properties of the accidents of outward forms which accompany some real truth. We are afraid of leaving out something valuable and efficacious by not swallowing the husk with the kernel. But while our greed delights in wholesale appropriation, it is the function of our vital nature to assimilate, which is the only true appropriation for a living organism. Where there is life it is sure to assert itself by its choice of acceptance and refusal according to its constitutional necessity. The living organism does not allow itself to grow into its food, it changes its food into its own body. And only thus can it grow strong and not by mere accumulation, or by giving up its personal identity.",
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      "text": "Japan has imported her food from the West, but not her vital nature. Japan cannot altogether lose and merge herself in the scientific paraphernalia she has acquired from the West and be turned into a mere borrowed machine. She has her own soul, which must assert itself over all her requirements. That she is capable of doing so, and that the process of assimilation is going on, have been amply proved by the signs of vigorous health that she exhibits. And I earnestly hope that Japan may never lose her faith in her own soul, in the mere pride of her foreign acquisition. For that pride itself is a humiliation, ultimately leading to poverty and weakness. It is the pride of the fop who sets more store on his new headdress than on his head itself.",
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      "text": "And this has made me all the more apprehensive of the change which threatens Japanese civilization, as something like a menace to one's own person. For the huge heterogeneity of the modern age, whose only common bond is usefulness, is nowhere so pitifully exposed against the dignity and hidden power of reticent beauty as in Japan.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "bookId": 40766,
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      "text": "But the danger lies in this, that organized ugliness storms the mind and carries the day by its mass, by its aggressive persistence, by its power of mockery directed against the deeper sentiments of heart. Its harsh obtrusiveness makes it forcibly visible to us, overcoming our senses,--and we bring sacrifices to its altar, as does a savage to the fetich which appears powerful because of its hideousness. Therefore its rivalry with things that are modest and profound and have the subtle delicacy of life is to be dreaded.",
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      "bookId": 40766,
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      "text": "I am quite sure that there are men in your country who are not in sympathy with your inherited ideals; whose object is to gain, and not to grow. They are loud in their boast that they have modernized Japan. While I agree with them so far as to say that the spirit of the race should harmonize with the spirit of the time, I must warn them that modernizing is a mere affectation of modernism, just as affectation of poesy is poetizing. It is nothing but mimicry, only affectation is louder than the original, and it is too literal. One must bear in mind that those who have the true modern spirit need not modernize, just as those who are truly brave are not braggarts. Modernism is not in the dress of the Europeans; or in the hideous structures, where their children are interned when they take their lessons; or in the square houses with flat, straight wall-surfaces, pierced with parallel lines of windows, where these people are caged in their lifetime; certainly modernism is not in their ladies' bonnets, carrying on them loads of incongruities. These are not modern, but merely European. True modernism is freedom of mind, not slavery of taste. It is independence of thought and action, not tutelage under European schoolmasters. It is science, but not its wrong application in life,--a mere imitation of our science teachers who reduce it into a superstition, absurdly invoking its aid for all impossible purposes.",
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      "text": "Life based upon mere science is attractive to some men, because it has all the characteristics of sport; it feigns seriousness, but is not profound. When you go a-hunting, the less pity you have the better; for your one object is to chase the game and kill it, to feel that you are the greater animal, that your method of destruction is thorough and scientific. And the life of science is that superficial life. It pursues success with skill and thoroughness, and takes no account of the higher nature of man. But those whose minds are crude enough to plan their lives upon the supposition that man is merely a hunter and his paradise the paradise of sportsmen will be rudely awakened in the midst of their trophies of skeletons and skulls.",
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      "text": "I do not for a moment suggest that Japan should be unmindful of acquiring modern weapons of self-protection. But this should never be allowed to go beyond her instinct of self-preservation. She must know that the real power is not in the weapons themselves, but in the man who wields those weapons; and when he, in his eagerness for power, multiplies his weapons at the cost of his own soul, then it is he who is in even greater danger than his enemies.",
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      "text": "Things that are living are so easily hurt; therefore they require protection. In nature, life protects itself within its coverings, which are built with life's own material. Therefore they are in harmony with life's growth, or else when the time comes they easily give way and are forgotten. The living man has his true protection in his spiritual ideals, which have their vital connection with his life and grow with his growth. But, unfortunately, all his armour is not living,--some of it is made of steel, inert and mechanical. Therefore, while making use of it, man has to be careful to protect himself from its tyranny. If he is weak enough to grow smaller to fit himself to his covering, then it becomes a process of gradual suicide by shrinkage of the soul. And Japan must have a firm faith in the moral law of existence to be able to assert to herself that the Western nations are following that path of suicide, where they are smothering their humanity under the immense weight of organizations in order to keep themselves in power and hold others in subjection.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00158",
      "bookId": 40766,
      "start": 93556,
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      "text": "What is dangerous for Japan is, not the imitation of the outer features of the West, but the acceptance of the motive force of the Western nationalism as her own. Her social ideals are already showing signs of defeat at the hands of politics. I can see her motto, taken from science, \"Survival of the Fittest,\" writ large at the entrance of her present-day history--the motto whose meaning is, \"Help yourself, and never heed what it costs to others\"; the motto of the blind man who only believes in what he can touch, because he cannot see. But those who can see know that men are so closely knit that when you strike others the blow comes back to yourself. The moral law, which is the greatest discovery of man, is the discovery of this wonderful truth, that man becomes all the truer the more he realizes himself in others. This truth has not only a subjective value, but is manifested in every department of our life. And nations who sedulously cultivate moral blindness as the cult of patriotism will end their existence in a sudden and violent death. In past ages we had foreign invasions, but they never touched the soul of the people deeply. They were merely the outcome of individual ambitions. The people themselves, being free from the responsibilities of the baser and more heinous side of those adventures, had all the advantage of the heroic and the human disciplines derived from them. This developed their unflinching loyalty, their single-minded devotion to the obligations of honour, their power of complete self-surrender and fearless acceptance of death and danger. Therefore the ideals, whose seats were in the hearts of the people, would not undergo any serious change owing to the policies adopted by the kings or generals. But now, where the spirit of the Western nationalism prevails, the whole people is being taught from boyhood to foster hatreds and ambitions by all kinds of means--by the manufacture of half-truths and untruths in history, by persistent misrepresentation of other races and the culture of unfavourable sentiments towards them, by setting up memorials of events, very often false, which for the sake of humanity should be speedily forgotten, thus continually brewing evil menace towards neighbours and nations other than their own. This is poisoning the very fountainhead of humanity. It is discrediting the ideals, which were born of the lives of men who were our greatest and best. It is holding up gigantic selfishness as the one universal religion for all nations of the world. We can take anything else from the hands of science, but not this elixir of moral death. Never think for a moment that the hurts you inflict upon other races will not infect you, or that the enmities you sow around your homes will be a wall of protection to you for all time to come. To imbue the minds of a whole people with an abnormal vanity of its own superiority, to teach it to take pride in its moral callousness and ill-begotten wealth, to perpetuate humiliation of defeated nations by exhibiting trophies won from war, and using these in schools in order to breed in children's minds contempt for others, is imitating the West where she has a festering sore, whose swelling is a swelling of disease eating into its vitality.",
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      "text": "Our food crops, which are necessary for our sustenance, are products of centuries of selection and care. But the vegetation, which we have not to transform into our lives, does not require the patient thoughts of generations. It is not easy to get rid of weeds; but it is easy, by process of neglect, to ruin your food crops and let them revert to their primitive state of wildness. Likewise the culture, which has so kindly adapted itself to your soil--so intimate with life, so human--not only needed tilling and weeding in past ages, but still needs anxious work and watching. What is merely modern--as science and methods of organization--can be transplanted; but what is vitally human has fibres so delicate, and roots so numerous and far-reaching, that it dies when moved from its soil. Therefore I am afraid of the rude pressure of the political ideals of the West upon your own. In political civilization, the state is an abstraction and relationship of men utilitarian. Because it has no root in sentiments, it is so dangerously easy to handle. Half a century has been enough for you to master this machine; and there are men among you whose fondness for it exceeds their love for the living ideals, which were born with the birth of your nation and nursed in your centuries. It is like a child who, in the excitement of his play, imagines he likes his playthings better than his mother.",
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      "text": "Where man is at his greatest, he is unconscious. Your civilization, whose mainspring is the bond of human relationship, has been nourished in the depth of a healthy life beyond reach of prying self-analysis. But a mere political relationship is all-conscious; it is an eruptive inflammation of aggressiveness. It has forcibly burst upon your notice. And the time has come when you have to be roused into full consciousness of the truth by which you live, so that you may not be taken unawares. The past has been God's gift to you; about the present, you must make your own choice.",
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      "text": "So the questions you have to put to yourselves are these--\"Have we read the world wrong, and based our relation to it upon an ignorance of human nature? Is the instinct of the West right, where she builds her national welfare behind the barricade of a universal distrust of humanity?\"",
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      "text": "You must have detected a strong accent of fear whenever the West has discussed the possibility of the rise of an Eastern race. The reason of it is this, that the power by whose help she thrives is an evil power; so long as it is held on her own side she can be safe, while the rest of the world trembles. The vital ambition of the present civilization of Europe is to have the exclusive possession of the devil. All her armaments and diplomacy are directed upon this one object. But these costly rituals for invocation of the evil spirit lead through a path of prosperity to the brink of cataclysm. The furies of terror, which the West has let loose upon God's world, come back to threaten herself and goad her into preparations of more and more frightfulness; this gives her no rest, and makes her forget all else but the perils that she causes to others and incurs herself. To the worship of this devil of politics she sacrifices other countries as victims. She feeds upon their dead flesh and grows fat upon it, so long as the carcasses remain fresh,--but they are sure to rot at last, and the dead will take their revenge, by spreading pollution far and wide and poisoning the vitality of the feeder. Japan had all her wealth of humanity, her harmony of heroism and beauty, her depth of self-control and richness of self-expression; yet the Western nations felt no respect for her till she proved that the bloodhounds of Satan are not only bred in the kennels of Europe but can also be domesticated in Japan and fed with man's miseries. They admit Japan's equality with themselves, only when they know that Japan also possesses the key to open the floodgate of hell-fire upon the fair earth whenever she chooses, and can dance, in their own measure, the devil dance of pillage, murder and ravishment of innocent women, while the world goes to ruin. We know that, in the early stage of man's moral immaturity, he only feels reverence for the god whose malevolence he dreads. But is this the ideal of man which we can look up to with pride? After centuries of civilization nations fearing each other like the prowling wild beasts of the night-time; shutting their doors of hospitality; combining only for purpose of aggression or defence; hiding in their holes their trade secrets, state secrets, secrets of their armaments; making peace-offerings to each other's barking dogs with the meat which does not belong to them; holding down fallen races which struggle to stand upon their feet; with their right hands dispensing religion to weaker peoples, while robbing them with their left,--is there anything in this to make us envious? Are we to bend our knees to the spirit of this nationalism, which is sowing broadcast over all the world seeds of fear, greed, suspicion, unashamed lies of its diplomacy, and unctuous lies of its profession of peace and good-will and universal brotherhood of Man? Can our minds be free from doubt when we rush to the Western market to buy this foreign product in exchange for our own inheritance? I am aware how difficult it is to know one's self; and the man who is intoxicated furiously denies his drunkenness; yet the West herself is anxiously thinking of her problems and trying experiments. But she is like a glutton, who has not the heart to give up his intemperance in eating, and fondly clings to the hope that he can cure his nightmares of indigestion by medicine. Europe is not ready to give up her political inhumanity, with all the baser passions of man attendant upon it; she believes only in modification of systems, and not in change of heart.",
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      "text": "We are willing to buy their machine-made systems, not with our hearts, but with our brains. We shall try them and build sheds for them, but not enshrine them in our homes or temples. There are races who worship the animals they kill; we can buy meat from them when we are hungry, but not the worship which goes with the killing. We must not vitiate our children's minds with the superstition that business is business, war is war, politics is politics. We must know that man's business has to be more than mere business, and so should be his war and politics. You had your own industry in Japan; how scrupulously honest and true it was, you can see by its products,--by their grace and strength, their conscientiousness in details, where they can hardly be observed. But the tidal wave of falsehood has swept over your land from that part of the world where business is business, and honesty is followed merely as the best policy. Have you never felt shame when you see the trade advertisements, not only plastering the whole town with lies and exaggerations, but invading the green fields, where the peasants do their honest labour, and the hill-tops, which greet the first pure light of the morning? It is so easy to dull our sense of honour and delicacy of mind with constant abrasion, while falsehoods stalk abroad with proud steps in the name of trade, politics and patriotism, that any protest against their perpetual intrusion into our lives is considered to be sentimentalism, unworthy of true manliness.",
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      "text": "And it has come to pass that the children of those heroes who would keep their word at the point of death, who would disdain to cheat men for vulgar profit, who even in their fight would much rather court defeat than be dishonourable, have become energetic in dealing with falsehoods and do not feel humiliated by gaining advantage from them. And this has been effected by the charm of the word \"modern.\" But if undiluted utility be modern, beauty is of all ages; if mean selfishness be modern, the human ideals are no new inventions. And we must know for certain that however modern may be the proficiency which cripples man for the sake of methods and machines, it will never live to be old.",
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      "text": "But while trying to free our minds from the arrogant claims of Europe and to help ourselves out of the quicksands of our infatuation, we may go to the other extreme and blind ourselves with a wholesale suspicion of the West. The reaction of disillusionment is just as unreal as the first shock of illusion. We must try to come to that normal state of mind by which we can clearly discern our own danger and avoid it without being unjust towards the source of that danger. There is always the natural temptation in us of wishing to pay back Europe in her own coin, and return contempt for contempt and evil for evil. But that again would be to imitate Europe in one of her worst features, which comes out in her behaviour to people whom she describes as yellow or red, brown or black. And this is a point on which we in the East have to acknowledge our guilt and own that our sin has been as great, if not greater, when we insulted humanity by treating with utter disdain and cruelty men who belonged to a particular creed, colour or caste. It is really because we are afraid of our own weakness, which allows itself to be overcome by the sight of power, that we try to substitute for it another weakness which makes itself blind to the glories of the West. When we truly know the Europe which is great and good, we can effectively save ourselves from the Europe which is mean and grasping. It is easy to be unfair in one's judgment when one is faced with human miseries,--and pessimism is the result of building theories while the mind is suffering. To despair of humanity is only possible if we lose faith in truth which brings to it strength, when its defeat is greatest, and calls out new life from the depth of its destruction. We must admit that there is a living soul in the West which is struggling unobserved against the hugeness of the organizations under which men, women and children are being crushed, and whose mechanical necessities are ignoring laws that are spiritual and human,--the soul whose sensibilities refuse to be dulled completely by dangerous habits of heedlessness in dealings with races for whom it lacks natural sympathy. The West could never have risen to the eminence she has reached if her strength were merely the strength of the brute or of the machine. The divine in her heart is suffering from the injuries inflicted by her hands upon the world,--and from this pain of her higher nature flows the secret balm which will bring healing to those injuries. Time after time she has fought against herself and has undone the chains which with her own hands she had fastened round helpless limbs; and though she forced poison down the throat of a great nation at the point of the sword for gain of money, she herself woke up to withdraw from it, to wash her hands clean again. This shows hidden springs of humanity in spots which look dead and barren. It proves that the deeper truth in her nature, which can survive such a career of cruel cowardliness, is not greed, but reverence for unselfish ideals. It would be altogether unjust, both to us and to Europe, to say that she has fascinated the modern Eastern mind by the mere exhibition of her power. Through the smoke of cannons and dust of markets the light of her moral nature has shone bright, and she has brought to us the ideal of ethical freedom, whose foundation lies deeper than social conventions and whose province of activity is world-wide.",
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      "text": "The East has instinctively felt, even through her aversion, that she has a great deal to learn from Europe, not merely about the materials of power, but about its inner source, which is of mind and of the moral nature of man. Europe has been teaching us the higher obligations of public good above those of the family and the clan, and the sacredness of law, which makes society independent of individual caprice, secures for it continuity of progress, and guarantees justice to all men of all positions in life. Above all things Europe has held high before our minds the banner of liberty, through centuries of martyrdom and achievement,--liberty of conscience, liberty of thought and action, liberty in the ideals of art and literature. And because Europe has won our deep respect, she has become so dangerous for us where she is turbulently weak and false,--dangerous like poison when it is served along with our best food. There is one safety for us upon which we hope we may count, and that is, that we can claim Europe herself as our ally in our resistance to her temptations and to her violent encroachments; for she has ever carried her own standard of perfection, by which we can measure her falls and gauge her degrees of failure, by which we can call her before her own tribunal and put her to shame,--the shame which is the sign of the true pride of nobleness.",
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      "text": "But our fear is, that the poison may be more powerful than the food, and what is strength in her to-day may not be the sign of health, but the contrary; for it may be temporarily caused by the upsetting of the balance of life. Our fear is that evil has a fateful fascination when it assumes dimensions which are colossal,--and though at last it is sure to lose its centre of gravity by its abnormal disproportion, the mischief which it creates before its fall may be beyond reparation.",
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      "text": "Therefore I ask you to have the strength of faith and clarity of mind to know for certain that the lumbering structure of modern progress, riveted by the iron bolts of efficiency, which runs upon the wheels of ambition, cannot hold together for long. Collisions are certain to occur; for it has to travel upon organized lines, it is too heavy to choose its own course freely; and once it is off the rails, its endless train of vehicles is dislocated. A day will come when it will fall in a heap of ruin and cause serious obstruction to the traffic of the world. Do we not see signs of this even now? Does not the voice come to us, through the din of war, the shrieks of hatred, the wailings of despair, through the churning up of the unspeakable filth which has been accumulating for ages in the bottom of this nationalism,--the voice which cries to our soul that the tower of national selfishness, which goes by the name of patriotism, which has raised its banner of treason against heaven, must totter and fall with a crash, weighed down by its own bulk, its flag kissing the dust, its light extinguished? My brothers, when the red light of conflagration sends up its crackle of laughter to the stars, keep your faith upon those stars and not upon the fire of destruction. For when this conflagration consumes itself and dies down, leaving its memorial in ashes, the eternal light will again shine in the East,--the East which has been the birthplace of the morning sun of man's history. And who knows if that day has not already dawned, and the sun not risen, in the Easternmost horizon of Asia? And I offer, as did my ancestor rishis, my salutation to that sunrise of the East, which is destined once again to illumine the whole world.",
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      "text": "I know my voice is too feeble to raise itself above the uproar of this bustling time, and it is easy for any street urchin to fling against me the epithet of \"unpractical.\" It will stick to my coat-tail, never to be washed away, effectively excluding me from the consideration of all respectable persons. I know what a risk one runs from the vigorously athletic crowds in being styled an idealist in these days, when thrones have lost their dignity and prophets have become an anachronism, when the sound that drowns all voices is the noise of the market-place. Yet when, one day, standing on the outskirts of Yokohama town, bristling with its display of modern miscellanies, I watched the sunset in your southern sea, and saw its peace and majesty among your pine-clad hills,--with the great Fujiyama growing faint against the golden horizon, like a god overcome with his own radiance,--the music of eternity welled up through the evening silence, and I felt that the sky and the earth and the lyrics of the dawn and the dayfall are with the poets and idealists, and not with the marketmen robustly contemptuous of all sentiment,--that, after the forgetfulness of his own divinity, man will remember again that heaven is always in touch with his world, which can never be abandoned for good to the hounding wolves of the modern era, scenting human blood and howling to the skies.",
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      "text": "NATIONALISM IN INDIA",
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      "text": "Our real problem in India is not political. It is social. This is a condition not only prevailing in India, but among all nations. I do not believe in an exclusive political interest. Politics in the West have dominated Western ideals, and we in India are trying to imitate you. We have to remember that in Europe, where peoples had their racial unity from the beginning, and where natural resources were insufficient for the inhabitants, the civilization has naturally taken the character of political and commercial aggressiveness. For on the one hand they had no internal complications, and on the other they had to deal with neighbours who were strong and rapacious. To have perfect combination among themselves and a watchful attitude of animosity against others was taken as the solution of their problems. In former days they organized and plundered, in the present age the same spirit continues--and they organize and exploit the whole world.",
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      "text": "But from the earliest beginnings of history India has had her own problem constantly before her--it is the race problem. Each nation must be conscious of its mission, and we, in India, must realize that we cut a poor figure when we are trying to be political, simply because we have not yet been finally able to accomplish what was set before us by our providence.",
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      "text": "This problem of race unity which we have been trying to solve for so many years has likewise to be faced by you here in America. Many people in this country ask me what is happening as to the caste distinctions in India. But when this question is asked me, it is usually done with a superior air. And I feel tempted to put the same question to our American critics with a slight modification, \"What have you done with the Red Indian and the Negro?\" For you have not got over your attitude of caste toward them. You have used violent methods to keep aloof from other races, but until you have solved the question here in America, you have no right to question India.",
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      "text": "In spite of our great difficulty, however, India has done something. She has tried to make an adjustment of races, to acknowledge the real differences between them where these exist, and yet seek for some basis of unity. This basis has come through our saints, like Nanak, Kabir, Chaitnaya and others, preaching one God to all races of India.",
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      "ref": "PG40766.B00175",
      "bookId": 40766,
      "start": 116005,
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      "text": "In finding the solution of our problem we shall have helped to solve the world problem as well. What India has been, the whole world is now. The whole world is becoming one country through scientific facility. And the moment is arriving when you also must find a basis of unity which is not political. If India can offer to the world her solution, it will be a contribution to humanity. There is only one history--the history of man. All national histories are merely chapters in the larger one. And we are content in India to suffer for such a great cause.",
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      "text": "Each individual has his self-love. Therefore his brute instinct leads him to fight with others in the sole pursuit of his self-interest. But man has also his higher instincts of sympathy and mutual help. The people who are lacking in this higher moral power and who therefore cannot combine in fellowship with one another must perish or live in a state of degradation. Only those peoples have survived and achieved civilization who have this spirit of co-operation strong in them. So we find that from the beginning of history men had to choose between fighting with one another and combining, between serving their own interest or the common interest of all.",
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      "text": "In our early history, when the geographical limits of each country and also the facilities of communication were small, this problem was comparatively small in dimension. It was sufficient for men to develop their sense of unity within their area of segregation. In those days they combined among themselves and fought against others. But it was this moral spirit of combination which was the true basis of their greatness, and this fostered their art, science and religion. At that early time the most important fact that man had to take count of was the fact of the members of one particular race of men coming in close contact with one another. Those who truly grasped this fact through their higher nature made their mark in history.",
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      "text": "The most important fact of the present age is that all the different races of men have come close together. And again we are confronted with two alternatives. The problem is whether the different groups of peoples shall go on fighting with one another or find out some true basis of reconciliation and mutual help; whether it will be interminable competition or co-operation.",
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      "text": "In the beginning of the history of political agitation in India there was not the conflict between parties which there is to-day. At that time there was a party known as the Indian Congress; it had no real programme. They had a few grievances for redress by the authorities. They wanted larger representation in the Council House, and more freedom in Municipal government. They wanted scraps of things, but they had no constructive ideal. Therefore I was lacking in enthusiasm for their methods. It was my conviction that what India most needed was constructive work coming from within herself. In this work we must take all risks and go on doing the duties which by right are ours, though in the teeth of persecution; winning moral victory at every step, by our failure and suffering. We must show those who are over us that we have in ourselves the strength of moral power, the power to suffer for truth. Where we have nothing to show, we have only to beg. It would be mischievous if the gifts we wish for were granted to us at once, and I have told my countrymen, time and again, to combine for the work of creating opportunities to give vent to our spirit of self-sacrifice, and not for the purpose of begging.",
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      "text": "The party, however, lost power because the people soon came to realize how futile was the half policy adopted by them. The party split, and there arrived the Extremists, who advocated independence of action, and discarded the begging method,--the easiest method of relieving one's mind from his responsibility towards his country. Their ideals were based on Western history. They had no sympathy with the special problems of India. They did not recognize the patent fact that there were causes in our social organization which made the Indian incapable of coping with the alien. What should we do if, for any reason, England was driven away? We should simply be victims for other nations. The same social weaknesses would prevail. The thing we in India have to think of is this--to remove those social customs and ideals which have generated a want of self-respect and a complete dependence on those above us,--a state of affairs which has been brought about entirely by the domination in India of the caste system, and the blind and lazy habit of relying upon the authority of traditions that are incongruous anachronisms in the present age.",
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      "text": "Once again I draw your attention to the difficulties India has had to encounter and her struggle to overcome them. Her problem was the problem of the world in miniature. India is too vast in its area and too diverse in its races. It is many countries packed in one geographical receptacle. It is just the opposite of what Europe truly is, namely, one country made into many. Thus Europe in its culture and growth has had the advantage of the strength of the many as well as the strength of the one. India, on the contrary, being naturally many, yet adventitiously one, has all along suffered from the looseness of its diversity and the feebleness of its unity. A true unity is like a round globe, it rolls on, carrying its burden easily; but diversity is a many-cornered thing which has to be dragged and pushed with all force. Be it said to the credit of India that this diversity was not her own creation; she has had to accept it as a fact from the beginning of her history. In America and Australia, Europe has simplified her problem by almost exterminating the original population. Even in the present age this spirit of extermination is making itself manifest, in the inhospitable shutting out of aliens, by those who themselves were aliens in the lands they now occupy. But India tolerated difference of races from the first, and that spirit of toleration has acted all through her history.",
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      "text": "Her caste system is the outcome of this spirit of toleration. For India has all along been trying experiments in evolving a social unity within which all the different peoples could be held together, while fully enjoying the freedom of maintaining their own differences. The tie has been as loose as possible, yet as close as the circumstances permitted. This has produced something like a United States of a social federation, whose common name is Hinduism.",
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      "text": "India had felt that diversity of races there must be and should be, whatever may be its drawback, and you can never coerce nature into your narrow limits of convenience without paying one day very dearly for it. In this India was right; but what she failed to realize was that in human beings differences are not like the physical barriers of mountains, fixed for ever--they are fluid with life's flow, they are changing their courses and their shapes and volume.",
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      "text": "Therefore in her caste regulations India recognized differences, but not the mutability which is the law of life. In trying to avoid collisions she set up boundaries of immovable walls, thus giving to her numerous races the negative benefit of peace and order but not the positive opportunity of expansion and movement. She accepted nature where it produces diversity, but ignored it where it uses that diversity for its world-game of infinite permutations and combinations. She treated life in all truth where it is manifold, but insulted it where it is ever moving. Therefore Life departed from her social system and in its place she is worshipping with all ceremony the magnificent cage of countless compartments that she has manufactured.",
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      "text": "The same thing happened where she tried to ward off the collisions of trade interests. She associated different trades and professions with different castes. This had the effect of allaying for good the interminable jealousy and hatred of competition--the competition which breeds cruelty and makes the atmosphere thick with lies and deception. In this also India laid all her emphasis upon the law of heredity, ignoring the law of mutation, and thus gradually reduced arts into crafts and genius into skill.",
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      "text": "However, what Western observers fail to discern is that in her caste system India in all seriousness accepted her responsibility to solve the race problem in such a manner as to avoid all friction, and yet to afford each race freedom within its boundaries. Let us admit India has not in this achieved a full measure of success. But this you must also concede, that the West, being more favourably situated as to homogeneity of races, has never given her attention to this problem, and whenever confronted with it she has tried to make it easy by ignoring it altogether. And this is the source of her anti-Asiatic agitations for depriving aliens of their right to earn their honest living on these shores. In most of your colonies you only admit them on condition of their accepting the menial position of hewers of wood and drawers of water. Either you shut your doors against the aliens or reduce them into slavery. And this is your solution of the problem of race-conflict. Whatever may be its merits you will have to admit that it does not spring from the higher impulses of civilization, but from the lower passions of greed and hatred. You say this is human nature--and India also thought she knew human nature when she strongly barricaded her race distinctions by the fixed barriers of social gradations. But we have found out to our cost that human nature is not what it seems, but what it is in truth; which is in its infinite possibilities. And when we in our blindness insult humanity for its ragged appearance it sheds its disguise to disclose to us that we have insulted our God. The degradation which we cast upon others in our pride or self-interest degrades our own humanity--and this is the punishment which is most terrible, because we do not detect it till it is too late.",
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      "text": "Not only in your relation with aliens but with the different sections of your own society you have not achieved harmony of reconciliation. The spirit of conflict and competition is allowed the full freedom of its reckless career. And because its genesis is the greed of wealth and power it can never come to any other end but to a violent death. In India the production of commodities was brought under the law of social adjustments. Its basis was co-operation, having for its object the perfect satisfaction of social needs. But in the West it is guided by the impulse of competition, whose end is the gain of wealth for individuals. But the individual is like the geometrical line; it is length without breadth. It has not got the depth to be able to hold anything permanently. Therefore its greed or gain can never come to finality. In its lengthening process of growth it can cross other lines and cause entanglements, but will ever go on missing the ideal of completeness in its thinness of isolation.",
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      "text": "In all our physical appetites we recognize a limit. We know that to exceed that limit is to exceed the limit of health. But has this lust for wealth and power no bounds beyond which is death's dominion? In these national carnivals of materialism are not the Western peoples spending most of their vital energy in merely producing things and neglecting the creation of ideals? And can a civilization ignore the law of moral health and go on in its endless process of inflation by gorging upon material things? Man in his social ideals naturally tries to regulate his appetites, subordinating them to the higher purpose of his nature. But in the economic world our appetites follow no other restrictions but those of supply and demand which can be artificially fostered, affording individuals opportunities for indulgence in an endless feast of grossness. In India our social instincts imposed restrictions upon our appetites,--maybe it went to the extreme of repression,--but in the West the spirit of economic organization with no moral purpose goads the people into the perpetual pursuit of wealth; but has this no wholesome limit?",
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      "text": "The ideals that strive to take form in social institutions have two objects. One is to regulate our passions and appetites for the harmonious development of man, and the other is to help him to cultivate disinterested love for his fellow-creatures. Therefore society is the expression of those moral and spiritual aspirations of man which belong to his higher nature.",
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      "text": "Our food is creative, it builds our body; but not so wine, which stimulates. Our social ideals create the human world, but when our mind is diverted from them to greed of power then in that state of intoxication we live in a world of abnormality where our strength is not health and our liberty is not freedom. Therefore political freedom does not give us freedom when our mind is not free. An automobile does not create freedom of movement, because it is a mere machine. When I myself am free I can use the automobile for the purpose of my freedom.",
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      "text": "We must never forget in the present day that those people who have got their political freedom are not necessarily free, they are merely powerful. The passions which are unbridled in them are creating huge organizations of slavery in the disguise of freedom. Those who have made the gain of money their highest end are unconsciously selling their life and soul to rich persons or to the combinations that represent money. Those who are enamoured of their political power and gloat over their extension of dominion over foreign races gradually surrender their own freedom and humanity to the organizations necessary for holding other peoples in slavery. In the so-called free countries the majority of the people are not free, they are driven by the minority to a goal which is not even known to them. This becomes possible only because people do not acknowledge moral and spiritual freedom as their object. They create huge eddies with their passions, and they feel dizzily inebriated with the mere velocity of their whirling movement, taking that to be freedom. But the doom which is waiting to overtake them is as certain as death--for man's truth is moral truth and his emancipation is in the spiritual life.",
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      "text": "The general opinion of the majority of the present-day nationalists in India is that we have come to a final completeness in our social and spiritual ideals, the task of the constructive work of society having been done several thousand years before we were born, and that now we are free to employ all our activities in the political direction. We never dream of blaming our social inadequacy as the origin of our present helplessness, for we have accepted as the creed of our nationalism that this social system has been perfected for all time to come by our ancestors, who had the superhuman vision of all eternity and supernatural power for making infinite provision for future ages. Therefore, for all our miseries and shortcomings, we hold responsible the historical surprises that burst upon us from outside. This is the reason why we think that our one task is to build a political miracle of freedom upon the quicksand of social slavery. In fact we want to dam up the true course of our own historical stream, and only borrow power from the sources of other peoples' history.",
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      "text": "Those of us in India who have come under the delusion that mere political freedom will make us free have accepted their lessons from the West as the gospel truth and lost their faith in humanity. We must remember whatever weakness we cherish in our society will become the source of danger in politics. The same inertia which leads us to our idolatry of dead forms in social institutions will create in our politics prison-houses with immovable walls. The narrowness of sympathy which makes it possible for us to impose upon a considerable portion of humanity the galling yoke of inferiority will assert itself in our politics in creating the tyranny of injustice.",
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      "text": "When our nationalists talk about ideals they forget that the basis of nationalism is wanting. The very people who are upholding these ideals are themselves the most conservative in their social practice. Nationalists say, for example, look at Switzerland where, in spite of race differences, the peoples have solidified into a nation. Yet, remember that in Switzerland the races can mingle, they can intermarry, because they are of the same blood. In India there is no common birthright. And when we talk of Western Nationality we forget that the nations there do not have that physical repulsion, one for the other, that we have between different castes. Have we an instance in the whole world where a people who are not allowed to mingle their blood shed their blood for one another except by coercion or for mercenary purposes? And can we ever hope that these moral barriers against our race amalgamation will not stand in the way of our political unity?",
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      "text": "Then again we must give full recognition to this fact that our social restrictions are still tyrannical, so much so as to make men cowards. If a man tells me he has heterodox ideas, but that he cannot follow them because he would be socially ostracized, I excuse him for having to live a life of untruth, in order to live at all. The social habit of mind which impels us to make the life of our fellow-beings a burden to them where they differ from us even in such a thing as their choice of food, is sure to persist in our political organization and result in creating engines of coercion to crush every rational difference which is the sign of life. And tyranny will only add to the inevitable lies and hypocrisy in our political life. Is the mere name of freedom so valuable that we should be willing to sacrifice for its sake our moral freedom?",
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      "text": "The intemperance of our habits does not immediately show its effects when we are in the vigour of our youth. But it gradually consumes that vigour, and when the period of decline sets in then we have to settle accounts and pay off our debts, which leads us to insolvency. In the West you are still able to carry your head high, though your humanity is suffering every moment from its dipsomania of organizing power. India also in the heyday of her youth could carry in her vital organs the dead weight of her social organizations stiffened to rigid perfection, but it has been fatal to her, and has produced a gradual paralysis of her living nature. And this is the reason why the educated community of India has become insensible of her social needs. They are taking the very immobility of our social structures as the sign of their perfection,--and because the healthy feeling of pain is dead in the limbs of our social organism they delude themselves into thinking that it needs no ministration. Therefore they think that all their energies need their only scope in the political field. It is like a man whose legs have become shrivelled and useless, trying to delude himself that these limbs have grown still because they have attained their ultimate salvation, and all that is wrong about him is the shortness of his sticks.",
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      "text": "So much for the social and the political regeneration of India. Now we come to her industries, and I am very often asked whether there is in India any industrial regeneration since the advent of the British Government. It must be remembered that at the beginning of the British rule in India our industries were suppressed, and since then we have not met with any real help or encouragement to enable us to make a stand against the monster commercial organizations of the world. The nations have decreed that we must remain purely an agricultural people, even forgetting the use of arms for all time to come. Thus India is being turned into so many predigested morsels of food ready to be swallowed at any moment by any nation which has even the most rudimentary set of teeth in its head.",
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      "text": "India therefore has very little outlet for her industrial originality. I personally do not believe in the unwieldy organizations of the present day. The very fact that they are ugly shows that they are in discordance with the whole creation. The vast powers of nature do not reveal their truth in hideousness, but in beauty. Beauty is the signature which the Creator stamps upon His works when He is satisfied with them. All our products that insolently ignore the laws of perfection and are unashamed in their display of ungainliness bear the perpetual weight of God's displeasure. So far as your commerce lacks the dignity of grace it is untrue. Beauty and her twin brother Truth require leisure and self-control for their growth. But the greed of gain has no time or limit to its capaciousness. Its one object is to produce and consume. It has pity neither for beautiful nature nor for living human beings. It is ruthlessly ready without a moment's hesitation to crush beauty and life out of them, moulding them into money. It is this ugly vulgarity of commerce which brought upon it the censure of contempt in our earlier days, when men had leisure to have an unclouded vision of perfection in humanity. Men in those times were rightly ashamed of the instinct of mere money-making. But in this scientific age money, by its very abnormal bulk, has won its throne. And when from its eminence of piled-up things it insults the higher instincts of man, banishing beauty and noble sentiments from its surroundings, we submit. For we in our meanness have accepted bribes from its hands and our imagination has grovelled in the dust before its immensity of flesh.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. And we have been recommending it and praising it—I have written and written, both in the \"Messenger\" and in pamphlets...",
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      "text": "Hovstad. Well, what then?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. And the Baths—we have called them the \"main artery of the town's life-blood,\" the \"nerve-centre of our town,\" and the devil knows what else—",
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      "text": "Billing. \"The town's pulsating heart\" was the expression I once used on an important occasion.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Quite so. Well, do you know what they really are, these great, splendid, much praised Baths, that have cost so much money—do you know what they are?",
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      "text": "Hovstad. No, what are they?",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. Yes, what are they?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. The whole place is a pest-house!",
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      "text": "Petra. The Baths, father?",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann (at the same time), Our Baths?",
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      "text": "Hovstad. But, Doctor—",
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      "text": "Billing. Absolutely incredible!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. The whole Bath establishment is a whited, poisoned sepulchre, I tell you—the gravest possible danger to the public health! All the nastiness up at Molledal, all that stinking filth, is infecting the water in the conduit-pipes leading to the reservoir; and the same cursed, filthy poison oozes out on the shore too—",
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      "text": "Horster. Where the bathing-place is?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Just there.",
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      "text": "Hovstad. How do you come to be so certain of all this, Doctor?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. I have investigated the matter most conscientiously. For a long time past I have suspected something of the kind. Last year we had some very strange cases of illness among the visitors—typhoid cases, and cases of gastric fever—",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. Yes, that is quite true.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. At the time, we supposed the visitors had been infected before they came; but later on, in the winter, I began to have a different opinion; and so I set myself to examine the water, as well as I could.",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. Then that is what you have been so busy with?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Indeed I have been busy, Katherine. But here I had none of the necessary scientific apparatus; so I sent samples, both of the drinking-water and of the sea-water, up to the University, to have an accurate analysis made by a chemist.",
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      "text": "Hovstad. And have you got that?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (showing him the letter). Here it is! It proves the presence of decomposing organic matter in the water—it is full of infusoria. The water is absolutely dangerous to use, either internally or externally.",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. What a mercy you discovered it in time.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. You may well say so.",
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      "text": "Hovstad. And what do you propose to do now, Doctor?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. To see the matter put right, naturally.",
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      "text": "Hovstad. Can that be done?",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. And your reasoning leads you to this conclusion, that we must build a sewer to draw off the alleged impurities from Molledal and must relay the water conduits.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Yes. Do you see any other way out of it? I don't.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. I made a pretext this morning to go and see the town engineer, and, as if only half seriously, broached the subject of these proposals as a thing we might perhaps have to take under consideration some time later on.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Some time later on!",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. He smiled at what he considered to be my extravagance, naturally. Have you taken the trouble to consider what your proposed alterations would cost? According to the information I obtained, the expenses would probably mount up to fifteen or twenty thousand pounds.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Would it cost so much?",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. Yes; and the worst part of it would be that the work would take at least two years.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Two years? Two whole years?",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. At least. And what are we to do with the Baths in the meantime? Close them? Indeed we should be obliged to. And do you suppose anyone would come near the place after it had got out that the water was dangerous?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Yes but, Peter, that is what it is.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. And all this at this juncture—just as the Baths are beginning to be known. There are other towns in the neighbourhood with qualifications to attract visitors for bathing purposes. Don't you suppose they would immediately strain every nerve to divert the entire stream of strangers to themselves? Unquestionably they would; and then where should we be? We should probably have to abandon the whole thing, which has cost us so much money-and then you would have ruined your native town.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. I—should have ruined—!",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. It is simply and solely through the Baths that the town has before it any future worth mentioning. You know that just as well as I.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. But what do you think ought to be done, then?",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. Your report has not convinced me that the condition of the water at the Baths is as bad as you represent it to be.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. I tell you it is even worse!—or at all events it will be in summer, when the warm weather comes.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. As I said, I believe you exaggerate the matter considerably. A capable physician ought to know what measures to take—he ought to be capable of preventing injurious influences or of remedying them if they become obviously persistent.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Well? What more?",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. The water supply for the Baths is now an established fact, and in consequence must be treated as such. But probably the Committee, at its discretion, will not be disinclined to consider the question of how far it might be possible to introduce certain improvements consistently with a reasonable expenditure.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. And do you suppose that I will have anything to do with such a piece of trickery as that?",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. Trickery!!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Yes, it would be a trick—a fraud, a lie, a downright crime towards the public, towards the whole community!",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. I have not, as I remarked before, been able to convince myself that there is actually any imminent danger.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. You have! It is impossible that you should not be convinced. I know I have represented the facts absolutely truthfully and fairly. And you know it very well, Peter, only you won't acknowledge it. It was owing to your action that both the Baths and the water conduits were built where they are; and that is what you won't acknowledge—that damnable blunder of yours. Pooh!—do you suppose I don't see through you?",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. And even if that were true? If I perhaps guard my reputation somewhat anxiously, it is in the interests of the town. Without moral authority I am powerless to direct public affairs as seems, to my judgment, to be best for the common good. And on that account—and for various other reasons too—it appears to me to be a matter of importance that your report should not be delivered to the Committee. In the interests of the public, you must withhold it. Then, later on, I will raise the question and we will do our best, privately; but nothing of this unfortunate affair not a single word of it—must come to the ears of the public.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. I am afraid you will not be able to prevent that now, my dear Peter.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. And, what is more, we shall expect you to make public profession of your confidence in the Committee and in their readiness to consider fully and conscientiously what steps may be necessary to remedy any possible defects.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. But you will never be able to do that by patching and tinkering at it—never! Take my word for it, Peter; I mean what I say, as deliberately and emphatically as possible.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. As an officer under the Committee, you have no right to any individual opinion.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (amazed). No right?",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. In your official capacity, no. As a private person, it is quite another matter. But as a subordinate member of the staff of the Baths, you have no right to express any opinion which runs contrary to that of your superiors.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. This is too much! I, a doctor, a man of science, have no right to—!",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. The matter in hand is not simply a scientific one. It is a complicated matter, and has its economic as well as its technical side.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. I don't care what it is! I intend to be free to express my opinion on any subject under the sun.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. As you please—but not on any subject concerning the Baths. That we forbid.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (shouting). You forbid—! You! A pack of—",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. I forbid it—I, your chief; and if I forbid it, you have to obey.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. Quite so.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. No, but wait a moment, Mr. Aslaksen. You will allow me, Mr. Hovstad?",
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      "text": "Hovstad. If you please, Mr. Mayor.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. You are a discreet and thoughtful man, Mr. Aslaksen.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. I am delighted to hear you think so, sir.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. And a man of very considerable influence.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. Chiefly among the small tradesmen, sir.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. The small tax-payers are the majority—here as everywhere else.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. That is true.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. And I have no doubt you know the general trend of opinion among them, don't you?",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. Yes I think I may say I do, Mr. Mayor.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. Yes. Well, since there is such a praiseworthy spirit of self-sacrifice among the less wealthy citizens of our town—",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. What?",
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      "text": "Hovstad. Self-sacrifice?",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. It is pleasing evidence of a public-spirited feeling, extremely pleasing evidence. I might almost say I hardly expected it. But you have a closer knowledge of public opinion than I.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. But, Mr. Mayor—",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. And indeed it is no small sacrifice that the town is going to make.",
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      "text": "Hovstad. The town?",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. But I don't understand. Is it the Baths—?",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. At a provisional estimate, the alterations that the Medical Officer asserts to be desirable will cost somewhere about twenty thousand pounds.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. That is a lot of money, but—",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. Of course it will be necessary to raise a municipal loan.",
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      "text": "Hovstad (getting up). Surely you never mean that the town must pay—?",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. Do you mean that it must come out of the municipal funds?—out of the ill-filled pockets of the small tradesmen?",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. Well, my dear Mr. Aslaksen, where else is the money to come from?",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. The gentlemen who own the Baths ought to provide that.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. The proprietors of the Baths are not in a position to incur any further expense.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. Is that absolutely certain, Mr. Mayor?",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. I have satisfied myself that it is so. If the town wants these very extensive alterations, it will have to pay for them.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. But, damn it all—I beg your pardon—this is quite another matter, Mr. Hovstad!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. No, no; but I am impatient, as you can understand. I shall not know a moment's peace of mind until I see it in print.",
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      "text": "Hovstad. Hm!—It will take a good while yet, won't it, Aslaksen?",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. Yes, I am almost afraid it will.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. All right, my dear friends; I will come back. I do not mind coming back twice if necessary. A matter of such great importance—the welfare of the town at stake—it is no time to shirk trouble, (is just going, but stops and comes back.) Look here—there is one thing more I want to speak to you about.",
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      "text": "Hovstad. Excuse me, but could it not wait till some other time?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. I can tell you in half a dozen words. It is only this. When my article is read tomorrow and it is realised that I have been quietly working the whole winter for the welfare of the town—",
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      "text": "Hovstad. Yes but, Doctor—",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. I know what you are going to say. You don't see how on earth it was any more than my duty—my obvious duty as a citizen. Of course it wasn't; I know that as well as you. But my fellow citizens, you know—! Good Lord, think of all the good souls who think so highly of me—!",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. Yes, our townsfolk have had a very high opinion of you so far, Doctor.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Yes, and that is just why I am afraid they—. Well, this is the point; when this reaches them, especially the poorer classes, and sounds in their ears like a summons to take the town's affairs into their own hands for the future...",
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      "text": "Hovstad (getting up). Ahem! Doctor, I won't conceal from you the fact—",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Ah I—I knew there was something in the wind! But I won't hear a word of it. If anything of that sort is being set on foot—",
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      "text": "Hovstad. Of what sort?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Well, whatever it is—whether it is a demonstration in my honour, or a banquet, or a subscription list for some presentation to me—whatever it is, you most promise me solemnly and faithfully to put a stop to it. You too, Mr. Aslaksen; do you understand?",
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      "text": "Hovstad. You must forgive me, Doctor, but sooner or later we must tell you the plain truth—",
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      "text": "(He is interrupted by the entrance Of MRS. STOCKMANN, who comes in from the street door.)",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann (seeing her husband). Just as I thought!",
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      "text": "Hovstad (going towards her). You too, Mrs. Stockmann?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. What on earth do you want here, Katherine?",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. I should think you know very well what I want.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Of course you will—",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. Ah!—may I ask then if Mr. Hovstad intends to join this agitation?",
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      "text": "Hovstad. No, Mr. Mayor.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. No, Mr. Hovstad is not such a fool as to go and ruin his paper and himself for the sake of an imaginary grievance.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (looking round him). What does this mean?",
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      "text": "Hovstad. You have represented your case in a false light, Doctor, and therefore I am unable to give you my support.",
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      "text": "Billing. And after what the Mayor was so kind as to tell me just now, I—",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. A false light! Leave that part of it to me. Only print my article; I am quite capable of defending it.",
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      "text": "Hovstad. I am not going to print it. I cannot and will not and dare not print it.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. You dare not? What nonsense!—you are the editor; and an editor controls his paper, I suppose!",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. No, it is the subscribers, Doctor.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. Fortunately, yes.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. It is public opinion—the enlightened public—householders and people of that kind; they control the newspapers.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (composedly). And I have all these influences against me?",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. Yes, you have. It would mean the absolute ruin of the community if your article were to appear.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Indeed.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. My hat and stick, if you please. (DR. STOCKMANN takes off the hat and lays it on the table with the stick. PETER STOCKMANN takes them up.) Your authority as mayor has come to an untimely end.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. We have not got to the end yet. (To HOVSTAD.) Then it is quite impossible for you to print my article in the \"People's Messenger\"?",
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      "text": "Hovstad. Quite impossible—out of regard for your family as well.",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. You need not concern yourself about his family, thank you, Mr. Hovstad.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann (taking a paper from his pocket). It will be sufficient, for the guidance of the public, if this appears. It is an official statement. May I trouble you?",
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      "text": "Hovstad (taking the paper). Certainly; I will see that it is printed.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. But not mine. Do you imagine that you can silence me and stifle the truth! You will not find it so easy as you suppose. Mr. Aslaksen, kindly take my manuscript at once and print it as a pamphlet—at my expense. I will have four hundred copies—no, five or six hundred.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. If you offered me its weight in gold, I could not lend my press for any such purpose, Doctor. It would be flying in the face of public opinion. You will not get it printed anywhere in the town.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. —And moreover, that discretion and moderation are what enable a man to be of most service to the community. I would therefore suggest to our esteemed fellow-citizen, who has called this meeting, that he should strive to keep strictly within the bounds of moderation.",
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      "text": "A Man by the door. Three cheers for the Moderation Society!",
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      "text": "A Voice. Shame!",
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      "text": "Several Voices. Sh!-Sh!",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. No interruptions, gentlemen, please! Does anyone wish to make any remarks?",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. Mr. Chairman.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. The Mayor will address the meeting.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. In consideration of the close relationship in which, as you all know, I stand to the present Medical Officer of the Baths, I should have preferred not to speak this evening. But my official position with regard to the Baths and my solicitude for the vital interests of the town compel me to bring forward a motion. I venture to presume that there is not a single one of our citizens present who considers it desirable that unreliable and exaggerated accounts of the sanitary condition of the Baths and the town should be spread abroad.",
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      "text": "Several Voices. No, no! Certainly not! We protest against it!",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. Therefore, I should like to propose that the meeting should not permit the Medical Officer either to read or to comment on his proposed lecture.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (impatiently). Not permit—! What the devil—!",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann (coughing). Ahem!-ahem!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (collecting himself). Very well, Go ahead!",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. In my communication to the \"People's Messenger,\" I have put the essential facts before the public in such a way that every fair-minded citizen can easily form his own opinion. From it you will see that the main result of the Medical Officer's proposals—apart from their constituting a vote of censure on the leading men of the town—would be to saddle the ratepayers with an unnecessary expenditure of at least some thousands of pounds.",
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      "text": "(Sounds of disapproval among the audience, and some cat-calls.)",
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      "text": "Aslaksen (ringing his bell). Silence, please, gentlemen! I beg to support the Mayor's motion. I quite agree with him that there is something behind this agitation started by the Doctor. He talks about the Baths; but it is a revolution he is aiming at—he wants to get the administration of the town put into new hands. No one doubts the honesty of the Doctor's intentions—no one will suggest that there can be any two opinions as to that, I myself am a believer in self-government for the people, provided it does not fall too heavily on the ratepayers. But that would be the case here; and that is why I will see Dr. Stockmann damned—I beg your pardon—before I go with him in the matter. You can pay too dearly for a thing sometimes; that is my opinion.",
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      "text": "(Loud applause on all sides.)",
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      "text": "Hovstad. I, too, feel called upon to explain my position. Dr. Stockmann's agitation appeared to be gaining a certain amount of sympathy at first, so I supported it as impartially as I could. But presently we had reason to suspect that we had allowed ourselves to be misled by misrepresentation of the state of affairs—",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Misrepresentation—!",
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      "text": "Hovstad. Well, let us say a not entirely trustworthy representation. The Mayor's statement has proved that. I hope no one here has any doubt as to my liberal principles; the attitude of the \"People's Messenger\" towards important political questions is well known to everyone. But the advice of experienced and thoughtful men has convinced me that in purely local matters a newspaper ought to proceed with a certain caution.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. I entirely agree with the speaker.",
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      "text": "Hovstad. And, in the matter before us, it is now an undoubted fact that Dr. Stockmann has public opinion against him. Now, what is an editor's first and most obvious duty, gentlemen? Is it not to work in harmony with his readers? Has he not received a sort of tacit mandate to work persistently and assiduously for the welfare of those whose opinions he represents? Or is it possible I am mistaken in that?",
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      "text": "Voices from the crowd. No, no! You are quite right!",
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      "text": "Hovstad. It has cost me a severe struggle to break with a man in whose house I have been lately a frequent guest—a man who till today has been able to pride himself on the undivided goodwill of his fellow-citizens—a man whose only, or at all events whose essential, failing is that he is swayed by his heart rather than his head.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Very well, gentlemen, I will say no more about our leading men. And if anyone imagines, from what I have just said, that my object is to attack these people this evening, he is wrong—absolutely wide of the mark. For I cherish the comforting conviction that these parasites—all these venerable relics of a dying school of thought—are most admirably paving the way for their own extinction; they need no doctor's help to hasten their end. Nor is it folk of that kind who constitute the most pressing danger to the community. It is not they who are most instrumental in poisoning the sources of our moral life and infecting the ground on which we stand. It is not they who are the most dangerous enemies of truth and freedom amongst us.",
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      "text": "Shouts from all sides. Who then? Who is it? Name! Name!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. You may depend upon it—I shall name them! That is precisely the great discovery I made yesterday. (Raises his voice.) The most dangerous enemy of truth and freedom amongst us is the compact majority—yes, the damned compact Liberal majority—that is it! Now you know! (Tremendous uproar. Most of the crowd are shouting, stamping and hissing. Some of the older men among them exchange stolen glances and seem to be enjoying themselves. MRS. STOCKMANN gets up, looking anxious. EJLIF and MORTEN advance threateningly upon some schoolboys who are playing pranks. ASLAKSEN rings his bell and begs for silence. HOVSTAD and BILLING both talk at once, but are inaudible. At last quiet is restored.)",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. As Chairman, I call upon the speaker to withdraw the ill-considered expressions he has just used.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Never, Mr. Aslaksen! It is the majority in our community that denies me my freedom and seeks to prevent my speaking the truth.",
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      "text": "Hovstad. The majority always has right on its side.",
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      "text": "Billing. And truth too, by God!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. The majority never has right on its side. Never, I say! That is one of these social lies against which an independent, intelligent man must wage war. Who is it that constitute the majority of the population in a country? Is it the clever folk, or the stupid? I don't imagine you will dispute the fact that at present the stupid people are in an absolutely overwhelming majority all the world over. But, good Lord!—you can never pretend that it is right that the stupid folk should govern the clever ones! (Uproar and cries.) Oh, yes—you can shout me down, I know! But you cannot answer me. The majority has might on its side—unfortunately; but right it has not. I am in the right—I and a few other scattered individuals. The minority is always in the right. (Renewed uproar.)",
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      "text": "Hovstad. Aha!—so Dr. Stockmann has become an aristocrat since the day before yesterday!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. I have already said that I don't intend to waste a word on the puny, narrow-chested, short-winded crew whom we are leaving astern. Pulsating life no longer concerns itself with them. I am thinking of the few, the scattered few amongst us, who have absorbed new and vigorous truths. Such men stand, as it were, at the outposts, so far ahead that the compact majority has not yet been able to come up with them; and there they are fighting for truths that are too newly-born into the world of consciousness to have any considerable number of people on their side as yet.",
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      "text": "Hovstad. So the Doctor is a revolutionary now!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Good heavens—of course I am, Mr. Hovstad! I propose to raise a revolution against the lie that the majority has the monopoly of the truth. What sort of truths are they that the majority usually supports? They are truths that are of such advanced age that they are beginning to break up. And if a truth is as old as that, it is also in a fair way to become a lie, gentlemen. (Laughter and mocking cries.) Yes, believe me or not, as you like; but truths are by no means as long-lived at Methuselah—as some folk imagine. A normally constituted truth lives, let us say, as a rule seventeen or eighteen, or at most twenty years—seldom longer. But truths as aged as that are always worn frightfully thin, and nevertheless it is only then that the majority recognises them and recommends them to the community as wholesome moral nourishment. There is no great nutritive value in that sort of fare, I can assure you; and, as a doctor, I ought to know. These \"majority truths\" are like last year's cured meat—like rancid, tainted ham; and they are the origin of the moral scurvy that is rampant in our communities.",
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      "text": "Aslaksen. It appears to me that the speaker is wandering a long way from his subject.",
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      "text": "Peter Stockmann. I quite agree with the Chairman.",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. But think of the boys, Thomas!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (standing still). What a strange woman you are, Katherine! Would you prefer to have the boys grow up in a society like this? You saw for yourself last night that half the population are out of their minds; and if the other half have not lost their senses, it is because they are mere brutes, with no sense to lose.",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. But, Thomas dear, the imprudent things you said had something to do with it, you know.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Well, isn't what I said perfectly true? Don't they turn every idea topsy-turvy? Don't they make a regular hotchpotch of right and wrong? Don't they say that the things I know are true, are lies? The craziest part of it all is the fact of these \"liberals,\" men of full age, going about in crowds imagining that they are the broad-minded party! Did you ever hear anything like it, Katherine!",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. Yes, yes, it's mad enough of them, certainly; but—(PETRA comes in from the sitting-room). Back from school already?",
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      "text": "Petra. Yes. I have been given notice of dismissal.",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. Dismissal?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. You too?",
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      "text": "Petra. Mrs. Busk gave me my notice; so I thought it was best to go at once.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. You were perfectly right, too!",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. Who would have thought Mrs. Busk was a woman like that!",
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      "text": "Petra. Mrs. Busk isn't a bit like that, mother; I saw quite plainly how it hurt her to do it. But she didn't dare do otherwise, she said; and so I got my notice.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (laughing and rubbing his hands). She didn't dare do otherwise, either! It's delicious!",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. Well, after the dreadful scenes last night—",
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      "text": "Petra. It was not only that. Just listen to this, father!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Well?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Perhaps, when it is too late. Much good may it do them! They may wallow in their filth then and rue the day when they drove a patriot into exile. When do you sail, Captain Horster?",
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      "text": "Horster. Hm!—that was just what I had come to speak about—",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Why, has anything gone wrong with the ship?",
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      "text": "Horster. No; but what has happened is that I am not to sail in it.",
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      "text": "Petra. Do you mean that you have been dismissed from your command?",
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      "text": "Horster (smiling). Yes, that's just it.",
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      "text": "Petra. You too.",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. There, you see, Thomas!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. And that for the truth's sake! Oh, if I had thought such a thing possible—",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Yes, don't we!",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. Very comfortable—plenty of fresh air. I should think you have got enough to-day of that oxygen you were talking about yesterday. Your conscience must be in splendid order to-day, I should think.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. It is.",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. So I should think. (Taps his chest.) Do you know what I have got here?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. A good conscience, too, I hope.",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. Bah!—No, it is something better than that. (He takes a thick pocket-book from his breast-pocket, opens it, and displays a packet of papers.)",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (looking at him in astonishment). Shares in the Baths?",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. They were not difficult to get today.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. And you have been buying—?",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. As many as I could pay for.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. But, my dear Mr. Kiil—consider the state of the Baths' affairs!",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. If you behave like a reasonable man, you can soon set the Baths on their feet again.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Well, you can see for yourself that I have done all I can, but—. They are all mad in this town!",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. You said yesterday that the worst of this pollution came from my tannery. If that is true, then my grandfather and my father before me, and I myself, for many years past, have been poisoning the town like three destroying angels. Do you think I am going to sit quiet under that reproach?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Unfortunately I am afraid you will have to.",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. No, thank you. I am jealous of my name and reputation. They call me \"the Badger,\" I am told. A badger is a kind of pig, I believe; but I am not going to give them the right to call me that. I mean to live and die a clean man.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. And how are you going to set about it?",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. You shall cleanse me, Thomas.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. I!",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. Do you know what money I have bought these shares with? No, of course you can't know—but I will tell you. It is the money that Katherine and Petra and the boys will have when I am gone. Because I have been able to save a little bit after all, you know.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (flaring up). And you have gone and taken Katherine's money for this!",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. Yes, the whole of the money is invested in the Baths now. And now I just want to see whether you are quite stark, staring mad, Thomas! If you still make out that these animals and other nasty things of that sort come from my tannery, it will be exactly as if you were to flay broad strips of skin from Katherine's body, and Petra's, and the boys'; and no decent man would do that—unless he were mad.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (walking up and down). Yes, but I am mad; I am mad!",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. You cannot be so absurdly mad as all that, when it is a question of your wife and children.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (standing still in front of him). Why couldn't you consult me about it, before you went and bought all that trash?",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. What is done cannot be undone.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (walks about uneasily). If only I were not so certain about it—! But I am absolutely convinced that I am right.",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil (weighing the pocket-book in his hand). If you stick to your mad idea, this won't be worth much, you know. (Puts the pocket-book in his pocket.)",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. But, hang it all! It might be possible for science to discover some prophylactic, I should think—or some antidote of some kind—",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. To kill these animals, do you mean?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Yes, or to make them innocuous.",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. Couldn't you try some rat's-bane?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Don't talk nonsense! They all say it is only imagination, you know. Well, let it go at that! Let them have their own way about it! Haven't the ignorant, narrow-minded curs reviled me as an enemy of the people?—and haven't they been ready to tear the clothes off my back too?",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. And broken all your windows to pieces!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. And then there is my duty to my family. I must talk it over with Katherine; she is great on those things.",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. That is right; be guided by a reasonable woman's advice.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (advancing towards him). To think you could do such a preposterous thing! Risking Katherine's money in this way, and putting me in such a horribly painful dilemma! When I look at you, I think I see the devil himself—.",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. Then I had better go. But I must have an answer from you before two o'clock—yes or no. If it is no, the shares go to a charity, and that this very day.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. And what does Katherine get?",
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      "text": "Morten Kiil. Not a halfpenny. (The door leading to the hall opens, and HOVSTAD and ASLAKSEN make their appearance.) Look at those two!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (staring at them). What the devil!—have YOU actually the face to come into my house?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (snapping his fingers and getting up from the table). I have it! I have it, by Jove! You shall never set foot in the school again!",
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      "text": "The Boys. No more school!",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. But, Thomas—",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Never, I say. I will educate you myself; that is to say, you shan't learn a blessed thing—",
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      "text": "Morten. Hooray!",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. —but I will make liberal-minded and high-minded men of you. You must help me with that, Petra.",
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      "text": "Petra, Yes, father, you may be sure I will.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. And my school shall be in the room where they insulted me and called me an enemy of the people. But we are too few as we are; I must have at least twelve boys to begin with.",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. You will certainly never get them in this town.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. We shall. (To the boys.) Don't you know any street urchins—regular ragamuffins—?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. That's capital! Bring me some specimens of them. I am going to experiment with curs, just for once; there may be some exceptional heads among them.",
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      "text": "Morten. And what are we going to do, when you have made liberal-minded and high-minded men of us?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Then you shall drive all the wolves out of the country, my boys!",
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      "text": "(EJLIF looks rather doubtful about it; MORTEN jumps about crying \"Hurrah!\")",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. Let us hope it won't be the wolves that will drive you out of the country, Thomas.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Are you out of your mind, Katherine? Drive me out! Now—when I am the strongest man in the town!",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. The strongest—now?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Yes, and I will go so far as to say that now I am the strongest man in the whole world.",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann (lowering his voice). Hush! You mustn't say anything about it yet; but I have made a great discovery.",
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      "text": "Mrs. Stockmann. Another one?",
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      "text": "Dr. Stockmann. Yes. (Gathers them round him, and says confidentially:) It is this, let me tell you—that the strongest man in the world is he who stands most alone.",
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      "text": "This I have here tried to do, as thoroughly as space would permit. It has been necessary for me to clear away before I could build up, and to write at once for those who have made no previous study of such subjects, and for those who are familiar with economic reasonings; and, so great is the scope of the argument that it has been impossible to treat with the fullness they deserve many of the questions raised. What I have most endeavored to do is to establish general principles, trusting to my readers to carry further their applications where this is needed.",
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      "text": "In certain respects this book will be best appreciated by those who have some knowledge of economic literature; but no previous reading is necessary to the understanding of the argument or the passing of judgment upon its conclusions. The facts upon which I have relied are not facts which can be verified only by a search through libraries. They are facts of common observation and common knowledge, which every reader can verify for himself, just as he can decide whether the reasoning from them is or is not valid.",
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      "text": "Beginning with a brief statement of facts which suggest this inquiry, I proceed to examine the explanation currently given in the name of political economy of the reason why, in spite of the increase of productive power, wages tend to the minimum of a bare living. This examination shows that the current doctrine of wages is founded upon a misconception; that, in truth, wages are produced by the labor for which they are paid, and should, other things being equal, increase with the number of laborers. Here the inquiry meets a doctrine which is the foundation and center of most important economic theories, and which has powerfully influenced thought in all directions—the Malthusian doctrine, that population tends to increase faster than subsistence. Examination, however, shows that this doctrine has no real support either in fact or in analogy, and that when brought to a decisive test it is utterly disproved.",
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      "text": "Thus far the results of the inquiry, though extremely important, are mainly negative. They show that current theories do not satisfactorily explain the connection of poverty with material progress, but throw no light upon the problem itself, beyond showing that its solution must be sought in the laws which govern the distribution of wealth. It therefore becomes necessary to carry the inquiry into this field. A preliminary review shows that the three laws of distribution must necessarily correlate with each other, which as laid down by the current political economy they fail to do, and an examination of the terminology in use reveals the confusion of thought by which this discrepancy has been slurred over. Proceeding then to work out the laws of distribution, I first take up the law of rent. This, it is readily seen, is correctly apprehended by the current political economy. But it is also seen that the full scope of this law has not been appreciated, and that it involves as corollaries the laws of wages and interest—the cause which determines what part of the produce shall go to the land owner necessarily determining what part shall be left for labor and capital. Without resting here, I proceed to an independent deduction of the laws of interest and wages. I have stopped to determine the real cause and justification of interest, and to point out a source of much misconception—the confounding of what are really the profits of monopoly with the legitimate earnings of capital. Then returning to the main inquiry, investigation shows that interest must rise and fall with wages, and depends ultimately upon the same thing as rent—the margin of cultivation or point in production where rent begins. A similar but independent investigation of the law of wages yields similar harmonious results. Thus the three laws of distribution are brought into mutual support and harmony, and the fact that with material progress rent everywhere advances is seen to explain the fact that wages and interest do not advance.",
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      "text": "What causes this advance of rent is the next question that arises, and it necessitates an examination of the effect of material progress upon the distribution of wealth. Separating the factors of material progress into increase of population and improvements in the arts, it is first seen that increase in population tends constantly, not merely by reducing the margin of cultivation, but by localizing the economies and powers which come with increased population, to increase the proportion of the aggregate produce which is taken in rent, and to reduce that which goes as wages and interest. Then eliminating increase of population, it is seen that improvement in the methods and powers of production tends in the same direction, and, land being held as private property, would produce in a stationary population all the effects attributed by the Malthusian doctrine to pressure of population. And then a consideration of the effects of the continuous increase in land values which thus spring from material progress reveals in the speculative advance inevitably begotten when land is private property a derivative but most powerful cause of the increase of rent and the crowding down of wages. Deduction shows that this cause must necessarily produce periodical industrial depressions, and induction proves the conclusion; while from the analysis which has thus been made it is seen that the necessary result of material progress, land being private property, is, no matter what the increase in population, to force laborers to wages which give but a bare living.",
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      "text": "This identification of the cause that associates poverty with progress points to the remedy, but it is to so radical a remedy that I have next deemed it necessary to inquire whether there is any other remedy. Beginning the investigation again from another starting point, I have passed in examination the measures and tendencies currently advocated or trusted in for the improvement of the condition of the laboring masses. The result of this investigation is to prove the preceding one, as it shows that nothing short of making land common property can permanently relieve poverty and check the tendency of wages to the starvation point.",
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      "text": "The question of justice now naturally arises, and the inquiry passes into the field of ethics. An investigation of the nature and basis of property shows that there is a fundamental and irreconcilable difference between property in things which are the product of labor and property in land; that the one has a natural basis and sanction while the other has none, and that the recognition of exclusive property in land is necessarily a denial of the right of property in the products of labor. Further investigation shows that private property in land always has, and always must, as development proceeds, lead to the enslavement of the laboring class; that land owners can make no just claim to compensation if society choose to resume its right; that so far from private property in land being in accordance with the natural perceptions of men, the very reverse is true, and that in the United States we are already beginning to feel the effects of having admitted this erroneous and destructive principle.",
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      "text": "The inquiry then passes to the field of practical statesmanship. It is seen that private property in land, instead of being necessary to its improvement and use, stands in the way of improvement and use, and entails an enormous waste of productive forces; that the recognition of the common right to land involves no shock or dispossession, but is to be reached by the simple and easy method of abolishing all taxation save that upon land values. And this an inquiry into the principles of taxation shows to be, in all respects, the best subject of taxation.",
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      "text": "A consideration of the effects of the change proposed then shows that it would enormously increase production; would secure justice in distribution; would benefit all classes; and would make possible an advance to a higher and nobler civilization.",
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      "text": "The inquiry now rises to a wider field, and recommences from another starting point. For not only do the hopes which have been raised come into collision with the widespread idea that social progress is possible only by slow race improvement, but the conclusions we have arrived at assert certain laws which, if they are really natural laws, must be manifest in universal history. As a final test, it therefore becomes necessary to work out the law of human progress, for certain great facts which force themselves on our attention, as soon as we begin to consider this subject, seem utterly inconsistent with what is now the current theory. This inquiry shows that differences in civilization are not due to differences in individuals, but rather to differences in social organization; that progress, always kindled by association, always passes into retrogression as inequality is developed; and that even now, in modern civilization, the causes which have destroyed all previous civilizations are beginning to manifest themselves, and that mere political democracy is running its course toward anarchy and despotism. But it also identifies the law of social life with the great moral law of justice, and, proving previous conclusions, shows how retrogression may be prevented and a grander advance begun. This ends the inquiry. The final chapter will explain itself.",
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      "text": "The great importance of this inquiry will be obvious. If it has been carefully and logically pursued, its conclusions completely change the character of political economy, give it the coherence and certitude of a true science, and bring it into full sympathy with the aspirations of the masses of men, from which it has long been estranged. What I have done in this book, if I have correctly solved the great problem I have sought to investigate, is, to unite the truth perceived by the school of Smith and Ricardo to the truth perceived by the schools of Proudhon and Lasalle; to show that _laissez faire_ (in its full true meaning) opens the way to a realization of the noble dreams of socialism; to identify social law with moral law, and to disprove ideas which in the minds of many cloud grand and elevating perceptions.",
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      "text": "This work was written between August, 1877, and March, 1879, and the plates finished by September of that year. Since that time new illustrations have been given of the correctness of the views herein advanced, and the march of events—and especially that great movement which has begun in Great Britain in the Irish land agitation—shows still more clearly the pressing nature of the problem I have endeavored to solve. But there has been nothing in the criticisms they have received to induce the change or modification of these views—in fact, I have yet to see an objection not answered in advance in the book itself. And except that some verbal errors have been corrected and a preface added, this edition is the same as previous ones.",
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      "text": "More or less vague or clear, these have been the hopes, these the dreams born of the improvements which give this wonderful century its preëminence. They have sunk so deeply into the popular mind as radically to change the currents of thought, to recast creeds and displace the most fundamental conceptions. The haunting visions of higher possibilities have not merely gathered splendor and vividness, but their direction has changed—instead of seeing behind the faint tinges of an expiring sunset, all the glory of the daybreak has decked the skies before.",
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      "text": "It is true that disappointment has followed disappointment, and that discovery upon discovery, and invention after invention, have neither lessened the toil of those who most need respite, nor brought plenty to the poor. But there have been so many things to which it seemed this failure could be laid, that up to our time the new faith has hardly weakened. We have better appreciated the difficulties to be overcome; but not the less trusted that the tendency of the times was to overcome them.",
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      "text": "Now, however, we are coming into collision with facts which there can be no mistaking. From all parts of the civilized world come complaints of industrial depression; of labor condemned to involuntary idleness; of capital massed and wasting; of pecuniary distress among business men; of want and suffering and anxiety among the working classes. All the dull, deadening pain, all the keen, maddening anguish, that to great masses of men are involved in the words “hard times,” afflict the world to-day. This state of things, common to communities differing so widely in situation, in political institutions, in fiscal and financial systems, in density of population and in social organization, can hardly be accounted for by local causes. There is distress where large standing armies are maintained, but there is also distress where the standing armies are nominal; there is distress where protective tariffs stupidly and wastefully hamper trade, but there is also distress where trade is nearly free; there is distress where autocratic government yet prevails, but there is also distress where political power is wholly in the hands of the people; in countries where paper is money, and in countries where gold and silver are the only currency. Evidently, beneath all such things as these, we must infer a common cause.",
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      "text": "That there is a common cause, and that it is either what we call material progress or something closely connected with material progress, becomes more than an inference when it is noted that the phenomena we class together and speak of as industrial depression are but intensifications of phenomena which always accompany material progress, and which show themselves more clearly and strongly as material progress goes on. Where the conditions to which material progress everywhere tends are most fully realized—that is to say, where population is densest, wealth greatest, and the machinery of production and exchange most highly developed—we find the deepest poverty, the sharpest struggle for existence, and the most of enforced idleness.",
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      "text": "It is to the newer countries—that is, to the countries where material progress is yet in its earlier stages—that laborers emigrate in search of higher wages, and capital flows in search of higher interest. It is in the older countries—that is to say, the countries where material progress has reached later stages—that widespread destitution is found in the midst of the greatest abundance. Go into one of the new communities where Anglo-Saxon vigor is just beginning the race of progress; where the machinery of production and exchange is yet rude and inefficient; where the increment of wealth is not yet great enough to enable any class to live in ease and luxury; where the best house is but a cabin of logs or a cloth and paper shanty, and the richest man is forced to daily work—and though you will find an absence of wealth and all its concomitants, you will find no beggars. There is no luxury, but there is no destitution. No one makes an easy living, nor a very good living; but every one _can_ make a living, and no one able and willing to work is oppressed by the fear of want.",
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      "text": "But just as such a community realizes the conditions which all civilized communities are striving for, and advances in the scale of material progress—just as closer settlement and a more intimate connection with the rest of the world, and greater utilization of labor-saving machinery, make possible greater economies in production and exchange, and wealth in consequence increases, not merely in the aggregate, but in proportion to population—so does poverty take a darker aspect. Some get an infinitely better and easier living, but others find it hard to get a living at all. The “tramp” comes with the locomotive, and almshouses and prisons are as surely the marks of “material progress” as are costly dwellings, rich warehouses, and magnificent churches. Upon streets lighted with gas and patrolled by uniformed policemen, beggars wait for the passer-by, and in the shadow of college, and library, and museum, are gathering the more hideous Huns and fiercer Vandals of whom Macaulay prophesied.",
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      "text": "This fact—the great fact that poverty and all its concomitants show themselves in communities just as they develop into the conditions toward which material progress tends—proves that the social difficulties existing wherever a certain stage of progress has been reached, do not arise from local circumstances, but are, in some way or another, engendered by progress itself.",
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      "text": "And, unpleasant as it may be to admit it, it is at last becoming evident that the enormous increase in productive power which has marked the present century and is still going on with accelerating ratio, has no tendency to extirpate poverty or to lighten the burdens of those compelled to toil. It simply widens the gulf between Dives and Lazarus, and makes the struggle for existence more intense. The march of invention has clothed mankind with powers of which a century ago the boldest imagination could not have dreamed. But in factories where labor-saving machinery has reached its most wonderful development, little children are at work; wherever the new forces are anything like fully utilized, large classes are maintained by charity or live on the verge of recourse to it; amid the greatest accumulations of wealth, men die of starvation, and puny infants suckle dry breasts; while everywhere the greed of gain, the worship of wealth, shows the force of the fear of want. The promised land flies before us like the mirage. The fruits of the tree of knowledge turn as we grasp them to apples of Sodom that crumble at the touch.",
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      "text": "It is true that wealth has been greatly increased, and that the average of comfort, leisure, and refinement has been raised; but these gains are not general. In them the lowest class do not share.[1] I do not mean that the condition of the lowest class has nowhere nor in anything been improved; but that there is nowhere any improvement which can be credited to increased productive power. I mean that the tendency of what we call material progress is in nowise to improve the condition of the lowest class in the essentials of healthy, happy human life. Nay, more, that it is still further to depress the condition of the lowest class. The new forces, elevating in their nature though they be, do not act upon the social fabric from underneath, as was for a long time hoped and believed, but strike it at a point intermediate between top and bottom. It is as though an immense wedge were being forced, not underneath society, but through society. Those who are above the point of separation are elevated, but those who are below are crushed down.",
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      "text": "This depressing effect is not generally realized, for it is not apparent where there has long existed a class just able to live. Where the lowest class barely lives, as has been the case for a long time in many parts of Europe, it is impossible for it to get any lower, for the next lowest step is out of existence, and no tendency to further depression can readily show itself. But in the progress of new settlements to the conditions of older communities it may clearly be seen that material progress does not merely fail to relieve poverty—it actually produces it. In the United States it is clear that squalor and misery, and the vices and crimes that spring from them, everywhere increase as the village grows to the city, and the march of development brings the advantages of the improved methods of production and exchange. It is in the older and richer sections of the Union that pauperism and distress among the working classes are becoming most painfully apparent. If there is less deep poverty in San Francisco than in New York, is it not because San Francisco is yet behind New York in all that both cities are striving for? When San Francisco reaches the point where New York now is, who can doubt that there will also be ragged and barefooted children on her streets?",
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      "text": "This association of poverty with progress is the great enigma of our times. It is the central fact from which spring industrial, social, and political difficulties that perplex the world, and with which statesmanship and philanthropy and education grapple in vain. From it come the clouds that overhang the future of the most progressive and self-reliant nations. It is the riddle which the Sphinx of Fate puts to our civilization, and which not to answer is to be destroyed. So long as all the increased wealth which modern progress brings goes but to build up great fortunes, to increase luxury and make sharper the contrast between the House of Have and the House of Want, progress is not real and cannot be permanent. The reaction must come. The tower leans from its foundations, and every new story but hastens the final catastrophe. To educate men who must be condemned to poverty, is but to make them restive; to base on a state of most glaring social inequality political institutions under which men are theoretically equal, is to stand a pyramid on its apex.",
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      "text": "All-important as this question is, pressing itself from every quarter painfully upon attention, it has not yet received a solution which accounts for all the facts and points to any clear and simple remedy. This is shown by the widely varying attempts to account for the prevailing depression. They exhibit not merely a divergence between vulgar notions and scientific theories, but also show that the concurrence which should exist between those who avow the same general theories breaks up upon practical questions into an anarchy of opinion. Upon high economic authority we have been told that the prevailing depression is due to overconsumption; upon equally high authority, that it is due to overproduction; while the wastes of war, the extension of railroads, the attempts of workmen to keep up wages, the demonetization of silver, the issues of paper money, the increase of labor-saving machinery, the opening of shorter avenues to trade, etc., are separately pointed out as the cause, by writers of reputation.",
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      "text": "And while professors thus disagree, the ideas that there is a necessary conflict between capital and labor, that machinery is an evil, that competition must be restrained and interest abolished, that wealth may be created by the issue of money, that it is the duty of government to furnish capital or to furnish work, are rapidly making way among the great body of the people, who keenly feel a hurt and are sharply conscious of a wrong. Such ideas, which bring great masses of men, the repositories of ultimate political power, under the leadership of charlatans and demagogues, are fraught with danger; but they cannot be successfully combated until political economy shall give some answer to the great question which shall be consistent with all her teachings, and which shall commend itself to the perceptions of the great masses of men.",
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      "text": "It must be within the province of political economy to give such an answer. For political economy is not a set of dogmas. It is the explanation of a certain set of facts. It is the science which, in the sequence of certain phenomena, seeks to trace mutual relations and to identify cause and effect, just as the physical sciences seek to do in other sets of phenomena. It lays its foundations upon firm ground. The premises from which it makes its deductions are truths which have the highest sanction; axioms which we all recognize; upon which we safely base the reasoning and actions of everyday life, and which may be reduced to the metaphysical expression of the physical law that motion seeks the line of least resistance—viz., that men seek to gratify their desires with the least exertion. Proceeding from a basis thus assured, its processes, which consist simply in identification and separation, have the same certainty. In this sense it is as exact a science as geometry, which, from similar truths relative to space, obtains its conclusions by similar means, and its conclusions when valid should be as self-apparent. And although in the domain of political economy we cannot test our theories by artificially produced combinations or conditions, as may be done in some of the other sciences, yet we can apply tests no less conclusive, by comparing societies in which different conditions exist, or by, in imagination, separating, combining, adding or eliminating forces or factors of known direction.",
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      "text": "I propose in the following pages to attempt to solve by the methods of political economy the great problem I have outlined. I propose to seek the law which associates poverty with progress, and increases want with advancing wealth; and I believe that in the explanation of this paradox we shall find the explanation of those recurring seasons of industrial and commercial paralysis which, viewed independently of their relations to more general phenomena, seem so inexplicable. Properly commenced and carefully pursued, such an investigation must yield a conclusion that will stand every test, and as truth, will correlate with all other truth. For in the sequence of phenomena there is no accident. Every effect has a cause, and every fact implies a preceding fact.",
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      "text": "That political economy, as at present taught, does not explain the persistence of poverty amid advancing wealth in a manner which accords with the deep-seated perceptions of men; that the unquestionable truths which it does teach are unrelated and disjointed; that it has failed to make the progress in popular thought that truth, even when unpleasant, must make; that, on the contrary, after a century of cultivation, during which it has engrossed the attention of some of the most subtle and powerful intellects, it should be spurned by the statesman, scouted by the masses, and relegated in the opinion of many educated and thinking men to the rank of a pseudo-science in which nothing is fixed or can be fixed—must, it seems to me, be due not to any inability of the science when properly pursued, but to some false step in its premises, or overlooked factor in its estimates. And as such mistakes are generally concealed by the respect paid to authority, I propose in this inquiry to take nothing for granted, but to bring even accepted theories to the test of first principles, and should they not stand the test, freshly to interrogate facts in the endeavor to discover their law.",
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      "text": "I propose to beg no question, to shrink from no conclusion, but to follow truth wherever it may lead. Upon us is the responsibility of seeking the law, for in the very heart of our civilization to-day women faint and little children moan. But what that law may prove to be is not our affair. If the conclusions that we reach run counter to our prejudices, let us not flinch; if they challenge institutions that have long been deemed wise and natural, let us not turn back.",
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      "text": "BOOK I.",
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      "text": "WAGES AND CAPITAL.",
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      "text": "Now, it makes little difference what name we give to things, if when we use the name we always keep in view the same things and no others. But the difficulty arising in economic reasoning from these vague and varying definitions of capital is that it is only in the premises of reasoning that the term is used in the peculiar sense assigned by the definition, while in the practical conclusions that are reached it is always used, or at least it is always understood, in one general and definite sense. When, for instance, it is said that wages are drawn from capital, the word capital is understood in the same sense as when we speak of the scarcity or abundance, the increase or decrease, the destruction or increment, of capital—a commonly understood and definite sense which separates capital from the other factors of production, land and labor, and also separates it from like things used merely for gratification. In fact, most people understand well enough what capital is until they begin to define it, and I think their works will show that the economic writers who differ so widely in their definitions use the term in this commonly understood sense in all cases except in their definitions and the reasoning based on them.",
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      "text": "This common sense of the term is that of wealth devoted to procuring more wealth. Dr. Adam Smith correctly expresses this common idea when he says: “That part of a man’s stock which he expects to afford him revenue is called his capital.” And the capital of a community is evidently the sum of such individual stocks, or that part of the aggregate stock which is expected to procure more wealth. This also is the derivative sense of the term. The word capital, as philologists trace it, comes down to us from a time when wealth was estimated in cattle, and a man’s income depended upon the number of head he could keep for their increase.",
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      "text": "The difficulties which beset the use of the word capital, as an exact term, and which are even more strikingly exemplified in current political and social discussions than in the definitions of economic writers, arise from two facts—first, that certain classes of things, the possession of which to the individual is precisely equivalent to the possession of capital, are not part of the capital of the community; and, second, that things of the same kind may or may not be capital, according to the purpose to which they are devoted.",
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      "text": "With a little care as to these points, there should be no difficulty in obtaining a sufficiently clear and fixed idea of what the term capital as generally used properly includes; such an idea as will enable us to say what things are capital and what are not, and to use the word without ambiguity or slip.",
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      "text": "Land, labor, and capital are the three factors of production. If we remember that capital is thus a term used in contradistinction to land and labor, we at once see that nothing properly included under either one of these terms can be properly classed as capital. The term land necessarily includes, not merely the surface of the earth as distinguished from the water and the air, but the whole material universe outside of man himself, for it is only by having access to land, from which his very body is drawn, that man can come in contact with or use nature. The term land embraces, in short, all natural materials, forces, and opportunities, and, therefore, nothing that is freely supplied by nature can be properly classed as capital. A fertile field, a rich vein of ore, a falling stream which supplies power, may give to the possessor advantages equivalent to the possession of capital, but to class such things as capital would be to put an end to the distinction between land and capital, and, so far as they relate to each other, to make the two terms meaningless. The term labor, in like manner, includes all human exertion, and hence human powers whether natural or acquired can never properly be classed as capital. In common parlance we often speak of a man’s knowledge, skill, or industry as constituting his capital; but this is evidently a metaphorical use of language that must be eschewed in reasoning that aims at exactness. Superiority in such qualities may augment the income of an individual just as capital would, and an increase in the knowledge, skill, or industry of a community may have the same effect in increasing its production as would an increase of capital; but this effect is due to the increased power of labor and not to capital. Increased velocity may give to the impact of a cannon ball the same effect as increased weight, yet, nevertheless, weight is one thing and velocity another.",
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      "text": "Thus we must exclude from the category of capital everything that may be included either as land or labor. Doing so, there remain only things which are neither land nor labor, but which have resulted from the union of these two original factors of production. Nothing can be properly capital that does not consist of these—that is to say, nothing can be capital that is not wealth.",
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      "text": "But it is from ambiguities in the use of this inclusive term wealth that many of the ambiguities which beset the term capital are derived.",
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      "text": "As commonly used the word “wealth” is applied to anything having an exchange value. But when used as a term of political economy it must be limited to a much more definite meaning, because many things are commonly spoken of as wealth which in taking account of collective or general wealth cannot be considered as wealth at all. Such things have an exchange value, and are commonly spoken of as wealth, insomuch as they represent as between individuals, or between sets of individuals, the power of obtaining wealth; but they are not truly wealth, inasmuch as their increase or decrease does not affect the sum of wealth. Such are bonds, mortgages, promissory notes, bank bills, or other stipulations for the transfer of wealth. Such are slaves, whose value represents merely the power of one class to appropriate the earnings of another class. Such are lands, or other natural opportunities, the value of which is but the result of the acknowledgment in favor of certain persons of an exclusive right to their use, and which represents merely the power thus given to the owners to demand a share of the wealth produced by those who use them. Increase in the amount of bonds, mortgages, notes, or bank bills cannot increase the wealth of the community that includes as well those who promise to pay as those who are entitled to receive. The enslavement of a part of their number could not increase the wealth of a people, for what the enslavers gained the enslaved would lose. Increase in land values does not represent increase in the common wealth, for what land owners gain by higher prices, the tenants or purchasers who must pay them will lose. And all this relative wealth, which, in common thought and speech, in legislation and law, is undistinguished from actual wealth, could, without the destruction or consumption of anything more than a few drops of ink and a piece of paper, be utterly annihilated. By enactment of the sovereign political power debts might be canceled, slaves emancipated, and land resumed as the common property of the whole people, without the aggregate wealth being diminished by the value of a pinch of snuff, for what some would lose others would gain. There would be no more destruction of wealth than there was creation of wealth when Elizabeth Tudor enriched her favorite courtiers by the grant of monopolies, or when Boris Godoonof made Russian peasants merchantable property.",
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      "text": "All things which have an exchange value are, therefore, not wealth, in the only sense in which the term can be used in political economy. Only such things can be wealth the production of which increases and the destruction of which decreases the aggregate of wealth. If we consider what these things are, and what their nature is, we shall have no difficulty in defining wealth.",
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      "text": "When we speak of a community increasing in wealth—as when we say that England has increased in wealth since the accession of Victoria, or that California is a wealthier country than when it was a Mexican territory—we do not mean to say that there is more land, or that the natural powers of the land are greater, or that there are more people, for when we wish to express that idea we speak of increase of population; or that the debts or dues owing by some of these people to others of their number have increased; but we mean that there is an increase of certain tangible things, having an actual and not merely a relative value—such as buildings, cattle, tools, machinery, agricultural and mineral products, manufactured goods, ships, wagons, furniture, and the like. The increase of such things constitutes an increase of wealth; their decrease is a lessening of wealth; and the community that, in proportion to its numbers, has most of such things is the wealthiest community. The common character of these things is that they consist of natural substances or products which have been adapted by human labor to human use or gratification, their value depending on the amount of labor which upon the average would be required to produce things of like kind.",
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      "text": "Thus wealth, as alone the term can be used in political economy, consists of natural products that have been secured, moved, combined, separated, or in other ways modified by human exertion, so as to fit them for the gratification of human desires. It is, in other words, labor impressed upon matter in such a way as to store up, as the heat of the sun is stored up in coal, the power of human labor to minister to human desires. Wealth is not the sole object of labor, for labor is also expended in ministering directly to desire; but it is the object and result of what we call productive labor—that is, labor which gives value to material things. Nothing which nature supplies to man without his labor is wealth, nor yet does the expenditure of labor result in wealth unless there is a tangible product which has and retains the power of ministering to desire.",
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      "text": "Now, as capital is wealth devoted to a certain purpose, nothing can be capital which does not fall within this definition of wealth. By recognizing and keeping this in mind, we get rid of misconceptions which vitiate all reasoning in which they are permitted, which befog popular thought, and have led into mazes of contradiction even acute thinkers.",
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      "text": "But though all capital is wealth, all wealth is not capital. Capital is only a part of wealth—that part, namely, which is devoted to the aid of production. It is in drawing this line between the wealth that is and the wealth that is not capital that a second class of misconceptions are likely to occur.",
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      "text": "The errors which I have been pointing out, and which consist in confounding with wealth and capital things essentially distinct, or which have but a relative existence, are now merely vulgar errors. They are widespread, it is true, and have a deep root, being held, not merely by the less educated classes, but seemingly by a large majority of those who in such advanced countries as England and the United States mold and guide public opinion, make the laws in Parliaments, Congresses and Legislatures, and administer them in the courts. They crop out, moreover, in the disquisitions of many of those flabby writers who have burdened the press and darkened counsel by numerous volumes which are dubbed political economy, and which pass as text-books with the ignorant and as authority with those who do not think for themselves. Nevertheless, they are only vulgar errors, inasmuch as they receive no countenance from the best writers on political economy. By one of those lapses which flaw his great work and strikingly evince the imperfections of the highest talent, Adam Smith counts as capital certain personal qualities, an inclusion which is not consistent with his original definition of capital as stock from which revenue is expected. But this error has been avoided by his most eminent successors, and in the definitions, previously given, of Ricardo, McCulloch, and Mill, it is not involved. Neither in their definitions nor in that of Smith is involved the vulgar error which confounds as real capital things which are only relatively capital, such as evidences of debt, land values, etc. But as to things which are really wealth, their definitions differ from each other, and widely from that of Smith, as to what is and what is not to be considered as capital. The stock of a jeweler would, for instance, be included as capital by the definition of Smith, and the food or clothing in possession of a laborer would be excluded. But the definitions of Ricardo and McCulloch would exclude the stock of the jeweler, as would also that of Mill, if understood as most persons would understand the words I have quoted. But as explained by him, it is neither the nature nor the destination of the things themselves which determines whether they are or are not capital, but the intention of the owner to devote either the things or the value received from their sale to the supply of productive labor with tools, materials, and maintenance. All these definitions, however, agree in including as capital the provisions and clothing of the laborer, which Smith excludes.",
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      "text": "Let us consider these three definitions, which represent the best teachings of current political economy:",
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      "text": "It seems to me that the variance and inexactitude in these definitions arise from the fact that the idea of what capital is has been deduced from a preconceived idea of how capital assists production. Instead of determining what capital is, and then observing what capital does, the functions of capital have first been assumed, and then a definition of capital made which includes all things which do or may perform those functions. Let us reverse this process, and, adopting the natural order, ascertain what the thing is before settling what it does. All we are trying to do, all that it is necessary to do, is to fix, as it were, the metes and bounds of a term that in the main is well apprehended—to make definite, that is, sharp and clear on its verges, a common idea.",
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      "text": "If the articles of actual wealth existing at a given time in a given community were presented _in situ_ to a dozen intelligent men who had never read a line of political economy, it is doubtful if they would differ in respect to a single item, as to whether it should be accounted capital or not. Money which its owner holds for use in his business or in speculation would be accounted capital; money set aside for household or personal expenses would not. That part of a farmer’s crop held for sale or for seed, or to feed his help in part payment of wages, would be accounted capital; that held for the use of his own family would not be. The horses and carriage of a hackman would be classed as capital, but an equipage kept for the pleasure of its owner would not. So no one would think of counting as capital the false hair on the head of a woman, the cigar in the mouth of a smoker, or the toy with which a child is playing; but the stock of a hair dealer, of a tobacconist, or of the keeper of a toy store, would be unhesitatingly set down as capital. A coat which a tailor had made for sale would be accounted capital, but not the coat he had made for himself. Food in the possession of a hotel-keeper or a restaurateur would be accounted capital, but not the food in the pantry of a housewife, or in the lunch basket of a workman. Pig iron in the hands of the smelter, or founder, or dealer, would be accounted capital, but not the pig iron used as ballast in the hold of a yacht. The bellows of a blacksmith, the looms of a factory, would be capital, but not the sewing machine of a woman who does only her own work; a building let for hire, or used for business or productive purposes, but not a homestead. In short, I think we should find that now, as when Dr. Adam Smith wrote, “that part of a man’s stock which he expects to yield him a revenue is called his capital.” And, omitting his unfortunate slip as to personal qualities, and qualifying somewhat his enumeration of money, it is doubtful if we could better list the different articles of capital than did Adam Smith in the passage which in the previous part of this chapter I have condensed.",
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      "text": "Now, if, after having thus separated the wealth that is capital from the wealth that is not capital, we look for the distinction between the two classes, we shall not find it to be as to the character, capabilities, or final destination of the things themselves, as has been vainly attempted to draw it; but it seems to me that we shall find it to be as to whether they are or are not in the possession of the consumer.[8] Such articles of wealth as in themselves, in their uses, or in their products, are yet to be exchanged are capital; such articles of wealth as are in the hands of the consumer are not capital. Hence, if we define capital as _wealth in course of exchange_, understanding exchange to include not merely the passing from hand to hand, but also such transmutations as occur when the reproductive or transforming forces of nature are utilized for the increase of wealth, we shall, I think, comprehend all the things that the general idea of capital properly includes, and shut out all it does not. Under this definition, it seems to me, for instance, will fall all such tools as are really capital. For it is as to whether its services or uses are to be exchanged or not which makes a tool an article of capital or merely an article of wealth. Thus, the lathe of a manufacturer used in making things which are to be exchanged is capital, while the lathe kept by a gentleman for his own amusement is not. Thus, wealth used in the construction of a railroad, a public telegraph line, a stage coach, a theater, a hotel, etc., may be said to be placed in the course of exchange. The exchange is not effected all at once, but little by little, with an indefinite number of people. Yet there is an exchange, and the “consumers” of the railroad, the telegraph line, the stage coach, theater or hotel, are not the owners, but the persons who from time to time use them.",
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      "text": "Nor is this definition inconsistent with the idea that capital is that part of wealth devoted to production. It is too narrow an understanding of production which confines it merely to the making of things. Production includes not merely the making of things, but the bringing of them to the consumer. The merchant or storekeeper is thus as truly a producer as is the manufacturer, or farmer, and his stock or capital is as much devoted to production as is theirs. But it is not worth while now to dwell upon the functions of capital, which we shall be better able to determine hereafter. Nor is the definition of capital I have suggested of any importance. I am not writing a text-book, but only attempting to discover the laws which control a great social problem, and if the reader has been led to form a clear idea of what things are meant when we speak of capital my purpose is served.",
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      "text": "But before closing this digression let me call attention to what is often forgotten—namely, that the terms “wealth,” “capital,” “wages,” and the like, as used in political economy are abstract terms, and that nothing can be generally affirmed or denied of them that cannot be affirmed or denied of the whole class of things they represent. The failure to bear this in mind has led to much confusion of thought, and permits fallacies, otherwise transparent, to pass for obvious truths. Wealth being an abstract term, the idea of wealth, it must be remembered, involves the idea of exchange ability. The possession of wealth to a certain amount is potentially the possession of any or all species of wealth to that equivalent in exchange. And, consequently, so of capital.",
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      "text": "FOOTNOTES:",
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      "text": "[7] This was recognized in common speech in California, where the placer miners styled their earnings their “wages,” and spoke of making high wages or low wages according to the amount of gold taken out.",
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      "text": "The payment of wages, therefore, always implies the previous rendering of labor. Now, what does the rendering of labor in production imply? Evidently the production of wealth, which, if it is to be exchanged or used in production, is capital. Therefore, the payment of capital in wages pre-supposes a production of capital by the labor for which the wages are paid. And as the employer generally makes a profit, the payment of wages is, so far as he is concerned, but the return to the laborer of a portion of the capital he has received from the labor. So far as the employee is concerned, it is but the receipt of a portion of the capital his labor has previously produced. As the value paid in the wages is thus exchanged for a value brought into being by the labor, how can it be said that wages are drawn from capital or advanced by capital? As in the exchange of labor for wages the employer always gets the capital created by the labor before he pays out capital in the wages, at what point is his capital lessened even temporarily?[10]",
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      "text": "Bring the question to the test of facts. Take, for instance, an employing manufacturer who is engaged in turning raw material into finished products—cotton into cloth, iron into hardware, leather into boots, or so on, as may be, and who pays his hands, as is generally the case, once a week. Make an exact inventory of his capital on Monday morning before the beginning of work, and it will consist of his buildings, machinery, raw materials, money on hand, and finished products in stock. Suppose, for the sake of simplicity, that he neither buys nor sells during the week, and after work has stopped and he has paid his hands on Saturday night, take a new inventory of his capital. The item of money will be less, for it has been paid out in wages; there will be less raw material, less coal, etc., and a proper deduction must be made from the value of the buildings and machinery for the week’s wear and tear. But if he is doing a remunerative business, which must on the average be the case, the item of finished products will be so much greater as to compensate for all these deficiencies and show in the summing up an increase of capital. Manifestly, then, the value he paid his hands in wages was not drawn from his capital, or from any one else’s capital. It came, not from capital, but from the value created by the labor itself. There was no more advance of capital than if he had hired his hands to dig clams, and paid them with a part of the clams they dug. Their wages were as truly the produce of their labor as were the wages of the primitive man, when, long “before the appropriation of land and the accumulation of stock,” he obtained an oyster by knocking it with a stone from the rocks.",
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      "text": "As the laborer who works for an employer does not get his wages until he has performed the work, his case is similar to that of the depositor in a bank who cannot draw money out until he has put money in. And as by drawing out what he has previously put in, the bank depositor does not lessen the capital of the bank, neither can laborers by receiving wages lessen even temporarily either the capital of the employer or the aggregate capital of the community. Their wages no more come from capital than the checks of depositors are drawn against bank capital. It is true that laborers in receiving wages do not generally receive back wealth in the same form in which they have rendered it, any more than bank depositors receive back the identical coins or bank notes they have deposited, but they receive it in equivalent form, and as we are justified in saying that the depositor receives from the bank the money he paid in, so are we justified in saying that the laborer receives in wages the wealth he has rendered in labor.",
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      "text": "That this universal truth is so often obscured, is largely due to that fruitful source of economic obscurities, the confounding of wealth with money; and it is remarkable to see so many of those who, since Dr. Adam Smith made the egg stand on its head, have copiously demonstrated the fallacies of the mercantile system, fall into delusions of the very same kind in treating of the relations of capital and labor. Money being the general medium of exchanges, the common flux through which all transmutations of wealth from one form to another take place, whatever difficulties may exist to an exchange will generally show themselves on the side of reduction to money, and thus it is sometimes easier to exchange money for any other form of wealth than it is to exchange wealth in a particular form into money, for the reason that there are more holders of wealth who desire to make some exchange than there are who desire to make any particular exchange. And so a producing employer who has paid out his money in wages may sometimes find it difficult to turn quickly back into money the increased value for which his money has really been exchanged, and is spoken of as having exhausted or advanced his capital in the payment of wages. Yet, unless the new value created by the labor is less than the wages paid, which can be only an exceptional case, the capital which he had before in money he now has in goods—it has been changed in form, but not lessened.",
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      "text": "There is one branch of production in regard to which the confusions of thought which arise from the habit of estimating capital in money are least likely to occur, inasmuch as its product is the general material and standard of money. And it so happens that this business furnishes us, almost side by side, with illustrations of production passing from the simplest to most complex forms.",
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      "text": "In the early days of California, as afterward in Australia, the placer miner, who found in river bed or surface deposit the glittering particles which the slow processes of nature had for ages been accumulating, picked up or washed out his “wages” (so, too, he called them) in actual money, for coin being scarce, gold dust passed as currency by weight, and at the end of the day had his wages in money in a buckskin bag in his pocket. There can be no dispute as to whether these wages came from capital or not. They were manifestly the produce of his labor. Nor could there be any dispute when the holder of a specially rich claim hired men to work for him and paid them off in the identical money which their labor had taken from gulch or bar. As coin became more abundant, its greater convenience in saving the trouble and loss of weighing assigned gold dust to the place of a commodity, and with coin obtained by the sale of the dust their labor had procured, the employing miner paid off his hands. Where he had coin enough to do so, instead of selling his gold dust at the nearest store and paying a dealer’s profit, he retained it until he got enough to take a trip, or send by express to San Francisco, where at the mint he could have it turned into coin without charge. While thus accumulating gold dust he was lessening his stock of coin; just as the manufacturer, while accumulating a stock of goods, lessens his stock of money. Yet no one would be obtuse enough to imagine that in thus taking in gold dust and paying out coin the miner was lessening his capital.",
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      "text": "But the deposits that could be worked without preliminary labor were soon exhausted, and gold mining rapidly took a more elaborate character. Before claims could be opened so as to yield any return deep shafts had to be sunk, great dams constructed, long tunnels cut through the hardest rock, water brought for miles over mountain ridges and across deep valleys, and expensive machinery put up. These works could not be constructed without capital. Sometimes their construction required years, during which no return could be hoped for, while the men employed had to be paid their wages every week, or every month. Surely, it will be said, in such cases, even if in no others, that wages do actually come from capital; are actually advanced by capital; and must necessarily lessen capital in their payment! Surely here, at least, industry is limited by capital, for without capital such works could not be carried on! Let us see:",
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      "text": "If I go to a broker to exchange silver for gold, I lay down my silver, which he counts and puts away, and then hands me the equivalent in gold, minus his commission. Does the broker advance me any capital? Manifestly not. What he had before in gold he now has in silver, plus his profit. And as he got the silver before he paid out the gold, there is on his part not even momentarily an advance of capital.",
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      "text": "Now, this operation of the broker is precisely analogous to what the capitalist does, when, in such cases as we are now considering, he pays out capital in wages. As the rendering of labor precedes the payment of wages, and as the rendering of labor in production implies the creation of value, the employer receives value before he pays out value—he but exchanges capital of one form for capital of another form. For the creation of value does not depend upon the finishing of the product; it takes place at every stage of the process of production, as the immediate result of the application of labor, and hence, no matter how long the process in which it is engaged, labor always adds to capital by its exertion before it takes from capital in its wages.",
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      "text": "Here is a blacksmith at his forge making picks. Clearly he is making capital—adding picks to his employer’s capital before he draws money from it in wages. Here is a machinist or boilermaker working on the keel-plates of a Great Eastern. Is not he also just as clearly creating value—making capital? The giant steamship, as the pick, is an article of wealth, an instrument of production, and though the one may not be completed for years, while the other is completed in a few minutes, each day’s work, in the one case as in the other, is as clearly a production of wealth—an addition to capital. In the case of the steamship, as in the case of the pick, it is not the last blow, any more than the first blow, that creates the value of the finished product—the creation of value is continuous, it immediately results from the exertion of labor.",
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      "text": "We see this very clearly wherever the division of labor has made it customary for different parts of the full process of production to be carried on by different sets of producers—that is to say, wherever we are in the habit of estimating the amount of value which the labor expended in any preparatory stage of production has created. And a moment’s reflection will show that this is the case as to the vast majority of products. Take a ship, a building, a jackknife, a book, a lady’s thimble or a loaf of bread. They are finished products. But they were not produced at one operation or by one set of producers. And this being the case, we readily distinguish different points or stages in the creation of the value which as completed articles they represent. When we do not distinguish different parts in the final process of production we do distinguish the value of the materials. The value of these materials may often be again decomposed many times, exhibiting as many clearly defined steps in the creation of the final value. At each of these steps we habitually estimate a creation of value, an addition to capital. The batch of bread which the baker is taking from the oven has a certain value. But this is composed in part of the value of the flour from which the dough was made. And this again is composed of the value of the wheat, the value given by milling, etc. Iron in the form of pigs is very far from being a completed product. It must yet pass through several, or, perhaps, through many, stages of production before it results in the finished articles that were the ultimate objects for which the iron ore was extracted from the mine. Yet, is not pig iron capital? And so the process of production is not really completed when a crop of cotton is gathered, nor yet when it is ginned and pressed; nor yet when it arrives at Lowell or Manchester; nor yet when it is converted into yarn; nor yet when it becomes cloth; but only when it is finally placed in the hands of the consumer. Yet at each step in this progress there is clearly enough a creation of value—an addition to capital. Why, therefore, although we do not so habitually distinguish and estimate it, is there not a creation of value—an addition to capital—when the ground is plowed for the crop? Is it because it may possibly be a bad season and the crop may fail? Evidently not; for a like possibility of misadventure attends every one of the many steps in the production of the finished article. On the average a crop is sure to come up, and so much plowing and sowing will on the average result in so much cotton in the boll, as surely as so much spinning of cotton yarn will result in so much cloth.",
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      "text": "In short, as the payment of wages is always conditioned upon the rendering of labor, the payment of wages in production, no matter how long the process, never involves any advance of capital, or even temporarily lessens capital. It may take a year, or even years, to build a ship, but the creation of value of which the finished ship will be the sum goes on day by day, and hour by hour, from the time the keel is laid or even the ground is cleared. Nor by the payment of wages before the ship is completed, does the master builder lessen either his capital or the capital of the community, for the value of the partially completed ship stands in place of the value paid out in wages. There is no advance of capital in this payment of wages, for the labor of the workmen during the week or month creates and renders to the builder more capital than is paid back to them at the end of the week or month, as is shown by the fact that if the builder were at any stage of the construction asked to sell a partially completed ship he would expect a profit.",
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      "text": "And so, when a Sutro or St. Gothard tunnel or a Suez canal is cut, there is no advance of capital. The tunnel or canal, as it is cut, becomes capital as much as the money spent in cutting it—or, if you please, the powder, drills, etc., used in the work, and the food, clothes, etc., used by the workmen—as is shown by the fact that the value of the capital stock of the company is not lessened as capital in these forms is gradually changed into capital in the form of tunnel or canal. On the contrary, it probably, and on the average, increases as the work progresses, just as the capital invested in a speedier mode of production would on the average increase.",
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      "text": "And this is obvious in agriculture also. That the creation of value does not take place all at once when the crop is gathered, but step by step during the whole process which the gathering of the crop concludes, and that no payment of wages in the interim lessens the farmer’s capital, is tangible enough when land is sold or rented during the process of production, as a plowed field will bring more than an unplowed field, or a field that has been sown more than one merely plowed. It is tangible enough when growing crops are sold, as is sometimes done, or where the farmer does not harvest himself, but lets a contract to the owner of harvesting machinery. It is tangible in the case of orchards and vineyards which, though not yet in bearing, bring prices proportionate to their age. It is tangible in the case of horses, cattle and sheep, which increase in value as they grow toward maturity. And if not always tangible between what may be called the usual exchange points in production, this increase of value as surely takes place with every exertion of labor. Hence, where labor is rendered before wages are paid, the advance of capital is really made by labor, and is from the employed to the employer, not from the employer to the employed.",
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      "text": "Ricardo, who a few years subsequent to the publication of the “Essay on Population” corrected the mistake into which Smith had fallen as to the nature and cause of rent, furnished the Malthusian theory an additional support by calling attention to the fact that rent would increase as the necessities of increasing population forced cultivation to less and less productive lands, or to less and less productive points on the same lands, thus explaining the rise of rent. In this way was formed a triple combination, by which the Malthusian theory has been buttressed on both sides—the previously received doctrine of wages and the subsequently received doctrine of rent exhibiting in this view but special examples of the operation of the general principle to which the name of Malthus has been attached—the fall in wages and the rise in rents which come with increasing population being but modes in which the pressure of population upon subsistence shows itself.",
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      "text": "Thus taking its place in the very framework of political economy (for the science as currently accepted has undergone no material change or improvement since the time of Ricardo, though in some minor points it has been cleared and illustrated), the Malthusian theory, though repugnant to sentiments before alluded to, is not repugnant to other ideas, which, in older countries at least, generally prevail among the working classes; but, on the contrary, like the theory of wages by which it is supported and in turn supports, it harmonizes with them. To the mechanic or operative the cause of low wages and of the inability to get employment is obviously the competition caused by the pressure of numbers, and in the squalid abodes of poverty what seems clearer than that there are too many people?",
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      "text": "But the great cause of the triumph of this theory is, that, instead of menacing any vested right or antagonizing any powerful interest, it is eminently soothing and reassuring to the classes who, wielding the power of wealth, largely dominate thought. At a time when old supports were falling away, it came to the rescue of the special privileges by which a few monopolize so much of the good things of this world, proclaiming a natural cause for the want and misery which, if attributed to political institutions, must condemn every government under which they exist. The “Essay on Population” was avowedly a reply to William Godwin’s “Inquiry concerning Political Justice,” a work asserting the principle of human equality; and its purpose was to justify existing inequality by shifting the responsibility for it from human institutions to the laws of the Creator. There was nothing new in this, for Wallace, nearly forty years before, had brought forward the danger of excessive multiplication as the answer to the demands of justice for an equal distribution of wealth; but the circumstances of the times were such as to make the same idea, when brought forward by Malthus, peculiarly grateful to a powerful class, in whom an intense fear of any questioning of the existing state of things had been generated by the outburst of the French Revolution.",
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      "text": "Now, as then, the Malthusian doctrine parries the demand for reform, and shelters selfishness from question and from conscience by the interposition of an inevitable necessity. It furnishes a philosophy by which Dives as he feasts can shut out the image of Lazarus who faints with hunger at his door; by which wealth may complacently button up its pocket when poverty asks an alms, and the rich Christian bend on Sundays in a nicely upholstered pew to implore the good gifts of the All Father without any feeling of responsibility for the squalid misery that is festering but a square away. For poverty, want, and starvation are by this theory not chargeable either to individual greed or to social mal-adjustments; they are the inevitable results of universal laws, with which, if it were not impious, it were as hopeless to quarrel as with the law of gravitation. In this view, he who in the midst of want has accumulated wealth, has but fenced in a little oasis from the driving sand which else would have overwhelmed it. He has gained for himself, but has hurt nobody. And even if the rich were literally to obey the injunctions of Christ and divide their wealth among the poor, nothing would be gained. Population would be increased, only to press again upon the limits of subsistence or capital, and the equality that would be produced would be but the equality of common misery. And thus reforms which would interfere with the interests of any powerful class are discouraged as hopeless. As the moral law forbids any forestalling of the methods by which the natural law gets rid of surplus population and thus holds in check a tendency to increase potent enough to pack the surface of the globe with human beings as sardines are packed in a box, nothing can really be done, either by individual or by combined effort, to extirpate poverty, save to trust to the efficacy of education and preach the necessity of prudence.",
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      "text": "A theory that, falling in with the habits of thought of the poorer classes, thus justifies the greed of the rich and the selfishness of the powerful, will spread quickly and strike its roots deep. This has been the case with the theory advanced by Malthus.",
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      "text": "And of late years the Malthusian theory has received new support in the rapid change of ideas as to the origin of man and the genesis of species. That Buckle was right in saying that the promulgation of the Malthusian theory marked an epoch in the history of speculative thought could, it seems to me, be easily shown; yet to trace its influence in the higher domains of philosophy, of which Buckle’s own work is an example, would, though extremely interesting, carry us beyond the scope of this investigation. But how much be reflex and how much original, the support which is given to the Malthusian theory by the new philosophy of development, now rapidly spreading in every direction, must be noted in any estimate of the sources from which this theory derives its present strength. As in political economy, the support received from the doctrine of wages and the doctrine of rent combined to raise the Malthusian theory to the rank of a central truth, so the extension of similar ideas to the development of life in all its forms has the effect of giving it a still higher and more impregnable position. Agassiz, who, to the day of his death, was a strenuous opponent of the new philosophy, spoke of Darwinism as “Malthus all over,”[16] and Darwin himself says the struggle for existence “is the doctrine of Malthus applied with manifold force to the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms.”[17]",
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      "text": "It is narrower in this: In common speech, we apply the word rent to payments for the use of buildings, machinery, fixtures, etc., as well as to payments for the use of land or other natural capabilities; and in speaking of the rent of a house or the rent of a farm, we do not separate the price for the use of the improvements from the price for the use of the bare land. But in the economic meaning of rent, payments for the use of any of the products of human exertion are excluded, and of the lumped payments for the use of houses, farms, etc., only that part is rent which constitutes the consideration for the use of the land—that part paid for the use of buildings or other improvements being properly interest, as it is a consideration for the use of capital.",
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      "text": "It is wider in this: In common speech we speak of rent only when owner and user are distinct persons. But in the economic sense there is also rent where the same person is both owner and user. Where owner and user are thus the same person, whatever part of his income he might obtain by letting the land to another is rent, while the return for his labor and capital are that part of his income which they would yield him did he hire instead of owning the land. Rent is also expressed in a selling price. When land is purchased, the payment which is made for the ownership, or right to perpetual use, is rent commuted or capitalized. If I buy land for a small price and hold it until I can sell it for a large price, I have become rich, not by wages for my labor or by interest upon my capital, but by the increase of rent. Rent, in short, is the share in the wealth produced which the exclusive right to the use of natural capabilities gives to the owner. Wherever land has an exchange value there is rent in the economic meaning of the term. Wherever land having a value is used, either by owner or hirer, there is rent actual; wherever it is not used, but still has a value, there is rent potential. It is this capacity of yielding rent which gives value to land. Until its ownership will confer some advantage, land has no value.[32]",
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      "text": "Thus rent or land value does not arise from the productiveness or utility of land. It in no wise represents any help or advantage given to production, but simply the power of securing apart of the results of production. No matter what are its capabilities, land can yield no rent and have no value until some one is willing to give labor or the results of labor for the privilege of using it; and what any one will thus give depends not upon the capacity of the land, but upon its capacity as compared with that of land that can be had for nothing. I may have very rich land, but it will yield no rent and have no value so long as there is other land as good to be had without cost. But when this other land is appropriated, and the best land to be had for nothing is inferior, either in fertility, situation, or other quality, my land will begin to have a value and yield rent. And though the productiveness of my land may decrease, yet if the productiveness of the land to be had without charge decreases in greater proportion, the rent I can get, and consequently the value of my land, will steadily increase. Rent, in short, is the price of monopoly, arising from the reduction to individual ownership of natural elements which human exertion can neither produce nor increase.",
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      "text": "If one man owned all the land accessible to any community, he could, of course, demand any price or condition for its use that he saw fit; and, as long as his ownership was acknowledged, the other members of the community would have but death or emigration as the alternative to submission to his terms. This has been the case in many communities; but in the modern form of society, the land, though generally reduced to individual ownership, is in the hands of too many different persons to permit the price which can be obtained for its use to be fixed by mere caprice or desire. While each individual owner tries to get all he can, there is a limit to what he can get, which constitutes the market price or market rent of the land, and which varies with different lands and at different times. The law, or relation, which, under these circumstances of free competition among all parties, the condition which in tracing out the principles of political economy is always to be assumed, determines what rent or price can be got by the owner, is styled the law of rent. This fixed with certainty, we have more than a starting point from which the laws which regulate wages and interest may be traced. For, as the distribution of wealth is a division, in ascertaining what fixes the share of the produce which goes as rent, we also ascertain what fixes the share which is left for wages, where there is no co-operation of capital; and what fixes the joint share left for wages and interest, where capital does co-operate in production.",
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      "text": "Fortunately, as to the law of rent there is no necessity for discussion. Authority here coincides with common sense,[33] and the accepted dictum of the current political economy has the self-evident character of a geometric axiom. This accepted law of rent, which John Stuart Mill denominates the _pons asinorum_ of political economy, is sometimes styled “Ricardo’s law of rent,” from the fact that, although not the first to announce it, he first brought it prominently into notice.[34] It is:",
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      "text": "_The rent of land is determined by the excess of its produce over that which the same application can secure from the least productive land in use._",
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      "text": "This law, which of course applies to land used for other purposes than agriculture, and to all natural agencies, such as mines, fisheries, etc., has been exhaustively explained and illustrated by all the leading economists since Ricardo. But its mere statement has all the force of a self-evident proposition, for it is clear that the effect of competition is to make the lowest reward for which labor and capital will engage in production, the highest that they can claim; and hence to enable the owner of more productive land to appropriate in rent all the return above that required to recompense labor and capital at the ordinary rate—that is to say, what they can obtain upon the least productive land in use, or at the least productive point, where, of course, no rent is paid.",
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      "text": "Perhaps it may conduce to a fuller understanding of the law of rent to put it in this form: The ownership of a natural agent of production will give the power of appropriating so much of the wealth produced by the exertion of labor and capital upon it as exceeds the return which the same application of labor and capital could secure in the least productive occupation in which they freely engage.",
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      "text": "This, however, amounts to precisely the same thing, for there is no occupation in which labor and capital can engage which does not require the use of land; and, furthermore, the cultivation or other use of land will always be carried to as low a point of remuneration, all things considered, as is freely accepted in any other pursuit. Suppose, for instance, a community in which part of the labor and capital is devoted to agriculture and part to manufactures. The poorest land cultivated yields an average return which we will call 20, and 20 therefore will be the average return to labor and capital, as well in manufactures as in agriculture. Suppose that from some permanent cause the return in manufactures is now reduced to 15. Clearly, the labor and capital engaged in manufactures will turn to agriculture; and the process will not stop until, either by the extension of cultivation to inferior lands or to inferior points on the same land, or by an increase in the relative value of manufactured products, owing to the diminution of production—or, as a matter of fact, by both processes—the yield to labor and capital in both pursuits has, all things considered, been brought again to the same level, so that whatever be the final point of productiveness at which manufactures are still carried on, whether it be 18 or 17 or 16, cultivation will also be extended to that point. And, thus, to say that rent will be the excess in productiveness over the yield at the margin, or lowest point, of cultivation, is the same thing as to say that it will be the excess of produce over what the same amount of labor and capital obtains in the least remunerative occupation.",
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      "text": "The law of rent is, in fact, but a deduction from the law of competition, and amounts simply to the assertion that as wages and interest tend to a common level, all that part of the general production of wealth which exceeds what the labor and capital employed could have secured for themselves, if applied to the poorest natural agent in use, will go to land owners in the shape of rent. It rests, in the last analysis, upon the fundamental principle, which is to political economy what the attraction of gravitation is to physics—that men will seek to gratify their desires with the least exertion.",
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      "text": "This, then, is the law of rent. Although many standard treatises follow too much the example of Ricardo, who seems to view it merely in its relation to agriculture, and in several places speaks of manufactures yielding no rent, when, in truth, manufactures and exchange yield the highest rents, as is evinced by the greater value of land in manufacturing and commercial cities, thus hiding the full importance of the law, yet, ever since the time of Ricardo, the law itself has been clearly apprehended and fully recognized. But not so its corollaries. Plain as they are, the accepted doctrine of wages (backed and fortified not only as has been hitherto explained, but by considerations whose enormous weight will be seen when the logical conclusion toward which we are tending is reached) has hitherto prevented their recognition.[35] Yet, is it not as plain as the simplest geometrical demonstration, that the corollary of the law of rent is the law of wages, where the division of the produce is simply between rent and wages; or the law of wages and interest taken together, where the division is into rent, wages, and interest? Stated reversely, the law of rent is necessarily the law of wages and interest taken together, for it is the assertion, that no matter what be the production which results from the application of labor and capital, these two factors will receive in wages and interest only such part of the produce as they could have produced on land free to them without the payment of rent—that is, the least productive land or point in use. For, if, of the produce, all over the amount which labor and capital could secure from land for which no rent is paid must go to land owners as rent, then all that can be claimed by labor and capital as wages and interest is the amount which they could have secured from land yielding no rent.",
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      "text": "Adam Smith himself saw the cause of high wages where land was yet open to settlement, though he failed to appreciate the importance and connection of the fact. In treating of the Causes of the Prosperity of New Colonies (Chapter VII, Book IV, “Wealth of Nations,”) he says:",
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      "text": "“Every colonist gets more land than he can possibly cultivate. He has no rent and scarce any taxes to pay. * * He is eager, therefore, to collect laborers from every quarter and to pay them the most liberal wages. But these liberal wages, joined to the plenty and cheapness of land, soon make these laborers leave him in order to become landlords themselves, and to reward with equal liberality other laborers who soon leave them for the same reason they left their first masters.”",
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      "text": "This chapter contains numerous expressions which, like the opening sentence in the chapter on The Wages of Labor, show that Adam Smith failed to appreciate the true laws of the distribution of wealth only because he turned away from the more primitive forms of society to look for first principles amid complex social manifestations, where he was blinded by a preaccepted theory of the functions of capital, and, as it seems to me, by a vague acceptance of the doctrine which, two years after his death, was formulated by Malthus. And it is impossible to read the works of the economists who since the time of Smith have endeavored to build up and elucidate the science of political economy without seeing how, over and over again, they stumble over the law of wages without once recognizing it. Yet, “if it were a dog it would bite them!” Indeed, it is difficult to resist the impression that some of them really saw this law of wages, but, fearful of the practical conclusions to which it would lead, preferred to ignore and cover it up, rather than use it as the key to problems which without it are so perplexing. A great truth to an age which has rejected and trampled on it, is not a word of peace, but a sword!",
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      "text": "Perhaps it may be well to remind the reader, before closing this chapter, of what has been before stated—that I am using the word wages not in the sense of a quantity, but in the sense of a proportion. When I say that wages fall as rent rises, I do not mean that the quantity of wealth obtained by laborers as wages is necessarily less, but that the proportion which it bears to the whole produce is necessarily less. The proportion may diminish while the quantity remains the same or even increases. If the margin of cultivation descends from the productive point which we will call 25, to the productive point we will call 20, the rent of all lands that before paid rent will increase by this difference, and the proportion of the whole produce which goes to laborers as wages will to the same extent diminish; but if, in the meantime, the advance of the arts or the economies that become possible with greater population have so increased the productive power of labor that at 20 the same exertion will produce as much wealth as before at 25, laborers will get as wages as great a quantity as before, and the relative fall of wages will not be noticeable in any diminution of the necessaries or comforts of the laborer, but only in the increased value of land and the greater incomes and more lavish expenditure of the rent-receiving class.",
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      "text": "FOOTNOTES:",
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      "text": "[37] This equalization will be effected by the equation of prices.",
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      "text": "[38] This last, which is analogous to the element of risk in profits, accounts for the high wages of successful lawyers, physicians, contractors, actors, etc.",
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      "text": "Go to our settler now, and say to him: “You have so many fruit trees which you planted; so much fencing, such a well, a barn, a house—in short, you have by your labor added so much value to this farm. Your land itself is not quite so good. You have been cropping it, and by and by it will need manure. I will give you the full value of all your improvements if you will give it to me, and go again with your family beyond the verge of settlement.” He would laugh at you. His land yields no more wheat or potatoes than before, but it does yield far more of all the necessaries and comforts of life. His labor upon it will bring no heavier crops, and, we will suppose, no more valuable crops, but it will bring far more of all the other things for which men work. The presence of other settlers—the increase of population—has added to the productiveness, in these things, of labor bestowed upon it, and this added productiveness gives it a superiority over land of equal natural quality where there are as yet no settlers. If no land remains to be taken up, except such as is as far removed from population as was our settler’s land when he first went upon it, the value or rent of this land will be measured by the whole of this added capability. If, however, as we have supposed, there is a continuous stretch of equal land, over which population is now spreading, it will not be necessary for the new settler to go into the wilderness, as did the first. He will settle just beyond the other settlers, and will get the advantage of proximity to them. The value or rent of our settler’s land will thus depend on the advantage which it has, from being at the center of population, over that on the verge. In the one case, the margin of production will remain as before; in the other, the margin of production will be raised.",
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      "text": "Population still continues to increase, and as it increases so do the economies which its increase permits, and which in effect add to the productiveness of the land. Our first settler’s land, being the center of population, the store, the blacksmith’s forge, the wheelwright’s shop, are set up on it, or on its margin, where soon arises a village, which rapidly grows into a town, the center of exchanges for the people of the whole district. With no greater agricultural productiveness than it had at first, this land now begins to develop a productiveness of a higher kind. To labor expended in raising corn, or wheat, or potatoes, it will yield no more of those things than at first; but to labor expended in the subdivided branches of production which require proximity to other producers, and, especially, to labor expended in that final part of production, which consists in distribution, it will yield much larger returns. The wheat-grower may go further on, and find land on which his labor will produce as much wheat, and nearly as much wealth; but the artisan, the manufacturer, the storekeeper, the professional man, find that their labor expended here, at the center of exchanges, will yield them much more than if expended even at a little distance away from it; and this excess of productiveness for such purposes the landowner can claim just as he could an excess in its wheat-producing power. And so our settler is able to sell in building lots a few of his acres for prices which it would not bring for wheat-growing if its fertility had been multiplied many times. With the proceeds, he builds himself a fine house, and furnishes it handsomely. That is to say, to reduce the transaction to its lowest terms, the people who wish to use the land build and furnish the house for him, on condition that he will let them avail themselves of the superior productiveness which the increase of population has given the land.",
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      "text": "Population still keeps on increasing, giving greater and greater utility to the land, and more and more wealth to its owner. The town has grown into a city—a St. Louis, a Chicago or a San Francisco—and still it grows. Production is here carried on upon a great scale, with the best machinery and the most favorable facilities; the division of labor becomes extremely minute, wonderfully multiplying efficiency; exchanges are of such volume and rapidity that they are made with the minimum of friction and loss. Here is the heart, the brain, of the vast social organism that has grown up from the germ of the first settlement; here has developed one of the great ganglions of the human world. Hither run all roads, hither set all currents, through all the vast regions round about. Here, if you have anything to sell, is the market; here, if you have anything to buy, is the largest and the choicest stock. Here intellectual activity is gathered into a focus, and here springs that stimulus which is born of the collision of mind with mind. Here are the great libraries, the storehouses and granaries of knowledge, the learned professors, the famous specialists. Here are museums and art galleries, collections of philosophical apparatus, and all things rare, and valuable, and best of their kind. Here come great actors, and orators, and singers, from all over the world. Here, in short, is a center of human life, in all its varied manifestations.",
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      "text": "So enormous are the advantages which this land now offers for the application of labor that instead of one man with a span of horses scratching over acres, you may count in places thousands of workers to the acre, working tier on tier, on floors raised one above the other, five, six, seven and eight stories from the ground, while underneath the surface of the earth engines are throbbing with pulsations that exert the force of thousands of horses.",
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      "text": "All these advantages attach to the land; it is on this land and no other that they can be utilized, for here is the center of population—the focus of exchanges, the market place and workshop of the highest forms of industry. The productive powers which density of population has attached to this land are equivalent to the multiplication of its original fertility by the hundred fold and the thousand fold. And rent, which measures the difference between this added productiveness and that of the least productive land in use, has increased accordingly. Our settler, or whoever has succeeded to his right to the land, is now a millionaire. Like another Rip Van Winkle, he may have lain down and slept; still he is rich—not from anything he has done, but from the increase of population. There are lots from which for every foot of frontage the owner may draw more than an average mechanic can earn; there are lots that will sell for more than would suffice to pave them with gold coin. In the principal streets are towering buildings, of granite, marble, iron, and plate glass, finished in the most expensive style, replete with every convenience. Yet they are not worth as much as the land upon which they rest—the same land, in nothing changed, which when our first settler came upon it had no value at all.",
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      "text": "That this is the way in which the increase of population powerfully acts in increasing rent, whoever, in a progressive country, will look around him, may see for himself. The process is going on under his eyes. The increasing difference in the productiveness of the land in use, which causes an increasing rise in rent, results not so much from the necessities of increased population compelling the resort to inferior land, as from the increased productiveness which increased population gives to the lands already in use. The most valuable lands on the globe, the lands which yield the highest rent, are not lands of surpassing natural fertility, but lands to which a surpassing utility has been given by the increase of population.",
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      "text": "The increase of productiveness or utility which increase of population gives to certain lands, in the way to which I have been calling attention, attaches, as it were, to the mere quality of extension. The valuable quality of land that has become a center of population is its superficial capacity—it makes no difference whether it is fertile, alluvial soil like that of Philadelphia; rich bottom land like that of New Orleans; a filled-in marsh like that of St. Petersburg, or a sandy waste like the greater part of San Francisco.",
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      "text": "And where value seems to arise from superior natural qualities, such as deep water and good anchorage, rich deposits of coal and iron, or heavy timber, observation also shows that these superior qualities are brought out, rendered tangible, by population. The coal and iron fields of Pennsylvania, that to-day are worth enormous sums, were fifty years ago valueless. What is the efficient cause of the difference? Simply the difference in population. The coal and iron beds of Wyoming and Montana, which to-day are valueless, will, in fifty years from now, be worth millions on millions, simply because, in the meantime, population will have greatly increased.",
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      "text": "But when we reach the limits of the growing city—the actual margin of building, which corresponds to the margin of cultivation in agriculture—we shall not find the land purchasable at its value for agricultural purposes, as it would be were rent determined simply by present requirements; but we shall find that for a long distance beyond the city land bears a speculative value, based upon the belief that it will be required in the future for urban purposes, and that to reach the point at which land can be purchased at a price not based upon urban rent, we must go very far beyond the actual margin of urban use.",
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      "text": "Or, to take another case of a different kind, instances similar to which may doubtless be found in every locality. There is in Marin County, within easy access of San Francisco, a fine belt of redwood timber. Naturally, this would be first used, before resorting for the supply of the San Francisco market to timber lands at a much greater distance. But it yet remains uncut, and lumber procured many miles beyond is daily hauled past it on the railroad, because its owner prefers to hold for the greater price it will bring in the future. Thus, by the withholding from use of this body of timber, the margin of production of redwood is forced so much farther up and down the Coast Range. That mineral land, when reduced to private ownership, is frequently withheld from use while poorer deposits are worked, is well known, and in new States it is common to find individuals who are called “land poor”—that is, who remain poor, sometimes almost to deprivation, because they insist on holding land, which they themselves cannot use, at prices at which no one else can profitably use it.",
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      "text": "To recur now to the illustration we made use of in the preceding chapter: With the margin of cultivation standing at 20, an increase in the power of production takes place, which renders the same result obtainable with one-tenth less labor. For reasons before stated, the margin of production must now be forced down, and if it rests at 18, the return to labor and capital will be the same as before, when the margin stood at 20. Whether it will be forced to 18 or be forced lower depends upon what I have called the area of productiveness which intervenes between 20 and 18. But if the confident expectation of a further increase of rents leads the land owners to demand 3 rent for 20 land, 2 for 19, and 1 for 18 land, and to withhold their land from use until these terms are complied with, the area of productiveness may be so reduced that the margin of cultivation must fall to 17 or even lower; and thus, as the result of the increase in the efficiency of labor, laborers would get less than before, while interest would be proportionately reduced, and rent would increase in greater ratio than the increase in productive power.",
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      "text": "Whether we formulate it as an extension of the margin of production, or as a carrying of the rent line beyond the margin of production, the influence of speculation in land in increasing rent is a great fact which cannot be ignored in any complete theory of the distribution of wealth in progressive countries. It is the force, evolved by material progress, which tends constantly to increase rent in a greater ratio than progress increases production, and thus constantly tends, as material progress goes on and productive power increases, to reduce wages, not merely relatively, but absolutely. It is this expansive force which, operating with great power in new countries, brings to them, seemingly long before their time, the social diseases of older countries; produces “tramps” on virgin acres, and breeds paupers on half-tilled soil.",
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      "text": "In short, the general and steady advance in land values in a progressive community necessarily produces that additional tendency to advance which is seen in the case of commodities when any general and continuous cause operates to increase their price. As, during the rapid depreciation of currency which marked the latter days of the Southern Confederacy, the fact that whatever was bought one day could be sold for a higher price the next, operated to carry up the prices of commodities even faster than the depreciation of the currency, so does the steady increase of land values, which material progress produces, operate still further to accelerate the increase. We see this secondary cause operating in full force in those manias of land speculation which mark the growth of new communities; but though these are the abnormal and occasional manifestations, it is undeniable that the cause steadily operates, with greater or less intensity, in all progressive societies.",
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      "text": "The cause which limits speculation in commodities, the tendency of increasing price to draw forth additional supplies, cannot limit the speculative advance in land values, as land is a fixed quantity, which human agency can neither increase nor diminish; but there is nevertheless a limit to the price of land, in the minimum required by labor and capital as the condition of engaging in production. If it were possible continuously to reduce wages until zero were reached, it would be possible continuously to increase rent until it swallowed up the whole produce. But as wages cannot be permanently reduced below the point at which laborers will consent to work and reproduce, nor interest below the point at which capital will be devoted to production, there is a limit which restrains the speculative advance of rent. Hence speculation cannot have the same scope to advance rent in countries where wages and interest are already near the minimum, as in countries where they are considerably above it. Yet that there is in all progressive countries a constant tendency in the speculative advance of rent to overpass the limit where production would cease, is, I think, shown by recurring seasons of industrial paralysis—a matter which will be more fully examined in the next book.",
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      "sha256": "ab63f6e20309db9bab069be4a533857383762adbd97c9246d7c64f95b2f69128",
      "text": "BOOK V.",
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      "sha256": "b3c19e8a441e0797388dcd4d6a7bc2260baee2a21178f0d1629f0435dd85a627",
      "text": "THE PROBLEM SOLVED.",
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      "sha256": "02c4f8578b036852857a9ce2e398042ca85ca8f9a7447ee71a3a7615337f7282",
      "text": "CHAPTER I.—THE PRIMARY CAUSE OF RECURRING PAROXYSMS OF INDUSTRIAL DEPRESSION.",
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      "text": "Our long inquiry is ended. We may now marshal the results.",
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      "text": "To begin with the industrial depressions, to account for which so many contradictory and self-contradictory theories are broached.",
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      "ref": "PG55308.B00765",
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      "text": "A consideration of the manner in which the speculative advance in land values cuts down the earnings of labor and capital and checks production leads, I think, irresistibly to the conclusion that this is the main cause of those periodical industrial depressions to which every civilized country, and all civilized countries together, seem increasingly liable.",
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      "text": "I do not mean to say that there are not other proximate causes. The growing complexity and interdependence of the machinery of production, which makes each shock or stoppage propagate itself through a widening circle; the essential defect of currencies which contract when most needed, and the tremendous alternations in volume that occur in the simpler forms of commercial credit, which, to a much greater extent than currency in any form, constitute the medium or flux of exchanges; the protective tariffs which present artificial barriers to the interplay of productive forces, and other similar causes, undoubtedly bear important part in producing and continuing what are called hard times. But, both from the consideration of principles and the observation of phenomena, it is clear that the great initiatory cause is to be looked for in the speculative advance of land values.",
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      "text": "In the preceding chapter I have shown that the speculative advance in land values tends to press the margin of cultivation, or production, beyond its normal limit, thus compelling labor and capital to accept of a smaller return, or (and this is the only way they can resist the tendency) to cease production. Now, it is not only natural that labor and capital should resist the crowding down of wages and interest by the speculative advance of rent, but they are driven to this in self-defense, inasmuch as there is a minimum of return below which labor cannot exist nor capital be maintained. Hence, from the fact of speculation in land, we may infer all the phenomena which mark these recurring seasons of industrial depression.",
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      "text": "Given a progressive community, in which population is increasing and one improvement succeeds another, and land must constantly increase in value. This steady increase naturally leads to speculation in which future increase is anticipated, and land values are carried beyond the point at which, under the existing conditions of production, their accustomed returns would be left to labor and capital. Production, therefore, begins to stop. Not that there is necessarily, or even probably, an absolute diminution in production; but that there is what in a progressive community would be equivalent to an absolute diminution of production in a stationary community—a failure in production to increase proportionately, owing to the failure of new increments of labor and capital to find employment at the accustomed rates.",
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      "text": "This stoppage of production at some points must necessarily show itself at other points of the industrial network, in a cessation of demand, which would again check production there, and thus the paralysis would communicate itself through all the interlacings of industry and commerce, producing everywhere a partial disjointing of production and exchange, and resulting in the phenomena that seem to show overproduction or overconsumption, according to the standpoint from which they are viewed.",
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      "text": "The period of depression thus ensuing would continue until (1) the speculative advance in rents had been lost; or (2) the increase in the efficiency of labor, owing to the growth of population and the progress of improvement, had enabled the normal rent line to overtake the speculative rent line; or (3) labor and capital had become reconciled to engaging in production for smaller returns. Or, most probably, all three of these causes would co-operate to produce a new equilibrium, at which all the forces of production would again engage, and a season of activity ensue; whereupon rent would begin to advance again, a speculative advance again take place, production again be checked, and the same round be gone over.",
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      "text": "In the elaborate and complicated system of production which is characteristic of modern civilization, where, moreover, there is no such thing as a distinct and independent industrial community, but geographically or politically separated communities blend and interlace their industrial organizations in different modes and varying measures, it is not to be expected that effect should be seen to follow cause as clearly and definitely as would be the case in a simpler development of industry, and in a community forming a complete and distinct industrial whole; but, nevertheless, the phenomena actually presented by these alternate seasons of activity and depression clearly correspond with those we have inferred from the speculative advance of rent.",
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      "text": "What constitutes the rightful basis of property? What is it that enables a man justly to say of a thing, “It is mine?” From what springs the sentiment which acknowledges his exclusive right as against all the world? Is it not, primarily, the right of a man to himself to the use of his own powers, to the enjoyment of the fruits of his own exertions? Is it not this individual right, which springs from and is testified to by the natural facts of individual organization—the fact that each particular pair of hands obey a particular brain and are related to a particular stomach; the fact that each man is a definite, coherent, independent whole—which alone justifies individual ownership? As a man belongs to himself, so his labor when put in concrete form belongs to him.",
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      "text": "And for this reason, that which a man makes or produces is his own, as against all the world—to enjoy or to destroy, to use, to exchange, or to give. No one else can rightfully claim it, and his exclusive right to it involves no wrong to any one else. Thus there is to everything produced by human exertion a clear and indisputable title to exclusive possession and enjoyment, which is perfectly consistent with justice, as it descends from the original producer, in whom it vested by natural law. The pen with which I am writing is justly mine. No other human being can rightfully lay claim to it, for in me is the title of the producers who made it. It has become mine, because transferred to me by the stationer, to whom it was transferred by the importer, who obtained the exclusive right to it by transfer from the manufacturer, in whom, by the same process of purchase, vested the rights of those who dug the material from the ground and shaped it into a pen. Thus, my exclusive right of ownership in the pen springs from the natural right of the individual to the use of his own faculties.",
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      "text": "Now, this is not only the original source from which all ideas of exclusive ownership arise—as is evident from the natural tendency of the mind to revert to it when the idea of exclusive ownership is questioned, and the manner in which social relations develop—but it is necessarily the only source. There can be to the ownership of anything no rightful title which is not derived from the title of the producer and does not rest upon the natural right of the man to himself. There can be no other rightful title, because (1st) there is no other natural right from which any other title can be derived, and (2d) because the recognition of any other title is inconsistent with and destructive of this.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55308.B00974",
      "bookId": 55308,
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      "text": "For (1st) what other right exists from which the right to the exclusive possession of anything can be derived, save the right of a man to himself? With what other power is man by nature clothed, save the power of exerting his own faculties? How can he in any other way act upon or affect material things or other men? Paralyze the motor nerves, and your man has no more external influence or power than a log or stone. From what else, then, can the right of possessing and controlling things be derived? If it spring not from man himself, from what can it spring? Nature acknowledges no ownership or control in man save as the result of exertion. In no other way can her treasures be drawn forth, her powers directed, or her forces utilized or controlled. She makes no discriminations among men, but is to all absolutely impartial. She knows no distinction between master and slave, king and subject, saint and sinner. All men to her stand upon an equal footing and have equal rights. She recognizes no claim but that of labor, and recognizes that without respect to the claimant. If a pirate spread his sails, the wind will fill them as well as it will fill those of a peaceful merchantman or missionary bark; if a king and a common man be thrown overboard, neither can keep his head above water except by swimming; birds will not come to be shot by the proprietor of the soil any quicker than they will come to be shot by the poacher; fish will bite or will not bite at a hook in utter disregard as to whether it is offered them by a good little boy who goes to Sunday-school, or a bad little boy who plays truant; grain will grow only as the ground is prepared and the seed is sown; it is only at the call of labor that ore can be raised from the mine; the sun shines and the rain falls, alike upon just and unjust. The laws of nature are the decrees of the Creator. There is written in them no recognition of any right save that of labor; and in them is written broadly and clearly the equal right of all men to the use and enjoyment of nature; to apply to her by their exertions, and to receive and possess her reward. Hence, as nature gives only to labor, the exertion of labor in production is the only title to exclusive possession.",
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      "text": "2d. This right of ownership that springs from labor excludes the possibility of any other right of ownership. If a man be rightfully entitled to the produce of his labor, then no one can be rightfully entitled to the ownership of anything which is not the produce of his labor, or the labor of some one else from whom the right has passed to him. If production give to the producer the right to exclusive possession and enjoyment, there can rightfully be no exclusive possession and enjoyment of anything not the production of labor, and the recognition of private property in land is a wrong. For the right to the produce of labor cannot be enjoyed without the right to the free use of the opportunities offered by nature, and to admit the right of property in these is to deny the right of property in the produce of labor. When non-producers can claim as rent a portion of the wealth created by producers, the right of the producers to the fruits of their labor is to that extent denied.",
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      "text": "There is no escape from this position. To affirm that a man can rightfully claim exclusive ownership in his own labor when embodied in material things, is to deny that any one can rightfully claim exclusive ownership in land. To affirm the rightfulness of property in land, is to affirm a claim which has no warrant in nature, as against a claim founded in the organization of man and the laws of the material universe.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "What most prevents the realization of the injustice of private property in land is the habit of including all the things that are made the subject of ownership in one category, as property, or, if any distinction is made, drawing the line, according to the unphilosophical distinction of the lawyers, between personal property and real estate, or things movable and things immovable. The real and natural distinction is between things which are the produce of labor and things which are the gratuitous offerings of nature; or, to adopt the terms of political economy, between wealth and land.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG55308.B00978",
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      "text": "These two classes of things are in essence and relations widely different, and to class them together as property is to confuse all thought when we come to consider the justice or the injustice, the right or the wrong of property.",
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    {
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      "text": "A house and the lot on which it stands are alike property, as being the subject of ownership, and are alike classed by the lawyers as real estate. Yet in nature and relations they differ widely. The one is produced by human labor, and belongs to the class in political economy styled wealth. The other is a part of nature, and belongs to the class in political economy styled land.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55308.B00980",
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      "text": "The essential character of the one class of things is that they embody labor, are brought into being by human exertion, their existence or non-existence, their increase or diminution, depending on man. The essential character of the other class of things is that they do not embody labor, and exist irrespective of human exertion and irrespective of man; they are the field or environment in which man finds himself; the storehouse from which his needs must be supplied, the raw material upon which, and the forces with which alone his labor can act.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55308.B00981",
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      "text": "The moment this distinction is realized, that moment is it seen that the sanction which natural justice gives to one species of property is denied to the other; that the rightfulness which attaches to individual property in the produce of labor implies the wrongfulness of individual property in land; that, whereas the recognition of the one places all men upon equal terms, securing to each the due reward of his labor, the recognition of the other is the denial of the equal rights of men, permitting those who do not labor to take the natural reward of those who do.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55308.B00982",
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      "text": "Whatever may be said for the institution of private property in land, it is therefore plain that it cannot be defended on the score of justice.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55308.B00983",
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      "text": "The equal right of all men to the use of land is as clear as their equal right to breathe the air—it is a right proclaimed by the fact of their existence. For we cannot suppose that some men have a right to be in this world and others no right.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55308.B00984",
      "bookId": 55308,
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      "text": "If we are all here by the equal permission of the Creator, we are all here with an equal title to the enjoyment of his bounty—with an equal right to the use of all that nature so impartially offers.[46] This is a right which is natural and inalienable; it is a right which vests in every human being as he enters the world, and which during his continuance in the world can be limited only by the equal rights of others. There is in nature no such thing as a fee simple in land. There is on earth no power which can rightfully make a grant of exclusive ownership in land. If all existing men were to unite to grant away their equal rights, they could not grant away the right of those who follow them. For what are we but tenants for a day? Have we made the earth, that we should determine the rights of those who after us shall tenant it in their turn? The Almighty, who created the earth for man and man for the earth, has entailed it upon all the generations of the children of men by a decree written upon the constitution of all things—a decree which no human action can bar and no prescription determine. Let the parchments be ever so many, or possession ever so long, natural justice can recognize no right in one man to the possession and enjoyment of land that is not equally the right of all his fellows. Though his titles have been acquiesced in by generation after generation, to the landed estates of the Duke of Westminster the poorest child that is born in London to-day has as much right as has his eldest son.[47] Though the sovereign people of the State of New York consent to the lauded possessions of the Astors, the puniest infant that comes wailing into the world in the squalidest room of the most miserable tenement house, becomes at that moment seized of an equal right with the millionaires. And it is robbed if the right is denied.",
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    {
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      "text": "Our previous conclusions, irresistible in themselves, thus stand approved by the highest and final test. Translated from terms of political economy into terms of ethics they show a wrong as the source of the evils which increase as material progress goes on.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55308.B00986",
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      "text": "The masses of men, who in the midst of abundance suffer want; who, clothed with political freedom, are condemned to the wages of slavery; to whose toil labor-saving inventions bring no relief, but rather seem to rob them of a privilege, instinctively feel that “there is something wrong.” And they are right.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55308.B00987",
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      "text": "The wide-spreading social evils which everywhere oppress men amid an advancing civilization spring from a great primary wrong—the appropriation, as the exclusive property of some men, of the land on which and from which all must live. From this fundamental injustice flow all the injustices which distort and endanger modern development, which condemn the producer of wealth to poverty and pamper the non-producer in luxury, which rear the tenement house with the palace, plant the brothel behind the church, and compel us to build prisons as we open new schools.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55308.B01150",
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      "text": "“Such a doctrine is consistent with the highest state of civilization; may be carried out without involving a community of goods, and need cause no very serious revolution in existing arrangements. The change required would simply be a change of landlords. Separate ownership would merge into the joint-stock ownership of the public. Instead of being in the possession of individuals, the country would be held by the great corporate body—society. Instead of leasing his acres from an isolated proprietor, the farmer would lease them from the nation. Instead of paying his rent to the agent of Sir John or his Grace, he would pay it to an agent or deputy agent of the community. Stewards would be public officials instead of private ones, and tenancy the only land tenure. A state of things so ordered would be in perfect harmony with the moral law. Under it all men would be equally landlords, all men would be alike free to become tenants. * * * Clearly, therefore, on such a system, the earth might be enclosed, occupied and cultivated, in entire subordination to the law of equal freedom.”",
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      "ref": "PG55308.B01151",
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      "text": "But such a plan, though perfectly feasible, does not seem to me the best. Or rather I propose to accomplish the same thing in a simpler, easier, and quieter way, than that of formally confiscating all the land and formally letting it out to the highest bidders.",
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      "text": "To do that would involve a needless shock to present customs and habits of thought—which is to be avoided.",
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      "ref": "PG55308.B01153",
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      "text": "To do that would involve a needless extension of governmental machinery—which is to be avoided.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55308.B01154",
      "bookId": 55308,
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      "text": "It is an axiom of statesmanship, which the successful founders of tyranny have understood and acted upon—that great changes can best be brought about under old forms. We, who would free men, should heed the same truth. It is the natural method. When nature would make a higher type, she takes a lower one and develops it. This, also, is the law of social growth. Let us work by it. With the current we may glide fast and far. Against it, it is hard pulling and slow progress.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG55308.B01155",
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      "text": "I do not propose either to purchase or to confiscate private property in land. The first would be unjust; the second, needless. Let the individuals who now hold it still retain, if they want to, possession of what they are pleased to call _their_ land. Let them continue to call it _their_ land. Let them buy and sell, and bequeath and devise it. We may safely leave them the shell, if we take the kernel. _It is not necessary to confiscate land; it is only necessary to confiscate rent._",
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      "ref": "PG55308.B01156",
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      "text": "Nor to take rent for public uses is it necessary that the State should bother with the letting of lands, and assume the chances of the favoritism, collusion, and corruption this might involve. It is not necessary that any new machinery should be created. The machinery already exists. Instead of extending it, all we have to do is to simplify and reduce it. By leaving to land owners a percentage of rent which would probably be much less than the cost and loss involved in attempting to rent lands through State agency, and by making use of this existing machinery, we may, without jar or shock, assert the common right to land by taking rent for public uses.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "ref": "PG55308.B01157",
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      "text": "We already take some rent in taxation. We have only to make some changes in our modes of taxation to take it all.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55308.B01158",
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      "text": "What I, therefore, propose, as the simple yet sovereign remedy, which will raise wages, increase the earnings of capital, extirpate pauperism, abolish poverty, give remunerative employment to whoever wishes it, afford free scope to human powers, lessen crime, elevate morals, and taste, and intelligence, purify government and carry civilization to yet nobler heights, is—_to appropriate rent by taxation_.",
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      "text": "In this way the State may become the universal landlord without calling herself so, and without assuming a single new function. In form, the ownership of land would remain just as now. No owner of land need be dispossessed, and no restriction need be placed upon the amount of land any one could hold. For, rent being taken by the State in taxes, land, no matter in whose name it stood, or in what parcels it was held, would be really common property, and every member of the community would participate in the advantages of its ownership.",
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      "text": "Now, insomuch as the taxation of rent, or land values, must necessarily be increased just as we abolish other taxes, we may put the proposition into practical form by proposing—",
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      "text": "_To abolish all taxation save that upon land values._",
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      "text": "As we have seen, the value of land is at the beginning of society nothing, but as society develops by the increase of population and the advance of the arts, it becomes greater and greater. In every civilized country, even the newest, the value of the land taken as a whole is sufficient to bear the entire expenses of government. In the better developed countries it is much more than sufficient. Hence it will not be enough merely to place all taxes upon the value of land. It will be necessary, where rent exceeds the present governmental revenues, commensurately to increase the amount demanded in taxation, and to continue this increase as society progresses and rent advances. But this is so natural and easy a matter, that it may be considered as involved, or at least understood, in the proposition to put all taxes on the value of land. That is the first step, upon which the practical struggle must be made. When the hare is once caught and killed, cooking him will follow as a matter of course. When the common right to land is so far appreciated that all taxes are abolished save those which fall upon rent, there is no danger of much more than is necessary to induce them to collect the public revenues being left to individual land holders.",
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      "text": "Experience has taught me (for I have been for some years endeavoring to popularize this proposition) that wherever the idea of concentrating all taxation upon land values finds lodgment sufficient to induce consideration, it invariably makes way, but that there are few of the classes most to be benefited by it, who at first, or even for a long time afterward, see its full significance and power. It is difficult for workingmen to get over the idea that there is a real antagonism between capital and labor. It is difficult for small farmers and homestead owners to get over the idea that to put all taxes on the value of land would be unduly to tax them. It is difficult for both classes to get over the idea that to exempt capital from taxation would be to make the rich richer, and the poor poorer. These ideas spring from confused thought. But behind ignorance and prejudice there is a powerful interest, which has hitherto dominated literature, education, and opinion. A great wrong always dies hard, and the great wrong which in every civilized country condemns the masses of men to poverty and want, will not die without a bitter struggle.",
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      "text": "I do not think the ideas of which I speak can be entertained by the reader who has followed me thus far; but inasmuch as any popular discussion must deal with the concrete, rather than with the abstract, let me ask him to follow me somewhat further, that we may try the remedy I have proposed by the accepted canons of taxation. In doing so, many incidental bearings may be seen that otherwise might escape notice.",
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      "text": "CHAPTER III.",
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      "text": "THE PROPOSITION TRIED BY THE CANONS OF TAXATION.",
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      "text": "Let us consider what form of taxation best accords with these conditions. Whatever it be, that evidently will be the best mode in which the public revenues can be raised.",
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      "text": "_I.—The Effect of Taxes upon Production._",
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      "text": "All taxes must evidently come from the produce of land and labor, since there is no other source of wealth than the union of human exertion with the material and forces of nature. But the manner in which equal amounts of taxation may be imposed may very differently affect the production of wealth. Taxation which lessens the reward of the producer necessarily lessens the incentive to production; taxation which is conditioned upon the act of production, or the use of any of the three factors of production, necessarily discourages production. Thus taxation which diminishes the earnings of the laborer or the returns of the capitalist tends to render the one less industrious and intelligent, the other less disposed to save and invest. Taxation which falls upon the processes of production interposes an artificial obstacle to the creation of wealth. Taxation which falls upon labor _as_ it is exerted, wealth _as_ it is used as capital, and _as_ it is cultivated, will manifestly tend to discourage production much more powerfully than taxation to the same amount levied upon laborers, whether they work or play, upon wealth whether used productively or unproductively, or upon land whether cultivated or left waste.",
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      "text": "The mode of taxation is, in fact, quite as important as the amount. As a small burden badly placed may distress a horse that could carry with ease a much larger one properly adjusted, so a people may be impoverished and their power of producing wealth destroyed by taxation, which, if levied in another way, could be borne with ease. A tax on date-trees, imposed by Mohammed Ali, caused the Egyptian fellahs to cut down their trees; but a tax of twice the amount imposed on the land produced no such result. The tax of ten per cent. on all sales, imposed by the Duke of Alva in the Netherlands, would, had it been maintained, have all but stopped exchange while yielding but little revenue.",
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      "text": "But we need not go abroad for illustrations. The production of wealth in the United States is largely lessened by taxation which bears upon its processes. Ship-building, in which we excelled, has been all but destroyed, so far as the foreign trade is concerned, and many branches of production and exchange seriously crippled, by taxes which divert industry from more to less productive forms.",
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      "text": "This checking of production is in greater or less degree characteristic of most of the taxes by which the revenues of modern governments are raised. All taxes upon manufactures, all taxes upon commerce, all taxes upon capital, all taxes upon improvements, are of this kind. Their tendency is the same as that of Mohammed Ali’s tax on date-trees, though their effect may not be so clearly seen.",
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      "text": "All such taxes have a tendency to reduce the production of wealth, and should, therefore, never be resorted to when it is possible to raise money by taxes which do not check production. This becomes possible as society develops and wealth accumulates. Taxes which fall upon ostentation would simply turn into the public treasury what otherwise would be wasted in vain show for the sake of show; and taxes upon wills and devises of the rich would probably have little effect in checking the desire for accumulation, which, after it has fairly got hold of a man, becomes a blind passion. But the great class of taxes from which revenue may be derived without interference with production are taxes upon monopolies—for the profit of monopoly is in itself a tax levied upon production, and to tax it is simply to divert into the public coffers what production must in any event pay.",
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      "text": "There are among us various sorts of monopolies. For instance, there are the temporary monopolies created by the patent and copyright laws. These it would be extremely unjust and unwise to tax, inasmuch as they are but recognitions of the right of labor to its intangible productions, and constitute a reward held out to invention and authorship.[55] There are also the onerous monopolies alluded to in Chapter IV of Book III, which result from the aggregation of capital in businesses which are of the nature of monopolies. But while it would be extremely difficult, if not altogether impossible, to levy taxes by general law so that they would fall exclusively on the returns of such monopoly and not become taxes on production or exchange, it is much better that these monopolies should be abolished. In large part they spring from legislative commission or omission, as, for instance, the ultimate reason that San Francisco merchants are compelled to pay more for goods sent direct from New York to San Francisco by the Isthmus route than it costs to ship them from New York to Liverpool or Southampton and thence to San Francisco, is to be found in the “protective” laws which make it so costly to build American steamers and which forbid foreign steamers to carry goods between American ports. The reason that residents of Nevada are compelled to pay as much freight from the East as though their goods were carried to San Francisco and back again, is that the authority which prevents extortion on the part of a hack driver is not exercised in respect to a railroad company. And it may be said generally that businesses which are in their nature monopolies are properly part of the functions of the State, and should be assumed by the State. There is the same reason why Government should carry telegraphic messages as that it should carry letters; that railroads should belong to the public as that common roads should.",
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      "text": "But all other monopolies are trivial in extent as compared with the monopoly of land. And the value of land expressing a monopoly, pure and simple, is in every respect fitted for taxation. That is to say, while the value of a railroad or telegraph line, the price of gas or of a patent medicine, may express the price of monopoly, it also expresses the exertion of labor and capital; but the value of land, or economic rent, as we have seen, is in no part made up from these factors, and expresses nothing but the advantage of appropriation. Taxes levied upon the value of land cannot check production in the slightest degree, until they exceed rent, or the value of land taken annually, for unlike taxes upon commodities, or exchange, or capital, or any of the tools or processes of production, they do not bear upon production. The value of land does not express the reward of production, as does the value of crops, of cattle, of buildings, or any of the things which are styled personal property and improvements. It expresses the exchange value of monopoly. It is not in any case the creation of the individual who owns the land; it is created by the growth of the community. Hence the community can take it all without in any way lessening the incentive to improvement or in the slightest degree lessening the production of wealth. Taxes may be imposed upon the value of land until all rent is taken by the State, without reducing the wages of labor or the reward of capital one iota; without increasing the price of a single commodity, or making production in any way more difficult.",
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      "text": "But more than this. Taxes on the value of land not only do not check production as do most other taxes, but they tend to increase production, by destroying speculative rent. How speculative rent checks production may be seen not only in the valuable land withheld from use, but in the paroxysms of industrial depression which, originating in the speculative advance in land values, propagate themselves over the whole civilized world, everywhere paralyzing industry, and causing more waste and probably more suffering than would a general war. Taxation which would take rent for public uses would prevent all this; while if land were taxed to anything near its rental value, no one could afford to hold land that he was not using, and, consequently, land not in use would be thrown open to those who would use it. Settlement would be closer, and, consequently, labor and capital would be enabled to produce much more with the same exertion. The dog in the manger who, in this country especially, so wastes productive power, would be choked off.",
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      "text": "There is yet an even more important way by which, through its effect upon distribution, the taking of rent to public uses by taxation would stimulate the production of wealth. But reference to that may be reserved. It is sufficiently evident that with regard to production, the tax upon the value of land is the best tax that can be imposed. Tax manufactures, and the effect is to check manufacturing; tax improvements, and the effect is to lessen improvement; tax commerce, and the effect is to prevent exchange; tax capital, and the effect is to drive it away. But the whole value of land may be taken in taxation, and the only effect will be to stimulate industry, to open new opportunities to capital, and to increase the production of wealth.",
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      "text": "_II.—As to Ease and Cheapness of Collection._",
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      "text": "Here, for instance, are two men of equal means, or equal incomes, one having a large family, the other having no one to support but himself. Upon these two men indirect taxes fall very unequally, as the one cannot avoid the taxes on the food, clothing, etc., consumed by his family, while the other need pay only upon the necessaries consumed by himself. But, supposing taxes levied directly, so that each pays the same amount. Still there is injustice. The income of the one is charged with the support of six, eight, or ten persons; the income of the other with that of but a single person. And unless the Malthusian doctrine be carried to the extent of regarding the rearing of a new citizen as an injury to the state, here is a gross injustice.",
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      "text": "But it may be said that this is a difficulty which cannot be got over; that it is Nature herself that brings human beings helpless into the world and devolves their support upon the parents, providing in compensation therefor her own sweet and great rewards. Very well, then, let us turn to Nature, and read the mandates of justice in her law.",
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      "text": "Nature gives to labor; and to labor alone. In a very Garden of Eden a man would starve but for human exertion. Now, here are two men of equal incomes—that of the one derived from the exertion of his labor, that of the other from the rent of land. Is it just that they should equally contribute to the expenses of the state? Evidently not. The income of the one represents wealth he creates and adds to the general wealth of the state; the income of the other represents merely wealth that he takes from the general stock, returning nothing. The right of the one to the enjoyment of his income rests on the warrant of nature, which returns wealth to labor; the right of the other to the enjoyment of his income is a mere fictitious right, the creation of municipal regulation, which is unknown and unrecognized by nature. The father who is told that from his labor he must support his children must acquiesce, for such is the natural decree; but he may justly demand that from the income gained by his labor not one penny shall be taken, so long as a penny remains of incomes which are gained by a monopoly of the natural opportunities which Nature offers impartially to all, and in which his children have as their birthright an equal share.",
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      "text": "Adam Smith speaks of incomes as “enjoyed under the protection of the state;” and this is the ground upon which the equal taxation of all species of property is commonly insisted upon—that it is equally protected by the state. The basis of this idea is evidently that the enjoyment of property is made possible by the state—that there is a value created and maintained by the community, which is justly called upon to meet community expenses. Now, of what values is this true? Only of the value of land. This is a value that does not arise until a community is formed, and that, unlike other values, grows with the growth of the community. It exists only as the community exists. Scatter again the largest community, and land, now so valuable, would have no value at all. With every increase of population the value of land rises; with every decrease it falls. This is true of nothing else save of things which, like the ownership of land, are in their nature monopolies.",
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      "text": "The tax upon land values is, therefore, the most just and equal of all taxes. It falls only upon those who receive from society a peculiar and valuable benefit, and upon them in proportion to the benefit they receive. It is the taking by the community, for the use of the community, of that value which is the creation of the community. It is the application of the common property to common uses. When all rent is taken by taxation for the needs of the community, then will the equality ordained by nature be attained. No citizen will have an advantage over any other citizen save as is given by his industry, skill, and intelligence; and each will obtain what he fairly earns. Then, but not till then, will labor get its full reward, and capital its natural return.",
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      "text": "FOOTNOTES:",
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      "text": "[55] Following the habit of confounding the exclusive right granted by a patent and that granted by a copyright as recognitions of the right of labor to its intangible productions, I in this fell into error which I subsequently acknowledged and corrected in the _Standard_ of June 23, 1888. The two things are not alike, but essentially different. The copyright is not a right to the exclusive use of a fact, an idea, or a combination, which by the natural law of property all are free to use; but only to the labor expended in the thing itself. It does not prevent any one from using for himself the facts, the knowledge, the laws or combinations for a similar production, but only from using the identical form of the particular book or other production—the actual labor which has in short been expended in producing it. It rests therefore upon the natural, moral right of each one to enjoy the products of his own exertion, and involves no interference with the similar right of any one else to do likewise.",
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      "text": "But there has been a school of economists who plainly perceived, what is clear to the natural perceptions of men when uninfluenced by habit—that the revenues of the common property, land, ought to be appropriated to the common service. The French Economists of the last century, headed by Quesnay and Turgot, proposed just what I have proposed, that all taxation should be abolished save a tax upon the value of land. As I am acquainted with the doctrines of Quesnay and his disciples only at second hand through the medium of the English writers, I am unable to say how far his peculiar ideas as to agriculture being the only productive avocation, etc., are erroneous apprehensions, or mere peculiarities of terminology. But of this I am certain from the proposition in which his theory culminated—that he saw the fundamental relation between land and labor which has since been lost sight of, and that he arrived at practical truth, though, it may be, through a course of defectively expressed reasoning. The causes which leave in the hands of the landlord a “produce net” were by the Physiocrats no better explained than the suction of a pump was explained by the assumption that nature abhors a vacuum, but the fact in its practical relations to social economy was recognized, and the benefit which would result from the perfect freedom given to industry and trade by a substitution of a tax on rent for all the impositions which hamper and distort the application of labor was doubtless as clearly seen by them as it is by me. One of the things most to be regretted about the French Revolution is that it overwhelmed the ideas of the Economists, just as they were gaining strength among the thinking classes, and were apparently about to influence fiscal legislation.",
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      "text": "Without knowing anything of Quesnay or his doctrines, I have reached the same practical conclusion by a route which cannot be disputed, and have based it on grounds which cannot be questioned by the accepted political economy.",
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      "text": "The only objection to the tax on rent or land values which is to be met with in standard politico-economic works is one which concedes its advantages—for it is, that from the difficulty of separation, we might, in taxing the rent of land, tax something else. McCulloch, for instance, declares taxes on the rent of land to be impolitic and unjust because the return received for the natural and inherent powers of the soil cannot be clearly distinguished from the return received from improvements and meliorations, which might thus be discouraged. Macaulay somewhere says that if the admission of the attraction of gravitation were inimical to any considerable pecuniary interest, there would not be wanting arguments against gravitation—a truth of which this objection is an illustration. For admitting that it is impossible invariably to separate the value of land from the value of improvements, is this necessity of continuing to tax _some_ improvements any reason why we should continue to tax _all_ improvements? If it discourage production to tax values which labor and capital have intimately combined with that of land, how much greater discouragement is involved in taxing not only these, but all the clearly distinguishable values which labor and capital create?",
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      "bookId": 55308,
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      "text": "But, as a matter of fact, the value of land can always be readily distinguished from the value of improvements. In countries like the United States there is much valuable land that has never been improved; and in many of the States the value of the land and the value of improvements are habitually estimated separately by the assessors, though afterward reunited under the term real estate. Nor where ground has been occupied from immemorial times, is there any difficulty in getting at the value of the bare land, for frequently the land is owned by one person and the buildings by another, and when a fire occurs and improvements are destroyed, a clear and definite value remains in the land. In the oldest country in the world no difficulty whatever can attend the separation, if all that be attempted is to separate the value of the clearly distinguishable improvements, made within a moderate period, from the value of the land, should they be destroyed. This, manifestly, is all that justice or policy requires. Absolute accuracy is impossible in any system, and to attempt to separate all that the human race has done from what nature originally provided would be as absurd as impracticable. A swamp drained or a hill terraced by the Romans constitutes now as much a part of the natural advantages of the British Isles as though the work had been done by earthquake or glacier. The fact that after a certain lapse of time the value of such permanent improvements would be considered as having lapsed into that of the land, and would be taxed accordingly, could have no deterrent effect on such improvements, for such works are frequently undertaken upon leases for years. The fact is, that each generation builds and improves for itself, and not for the remote future. And the further fact is, that each generation is heir, not only to the natural powers of the earth, but to all that remains of the work of past generations.",
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      "bookId": 55308,
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      "text": "An objection of a different kind may however be made. It may be said that where political power is diffused, it is highly desirable that taxation should fall not on one class, such as land owners, but on all; in order that all who exercise political power may feel a proper interest in economical government. Taxation and representation, it will be said, cannot safely be divorced.",
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      "text": "But however desirable it may be to combine with political power the consciousness of public burdens, the present system certainly does not secure it. Indirect taxes are largely raised from those who pay little or nothing consciously. In the United States the class is rapidly growing who not only feel no interest in taxation, but who have no concern in good government. In our large cities elections are in great measure determined not by considerations of public interest, but by such influences as determined elections in Rome when the masses had ceased to care for anything but bread and the circus.",
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      "text": "The effect of substituting for the manifold taxes now imposed a single tax on the value of land would hardly lessen the number of conscious taxpayers, for the division of land now held on speculation would much increase the number of land holders. But it would so equalize the distribution of wealth as to raise even the poorest above that condition of abject poverty in which public considerations have no weight; while it would at the same time cut down those overgrown fortunes which raise their possessors above concern in government. The dangerous classes politically are the very rich and very poor. It is not the taxes that he is conscious of paying that gives a man a stake in the country, an interest in its government; it is the consciousness of feeling that he is an integral part of the community; that its prosperity is his prosperity, and its disgrace his shame. Let but the citizen feel this; let him be surrounded by all the influences that spring from and cluster round a comfortable home, and the community may rely upon him, even to limb or to life. Men do not vote patriotically, any more than they fight patriotically, because of their payment of taxes. Whatever conduces to the comfortable and independent material condition of the masses will best foster public spirit, will make the ultimate governing power more intelligent and more virtuous.",
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      "text": "But it may be asked: If the tax on land values is so advantageous a mode of raising revenue, how is it that so many other taxes are resorted to in preference by all governments?",
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      "text": "As soon as a child can command its muscles, it will begin to make mud pies or dress a doll; its play is but the imitation of the work of its elders; its very destructiveness arises from the desire to be doing something, from the satisfaction of seeing itself accomplish something. There is no such thing as the pursuit of pleasure for the sake of pleasure. Our very amusements amuse only as they are, or simulate, the learning or the doing of something. The moment they cease to appeal either to our inquisitive or to our constructive powers, they cease to amuse. It will spoil the interest of the novel reader to be told just how the story will end; it is only the chance and the skill involved in the game that enable the card-player to “kill time” by shuffling bits of pasteboard. The luxurious frivolities of Versailles were possible to human beings only because the king thought he was governing a kingdom and the courtiers were in pursuit of fresh honors and new pensions. People who lead what are called lives of fashion and pleasure must have some other object in view, or they would die of _ennui_; they support it only because they imagine that they are gaining position, making friends, or improving the chances of their children. Shut a man up, and deny him employment, and he must either die or go mad.",
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      "text": "It is not labor in itself that is repugnant to man; it is not the natural necessity for exertion which is a curse. It is only labor which produces nothing—exertion of which he cannot see the results. To toil day after day, and yet get but the necessaries of life, this is indeed hard; it is like the infernal punishment of compelling a man to pump lest he be drowned, or to trudge on a treadmill lest he be crushed. But, released from this necessity, men would but work the harder and the better, for then they would work as their inclinations led them; then would they seem to be really doing something for themselves or for others. Was Humboldt’s life an idle one? Did Franklin find no occupation when he retired from the printing business with enough to live on? Is Herbert Spencer a laggard? Did Michael Angelo paint for board and clothes?",
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      "text": "The fact is that the work which improves the condition of mankind, the work which extends knowledge and increases power, and enriches literature, and elevates thought, is not done to secure a living. It is not the work of slaves, driven to their task either by the lash of a master or by animal necessities. It is the work of men who perform it for its own sake, and not that they may get more to eat or drink, or wear, or display. In a state of society where want was abolished, work of this sort would be enormously increased.",
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      "text": "I am inclined to think that the result of confiscating rent in the manner I have proposed would be to cause the organization of labor, wherever large capitals were used, to assume the co-operative form, since the more equal diffusion of wealth would unite capitalist and laborer in the same person. But whether this would be so or not is of little moment. The hard toil of routine labor would disappear. Wages would be too high and opportunities too great to compel any man to stint and starve the higher qualities of his nature, and in every avocation the brain would aid the hand. Work, even of the coarser kinds, would become a lightsome thing, and the tendency of modern production to subdivision would not involve monotony or the contraction of ability in the worker; but would be relieved by short hours, by change, by the alternation of intellectual with manual occupations. There would result, not only the utilization of productive forces now going to waste; not only would our present knowledge, now so imperfectly applied, be fully used; but from the mobility of labor and the mental activity which would be generated, there would result advances in the methods of production that we now cannot imagine.",
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      "text": "For, greatest of all the enormous wastes which the present constitution of society involves, is that of mental power. How infinitesimal are the forces that concur to the advance of civilization, as compared to the forces that lie latent! How few are the thinkers, the discoverers, the inventors, the organizers, as compared with the great mass of the people! Yet such men are born in plenty; it is the conditions that permit so few to develop. There are among men infinite diversities of aptitude and inclination, as there are such infinite diversities in physical structure that among a million there will not be two that cannot be told apart. But, both from observation and reflection, I am inclined to think that the differences of natural power are no greater than the differences of stature or of physical strength. Turn to the lives of great men, and see how easily they might never have been heard of. Had Cæsar come of a proletarian family; had Napoleon entered the world a few years earlier; had Columbus gone into the Church instead of going to sea; had Shakespeare been apprenticed to a cobbler or chimney-sweep; had Sir Isaac Newton been assigned by fate the education and the toil of an agricultural laborer; had Dr. Adam Smith been born in the coal hews, or Herbert Spencer forced to get his living as a factory operative, what would their talents have availed? But there would have been, it will be said, other Cæsars or Napoleons, Columbuses or Shakespeares, Newtons, Smiths or Spencers. This is true. And it shows how prolific is our human nature. As the common worker is on need transformed into queen bee, so, when circumstances favor his development, what might otherwise pass for a common man rises into a hero or leader, discoverer or teacher, sage or saint. So widely has the sower scattered the seed, so strong is the germinative force that bids it bud and blossom. But, alas, for the stony ground, and the birds and the tares! For one who attains his full stature, how many are stunted and deformed.",
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      "ref": "PG55308.B01324",
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      "text": "The will within us is the ultimate fact of consciousness. Yet how little have the best of us, in acquirements, in position, even in character, that may be credited entirely to ourselves; how much to the influences that have molded us. Who is there, wise, learned, discreet, or strong, who might not, were he to trace the inner history of his life, turn, like the Stoic Emperor, to give thanks to the gods, that by this one and that one, and here and there, good examples have been set him, noble thoughts have reached him, and happy opportunities opened before him. Who is there, who, with his eyes about him, has reached the meridian of life, who has not sometimes echoed the thought of the pious Englishman, as the criminal passed to the gallows, “But for the grace of God, there go I.” How little does heredity count as compared with conditions. This one, we say, is the result of a thousand years of European progress, and that one of a thousand years of Chinese petrifaction; yet, placed an infant in the heart of China, and but for the angle of the eye or the shade of the hair, the Caucasian would grow up as those around him, using the same speech, thinking the same thoughts, exhibiting the same tastes. Change Lady Vere de Vere in her cradle with an infant of the slums, and will the blood of a hundred earls give you a refined and cultured woman?",
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      "ref": "PG55308.B01325",
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      "text": "To remove want and the fear of want, to give to all classes leisure, and comfort, and independence, the decencies and refinements of life, the opportunities of mental and moral development, would be like turning water into a desert. The sterile waste would clothe itself with verdure, and the barren places where life seemed banned would ere long be dappled with the shade of trees and musical with the song of birds. Talents now hidden, virtues unsuspected, would come forth to make human life richer, fuller, happier, nobler. For in these round men who are stuck into three-cornered holes, and three-cornered men who are jammed into round holes; in these men who are wasting their energies in the scramble to be rich; in these who in factories are turned into machines, or are chained by necessity to bench or plow; in these children who are growing up in squalor, and vice, and ignorance, are powers of the highest order, talents the most splendid. They need but the opportunity to bring them forth.",
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      "ref": "PG55308.B01326",
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      "text": "Consider the possibilities of a state of society that gave that opportunity to all. Let imagination fill out the picture; its colors grow too bright for words to paint. Consider the moral elevation, the intellectual activity, the social life. Consider how by a thousand actions and interactions the members of every community are linked together, and how in the present condition of things even the fortunate few who stand upon the apex of the social pyramid must suffer, though they know it not, from the want, ignorance, and degradation that are underneath. Consider these things and then say whether the change I propose would not be for the benefit of every one—even the greatest land holder? Would he not be safer of the future of his children in leaving them penniless in such a state of society than in leaving them the largest fortune in this? Did such a state of society anywhere exist, would he not buy entrance to it cheaply by giving up all his possessions?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55308.B01327",
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      "text": "I have now traced to their source social weakness and disease. I have shown the remedy. I have covered every point and met every objection. But the problems that we have been considering, great as they are, pass into problems greater yet—into the grandest problems with which the human mind can grapple. I am about to ask the reader who has gone with me so far, to go with me further, into still higher fields. But I ask him to remember that in the little space which remains of the limits to which this book must be confined, I cannot fully treat the questions which arise. I can but suggest some thoughts, which may, perhaps, serve as hints for further thought.",
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      "text": "The incentives to progress are the desires inherent in human nature—the desire to gratify the wants of the animal nature, the wants of the intellectual nature, and the wants of the sympathetic nature; the desire to be, to know, and to do—desires that short of infinity can never be satisfied, as they grow by what they feed on.",
      "sourceFile": "source.txt",
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      "text": "Mind is the instrument by which man advances, and by which each advance is secured and made the vantage ground for new advances. Though he may not by taking thought add a cubit to his stature, man may by taking thought extend his knowledge of the universe and his power over it, in what, so far as we can see, is an infinite degree. The narrow span of human life allows the individual to go but a short distance, but though each generation may do but little, yet generations, succeeding to the gain of their predecessors, may gradually elevate the status of mankind, as coral polyps, building one generation upon the work of the other, gradually elevate themselves from the bottom of the sea.",
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      "text": "Mental power is, therefore, the motor of progress, and men tend to advance in proportion to the mental power expended in progression—the mental power which is devoted to the extension of knowledge, the improvement of methods, and the betterment of social conditions.",
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      "text": "Now mental power is a fixed quantity—that is to say, there is a limit to the work a man can do with his mind, as there is to the work he can do with his body; therefore, the mental power which can be devoted to progress is only what is left after what is required for non-progressive purposes.",
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      "ref": "PG55308.B01420",
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      "text": "These non-progressive purposes in which mental power is consumed may be classified as maintenance and conflict. By maintenance I mean, not only the support of existence, but the keeping up of the social condition and the holding of advances already gained. By conflict I mean not merely warfare and preparation for warfare, but all expenditure of mental power in seeking the gratification of desire at the expense of others, and in resistance to such aggression.",
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      "text": "To compare society to a boat. Her progress through the water will not depend upon the exertion of her crew, but upon the exertion devoted to propelling her. This will be lessened by any expenditure of force required for bailing, or any expenditure of force in fighting among themselves, or in pulling in different directions.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG55308.B01422",
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      "text": "Now, as in a separated state the whole powers of man are required to maintain existence, and mental power is set free for higher uses only by the association of men in communities, which permits the division of labor and all the economies which come with the co-operation of increased numbers, association is the first essential of progress. Improvement becomes possible as men come together in peaceful association, and the wider and closer the association, the greater the possibilities of improvement. And as the wasteful expenditure of mental power in conflict becomes greater or less as the moral law which accords to each an equality of rights is ignored or is recognized, equality (or justice) is the second essential of progress.",
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      "text": "Thus association in equality is the law of progress. Association frees mental power for expenditure in improvement, and equality, or justice, or freedom—for the terms here signify the same thing, the recognition of the moral law—prevents the dissipation of this power in fruitless struggles.",
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      "text": "Here is the law of progress, which will explain all diversities, all advances, all halts, and retrogressions. Men tend to progress just as they come closer together, and by co-operation with each other increase the mental power that may be devoted to improvement, but just as conflict is provoked, or association develops inequality of condition and power, this tendency to progression is lessened, checked, and finally reversed.",
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      "text": "Given the same innate capacity, and it is evident that social development will go on faster or slower, will stop or turn back, according to the resistances it meets. In a general way these obstacles to improvement may, in relation to the society itself, be classed as external and internal—the first operating with greater force in the earlier stages of civilization, the latter becoming more important in the later stages.",
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      "text": "Man is social in his nature. He does not require to be caught and tamed in order to induce him to live with his fellows. The utter helplessness with which he enters the world, and the long period required for the maturity of his powers, necessitate the family relation; which, as we may observe, is wider, and in its extensions stronger, among the ruder than among the more cultivated peoples. The first societies are families, expanding into tribes, still holding a mutual blood relationship, and even when they have become great nations claiming a common descent.",
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      "text": "Given beings of this kind, placed on a globe of such diversified surface and climate as this, and it is evident that, even with equal capacity, and an equal start, social development must be very different. The first limit or resistance to association will come from the conditions of physical nature, and as these greatly vary with locality, corresponding differences in social progress must show themselves. The net rapidity of increase, and the closeness with which men, as they increase, can keep together, will, in the rude state of knowledge in which reliance for subsistence must be principally upon the spontaneous offerings of nature, very largely depend upon climate, soil, and physical conformation. Where much animal food and warm clothing are required; where the earth seems poor and niggard; where the exuberant life of tropical forests mocks barbarous man’s puny efforts to control; where mountains, deserts, or arms of the sea separate and isolate men; association, and the power of improvement which it evolves, can at first go but a little way. But on the rich plains of warm climates, where human existence can be maintained with a smaller expenditure of force, and from a much smaller area, men can keep closer together, and the mental power which can at first be devoted to improvement is much greater. Hence civilization naturally first arises in the great valleys and table lands where we find its earliest monuments.",
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      "text": "The Forethought I. Of Our Spiritual Strivings II. Of the Dawn of Freedom III. Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others IV. Of the Meaning of Progress V. Of the Wings of Atalanta VI. Of the Training of Black Men VII. Of the Black Belt VIII. Of the Quest of the Golden Fleece IX. Of the Sons of Master and Man X. Of the Faith of the Fathers XI. Of the Passing of the First-Born XII. Of Alexander Crummell XIII. Of the Coming of John XIV. Of the Sorrow Songs The Afterthought",
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      "text": "To Burghardt and Yolande The Lost and the Found",
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      "text": "The Forethought",
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      "text": "Herein lie buried many things which if read with patience may show the strange meaning of being black here at the dawning of the Twentieth Century. This meaning is not without interest to you, Gentle Reader; for the problem of the Twentieth Century is the problem of the color line.",
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      "text": "I pray you, then, receive my little book in all charity, studying my words with me, forgiving mistake and foible for sake of the faith and passion that is in me, and seeking the grain of truth hidden there.",
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      "text": "I have sought here to sketch, in vague, uncertain outline, the spiritual world in which ten thousand thousand Americans live and strive. First, in two chapters I have tried to show what Emancipation meant to them, and what was its aftermath. In a third chapter I have pointed out the slow rise of personal leadership, and criticized candidly the leader who bears the chief burden of his race to-day. Then, in two other chapters I have sketched in swift outline the two worlds within and without the Veil, and thus have come to the central problem of training men for life. Venturing now into deeper detail, I have in two chapters studied the struggles of the massed millions of the black peasantry, and in another have sought to make clear the present relations of the sons of master and man. Leaving, then, the white world, I have stepped within the Veil, raising it that you may view faintly its deeper recesses,—the meaning of its religion, the passion of its human sorrow, and the struggle of its greater souls. All this I have ended with a tale twice told but seldom written, and a chapter of song.",
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      "text": "Some of these thoughts of mine have seen the light before in other guise. For kindly consenting to their republication here, in altered and extended form, I must thank the publishers of the Atlantic Monthly, The World’s Work, the Dial, The New World, and the Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Before each chapter, as now printed, stands a bar of the Sorrow Songs,—some echo of haunting melody from the only American music which welled up from black souls in the dark past. And, finally, need I add that I who speak here am bone of the bone and flesh of the flesh of them that live within the Veil?",
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      "text": "W.E.B. Du B.",
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      "text": "Atlanta, Ga., Feb. 1, 1903.",
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      "text": "I. Of Our Spiritual Strivings",
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      "text": "O water, voice of my heart, crying in the sand, All night long crying with a mournful cry, As I lie and listen, and cannot understand The voice of my heart in my side or the voice of the sea, O water, crying for rest, is it I, is it I? All night long the water is crying to me.",
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      "text": "Unresting water, there shall never be rest Till the last moon droop and the last tide fail, And the fire of the end begin to burn in the west; And the heart shall be weary and wonder and cry like the sea, All life long crying without avail, As the water all night long is crying to me.",
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      "text": "ARTHUR SYMONS.",
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      "text": "[Illustration]",
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      "text": "Between me and the other world there is ever an unasked question: unasked by some through feelings of delicacy; by others through the difficulty of rightly framing it. All, nevertheless, flutter round it. They approach me in a half-hesitant sort of way, eye me curiously or compassionately, and then, instead of saying directly, How does it feel to be a problem? they say, I know an excellent colored man in my town; or, I fought at Mechanicsville; or, Do not these Southern outrages make your blood boil? At these I smile, or am interested, or reduce the boiling to a simmer, as the occasion may require. To the real question, How does it feel to be a problem? I answer seldom a word.",
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      "text": "And yet, being a problem is a strange experience,—peculiar even for one who has never been anything else, save perhaps in babyhood and in Europe. It is in the early days of rollicking boyhood that the revelation first bursts upon one, all in a day, as it were. I remember well when the shadow swept across me. I was a little thing, away up in the hills of New England, where the dark Housatonic winds between Hoosac and Taghkanic to the sea. In a wee wooden schoolhouse, something put it into the boys’ and girls’ heads to buy gorgeous visiting-cards—ten cents a package—and exchange. The exchange was merry, till one girl, a tall newcomer, refused my card,—refused it peremptorily, with a glance. Then it dawned upon me with a certain suddenness that I was different from the others; or like, mayhap, in heart and life and longing, but shut out from their world by a vast veil. I had thereafter no desire to tear down that veil, to creep through; I held all beyond it in common contempt, and lived above it in a region of blue sky and great wandering shadows. That sky was bluest when I could beat my mates at examination-time, or beat them at a foot-race, or even beat their stringy heads. Alas, with the years all this fine contempt began to fade; for the words I longed for, and all their dazzling opportunities, were theirs, not mine. But they should not keep these prizes, I said; some, all, I would wrest from them. Just how I would do it I could never decide: by reading law, by healing the sick, by telling the wonderful tales that swam in my head,—some way. With other black boys the strife was not so fiercely sunny: their youth shrunk into tasteless sycophancy, or into silent hatred of the pale world about them and mocking distrust of everything white; or wasted itself in a bitter cry, Why did God make me an outcast and a stranger in mine own house? The shades of the prison-house closed round about us all: walls strait and stubborn to the whitest, but relentlessly narrow, tall, and unscalable to sons of night who must plod darkly on in resignation, or beat unavailing palms against the stone, or steadily, half hopelessly, watch the streak of blue above.",
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      "text": "After the Egyptian and Indian, the Greek and Roman, the Teuton and Mongolian, the Negro is a sort of seventh son, born with a veil, and gifted with second-sight in this American world,—a world which yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him see himself through the revelation of the other world. It is a peculiar sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity. One ever feels his twoness,—an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder.",
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      "text": "The history of the American Negro is the history of this strife,—this longing to attain self-conscious manhood, to merge his double self into a better and truer self. In this merging he wishes neither of the older selves to be lost. He would not Africanize America, for America has too much to teach the world and Africa. He would not bleach his Negro soul in a flood of white Americanism, for he knows that Negro blood has a message for the world. He simply wishes to make it possible for a man to be both a Negro and an American, without being cursed and spit upon by his fellows, without having the doors of Opportunity closed roughly in his face.",
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      "text": "This, then, is the end of his striving: to be a co-worker in the kingdom of culture, to escape both death and isolation, to husband and use his best powers and his latent genius. These powers of body and mind have in the past been strangely wasted, dispersed, or forgotten. The shadow of a mighty Negro past flits through the tale of Ethiopia the Shadowy and of Egypt the Sphinx. Through history, the powers of single black men flash here and there like falling stars, and die sometimes before the world has rightly gauged their brightness. Here in America, in the few days since Emancipation, the black man’s turning hither and thither in hesitant and doubtful striving has often made his very strength to lose effectiveness, to seem like absence of power, like weakness. And yet it is not weakness,—it is the contradiction of double aims. The double-aimed struggle of the black artisan—on the one hand to escape white contempt for a nation of mere hewers of wood and drawers of water, and on the other hand to plough and nail and dig for a poverty-stricken horde—could only result in making him a poor craftsman, for he had but half a heart in either cause. By the poverty and ignorance of his people, the Negro minister or doctor was tempted toward quackery and demagogy; and by the criticism of the other world, toward ideals that made him ashamed of his lowly tasks. The would-be black savant was confronted by the paradox that the knowledge his people needed was a twice-told tale to his white neighbors, while the knowledge which would teach the white world was Greek to his own flesh and blood. The innate love of harmony and beauty that set the ruder souls of his people a-dancing and a-singing raised but confusion and doubt in the soul of the black artist; for the beauty revealed to him was the soul-beauty of a race which his larger audience despised, and he could not articulate the message of another people. This waste of double aims, this seeking to satisfy two unreconciled ideals, has wrought sad havoc with the courage and faith and deeds of ten thousand thousand people,—has sent them often wooing false gods and invoking false means of salvation, and at times has even seemed about to make them ashamed of themselves.",
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      "text": "Away back in the days of bondage they thought to see in one divine event the end of all doubt and disappointment; few men ever worshipped Freedom with half such unquestioning faith as did the American Negro for two centuries. To him, so far as he thought and dreamed, slavery was indeed the sum of all villainies, the cause of all sorrow, the root of all prejudice; Emancipation was the key to a promised land of sweeter beauty than ever stretched before the eyes of wearied Israelites. In song and exhortation swelled one refrain—Liberty; in his tears and curses the God he implored had Freedom in his right hand. At last it came,—suddenly, fearfully, like a dream. With one wild carnival of blood and passion came the message in his own plaintive cadences:—",
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      "text": "“Shout, O children! Shout, you’re free! For God has bought your liberty!”",
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      "text": "Years have passed away since then,—ten, twenty, forty; forty years of national life, forty years of renewal and development, and yet the swarthy spectre sits in its accustomed seat at the Nation’s feast. In vain do we cry to this our vastest social problem:—",
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      "text": "“Take any shape but that, and my firm nerves Shall never tremble!”",
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      "text": "The Nation has not yet found peace from its sins; the freedman has not yet found in freedom his promised land. Whatever of good may have come in these years of change, the shadow of a deep disappointment rests upon the Negro people,—a disappointment all the more bitter because the unattained ideal was unbounded save by the simple ignorance of a lowly people.",
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      "text": "The first decade was merely a prolongation of the vain search for freedom, the boon that seemed ever barely to elude their grasp,—like a tantalizing will-o’-the-wisp, maddening and misleading the headless host. The holocaust of war, the terrors of the Ku-Klux Klan, the lies of carpet-baggers, the disorganization of industry, and the contradictory advice of friends and foes, left the bewildered serf with no new watchword beyond the old cry for freedom. As the time flew, however, he began to grasp a new idea. The ideal of liberty demanded for its attainment powerful means, and these the Fifteenth Amendment gave him. The ballot, which before he had looked upon as a visible sign of freedom, he now regarded as the chief means of gaining and perfecting the liberty with which war had partially endowed him. And why not? Had not votes made war and emancipated millions? Had not votes enfranchised the freedmen? Was anything impossible to a power that had done all this? A million black men started with renewed zeal to vote themselves into the kingdom. So the decade flew away, the revolution of 1876 came, and left the half-free serf weary, wondering, but still inspired. Slowly but steadily, in the following years, a new vision began gradually to replace the dream of political power,—a powerful movement, the rise of another ideal to guide the unguided, another pillar of fire by night after a clouded day. It was the ideal of “book-learning”; the curiosity, born of compulsory ignorance, to know and test the power of the cabalistic letters of the white man, the longing to know. Here at last seemed to have been discovered the mountain path to Canaan; longer than the highway of Emancipation and law, steep and rugged, but straight, leading to heights high enough to overlook life.",
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      "text": "Up the new path the advance guard toiled, slowly, heavily, doggedly; only those who have watched and guided the faltering feet, the misty minds, the dull understandings, of the dark pupils of these schools know how faithfully, how piteously, this people strove to learn. It was weary work. The cold statistician wrote down the inches of progress here and there, noted also where here and there a foot had slipped or some one had fallen. To the tired climbers, the horizon was ever dark, the mists were often cold, the Canaan was always dim and far away. If, however, the vistas disclosed as yet no goal, no resting-place, little but flattery and criticism, the journey at least gave leisure for reflection and self-examination; it changed the child of Emancipation to the youth with dawning self-consciousness, self-realization, self-respect. In those sombre forests of his striving his own soul rose before him, and he saw himself,—darkly as through a veil; and yet he saw in himself some faint revelation of his power, of his mission. He began to have a dim feeling that, to attain his place in the world, he must be himself, and not another. For the first time he sought to analyze the burden he bore upon his back, that dead-weight of social degradation partially masked behind a half-named Negro problem. He felt his poverty; without a cent, without a home, without land, tools, or savings, he had entered into competition with rich, landed, skilled neighbors. To be a poor man is hard, but to be a poor race in a land of dollars is the very bottom of hardships. He felt the weight of his ignorance,—not simply of letters, but of life, of business, of the humanities; the accumulated sloth and shirking and awkwardness of decades and centuries shackled his hands and feet. Nor was his burden all poverty and ignorance. The red stain of bastardy, which two centuries of systematic legal defilement of Negro women had stamped upon his race, meant not only the loss of ancient African chastity, but also the hereditary weight of a mass of corruption from white adulterers, threatening almost the obliteration of the Negro home.",
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      "text": "A people thus handicapped ought not to be asked to race with the world, but rather allowed to give all its time and thought to its own social problems. But alas! while sociologists gleefully count his bastards and his prostitutes, the very soul of the toiling, sweating black man is darkened by the shadow of a vast despair. Men call the shadow prejudice, and learnedly explain it as the natural defence of culture against barbarism, learning against ignorance, purity against crime, the “higher” against the “lower” races. To which the Negro cries Amen! and swears that to so much of this strange prejudice as is founded on just homage to civilization, culture, righteousness, and progress, he humbly bows and meekly does obeisance. But before that nameless prejudice that leaps beyond all this he stands helpless, dismayed, and well-nigh speechless; before that personal disrespect and mockery, the ridicule and systematic humiliation, the distortion of fact and wanton license of fancy, the cynical ignoring of the better and the boisterous welcoming of the worse, the all-pervading desire to inculcate disdain for everything black, from Toussaint to the devil,—before this there rises a sickening despair that would disarm and discourage any nation save that black host to whom “discouragement” is an unwritten word.",
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      "bookId": 408,
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      "text": "But the facing of so vast a prejudice could not but bring the inevitable self-questioning, self-disparagement, and lowering of ideals which ever accompany repression and breed in an atmosphere of contempt and hate. Whisperings and portents came home upon the four winds: Lo! we are diseased and dying, cried the dark hosts; we cannot write, our voting is vain; what need of education, since we must always cook and serve? And the Nation echoed and enforced this self-criticism, saying: Be content to be servants, and nothing more; what need of higher culture for half-men? Away with the black man’s ballot, by force or fraud,—and behold the suicide of a race! Nevertheless, out of the evil came something of good,—the more careful adjustment of education to real life, the clearer perception of the Negroes’ social responsibilities, and the sobering realization of the meaning of progress.",
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      "bookId": 408,
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      "text": "So dawned the time of _Sturm und Drang:_ storm and stress to-day rocks our little boat on the mad waters of the world-sea; there is within and without the sound of conflict, the burning of body and rending of soul; inspiration strives with doubt, and faith with vain questionings. The bright ideals of the past,—physical freedom, political power, the training of brains and the training of hands,—all these in turn have waxed and waned, until even the last grows dim and overcast. Are they all wrong,—all false? No, not that, but each alone was over-simple and incomplete,—the dreams of a credulous race-childhood, or the fond imaginings of the other world which does not know and does not want to know our power. To be really true, all these ideals must be melted and welded into one. The training of the schools we need to-day more than ever,—the training of deft hands, quick eyes and ears, and above all the broader, deeper, higher culture of gifted minds and pure hearts. The power of the ballot we need in sheer self-defence,—else what shall save us from a second slavery? Freedom, too, the long-sought, we still seek,—the freedom of life and limb, the freedom to work and think, the freedom to love and aspire. Work, culture, liberty,—all these we need, not singly but together, not successively but together, each growing and aiding each, and all striving toward that vaster ideal that swims before the Negro people, the ideal of human brotherhood, gained through the unifying ideal of Race; the ideal of fostering and developing the traits and talents of the Negro, not in opposition to or contempt for other races, but rather in large conformity to the greater ideals of the American Republic, in order that some day on American soil two world-races may give each to each those characteristics both so sadly lack. We the darker ones come even now not altogether empty-handed: there are to-day no truer exponents of the pure human spirit of the Declaration of Independence than the American Negroes; there is no true American music but the wild sweet melodies of the Negro slave; the American fairy tales and folklore are Indian and African; and, all in all, we black men seem the sole oasis of simple faith and reverence in a dusty desert of dollars and smartness. Will America be poorer if she replace her brutal dyspeptic blundering with light-hearted but determined Negro humility? or her coarse and cruel wit with loving jovial good-humor? or her vulgar music with the soul of the Sorrow Songs?",
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      "text": "Merely a concrete test of the underlying principles of the great republic is the Negro Problem, and the spiritual striving of the freedmen’s sons is the travail of souls whose burden is almost beyond the measure of their strength, but who bear it in the name of an historic race, in the name of this the land of their fathers’ fathers, and in the name of human opportunity.",
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      "text": "And now what I have briefly sketched in large outline let me on coming pages tell again in many ways, with loving emphasis and deeper detail, that men may listen to the striving in the souls of black folk.",
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      "text": "II. Of the Dawn of Freedom",
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      "text": "Careless seems the great Avenger; History’s lessons but record One death-grapple in the darkness ’Twixt old systems and the Word; Truth forever on the scaffold, Wrong forever on the throne; Yet that scaffold sways the future, And behind the dim unknown Standeth God within the shadow Keeping watch above His own.",
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      "text": "The agents that the Bureau could command varied all the way from unselfish philanthropists to narrow-minded busybodies and thieves; and even though it be true that the average was far better than the worst, it was the occasional fly that helped spoil the ointment.",
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      "text": "Then amid all crouched the freed slave, bewildered between friend and foe. He had emerged from slavery,—not the worst slavery in the world, not a slavery that made all life unbearable, rather a slavery that had here and there something of kindliness, fidelity, and happiness,—but withal slavery, which, so far as human aspiration and desert were concerned, classed the black man and the ox together. And the Negro knew full well that, whatever their deeper convictions may have been, Southern men had fought with desperate energy to perpetuate this slavery under which the black masses, with half-articulate thought, had writhed and shivered. They welcomed freedom with a cry. They shrank from the master who still strove for their chains; they fled to the friends that had freed them, even though those friends stood ready to use them as a club for driving the recalcitrant South back into loyalty. So the cleft between the white and black South grew. Idle to say it never should have been; it was as inevitable as its results were pitiable. Curiously incongruous elements were left arrayed against each other,—the North, the government, the carpet-bagger, and the slave, here; and there, all the South that was white, whether gentleman or vagabond, honest man or rascal, lawless murderer or martyr to duty.",
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      "text": "Thus it is doubly difficult to write of this period calmly, so intense was the feeling, so mighty the human passions that swayed and blinded men. Amid it all, two figures ever stand to typify that day to coming ages,—the one, a gray-haired gentleman, whose fathers had quit themselves like men, whose sons lay in nameless graves; who bowed to the evil of slavery because its abolition threatened untold ill to all; who stood at last, in the evening of life, a blighted, ruined form, with hate in his eyes;—and the other, a form hovering dark and mother-like, her awful face black with the mists of centuries, had aforetime quailed at that white master’s command, had bent in love over the cradles of his sons and daughters, and closed in death the sunken eyes of his wife,—aye, too, at his behest had laid herself low to his lust, and borne a tawny man-child to the world, only to see her dark boy’s limbs scattered to the winds by midnight marauders riding after “damned Niggers.” These were the saddest sights of that woful day; and no man clasped the hands of these two passing figures of the present-past; but, hating, they went to their long home, and, hating, their children’s children live today.",
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      "text": "Here, then, was the field of work for the Freedmen’s Bureau; and since, with some hesitation, it was continued by the act of 1868 until 1869, let us look upon four years of its work as a whole. There were, in 1868, nine hundred Bureau officials scattered from Washington to Texas, ruling, directly and indirectly, many millions of men. The deeds of these rulers fall mainly under seven heads: the relief of physical suffering, the overseeing of the beginnings of free labor, the buying and selling of land, the establishment of schools, the paying of bounties, the administration of justice, and the financiering of all these activities.",
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      "bookId": 408,
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      "text": "Up to June, 1869, over half a million patients had been treated by Bureau physicians and surgeons, and sixty hospitals and asylums had been in operation. In fifty months twenty-one million free rations were distributed at a cost of over four million dollars. Next came the difficult question of labor. First, thirty thousand black men were transported from the refuges and relief stations back to the farms, back to the critical trial of a new way of working. Plain instructions went out from Washington: the laborers must be free to choose their employers, no fixed rate of wages was prescribed, and there was to be no peonage or forced labor. So far, so good; but where local agents differed _toto cælo_ in capacity and character, where the _personnel_ was continually changing, the outcome was necessarily varied. The largest element of success lay in the fact that the majority of the freedmen were willing, even eager, to work. So labor contracts were written,—fifty thousand in a single State,—laborers advised, wages guaranteed, and employers supplied. In truth, the organization became a vast labor bureau,—not perfect, indeed, notably defective here and there, but on the whole successful beyond the dreams of thoughtful men. The two great obstacles which confronted the officials were the tyrant and the idler,—the slaveholder who was determined to perpetuate slavery under another name; and, the freedman who regarded freedom as perpetual rest,—the Devil and the Deep Sea.",
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      "text": "In the work of establishing the Negroes as peasant proprietors, the Bureau was from the first handicapped and at last absolutely checked. Something was done, and larger things were planned; abandoned lands were leased so long as they remained in the hands of the Bureau, and a total revenue of nearly half a million dollars derived from black tenants. Some other lands to which the nation had gained title were sold on easy terms, and public lands were opened for settlement to the very few freedmen who had tools and capital. But the vision of “forty acres and a mule”—the righteous and reasonable ambition to become a landholder, which the nation had all but categorically promised the freedmen—was destined in most cases to bitter disappointment. And those men of marvellous hindsight who are today seeking to preach the Negro back to the present peonage of the soil know well, or ought to know, that the opportunity of binding the Negro peasant willingly to the soil was lost on that day when the Commissioner of the Freedmen’s Bureau had to go to South Carolina and tell the weeping freedmen, after their years of toil, that their land was not theirs, that there was a mistake—somewhere. If by 1874 the Georgia Negro alone owned three hundred and fifty thousand acres of land, it was by grace of his thrift rather than by bounty of the government.",
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      "text": "The greatest success of the Freedmen’s Bureau lay in the planting of the free school among Negroes, and the idea of free elementary education among all classes in the South. It not only called the school-mistresses through the benevolent agencies and built them schoolhouses, but it helped discover and support such apostles of human culture as Edmund Ware, Samuel Armstrong, and Erastus Cravath. The opposition to Negro education in the South was at first bitter, and showed itself in ashes, insult, and blood; for the South believed an educated Negro to be a dangerous Negro. And the South was not wholly wrong; for education among all kinds of men always has had, and always will have, an element of danger and revolution, of dissatisfaction and discontent. Nevertheless, men strive to know. Perhaps some inkling of this paradox, even in the unquiet days of the Bureau, helped the bayonets allay an opposition to human training which still to-day lies smouldering in the South, but not flaming. Fisk, Atlanta, Howard, and Hampton were founded in these days, and six million dollars were expended for educational work, seven hundred and fifty thousand dollars of which the freedmen themselves gave of their poverty.",
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      "text": "Such contributions, together with the buying of land and various other enterprises, showed that the ex-slave was handling some free capital already. The chief initial source of this was labor in the army, and his pay and bounty as a soldier. Payments to Negro soldiers were at first complicated by the ignorance of the recipients, and the fact that the quotas of colored regiments from Northern States were largely filled by recruits from the South, unknown to their fellow soldiers. Consequently, payments were accompanied by such frauds that Congress, by joint resolution in 1867, put the whole matter in the hands of the Freedmen’s Bureau. In two years six million dollars was thus distributed to five thousand claimants, and in the end the sum exceeded eight million dollars. Even in this system fraud was frequent; but still the work put needed capital in the hands of practical paupers, and some, at least, was well spent.",
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      "text": "The most perplexing and least successful part of the Bureau’s work lay in the exercise of its judicial functions. The regular Bureau court consisted of one representative of the employer, one of the Negro, and one of the Bureau. If the Bureau could have maintained a perfectly judicial attitude, this arrangement would have been ideal, and must in time have gained confidence; but the nature of its other activities and the character of its _personnel_ prejudiced the Bureau in favor of the black litigants, and led without doubt to much injustice and annoyance. On the other hand, to leave the Negro in the hands of Southern courts was impossible. In a distracted land where slavery had hardly fallen, to keep the strong from wanton abuse of the weak, and the weak from gloating insolently over the half-shorn strength of the strong, was a thankless, hopeless task. The former masters of the land were peremptorily ordered about, seized, and imprisoned, and punished over and again, with scant courtesy from army officers. The former slaves were intimidated, beaten, raped, and butchered by angry and revengeful men. Bureau courts tended to become centres simply for punishing whites, while the regular civil courts tended to become solely institutions for perpetuating the slavery of blacks. Almost every law and method ingenuity could devise was employed by the legislatures to reduce the Negroes to serfdom,—to make them the slaves of the State, if not of individual owners; while the Bureau officials too often were found striving to put the “bottom rail on top,” and gave the freedmen a power and independence which they could not yet use. It is all well enough for us of another generation to wax wise with advice to those who bore the burden in the heat of the day. It is full easy now to see that the man who lost home, fortune, and family at a stroke, and saw his land ruled by “mules and niggers,” was really benefited by the passing of slavery. It is not difficult now to say to the young freedman, cheated and cuffed about who has seen his father’s head beaten to a jelly and his own mother namelessly assaulted, that the meek shall inherit the earth. Above all, nothing is more convenient than to heap on the Freedmen’s Bureau all the evils of that evil day, and damn it utterly for every mistake and blunder that was made.",
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      "text": "All this is easy, but it is neither sensible nor just. Someone had blundered, but that was long before Oliver Howard was born; there was criminal aggression and heedless neglect, but without some system of control there would have been far more than there was. Had that control been from within, the Negro would have been re-enslaved, to all intents and purposes. Coming as the control did from without, perfect men and methods would have bettered all things; and even with imperfect agents and questionable methods, the work accomplished was not undeserving of commendation.",
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      "text": "Such was the dawn of Freedom; such was the work of the Freedmen’s Bureau, which, summed up in brief, may be epitomized thus: for some fifteen million dollars, beside the sums spent before 1865, and the dole of benevolent societies, this Bureau set going a system of free labor, established a beginning of peasant proprietorship, secured the recognition of black freedmen before courts of law, and founded the free common school in the South. On the other hand, it failed to begin the establishment of good-will between ex-masters and freedmen, to guard its work wholly from paternalistic methods which discouraged self-reliance, and to carry out to any considerable extent its implied promises to furnish the freedmen with land. Its successes were the result of hard work, supplemented by the aid of philanthropists and the eager striving of black men. Its failures were the result of bad local agents, the inherent difficulties of the work, and national neglect.",
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      "text": "Such an institution, from its wide powers, great responsibilities, large control of moneys, and generally conspicuous position, was naturally open to repeated and bitter attack. It sustained a searching Congressional investigation at the instance of Fernando Wood in 1870. Its archives and few remaining functions were with blunt discourtesy transferred from Howard’s control, in his absence, to the supervision of Secretary of War Belknap in 1872, on the Secretary’s recommendation. Finally, in consequence of grave intimations of wrong-doing made by the Secretary and his subordinates, General Howard was court-martialed in 1874. In both of these trials the Commissioner of the Freedmen’s Bureau was officially exonerated from any wilful misdoing, and his work commended. Nevertheless, many unpleasant things were brought to light,—the methods of transacting the business of the Bureau were faulty; several cases of defalcation were proved, and other frauds strongly suspected; there were some business transactions which savored of dangerous speculation, if not dishonesty; and around it all lay the smirch of the Freedmen’s Bank.",
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      "text": "Morally and practically, the Freedmen’s Bank was part of the Freedmen’s Bureau, although it had no legal connection with it. With the prestige of the government back of it, and a directing board of unusual respectability and national reputation, this banking institution had made a remarkable start in the development of that thrift among black folk which slavery had kept them from knowing. Then in one sad day came the crash,—all the hard-earned dollars of the freedmen disappeared; but that was the least of the loss,—all the faith in saving went too, and much of the faith in men; and that was a loss that a Nation which to-day sneers at Negro shiftlessness has never yet made good. Not even ten additional years of slavery could have done so much to throttle the thrift of the freedmen as the mismanagement and bankruptcy of the series of savings banks chartered by the Nation for their especial aid. Where all the blame should rest, it is hard to say; whether the Bureau and the Bank died chiefly by reason of the blows of its selfish friends or the dark machinations of its foes, perhaps even time will never reveal, for here lies unwritten history.",
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      "text": "Of the foes without the Bureau, the bitterest were those who attacked not so much its conduct or policy under the law as the necessity for any such institution at all. Such attacks came primarily from the Border States and the South; and they were summed up by Senator Davis, of Kentucky, when he moved to entitle the act of 1866 a bill “to promote strife and conflict between the white and black races… by a grant of unconstitutional power.” The argument gathered tremendous strength South and North; but its very strength was its weakness. For, argued the plain common-sense of the nation, if it is unconstitutional, unpractical, and futile for the nation to stand guardian over its helpless wards, then there is left but one alternative,—to make those wards their own guardians by arming them with the ballot. Moreover, the path of the practical politician pointed the same way; for, argued this opportunist, if we cannot peacefully reconstruct the South with white votes, we certainly can with black votes. So justice and force joined hands.",
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      "text": "The alternative thus offered the nation was not between full and restricted Negro suffrage; else every sensible man, black and white, would easily have chosen the latter. It was rather a choice between suffrage and slavery, after endless blood and gold had flowed to sweep human bondage away. Not a single Southern legislature stood ready to admit a Negro, under any conditions, to the polls; not a single Southern legislature believed free Negro labor was possible without a system of restrictions that took all its freedom away; there was scarcely a white man in the South who did not honestly regard Emancipation as a crime, and its practical nullification as a duty. In such a situation, the granting of the ballot to the black man was a necessity, the very least a guilty nation could grant a wronged race, and the only method of compelling the South to accept the results of the war. Thus Negro suffrage ended a civil war by beginning a race feud. And some felt gratitude toward the race thus sacrificed in its swaddling clothes on the altar of national integrity; and some felt and feel only indifference and contempt.",
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      "text": "Had political exigencies been less pressing, the opposition to government guardianship of Negroes less bitter, and the attachment to the slave system less strong, the social seer can well imagine a far better policy,—a permanent Freedmen’s Bureau, with a national system of Negro schools; a carefully supervised employment and labor office; a system of impartial protection before the regular courts; and such institutions for social betterment as savings-banks, land and building associations, and social settlements. All this vast expenditure of money and brains might have formed a great school of prospective citizenship, and solved in a way we have not yet solved the most perplexing and persistent of the Negro problems.",
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      "text": "That such an institution was unthinkable in 1870 was due in part to certain acts of the Freedmen’s Bureau itself. It came to regard its work as merely temporary, and Negro suffrage as a final answer to all present perplexities. The political ambition of many of its agents and _protégés_ led it far afield into questionable activities, until the South, nursing its own deep prejudices, came easily to ignore all the good deeds of the Bureau and hate its very name with perfect hatred. So the Freedmen’s Bureau died, and its child was the Fifteenth Amendment.",
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      "bookId": 408,
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      "text": "The passing of a great human institution before its work is done, like the untimely passing of a single soul, but leaves a legacy of striving for other men. The legacy of the Freedmen’s Bureau is the heavy heritage of this generation. To-day, when new and vaster problems are destined to strain every fibre of the national mind and soul, would it not be well to count this legacy honestly and carefully? For this much all men know: despite compromise, war, and struggle, the Negro is not free. In the backwoods of the Gulf States, for miles and miles, he may not leave the plantation of his birth; in well-nigh the whole rural South the black farmers are peons, bound by law and custom to an economic slavery, from which the only escape is death or the penitentiary. In the most cultured sections and cities of the South the Negroes are a segregated servile caste, with restricted rights and privileges. Before the courts, both in law and custom, they stand on a different and peculiar basis. Taxation without representation is the rule of their political life. And the result of all this is, and in nature must have been, lawlessness and crime. That is the large legacy of the Freedmen’s Bureau, the work it did not do because it could not.",
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      "text": "Now in the past the American Negro has had instructive experience in the choosing of group leaders, founding thus a peculiar dynasty which in the light of present conditions is worth while studying. When sticks and stones and beasts form the sole environment of a people, their attitude is largely one of determined opposition to and conquest of natural forces. But when to earth and brute is added an environment of men and ideas, then the attitude of the imprisoned group may take three main forms,—a feeling of revolt and revenge; an attempt to adjust all thought and action to the will of the greater group; or, finally, a determined effort at self-realization and self-development despite environing opinion. The influence of all of these attitudes at various times can be traced in the history of the American Negro, and in the evolution of his successive leaders.",
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      "text": "Before 1750, while the fire of African freedom still burned in the veins of the slaves, there was in all leadership or attempted leadership but the one motive of revolt and revenge,—typified in the terrible Maroons, the Danish blacks, and Cato of Stono, and veiling all the Americas in fear of insurrection. The liberalizing tendencies of the latter half of the eighteenth century brought, along with kindlier relations between black and white, thoughts of ultimate adjustment and assimilation. Such aspiration was especially voiced in the earnest songs of Phyllis, in the martyrdom of Attucks, the fighting of Salem and Poor, the intellectual accomplishments of Banneker and Derham, and the political demands of the Cuffes.",
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      "text": "Stern financial and social stress after the war cooled much of the previous humanitarian ardor. The disappointment and impatience of the Negroes at the persistence of slavery and serfdom voiced itself in two movements. The slaves in the South, aroused undoubtedly by vague rumors of the Haytian revolt, made three fierce attempts at insurrection,—in 1800 under Gabriel in Virginia, in 1822 under Vesey in Carolina, and in 1831 again in Virginia under the terrible Nat Turner. In the Free States, on the other hand, a new and curious attempt at self-development was made. In Philadelphia and New York color-prescription led to a withdrawal of Negro communicants from white churches and the formation of a peculiar socio-religious institution among the Negroes known as the African Church,—an organization still living and controlling in its various branches over a million of men.",
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      "text": "Walker’s wild appeal against the trend of the times showed how the world was changing after the coming of the cotton-gin. By 1830 slavery seemed hopelessly fastened on the South, and the slaves thoroughly cowed into submission. The free Negroes of the North, inspired by the mulatto immigrants from the West Indies, began to change the basis of their demands; they recognized the slavery of slaves, but insisted that they themselves were freemen, and sought assimilation and amalgamation with the nation on the same terms with other men. Thus, Forten and Purvis of Philadelphia, Shad of Wilmington, Du Bois of New Haven, Barbadoes of Boston, and others, strove singly and together as men, they said, not as slaves; as “people of color,” not as “Negroes.” The trend of the times, however, refused them recognition save in individual and exceptional cases, considered them as one with all the despised blacks, and they soon found themselves striving to keep even the rights they formerly had of voting and working and moving as freemen. Schemes of migration and colonization arose among them; but these they refused to entertain, and they eventually turned to the Abolition movement as a final refuge.",
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      "text": "Here, led by Remond, Nell, Wells-Brown, and Douglass, a new period of self-assertion and self-development dawned. To be sure, ultimate freedom and assimilation was the ideal before the leaders, but the assertion of the manhood rights of the Negro by himself was the main reliance, and John Brown’s raid was the extreme of its logic. After the war and emancipation, the great form of Frederick Douglass, the greatest of American Negro leaders, still led the host. Self-assertion, especially in political lines, was the main programme, and behind Douglass came Elliot, Bruce, and Langston, and the Reconstruction politicians, and, less conspicuous but of greater social significance, Alexander Crummell and Bishop Daniel Payne.",
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      "text": "Then came the Revolution of 1876, the suppression of the Negro votes, the changing and shifting of ideals, and the seeking of new lights in the great night. Douglass, in his old age, still bravely stood for the ideals of his early manhood,—ultimate assimilation _through_ self-assertion, and on no other terms. For a time Price arose as a new leader, destined, it seemed, not to give up, but to re-state the old ideals in a form less repugnant to the white South. But he passed away in his prime. Then came the new leader. Nearly all the former ones had become leaders by the silent suffrage of their fellows, had sought to lead their own people alone, and were usually, save Douglass, little known outside their race. But Booker T. Washington arose as essentially the leader not of one race but of two,—a compromiser between the South, the North, and the Negro. Naturally the Negroes resented, at first bitterly, signs of compromise which surrendered their civil and political rights, even though this was to be exchanged for larger chances of economic development. The rich and dominating North, however, was not only weary of the race problem, but was investing largely in Southern enterprises, and welcomed any method of peaceful cooperation. Thus, by national opinion, the Negroes began to recognize Mr. Washington’s leadership; and the voice of criticism was hushed.",
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      "text": "Mr. Washington represents in Negro thought the old attitude of adjustment and submission; but adjustment at such a peculiar time as to make his programme unique. This is an age of unusual economic development, and Mr. Washington’s programme naturally takes an economic cast, becoming a gospel of Work and Money to such an extent as apparently almost completely to overshadow the higher aims of life. Moreover, this is an age when the more advanced races are coming in closer contact with the less developed races, and the race-feeling is therefore intensified; and Mr. Washington’s programme practically accepts the alleged inferiority of the Negro races. Again, in our own land, the reaction from the sentiment of war time has given impetus to race-prejudice against Negroes, and Mr. Washington withdraws many of the high demands of Negroes as men and American citizens. In other periods of intensified prejudice all the Negro’s tendency to self-assertion has been called forth; at this period a policy of submission is advocated. In the history of nearly all other races and peoples the doctrine preached at such crises has been that manly self-respect is worth more than lands and houses, and that a people who voluntarily surrender such respect, or cease striving for it, are not worth civilizing.",
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      "text": "In answer to this, it has been claimed that the Negro can survive only through submission. Mr. Washington distinctly asks that black people give up, at least for the present, three things,—",
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      "text": "First, political power,",
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      "text": "Second, insistence on civil rights,",
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      "text": "Third, higher education of Negro youth,—and concentrate all their energies on industrial education, and accumulation of wealth, and the conciliation of the South. This policy has been courageously and insistently advocated for over fifteen years, and has been triumphant for perhaps ten years. As a result of this tender of the palm-branch, what has been the return? In these years there have occurred:",
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      "text": "1. The disfranchisement of the Negro.",
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      "text": "2. The legal creation of a distinct status of civil inferiority for the Negro.",
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      "text": "3. The steady withdrawal of aid from institutions for the higher training of the Negro.",
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      "ref": "PG408.B00112",
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      "text": "These movements are not, to be sure, direct results of Mr. Washington’s teachings; but his propaganda has, without a shadow of doubt, helped their speedier accomplishment. The question then comes: Is it possible, and probable, that nine millions of men can make effective progress in economic lines if they are deprived of political rights, made a servile caste, and allowed only the most meagre chance for developing their exceptional men? If history and reason give any distinct answer to these questions, it is an emphatic _No_. And Mr. Washington thus faces the triple paradox of his career:",
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      "ref": "PG408.B00113",
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      "text": "1. He is striving nobly to make Negro artisans business men and property-owners; but it is utterly impossible, under modern competitive methods, for workingmen and property-owners to defend their rights and exist without the right of suffrage.",
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      "text": "2. He insists on thrift and self-respect, but at the same time counsels a silent submission to civic inferiority such as is bound to sap the manhood of any race in the long run.",
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      "text": "3. He advocates common-school and industrial training, and depreciates institutions of higher learning; but neither the Negro common-schools, nor Tuskegee itself, could remain open a day were it not for teachers trained in Negro colleges, or trained by their graduates.",
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      "text": "This triple paradox in Mr. Washington’s position is the object of criticism by two classes of colored Americans. One class is spiritually descended from Toussaint the Savior, through Gabriel, Vesey, and Turner, and they represent the attitude of revolt and revenge; they hate the white South blindly and distrust the white race generally, and so far as they agree on definite action, think that the Negro’s only hope lies in emigration beyond the borders of the United States. And yet, by the irony of fate, nothing has more effectually made this programme seem hopeless than the recent course of the United States toward weaker and darker peoples in the West Indies, Hawaii, and the Philippines,—for where in the world may we go and be safe from lying and brute force?",
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      "text": "The other class of Negroes who cannot agree with Mr. Washington has hitherto said little aloud. They deprecate the sight of scattered counsels, of internal disagreement; and especially they dislike making their just criticism of a useful and earnest man an excuse for a general discharge of venom from small-minded opponents. Nevertheless, the questions involved are so fundamental and serious that it is difficult to see how men like the Grimkes, Kelly Miller, J. W. E. Bowen, and other representatives of this group, can much longer be silent. Such men feel in conscience bound to ask of this nation three things:",
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      "text": "1. The right to vote.",
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      "text": "2. Civic equality.",
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      "text": "3. The education of youth according to ability. They acknowledge Mr. Washington’s invaluable service in counselling patience and courtesy in such demands; they do not ask that ignorant black men vote when ignorant whites are debarred, or that any reasonable restrictions in the suffrage should not be applied; they know that the low social level of the mass of the race is responsible for much discrimination against it, but they also know, and the nation knows, that relentless color-prejudice is more often a cause than a result of the Negro’s degradation; they seek the abatement of this relic of barbarism, and not its systematic encouragement and pampering by all agencies of social power from the Associated Press to the Church of Christ. They advocate, with Mr. Washington, a broad system of Negro common schools supplemented by thorough industrial training; but they are surprised that a man of Mr. Washington’s insight cannot see that no such educational system ever has rested or can rest on any other basis than that of the well-equipped college and university, and they insist that there is a demand for a few such institutions throughout the South to train the best of the Negro youth as teachers, professional men, and leaders.",
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      "text": "This group of men honor Mr. Washington for his attitude of conciliation toward the white South; they accept the “Atlanta Compromise” in its broadest interpretation; they recognize, with him, many signs of promise, many men of high purpose and fair judgment, in this section; they know that no easy task has been laid upon a region already tottering under heavy burdens. But, nevertheless, they insist that the way to truth and right lies in straightforward honesty, not in indiscriminate flattery; in praising those of the South who do well and criticising uncompromisingly those who do ill; in taking advantage of the opportunities at hand and urging their fellows to do the same, but at the same time in remembering that only a firm adherence to their higher ideals and aspirations will ever keep those ideals within the realm of possibility. They do not expect that the free right to vote, to enjoy civic rights, and to be educated, will come in a moment; they do not expect to see the bias and prejudices of years disappear at the blast of a trumpet; but they are absolutely certain that the way for a people to gain their reasonable rights is not by voluntarily throwing them away and insisting that they do not want them; that the way for a people to gain respect is not by continually belittling and ridiculing themselves; that, on the contrary, Negroes must insist continually, in season and out of season, that voting is necessary to modern manhood, that color discrimination is barbarism, and that black boys need education as well as white boys.",
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      "text": "In failing thus to state plainly and unequivocally the legitimate demands of their people, even at the cost of opposing an honored leader, the thinking classes of American Negroes would shirk a heavy responsibility,—a responsibility to themselves, a responsibility to the struggling masses, a responsibility to the darker races of men whose future depends so largely on this American experiment, but especially a responsibility to this nation,—this common Fatherland. It is wrong to encourage a man or a people in evil-doing; it is wrong to aid and abet a national crime simply because it is unpopular not to do so. The growing spirit of kindliness and reconciliation between the North and South after the frightful difference of a generation ago ought to be a source of deep congratulation to all, and especially to those whose mistreatment caused the war; but if that reconciliation is to be marked by the industrial slavery and civic death of those same black men, with permanent legislation into a position of inferiority, then those black men, if they are really men, are called upon by every consideration of patriotism and loyalty to oppose such a course by all civilized methods, even though such opposition involves disagreement with Mr. Booker T. Washington. We have no right to sit silently by while the inevitable seeds are sown for a harvest of disaster to our children, black and white.",
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      "text": "First, it is the duty of black men to judge the South discriminatingly. The present generation of Southerners are not responsible for the past, and they should not be blindly hated or blamed for it. Furthermore, to no class is the indiscriminate endorsement of the recent course of the South toward Negroes more nauseating than to the best thought of the South. The South is not “solid”; it is a land in the ferment of social change, wherein forces of all kinds are fighting for supremacy; and to praise the ill the South is today perpetrating is just as wrong as to condemn the good. Discriminating and broad-minded criticism is what the South needs,—needs it for the sake of her own white sons and daughters, and for the insurance of robust, healthy mental and moral development.",
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      "text": "Today even the attitude of the Southern whites toward the blacks is not, as so many assume, in all cases the same; the ignorant Southerner hates the Negro, the workingmen fear his competition, the money-makers wish to use him as a laborer, some of the educated see a menace in his upward development, while others—usually the sons of the masters—wish to help him to rise. National opinion has enabled this last class to maintain the Negro common schools, and to protect the Negro partially in property, life, and limb. Through the pressure of the money-makers, the Negro is in danger of being reduced to semi-slavery, especially in the country districts; the workingmen, and those of the educated who fear the Negro, have united to disfranchise him, and some have urged his deportation; while the passions of the ignorant are easily aroused to lynch and abuse any black man. To praise this intricate whirl of thought and prejudice is nonsense; to inveigh indiscriminately against “the South” is unjust; but to use the same breath in praising Governor Aycock, exposing Senator Morgan, arguing with Mr. Thomas Nelson Page, and denouncing Senator Ben Tillman, is not only sane, but the imperative duty of thinking black men.",
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      "ref": "PG408.B00125",
      "bookId": 408,
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      "text": "It would be unjust to Mr. Washington not to acknowledge that in several instances he has opposed movements in the South which were unjust to the Negro; he sent memorials to the Louisiana and Alabama constitutional conventions, he has spoken against lynching, and in other ways has openly or silently set his influence against sinister schemes and unfortunate happenings. Notwithstanding this, it is equally true to assert that on the whole the distinct impression left by Mr. Washington’s propaganda is, first, that the South is justified in its present attitude toward the Negro because of the Negro’s degradation; secondly, that the prime cause of the Negro’s failure to rise more quickly is his wrong education in the past; and, thirdly, that his future rise depends primarily on his own efforts. Each of these propositions is a dangerous half-truth. The supplementary truths must never be lost sight of: first, slavery and race-prejudice are potent if not sufficient causes of the Negro’s position; second, industrial and common-school training were necessarily slow in planting because they had to await the black teachers trained by higher institutions,—it being extremely doubtful if any essentially different development was possible, and certainly a Tuskegee was unthinkable before 1880; and, third, while it is a great truth to say that the Negro must strive and strive mightily to help himself, it is equally true that unless his striving be not simply seconded, but rather aroused and encouraged, by the initiative of the richer and wiser environing group, he cannot hope for great success.",
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      "text": "In his failure to realize and impress this last point, Mr. Washington is especially to be criticised. His doctrine has tended to make the whites, North and South, shift the burden of the Negro problem to the Negro’s shoulders and stand aside as critical and rather pessimistic spectators; when in fact the burden belongs to the nation, and the hands of none of us are clean if we bend not our energies to righting these great wrongs.",
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      "text": "The South ought to be led, by candid and honest criticism, to assert her better self and do her full duty to the race she has cruelly wronged and is still wronging. The North—her co-partner in guilt—cannot salve her conscience by plastering it with gold. We cannot settle this problem by diplomacy and suaveness, by “policy” alone. If worse come to worst, can the moral fibre of this country survive the slow throttling and murder of nine millions of men?",
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      "text": "The black men of America have a duty to perform, a duty stern and delicate,—a forward movement to oppose a part of the work of their greatest leader. So far as Mr. Washington preaches Thrift, Patience, and Industrial Training for the masses, we must hold up his hands and strive with him, rejoicing in his honors and glorying in the strength of this Joshua called of God and of man to lead the headless host. But so far as Mr. Washington apologizes for injustice, North or South, does not rightly value the privilege and duty of voting, belittles the emasculating effects of caste distinctions, and opposes the higher training and ambition of our brighter minds,—so far as he, the South, or the Nation, does this,—we must unceasingly and firmly oppose them. By every civilized and peaceful method we must strive for the rights which the world accords to men, clinging unwaveringly to those great words which the sons of the Fathers would fain forget: “We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”",
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      "text": "IV. Of the Meaning of Progress",
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      "text": "Willst Du Deine Macht verkünden, Wähle sie die frei von Sünden, Steh’n in Deinem ew’gen Haus! Deine Geister sende aus! Die Unsterblichen, die Reinen, Die nicht fühlen, die nicht weinen! Nicht die zarte Jungfrau wähle, Nicht der Hirtin weiche Seele!",
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      "text": "For two summers I lived in this little world; it was dull and humdrum. The girls looked at the hill in wistful longing, and the boys fretted and haunted Alexandria. Alexandria was “town,”—a straggling, lazy village of houses, churches, and shops, and an aristocracy of Toms, Dicks, and Captains. Cuddled on the hill to the north was the village of the colored folks, who lived in three- or four-room unpainted cottages, some neat and homelike, and some dirty. The dwellings were scattered rather aimlessly, but they centred about the twin temples of the hamlet, the Methodist, and the Hard-Shell Baptist churches. These, in turn, leaned gingerly on a sad-colored schoolhouse. Hither my little world wended its crooked way on Sunday to meet other worlds, and gossip, and wonder, and make the weekly sacrifice with frenzied priest at the altar of the “old-time religion.” Then the soft melody and mighty cadences of Negro song fluttered and thundered.",
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      "text": "I have called my tiny community a world, and so its isolation made it; and yet there was among us but a half-awakened common consciousness, sprung from common joy and grief, at burial, birth, or wedding; from a common hardship in poverty, poor land, and low wages; and, above all, from the sight of the Veil that hung between us and Opportunity. All this caused us to think some thoughts together; but these, when ripe for speech, were spoken in various languages. Those whose eyes twenty-five and more years before had seen “the glory of the coming of the Lord,” saw in every present hindrance or help a dark fatalism bound to bring all things right in His own good time. The mass of those to whom slavery was a dim recollection of childhood found the world a puzzling thing: it asked little of them, and they answered with little, and yet it ridiculed their offering. Such a paradox they could not understand, and therefore sank into listless indifference, or shiftlessness, or reckless bravado. There were, however, some—such as Josie, Jim, and Ben—to whom War, Hell, and Slavery were but childhood tales, whose young appetites had been whetted to an edge by school and story and half-awakened thought. Ill could they be content, born without and beyond the World. And their weak wings beat against their barriers,—barriers of caste, of youth, of life; at last, in dangerous moments, against everything that opposed even a whim.",
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      "text": "The ten years that follow youth, the years when first the realization comes that life is leading somewhere,—these were the years that passed after I left my little school. When they were past, I came by chance once more to the walls of Fisk University, to the halls of the chapel of melody. As I lingered there in the joy and pain of meeting old school-friends, there swept over me a sudden longing to pass again beyond the blue hill, and to see the homes and the school of other days, and to learn how life had gone with my school-children; and I went.",
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      "text": "Josie was dead, and the gray-haired mother said simply, “We’ve had a heap of trouble since you’ve been away.” I had feared for Jim. With a cultured parentage and a social caste to uphold him, he might have made a venturesome merchant or a West Point cadet. But here he was, angry with life and reckless; and when Fanner Durham charged him with stealing wheat, the old man had to ride fast to escape the stones which the furious fool hurled after him. They told Jim to run away; but he would not run, and the constable came that afternoon. It grieved Josie, and great awkward John walked nine miles every day to see his little brother through the bars of Lebanon jail. At last the two came back together in the dark night. The mother cooked supper, and Josie emptied her purse, and the boys stole away. Josie grew thin and silent, yet worked the more. The hill became steep for the quiet old father, and with the boys away there was little to do in the valley. Josie helped them to sell the old farm, and they moved nearer town. Brother Dennis, the carpenter, built a new house with six rooms; Josie toiled a year in Nashville, and brought back ninety dollars to furnish the house and change it to a home.",
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      "text": "When the spring came, and the birds twittered, and the stream ran proud and full, little sister Lizzie, bold and thoughtless, flushed with the passion of youth, bestowed herself on the tempter, and brought home a nameless child. Josie shivered and worked on, with the vision of schooldays all fled, with a face wan and tired,—worked until, on a summer’s day, some one married another; then Josie crept to her mother like a hurt child, and slept—and sleeps.",
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      "text": "I paused to scent the breeze as I entered the valley. The Lawrences have gone,—father and son forever,—and the other son lazily digs in the earth to live. A new young widow rents out their cabin to fat Reuben. Reuben is a Baptist preacher now, but I fear as lazy as ever, though his cabin has three rooms; and little Ella has grown into a bouncing woman, and is ploughing corn on the hot hillside. There are babies a-plenty, and one half-witted girl. Across the valley is a house I did not know before, and there I found, rocking one baby and expecting another, one of my schoolgirls, a daughter of Uncle Bird Dowell. She looked somewhat worried with her new duties, but soon bristled into pride over her neat cabin and the tale of her thrifty husband, and the horse and cow, and the farm they were planning to buy.",
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      "text": "My log schoolhouse was gone. In its place stood Progress; and Progress, I understand, is necessarily ugly. The crazy foundation stones still marked the former site of my poor little cabin, and not far away, on six weary boulders, perched a jaunty board house, perhaps twenty by thirty feet, with three windows and a door that locked. Some of the window-glass was broken, and part of an old iron stove lay mournfully under the house. I peeped through the window half reverently, and found things that were more familiar. The blackboard had grown by about two feet, and the seats were still without backs. The county owns the lot now, I hear, and every year there is a session of school. As I sat by the spring and looked on the Old and the New I felt glad, very glad, and yet—",
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      "text": "After two long drinks I started on. There was the great double log-house on the corner. I remembered the broken, blighted family that used to live there. The strong, hard face of the mother, with its wilderness of hair, rose before me. She had driven her husband away, and while I taught school a strange man lived there, big and jovial, and people talked. I felt sure that Ben and ’Tildy would come to naught from such a home. But this is an odd world; for Ben is a busy farmer in Smith County, “doing well, too,” they say, and he had cared for little ’Tildy until last spring, when a lover married her. A hard life the lad had led, toiling for meat, and laughed at because he was homely and crooked. There was Sam Carlon, an impudent old skinflint, who had definite notions about “niggers,” and hired Ben a summer and would not pay him. Then the hungry boy gathered his sacks together, and in broad daylight went into Carlon’s corn; and when the hard-fisted farmer set upon him, the angry boy flew at him like a beast. Doc Burke saved a murder and a lynching that day.",
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      "text": "The story reminded me again of the Burkes, and an impatience seized me to know who won in the battle, Doc or the seventy-five acres. For it is a hard thing to make a farm out of nothing, even in fifteen years. So I hurried on, thinking of the Burkes. They used to have a certain magnificent barbarism about them that I liked. They were never vulgar, never immoral, but rather rough and primitive, with an unconventionality that spent itself in loud guffaws, slaps on the back, and naps in the corner. I hurried by the cottage of the misborn Neill boys. It was empty, and they were grown into fat, lazy farm-hands. I saw the home of the Hickmans, but Albert, with his stooping shoulders, had passed from the world. Then I came to the Burkes’ gate and peered through; the enclosure looked rough and untrimmed, and yet there were the same fences around the old farm save to the left, where lay twenty-five other acres. And lo! the cabin in the hollow had climbed the hill and swollen to a half-finished six-room cottage.",
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      "text": "The Burkes held a hundred acres, but they were still in debt. Indeed, the gaunt father who toiled night and day would scarcely be happy out of debt, being so used to it. Some day he must stop, for his massive frame is showing decline. The mother wore shoes, but the lion-like physique of other days was broken. The children had grown up. Rob, the image of his father, was loud and rough with laughter. Birdie, my school baby of six, had grown to a picture of maiden beauty, tall and tawny. “Edgar is gone,” said the mother, with head half bowed,—“gone to work in Nashville; he and his father couldn’t agree.”",
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      "text": "Little Doc, the boy born since the time of my school, took me horseback down the creek next morning toward Farmer Dowell’s. The road and the stream were battling for mastery, and the stream had the better of it. We splashed and waded, and the merry boy, perched behind me, chattered and laughed. He showed me where Simon Thompson had bought a bit of ground and a home; but his daughter Lana, a plump, brown, slow girl, was not there. She had married a man and a farm twenty miles away. We wound on down the stream till we came to a gate that I did not recognize, but the boy insisted that it was “Uncle Bird’s.” The farm was fat with the growing crop. In that little valley was a strange stillness as I rode up; for death and marriage had stolen youth and left age and childhood there. We sat and talked that night after the chores were done. Uncle Bird was grayer, and his eyes did not see so well, but he was still jovial. We talked of the acres bought,—one hundred and twenty-five,—of the new guest-chamber added, of Martha’s marrying. Then we talked of death: Fanny and Fred were gone; a shadow hung over the other daughter, and when it lifted she was to go to Nashville to school. At last we spoke of the neighbors, and as night fell, Uncle Bird told me how, on a night like that, ’Thenie came wandering back to her home over yonder, to escape the blows of her husband. And next morning she died in the home that her little bow-legged brother, working and saving, had bought for their widowed mother.",
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      "text": "My journey was done, and behind me lay hill and dale, and Life and Death. How shall man measure Progress there where the dark-faced Josie lies? How many heartfuls of sorrow shall balance a bushel of wheat? How hard a thing is life to the lowly, and yet how human and real! And all this life and love and strife and failure,—is it the twilight of nightfall or the flush of some faint-dawning day?",
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      "text": "Thus sadly musing, I rode to Nashville in the Jim Crow car.",
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      "text": "V. Of the Wings of Atalanta",
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      "text": "O black boy of Atlanta! But half was spoken; The slave’s chains and the master’s Alike are broken; The one curse of the races Held both in tether; They are rising—all are rising— The black and white together.",
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      "text": "Such are not men of the sturdier make; they of Atlanta turned resolutely toward the future; and that future held aloft vistas of purple and gold:—Atlanta, Queen of the cotton kingdom; Atlanta, Gateway to the Land of the Sun; Atlanta, the new Lachesis, spinner of web and woof for the world. So the city crowned her hundred hills with factories, and stored her shops with cunning handiwork, and stretched long iron ways to greet the busy Mercury in his coming. And the Nation talked of her striving.",
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      "text": "Perhaps Atlanta was not christened for the winged maiden of dull Boeotia; you know the tale,—how swarthy Atalanta, tall and wild, would marry only him who out-raced her; and how the wily Hippomenes laid three apples of gold in the way. She fled like a shadow, paused, startled over the first apple, but even as he stretched his hand, fled again; hovered over the second, then, slipping from his hot grasp, flew over river, vale, and hill; but as she lingered over the third, his arms fell round her, and looking on each other, the blazing passion of their love profaned the sanctuary of Love, and they were cursed. If Atlanta be not named for Atalanta, she ought to have been.",
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      "text": "Atalanta is not the first or the last maiden whom greed of gold has led to defile the temple of Love; and not maids alone, but men in the race of life, sink from the high and generous ideals of youth to the gambler’s code of the Bourse; and in all our Nation’s striving is not the Gospel of Work befouled by the Gospel of Pay? So common is this that one-half think it normal; so unquestioned, that we almost fear to question if the end of racing is not gold, if the aim of man is not rightly to be rich. And if this is the fault of America, how dire a danger lies before a new land and a new city, lest Atlanta, stooping for mere gold, shall find that gold accursed!",
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      "text": "It was no maiden’s idle whim that started this hard racing; a fearful wilderness lay about the feet of that city after the War,—feudalism, poverty, the rise of the Third Estate, serfdom, the re-birth of Law and Order, and above and between all, the Veil of Race. How heavy a journey for weary feet! what wings must Atalanta have to flit over all this hollow and hill, through sour wood and sullen water, and by the red waste of sun-baked clay! How fleet must Atalanta be if she will not be tempted by gold to profane the Sanctuary!",
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      "text": "The Sanctuary of our fathers has, to be sure, few Gods,—some sneer, “all too few.” There is the thrifty Mercury of New England, Pluto of the North, and Ceres of the West; and there, too, is the half-forgotten Apollo of the South, under whose aegis the maiden ran,—and as she ran she forgot him, even as there in Boeotia Venus was forgot. She forgot the old ideal of the Southern gentleman,—that new-world heir of the grace and courtliness of patrician, knight, and noble; forgot his honor with his foibles, his kindliness with his carelessness, and stooped to apples of gold,—to men busier and sharper, thriftier and more unscrupulous. Golden apples are beautiful—I remember the lawless days of boyhood, when orchards in crimson and gold tempted me over fence and field—and, too, the merchant who has dethroned the planter is no despicable parvenu. Work and wealth are the mighty levers to lift this old new land; thrift and toil and saving are the highways to new hopes and new possibilities; and yet the warning is needed lest the wily Hippomenes tempt Atalanta to thinking that golden apples are the goal of racing, and not mere incidents by the way.",
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      "text": "Atlanta must not lead the South to dream of material prosperity as the touchstone of all success; already the fatal might of this idea is beginning to spread; it is replacing the finer type of Southerner with vulgar money-getters; it is burying the sweeter beauties of Southern life beneath pretence and ostentation. For every social ill the panacea of Wealth has been urged,—wealth to overthrow the remains of the slave feudalism; wealth to raise the “cracker” Third Estate; wealth to employ the black serfs, and the prospect of wealth to keep them working; wealth as the end and aim of politics, and as the legal tender for law and order; and, finally, instead of Truth, Beauty, and Goodness, wealth as the ideal of the Public School.",
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      "text": "Not only is this true in the world which Atlanta typifies, but it is threatening to be true of a world beneath and beyond that world,—the Black World beyond the Veil. Today it makes little difference to Atlanta, to the South, what the Negro thinks or dreams or wills. In the soul-life of the land he is to-day, and naturally will long remain, unthought of, half forgotten; and yet when he does come to think and will and do for himself,—and let no man dream that day will never come,—then the part he plays will not be one of sudden learning, but words and thoughts he has been taught to lisp in his race-childhood. To-day the ferment of his striving toward self-realization is to the strife of the white world like a wheel within a wheel: beyond the Veil are smaller but like problems of ideals, of leaders and the led, of serfdom, of poverty, of order and subordination, and, through all, the Veil of Race. Few know of these problems, few who know notice them; and yet there they are, awaiting student, artist, and seer,—a field for somebody sometime to discover. Hither has the temptation of Hippomenes penetrated; already in this smaller world, which now indirectly and anon directly must influence the larger for good or ill, the habit is forming of interpreting the world in dollars. The old leaders of Negro opinion, in the little groups where there is a Negro social consciousness, are being replaced by new; neither the black preacher nor the black teacher leads as he did two decades ago. Into their places are pushing the farmers and gardeners, the well-paid porters and artisans, the business-men,—all those with property and money. And with all this change, so curiously parallel to that of the Other-world, goes too the same inevitable change in ideals. The South laments to-day the slow, steady disappearance of a certain type of Negro,—the faithful, courteous slave of other days, with his incorruptible honesty and dignified humility. He is passing away just as surely as the old type of Southern gentleman is passing, and from not dissimilar causes,—the sudden transformation of a fair far-off ideal of Freedom into the hard reality of bread-winning and the consequent deification of Bread.",
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      "text": "In the Black World, the Preacher and Teacher embodied once the ideals of this people—the strife for another and a juster world, the vague dream of righteousness, the mystery of knowing; but to-day the danger is that these ideals, with their simple beauty and weird inspiration, will suddenly sink to a question of cash and a lust for gold. Here stands this black young Atalanta, girding herself for the race that must be run; and if her eyes be still toward the hills and sky as in the days of old, then we may look for noble running; but what if some ruthless or wily or even thoughtless Hippomenes lay golden apples before her? What if the Negro people be wooed from a strife for righteousness, from a love of knowing, to regard dollars as the be-all and end-all of life? What if to the Mammonism of America be added the rising Mammonism of the re-born South, and the Mammonism of this South be reinforced by the budding Mammonism of its half-wakened black millions? Whither, then, is the new-world quest of Goodness and Beauty and Truth gone glimmering? Must this, and that fair flower of Freedom which, despite the jeers of latter-day striplings, sprung from our fathers’ blood, must that too degenerate into a dusty quest of gold,—into lawless lust with Hippomenes?",
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      "text": "The hundred hills of Atlanta are not all crowned with factories. On one, toward the west, the setting sun throws three buildings in bold relief against the sky. The beauty of the group lies in its simple unity:—a broad lawn of green rising from the red street and mingled roses and peaches; north and south, two plain and stately halls; and in the midst, half hidden in ivy, a larger building, boldly graceful, sparingly decorated, and with one low spire. It is a restful group, —one never looks for more; it is all here, all intelligible. There I live, and there I hear from day to day the low hum of restful life. In winter’s twilight, when the red sun glows, I can see the dark figures pass between the halls to the music of the night-bell. In the morning, when the sun is golden, the clang of the day-bell brings the hurry and laughter of three hundred young hearts from hall and street, and from the busy city below,—children all dark and heavy-haired,—to join their clear young voices in the music of the morning sacrifice. In a half-dozen class-rooms they gather then,—here to follow the love-song of Dido, here to listen to the tale of Troy divine; there to wander among the stars, there to wander among men and nations,—and elsewhere other well-worn ways of knowing this queer world. Nothing new, no time-saving devices,—simply old time-glorified methods of delving for Truth, and searching out the hidden beauties of life, and learning the good of living. The riddle of existence is the college curriculum that was laid before the Pharaohs, that was taught in the groves by Plato, that formed the _trivium_ and _quadrivium_, and is to-day laid before the freedmen’s sons by Atlanta University. And this course of study will not change; its methods will grow more deft and effectual, its content richer by toil of scholar and sight of seer; but the true college will ever have one goal,—not to earn meat, but to know the end and aim of that life which meat nourishes.",
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      "text": "The vision of life that rises before these dark eyes has in it nothing mean or selfish. Not at Oxford or at Leipsic, not at Yale or Columbia, is there an air of higher resolve or more unfettered striving; the determination to realize for men, both black and white, the broadest possibilities of life, to seek the better and the best, to spread with their own hands the Gospel of Sacrifice,—all this is the burden of their talk and dream. Here, amid a wide desert of caste and proscription, amid the heart-hurting slights and jars and vagaries of a deep race-dislike, lies this green oasis, where hot anger cools, and the bitterness of disappointment is sweetened by the springs and breezes of Parnassus; and here men may lie and listen, and learn of a future fuller than the past, and hear the voice of Time:",
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      "text": "“Entbehren sollst du, sollst entbehren.”",
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      "text": "They made their mistakes, those who planted Fisk and Howard and Atlanta before the smoke of battle had lifted; they made their mistakes, but those mistakes were not the things at which we lately laughed somewhat uproariously. They were right when they sought to found a new educational system upon the University: where, forsooth, shall we ground knowledge save on the broadest and deepest knowledge? The roots of the tree, rather than the leaves, are the sources of its life; and from the dawn of history, from Academus to Cambridge, the culture of the University has been the broad foundation-stone on which is built the kindergarten’s A B C.",
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      "text": "But these builders did make a mistake in minimizing the gravity of the problem before them; in thinking it a matter of years and decades; in therefore building quickly and laying their foundation carelessly, and lowering the standard of knowing, until they had scattered haphazard through the South some dozen poorly equipped high schools and miscalled them universities. They forgot, too, just as their successors are forgetting, the rule of inequality:—that of the million black youth, some were fitted to know and some to dig; that some had the talent and capacity of university men, and some the talent and capacity of blacksmiths; and that true training meant neither that all should be college men nor all artisans, but that the one should be made a missionary of culture to an untaught people, and the other a free workman among serfs. And to seek to make the blacksmith a scholar is almost as silly as the more modern scheme of making the scholar a blacksmith; almost, but not quite.",
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      "text": "The function of the university is not simply to teach bread-winning, or to furnish teachers for the public schools or to be a centre of polite society; it is, above all, to be the organ of that fine adjustment between real life and the growing knowledge of life, an adjustment which forms the secret of civilization. Such an institution the South of to-day sorely needs. She has religion, earnest, bigoted:—religion that on both sides the Veil often omits the sixth, seventh, and eighth commandments, but substitutes a dozen supplementary ones. She has, as Atlanta shows, growing thrift and love of toil; but she lacks that broad knowledge of what the world knows and knew of human living and doing, which she may apply to the thousand problems of real life to-day confronting her. The need of the South is knowledge and culture,—not in dainty limited quantity, as before the war, but in broad busy abundance in the world of work; and until she has this, not all the Apples of Hesperides, be they golden and bejewelled, can save her from the curse of the Boeotian lovers.",
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      "text": "The Wings of Atalanta are the coming universities of the South. They alone can bear the maiden past the temptation of golden fruit. They will not guide her flying feet away from the cotton and gold; for—ah, thoughtful Hippomenes!—do not the apples lie in the very Way of Life? But they will guide her over and beyond them, and leave her kneeling in the Sanctuary of Truth and Freedom and broad Humanity, virgin and undefiled. Sadly did the Old South err in human education, despising the education of the masses, and niggardly in the support of colleges. Her ancient university foundations dwindled and withered under the foul breath of slavery; and even since the war they have fought a failing fight for life in the tainted air of social unrest and commercial selfishness, stunted by the death of criticism, and starving for lack of broadly cultured men. And if this is the white South’s need and danger, how much heavier the danger and need of the freedmen’s sons! how pressing here the need of broad ideals and true culture, the conservation of soul from sordid aims and petty passions! Let us build the Southern university—William and Mary, Trinity, Georgia, Texas, Tulane, Vanderbilt, and the others—fit to live; let us build, too, the Negro universities:—Fisk, whose foundation was ever broad; Howard, at the heart of the Nation; Atlanta at Atlanta, whose ideal of scholarship has been held above the temptation of numbers. Why not here, and perhaps elsewhere, plant deeply and for all time centres of learning and living, colleges that yearly would send into the life of the South a few white men and a few black men of broad culture, catholic tolerance, and trained ability, joining their hands to other hands, and giving to this squabble of the Races a decent and dignified peace?",
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      "text": "Patience, Humility, Manners, and Taste, common schools and kindergartens, industrial and technical schools, literature and tolerance,—all these spring from knowledge and culture, the children of the university. So must men and nations build, not otherwise, not upside down.",
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      "text": "Teach workers to work,—a wise saying; wise when applied to German boys and American girls; wiser when said of Negro boys, for they have less knowledge of working and none to teach them. Teach thinkers to think,—a needed knowledge in a day of loose and careless logic; and they whose lot is gravest must have the carefulest training to think aright. If these things are so, how foolish to ask what is the best education for one or seven or sixty million souls! shall we teach them trades, or train them in liberal arts? Neither and both: teach the workers to work and the thinkers to think; make carpenters of carpenters, and philosophers of philosophers, and fops of fools. Nor can we pause here. We are training not isolated men but a living group of men,—nay, a group within a group. And the final product of our training must be neither a psychologist nor a brickmason, but a man. And to make men, we must have ideals, broad, pure, and inspiring ends of living,—not sordid money-getting, not apples of gold. The worker must work for the glory of his handiwork, not simply for pay; the thinker must think for truth, not for fame. And all this is gained only by human strife and longing; by ceaseless training and education; by founding Right on righteousness and Truth on the unhampered search for Truth; by founding the common school on the university, and the industrial school on the common school; and weaving thus a system, not a distortion, and bringing a birth, not an abortion.",
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      "text": "When night falls on the City of a Hundred Hills, a wind gathers itself from the seas and comes murmuring westward. And at its bidding, the smoke of the drowsy factories sweeps down upon the mighty city and covers it like a pall, while yonder at the University the stars twinkle above Stone Hall. And they say that yon gray mist is the tunic of Atalanta pausing over her golden apples. Fly, my maiden, fly, for yonder comes Hippomenes!",
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      "text": "Looking now at the county black population as a whole, it is fair to characterize it as poor and ignorant. Perhaps ten per cent compose the well-to-do and the best of the laborers, while at least nine per cent are thoroughly lewd and vicious. The rest, over eighty per cent, are poor and ignorant, fairly honest and well meaning, plodding, and to a degree shiftless, with some but not great sexual looseness. Such class lines are by no means fixed; they vary, one might almost say, with the price of cotton. The degree of ignorance cannot easily be expressed. We may say, for instance, that nearly two-thirds of them cannot read or write. This but partially expresses the fact. They are ignorant of the world about them, of modern economic organization, of the function of government, of individual worth and possibilities,—of nearly all those things which slavery in self-defence had to keep them from learning. Much that the white boy imbibes from his earliest social atmosphere forms the puzzling problems of the black boy’s mature years. America is not another word for Opportunity to _all_ her sons.",
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      "text": "It is easy for us to lose ourselves in details in endeavoring to grasp and comprehend the real condition of a mass of human beings. We often forget that each unit in the mass is a throbbing human soul. Ignorant it may be, and poverty stricken, black and curious in limb and ways and thought; and yet it loves and hates, it toils and tires, it laughs and weeps its bitter tears, and looks in vague and awful longing at the grim horizon of its life,—all this, even as you and I. These black thousands are not in reality lazy; they are improvident and careless; they insist on breaking the monotony of toil with a glimpse at the great town-world on Saturday; they have their loafers and their rascals; but the great mass of them work continuously and faithfully for a return, and under circumstances that would call forth equal voluntary effort from few if any other modern laboring class. Over eighty-eight per cent of them—men, women, and children—are farmers. Indeed, this is almost the only industry. Most of the children get their schooling after the “crops are laid by,” and very few there are that stay in school after the spring work has begun. Child-labor is to be found here in some of its worst phases, as fostering ignorance and stunting physical development. With the grown men of the county there is little variety in work: thirteen hundred are farmers, and two hundred are laborers, teamsters, etc., including twenty-four artisans, ten merchants, twenty-one preachers, and four teachers. This narrowness of life reaches its maximum among the women: thirteen hundred and fifty of these are farm laborers, one hundred are servants and washerwomen, leaving sixty-five housewives, eight teachers, and six seamstresses.",
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      "text": "Among this people there is no leisure class. We often forget that in the United States over half the youth and adults are not in the world earning incomes, but are making homes, learning of the world, or resting after the heat of the strife. But here ninety-six per cent are toiling; no one with leisure to turn the bare and cheerless cabin into a home, no old folks to sit beside the fire and hand down traditions of the past; little of careless happy childhood and dreaming youth. The dull monotony of daily toil is broken only by the gayety of the thoughtless and the Saturday trip to town. The toil, like all farm toil, is monotonous, and here there are little machinery and few tools to relieve its burdensome drudgery. But with all this, it is work in the pure open air, and this is something in a day when fresh air is scarce.",
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      "text": "The land on the whole is still fertile, despite long abuse. For nine or ten months in succession the crops will come if asked: garden vegetables in April, grain in May, melons in June and July, hay in August, sweet potatoes in September, and cotton from then to Christmas. And yet on two-thirds of the land there is but one crop, and that leaves the toilers in debt. Why is this?",
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      "bookId": 408,
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      "text": "Away down the Baysan road, where the broad flat fields are flanked by great oak forests, is a plantation; many thousands of acres it used to run, here and there, and beyond the great wood. Thirteen hundred human beings here obeyed the call of one,—were his in body, and largely in soul. One of them lives there yet,—a short, stocky man, his dull-brown face seamed and drawn, and his tightly curled hair gray-white. The crops? Just tolerable, he said; just tolerable. Getting on? No—he wasn’t getting on at all. Smith of Albany “furnishes” him, and his rent is eight hundred pounds of cotton. Can’t make anything at that. Why didn’t he buy land! _Humph!_ Takes money to buy land. And he turns away. Free! The most piteous thing amid all the black ruin of war-time, amid the broken fortunes of the masters, the blighted hopes of mothers and maidens, and the fall of an empire,—the most piteous thing amid all this was the black freedman who threw down his hoe because the world called him free. What did such a mockery of freedom mean? Not a cent of money, not an inch of land, not a mouthful of victuals,—not even ownership of the rags on his back. Free! On Saturday, once or twice a month, the old master, before the war, used to dole out bacon and meal to his Negroes. And after the first flush of freedom wore off, and his true helplessness dawned on the freedman, he came back and picked up his hoe, and old master still doled out his bacon and meal. The legal form of service was theoretically far different; in practice, task-work or “cropping” was substituted for daily toil in gangs; and the slave gradually became a metayer, or tenant on shares, in name, but a laborer with indeterminate wages in fact.",
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      "text": "Still the price of cotton fell, and gradually the landlords deserted their plantations, and the reign of the merchant began. The merchant of the Black Belt is a curious institution,—part banker, part landlord, part banker, and part despot. His store, which used most frequently to stand at the cross-roads and become the centre of a weekly village, has now moved to town; and thither the Negro tenant follows him. The merchant keeps everything,—clothes and shoes, coffee and sugar, pork and meal, canned and dried goods, wagons and ploughs, seed and fertilizer,—and what he has not in stock he can give you an order for at the store across the way. Here, then, comes the tenant, Sam Scott, after he has contracted with some absent landlord’s agent for hiring forty acres of land; he fingers his hat nervously until the merchant finishes his morning chat with Colonel Saunders, and calls out, “Well, Sam, what do you want?” Sam wants him to “furnish” him,—_i.e._, to advance him food and clothing for the year, and perhaps seed and tools, until his crop is raised and sold. If Sam seems a favorable subject, he and the merchant go to a lawyer, and Sam executes a chattel mortgage on his mule and wagon in return for seed and a week’s rations. As soon as the green cotton-leaves appear above the ground, another mortgage is given on the “crop.” Every Saturday, or at longer intervals, Sam calls upon the merchant for his “rations”; a family of five usually gets about thirty pounds of fat side-pork and a couple of bushels of cornmeal a month. Besides this, clothing and shoes must be furnished; if Sam or his family is sick, there are orders on the druggist and doctor; if the mule wants shoeing, an order on the blacksmith, etc. If Sam is a hard worker and crops promise well, he is often encouraged to buy more,—sugar, extra clothes, perhaps a buggy. But he is seldom encouraged to save. When cotton rose to ten cents last fall, the shrewd merchants of Dougherty County sold a thousand buggies in one season, mostly to black men.",
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      "text": "The security offered for such transactions—a crop and chattel mortgage—may at first seem slight. And, indeed, the merchants tell many a true tale of shiftlessness and cheating; of cotton picked at night, mules disappearing, and tenants absconding. But on the whole the merchant of the Black Belt is the most prosperous man in the section. So skilfully and so closely has he drawn the bonds of the law about the tenant, that the black man has often simply to choose between pauperism and crime; he “waives” all homestead exemptions in his contract; he cannot touch his own mortgaged crop, which the laws put almost in the full control of the land-owner and of the merchant. When the crop is growing the merchant watches it like a hawk; as soon as it is ready for market he takes possession of it, sells it, pays the landowner his rent, subtracts his bill for supplies, and if, as sometimes happens, there is anything left, he hands it over to the black serf for his Christmas celebration.",
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      "text": "The direct result of this system is an all-cotton scheme of agriculture and the continued bankruptcy of the tenant. The currency of the Black Belt is cotton. It is a crop always salable for ready money, not usually subject to great yearly fluctuations in price, and one which the Negroes know how to raise. The landlord therefore demands his rent in cotton, and the merchant will accept mortgages on no other crop. There is no use asking the black tenant, then, to diversify his crops,—he cannot under this system. Moreover, the system is bound to bankrupt the tenant. I remember once meeting a little one-mule wagon on the River road. A young black fellow sat in it driving listlessly, his elbows on his knees. His dark-faced wife sat beside him, stolid, silent.",
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      "text": "“Hello!” cried my driver,—he has a most imprudent way of addressing these people, though they seem used to it,—“what have you got there?”",
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      "text": "“Meat and meal,” answered the man, stopping. The meat lay uncovered in the bottom of the wagon,—a great thin side of fat pork covered with salt; the meal was in a white bushel bag.",
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      "text": "“What did you pay for that meat?”",
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      "text": "“Ten cents a pound.” It could have been bought for six or seven cents cash.",
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      "text": "“And the meal?”",
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      "text": "“Two dollars.” One dollar and ten cents is the cash price in town. Here was a man paying five dollars for goods which he could have bought for three dollars cash, and raised for one dollar or one dollar and a half.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG408.B00285",
      "bookId": 408,
      "start": 233567,
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      "text": "Yet it is not wholly his fault. The Negro farmer started behind,—started in debt. This was not his choosing, but the crime of this happy-go-lucky nation which goes blundering along with its Reconstruction tragedies, its Spanish war interludes and Philippine matinees, just as though God really were dead. Once in debt, it is no easy matter for a whole race to emerge.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG408.B00286",
      "bookId": 408,
      "start": 233945,
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      "text": "In the year of low-priced cotton, 1898, out of three hundred tenant families one hundred and seventy-five ended their year’s work in debt to the extent of fourteen thousand dollars; fifty cleared nothing, and the remaining seventy-five made a total profit of sixteen hundred dollars. The net indebtedness of the black tenant families of the whole county must have been at least sixty thousand dollars. In a more prosperous year the situation is far better; but on the average the majority of tenants end the year even, or in debt, which means that they work for board and clothes. Such an economic organization is radically wrong. Whose is the blame?",
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    {
      "ref": "PG408.B00287",
      "bookId": 408,
      "start": 234610,
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      "text": "The underlying causes of this situation are complicated but discernible. And one of the chief, outside the carelessness of the nation in letting the slave start with nothing, is the widespread opinion among the merchants and employers of the Black Belt that only by the slavery of debt can the Negro be kept at work. Without doubt, some pressure was necessary at the beginning of the free-labor system to keep the listless and lazy at work; and even to-day the mass of the Negro laborers need stricter guardianship than most Northern laborers. Behind this honest and widespread opinion dishonesty and cheating of the ignorant laborers have a good chance to take refuge. And to all this must be added the obvious fact that a slave ancestry and a system of unrequited toil has not improved the efficiency or temper of the mass of black laborers. Nor is this peculiar to Sambo; it has in history been just as true of John and Hans, of Jacques and Pat, of all ground-down peasantries. Such is the situation of the mass of the Negroes in the Black Belt to-day; and they are thinking about it. Crime, and a cheap and dangerous socialism, are the inevitable results of this pondering. I see now that ragged black man sitting on a log, aimlessly whittling a stick. He muttered to me with the murmur of many ages, when he said: “White man sit down whole year; Nigger work day and night and make crop; Nigger hardly gits bread and meat; white man sittin’ down gits all. _It’s wrong._” And what do the better classes of Negroes do to improve their situation? One of two things: if any way possible, they buy land; if not, they migrate to town. Just as centuries ago it was no easy thing for the serf to escape into the freedom of town-life, even so to-day there are hindrances laid in the way of county laborers. In considerable parts of all the Gulf States, and especially in Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkansas, the Negroes on the plantations in the back-country districts are still held at forced labor practically without wages. Especially is this true in districts where the farmers are composed of the more ignorant class of poor whites, and the Negroes are beyond the reach of schools and intercourse with their advancing fellows. If such a peon should run away, the sheriff, elected by white suffrage, can usually be depended on to catch the fugitive, return him, and ask no questions. If he escape to another county, a charge of petty thieving, easily true, can be depended upon to secure his return. Even if some unduly officious person insist upon a trial, neighborly comity will probably make his conviction sure, and then the labor due the county can easily be bought by the master. Such a system is impossible in the more civilized parts of the South, or near the large towns and cities; but in those vast stretches of land beyond the telegraph and the newspaper the spirit of the Thirteenth Amendment is sadly broken. This represents the lowest economic depths of the black American peasant; and in a study of the rise and condition of the Negro freeholder we must trace his economic progress from the modern serfdom.",
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      "text": "Even in the better-ordered country districts of the South the free movement of agricultural laborers is hindered by the migration-agent laws. The “Associated Press” recently informed the world of the arrest of a young white man in Southern Georgia who represented the “Atlantic Naval Supplies Company,” and who “was caught in the act of enticing hands from the turpentine farm of Mr. John Greer.” The crime for which this young man was arrested is taxed five hundred dollars for each county in which the employment agent proposes to gather laborers for work outside the State. Thus the Negroes’ ignorance of the labor-market outside his own vicinity is increased rather than diminished by the laws of nearly every Southern State.",
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      "ref": "PG408.B00289",
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      "text": "Similar to such measures is the unwritten law of the back districts and small towns of the South, that the character of all Negroes unknown to the mass of the community must be vouched for by some white man. This is really a revival of the old Roman idea of the patron under whose protection the new-made freedman was put. In many instances this system has been of great good to the Negro, and very often under the protection and guidance of the former master’s family, or other white friends, the freedman progressed in wealth and morality. But the same system has in other cases resulted in the refusal of whole communities to recognize the right of a Negro to change his habitation and to be master of his own fortunes. A black stranger in Baker County, Georgia, for instance, is liable to be stopped anywhere on the public highway and made to state his business to the satisfaction of any white interrogator. If he fails to give a suitable answer, or seems too independent or “sassy,” he may be arrested or summarily driven away.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG408.B00290",
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      "text": "Thus it is that in the country districts of the South, by written or unwritten law, peonage, hindrances to the migration of labor, and a system of white patronage exists over large areas. Besides this, the chance for lawless oppression and illegal exactions is vastly greater in the country than in the city, and nearly all the more serious race disturbances of the last decade have arisen from disputes in the county between master and man,—as, for instance, the Sam Hose affair. As a result of such a situation, there arose, first, the Black Belt; and, second, the Migration to Town. The Black Belt was not, as many assumed, a movement toward fields of labor under more genial climatic conditions; it was primarily a huddling for self-protection,—a massing of the black population for mutual defence in order to secure the peace and tranquillity necessary to economic advance. This movement took place between Emancipation and 1880, and only partially accomplished the desired results. The rush to town since 1880 is the counter-movement of men disappointed in the economic opportunities of the Black Belt.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG408.B00291",
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      "text": "In Dougherty County, Georgia, one can see easily the results of this experiment in huddling for protection. Only ten per cent of the adult population was born in the county, and yet the blacks outnumber the whites four or five to one. There is undoubtedly a security to the blacks in their very numbers,—a personal freedom from arbitrary treatment, which makes hundreds of laborers cling to Dougherty in spite of low wages and economic distress. But a change is coming, and slowly but surely even here the agricultural laborers are drifting to town and leaving the broad acres behind. Why is this? Why do not the Negroes become land-owners, and build up the black landed peasantry, which has for a generation and more been the dream of philanthropist and statesman?",
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      "ref": "PG408.B00292",
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      "text": "To the car-window sociologist, to the man who seeks to understand and know the South by devoting the few leisure hours of a holiday trip to unravelling the snarl of centuries,—to such men very often the whole trouble with the black field-hand may be summed up by Aunt Ophelia’s word, “Shiftless!” They have noted repeatedly scenes like one I saw last summer. We were riding along the highroad to town at the close of a long hot day. A couple of young black fellows passed us in a muleteam, with several bushels of loose corn in the ear. One was driving, listlessly bent forward, his elbows on his knees,—a happy-go-lucky, careless picture of irresponsibility. The other was fast asleep in the bottom of the wagon. As we passed we noticed an ear of corn fall from the wagon. They never saw it,—not they. A rod farther on we noted another ear on the ground; and between that creeping mule and town we counted twenty-six ears of corn. Shiftless? Yes, the personification of shiftlessness. And yet follow those boys: they are not lazy; to-morrow morning they’ll be up with the sun; they work hard when they do work, and they work willingly. They have no sordid, selfish, money-getting ways, but rather a fine disdain for mere cash. They’ll loaf before your face and work behind your back with good-natured honesty. They’ll steal a watermelon, and hand you back your lost purse intact. Their great defect as laborers lies in their lack of incentive beyond the mere pleasure of physical exertion. They are careless because they have not found that it pays to be careful; they are improvident because the improvident ones of their acquaintance get on about as well as the provident. Above all, they cannot see why they should take unusual pains to make the white man’s land better, or to fatten his mule, or save his corn. On the other hand, the white land-owner argues that any attempt to improve these laborers by increased responsibility, or higher wages, or better homes, or land of their own, would be sure to result in failure. He shows his Northern visitor the scarred and wretched land; the ruined mansions, the worn-out soil and mortgaged acres, and says, This is Negro freedom!",
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      "text": "Now it happens that both master and man have just enough argument on their respective sides to make it difficult for them to understand each other. The Negro dimly personifies in the white man all his ills and misfortunes; if he is poor, it is because the white man seizes the fruit of his toil; if he is ignorant, it is because the white man gives him neither time nor facilities to learn; and, indeed, if any misfortune happens to him, it is because of some hidden machinations of “white folks.” On the other hand, the masters and the masters’ sons have never been able to see why the Negro, instead of settling down to be day-laborers for bread and clothes, are infected with a silly desire to rise in the world, and why they are sulky, dissatisfied, and careless, where their fathers were happy and dumb and faithful. “Why, you niggers have an easier time than I do,” said a puzzled Albany merchant to his black customer. “Yes,” he replied, “and so does yo’ hogs.”",
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      "text": "Taking, then, the dissatisfied and shiftless field-hand as a starting-point, let us inquire how the black thousands of Dougherty have struggled from him up toward their ideal, and what that ideal is. All social struggle is evidenced by the rise, first of economic, then of social classes, among a homogeneous population. To-day the following economic classes are plainly differentiated among these Negroes.",
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      "text": "A “submerged tenth” of croppers, with a few paupers; forty per cent who are metayers and thirty-nine per cent of semi-metayers and wage-laborers. There are left five per cent of money-renters and six per cent of freeholders,—the “Upper Ten” of the land. The croppers are entirely without capital, even in the limited sense of food or money to keep them from seed-time to harvest. All they furnish is their labor; the land-owner furnishes land, stock, tools, seed, and house; and at the end of the year the laborer gets from a third to a half of the crop. Out of his share, however, comes pay and interest for food and clothing advanced him during the year. Thus we have a laborer without capital and without wages, and an employer whose capital is largely his employees’ wages. It is an unsatisfactory arrangement, both for hirer and hired, and is usually in vogue on poor land with hard-pressed owners.",
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      "text": "Above the croppers come the great mass of the black population who work the land on their own responsibility, paying rent in cotton and supported by the crop-mortgage system. After the war this system was attractive to the freedmen on account of its larger freedom and its possibility for making a surplus. But with the carrying out of the crop-lien system, the deterioration of the land, and the slavery of debt, the position of the metayers has sunk to a dead level of practically unrewarded toil. Formerly all tenants had some capital, and often considerable; but absentee landlordism, rising rack-rent, and failing cotton have stripped them well-nigh of all, and probably not over half of them to-day own their mules. The change from cropper to tenant was accomplished by fixing the rent. If, now, the rent fixed was reasonable, this was an incentive to the tenant to strive. On the other hand, if the rent was too high, or if the land deteriorated, the result was to discourage and check the efforts of the black peasantry. There is no doubt that the latter case is true; that in Dougherty County every economic advantage of the price of cotton in market and of the strivings of the tenant has been taken advantage of by the landlords and merchants, and swallowed up in rent and interest. If cotton rose in price, the rent rose even higher; if cotton fell, the rent remained or followed reluctantly. If the tenant worked hard and raised a large crop, his rent was raised the next year; if that year the crop failed, his corn was confiscated and his mule sold for debt. There were, of course, exceptions to this,—cases of personal kindness and forbearance; but in the vast majority of cases the rule was to extract the uttermost farthing from the mass of the black farm laborers.",
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      "text": "The average metayer pays from twenty to thirty per cent of his crop in rent. The result of such rack-rent can only be evil,—abuse and neglect of the soil, deterioration in the character of the laborers, and a widespread sense of injustice. “Wherever the country is poor,” cried Arthur Young, “it is in the hands of metayers,” and “their condition is more wretched than that of day-laborers.” He was talking of Italy a century ago; but he might have been talking of Dougherty County to-day. And especially is that true to-day which he declares was true in France before the Revolution: “The metayers are considered as little better than menial servants, removable at pleasure, and obliged to conform in all things to the will of the landlords.” On this low plane half the black population of Dougherty County—perhaps more than half the black millions of this land—are to-day struggling.",
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      "text": "A degree above these we may place those laborers who receive money wages for their work. Some receive a house with perhaps a garden-spot; then supplies of food and clothing are advanced, and certain fixed wages are given at the end of the year, varying from thirty to sixty dollars, out of which the supplies must be paid for, with interest. About eighteen per cent of the population belong to this class of semi-metayers, while twenty-two per cent are laborers paid by the month or year, and are either “furnished” by their own savings or perhaps more usually by some merchant who takes his chances of payment. Such laborers receive from thirty-five to fifty cents a day during the working season. They are usually young unmarried persons, some being women; and when they marry they sink to the class of metayers, or, more seldom, become renters.",
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      "ref": "PG408.B00327",
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      "text": "It is the public schools, however, which can be made, outside the homes, the greatest means of training decent self-respecting citizens. We have been so hotly engaged recently in discussing trade-schools and the higher education that the pitiable plight of the public-school system in the South has almost dropped from view. Of every five dollars spent for public education in the State of Georgia, the white schools get four dollars and the Negro one dollar; and even then the white public-school system, save in the cities, is bad and cries for reform. If this is true of the whites, what of the blacks? I am becoming more and more convinced, as I look upon the system of common-school training in the South, that the national government must soon step in and aid popular education in some way. To-day it has been only by the most strenuous efforts on the part of the thinking men of the South that the Negro’s share of the school fund has not been cut down to a pittance in some half-dozen States; and that movement not only is not dead, but in many communities is gaining strength. What in the name of reason does this nation expect of a people, poorly trained and hard pressed in severe economic competition, without political rights, and with ludicrously inadequate common-school facilities? What can it expect but crime and listlessness, offset here and there by the dogged struggles of the fortunate and more determined who are themselves buoyed by the hope that in due time the country will come to its senses?",
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      "bookId": 408,
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      "text": "I have thus far sought to make clear the physical, economic, and political relations of the Negroes and whites in the South, as I have conceived them, including, for the reasons set forth, crime and education. But after all that has been said on these more tangible matters of human contact, there still remains a part essential to a proper description of the South which it is difficult to describe or fix in terms easily understood by strangers. It is, in fine, the atmosphere of the land, the thought and feeling, the thousand and one little actions which go to make up life. In any community or nation it is these little things which are most elusive to the grasp and yet most essential to any clear conception of the group life taken as a whole. What is thus true of all communities is peculiarly true of the South, where, outside of written history and outside of printed law, there has been going on for a generation as deep a storm and stress of human souls, as intense a ferment of feeling, as intricate a writhing of spirit, as ever a people experienced. Within and without the sombre veil of color vast social forces have been at work,—efforts for human betterment, movements toward disintegration and despair, tragedies and comedies in social and economic life, and a swaying and lifting and sinking of human hearts which have made this land a land of mingled sorrow and joy, of change and excitement and unrest.",
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      "text": "The centre of this spiritual turmoil has ever been the millions of black freedmen and their sons, whose destiny is so fatefully bound up with that of the nation. And yet the casual observer visiting the South sees at first little of this. He notes the growing frequency of dark faces as he rides along,—but otherwise the days slip lazily on, the sun shines, and this little world seems as happy and contented as other worlds he has visited. Indeed, on the question of questions—the Negro problem—he hears so little that there almost seems to be a conspiracy of silence; the morning papers seldom mention it, and then usually in a far-fetched academic way, and indeed almost every one seems to forget and ignore the darker half of the land, until the astonished visitor is inclined to ask if after all there IS any problem here. But if he lingers long enough there comes the awakening: perhaps in a sudden whirl of passion which leaves him gasping at its bitter intensity; more likely in a gradually dawning sense of things he had not at first noticed. Slowly but surely his eyes begin to catch the shadows of the color-line: here he meets crowds of Negroes and whites; then he is suddenly aware that he cannot discover a single dark face; or again at the close of a day’s wandering he may find himself in some strange assembly, where all faces are tinged brown or black, and where he has the vague, uncomfortable feeling of the stranger. He realizes at last that silently, resistlessly, the world about flows by him in two great streams: they ripple on in the same sunshine, they approach and mingle their waters in seeming carelessness,—then they divide and flow wide apart. It is done quietly; no mistakes are made, or if one occurs, the swift arm of the law and of public opinion swings down for a moment, as when the other day a black man and a white woman were arrested for talking together on Whitehall Street in Atlanta.",
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      "ref": "PG408.B00330",
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      "text": "Now if one notices carefully one will see that between these two worlds, despite much physical contact and daily intermingling, there is almost no community of intellectual life or point of transference where the thoughts and feelings of one race can come into direct contact and sympathy with the thoughts and feelings of the other. Before and directly after the war, when all the best of the Negroes were domestic servants in the best of the white families, there were bonds of intimacy, affection, and sometimes blood relationship, between the races. They lived in the same home, shared in the family life, often attended the same church, and talked and conversed with each other. But the increasing civilization of the Negro since then has naturally meant the development of higher classes: there are increasing numbers of ministers, teachers, physicians, merchants, mechanics, and independent farmers, who by nature and training are the aristocracy and leaders of the blacks. Between them, however, and the best element of the whites, there is little or no intellectual commerce. They go to separate churches, they live in separate sections, they are strictly separated in all public gatherings, they travel separately, and they are beginning to read different papers and books. To most libraries, lectures, concerts, and museums, Negroes are either not admitted at all, or on terms peculiarly galling to the pride of the very classes who might otherwise be attracted. The daily paper chronicles the doings of the black world from afar with no great regard for accuracy; and so on, throughout the category of means for intellectual communication,—schools, conferences, efforts for social betterment, and the like,—it is usually true that the very representatives of the two races, who for mutual benefit and the welfare of the land ought to be in complete understanding and sympathy, are so far strangers that one side thinks all whites are narrow and prejudiced, and the other thinks educated Negroes dangerous and insolent. Moreover, in a land where the tyranny of public opinion and the intolerance of criticism is for obvious historical reasons so strong as in the South, such a situation is extremely difficult to correct. The white man, as well as the Negro, is bound and barred by the color-line, and many a scheme of friendliness and philanthropy, of broad-minded sympathy and generous fellowship between the two has dropped still-born because some busybody has forced the color-question to the front and brought the tremendous force of unwritten law against the innovators.",
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      "text": "It is hardly necessary for me to add very much in regard to the social contact between the races. Nothing has come to replace that finer sympathy and love between some masters and house servants which the radical and more uncompromising drawing of the color-line in recent years has caused almost completely to disappear. In a world where it means so much to take a man by the hand and sit beside him, to look frankly into his eyes and feel his heart beating with red blood; in a world where a social cigar or a cup of tea together means more than legislative halls and magazine articles and speeches,—one can imagine the consequences of the almost utter absence of such social amenities between estranged races, whose separation extends even to parks and streetcars.",
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      "ref": "PG408.B00332",
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      "text": "Here there can be none of that social going down to the people,—the opening of heart and hand of the best to the worst, in generous acknowledgment of a common humanity and a common destiny. On the other hand, in matters of simple almsgiving, where there can be no question of social contact, and in the succor of the aged and sick, the South, as if stirred by a feeling of its unfortunate limitations, is generous to a fault. The black beggar is never turned away without a good deal more than a crust, and a call for help for the unfortunate meets quick response. I remember, one cold winter, in Atlanta, when I refrained from contributing to a public relief fund lest Negroes should be discriminated against, I afterward inquired of a friend: “Were any black people receiving aid?” “Why,” said he, “they were _all_ black.”",
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    {
      "ref": "PG408.B00333",
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      "text": "And yet this does not touch the kernel of the problem. Human advancement is not a mere question of almsgiving, but rather of sympathy and cooperation among classes who would scorn charity. And here is a land where, in the higher walks of life, in all the higher striving for the good and noble and true, the color-line comes to separate natural friends and coworkers; while at the bottom of the social group, in the saloon, the gambling-hell, and the brothel, that same line wavers and disappears.",
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      "ref": "PG408.B00334",
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      "text": "I have sought to paint an average picture of real relations between the sons of master and man in the South. I have not glossed over matters for policy’s sake, for I fear we have already gone too far in that sort of thing. On the other hand, I have sincerely sought to let no unfair exaggerations creep in. I do not doubt that in some Southern communities conditions are better than those I have indicated; while I am no less certain that in other communities they are far worse.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG408.B00335",
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      "text": "Nor does the paradox and danger of this situation fail to interest and perplex the best conscience of the South. Deeply religious and intensely democratic as are the mass of the whites, they feel acutely the false position in which the Negro problems place them. Such an essentially honest-hearted and generous people cannot cite the caste-levelling precepts of Christianity, or believe in equality of opportunity for all men, without coming to feel more and more with each generation that the present drawing of the color-line is a flat contradiction to their beliefs and professions. But just as often as they come to this point, the present social condition of the Negro stands as a menace and a portent before even the most open-minded: if there were nothing to charge against the Negro but his blackness or other physical peculiarities, they argue, the problem would be comparatively simple; but what can we say to his ignorance, shiftlessness, poverty, and crime? can a self-respecting group hold anything but the least possible fellowship with such persons and survive? and shall we let a mawkish sentiment sweep away the culture of our fathers or the hope of our children? The argument so put is of great strength, but it is not a whit stronger than the argument of thinking Negroes: granted, they reply, that the condition of our masses is bad; there is certainly on the one hand adequate historical cause for this, and unmistakable evidence that no small number have, in spite of tremendous disadvantages, risen to the level of American civilization. And when, by proscription and prejudice, these same Negroes are classed with and treated like the lowest of their people, simply because they are Negroes, such a policy not only discourages thrift and intelligence among black men, but puts a direct premium on the very things you complain of,—inefficiency and crime. Draw lines of crime, of incompetency, of vice, as tightly and uncompromisingly as you will, for these things must be proscribed; but a color-line not only does not accomplish this purpose, but thwarts it.",
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    {
      "ref": "PG408.B00336",
      "bookId": 408,
      "start": 295115,
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      "text": "In the face of two such arguments, the future of the South depends on the ability of the representatives of these opposing views to see and appreciate and sympathize with each other’s position,—for the Negro to realize more deeply than he does at present the need of uplifting the masses of his people, for the white people to realize more vividly than they have yet done the deadening and disastrous effect of a color-prejudice that classes Phillis Wheatley and Sam Hose in the same despised class.",
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      "ref": "PG408.B00337",
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      "text": "It is not enough for the Negroes to declare that color-prejudice is the sole cause of their social condition, nor for the white South to reply that their social condition is the main cause of prejudice. They both act as reciprocal cause and effect, and a change in neither alone will bring the desired effect. Both must change, or neither can improve to any great extent. The Negro cannot stand the present reactionary tendencies and unreasoning drawing of the color-line indefinitely without discouragement and retrogression. And the condition of the Negro is ever the excuse for further discrimination. Only by a union of intelligence and sympathy across the color-line in this critical period of the Republic shall justice and right triumph,",
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      "text": "“That mind and soul according well, May make one music as before, But vaster.”",
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      "text": "X. Of the Faith of the Fathers",
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      "text": "[Illustration]",
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      "text": "“Unto you a child is born,” sang the bit of yellow paper that fluttered into my room one brown October morning. Then the fear of fatherhood mingled wildly with the joy of creation; I wondered how it looked and how it felt—what were its eyes, and how its hair curled and crumpled itself. And I thought in awe of her,—she who had slept with Death to tear a man-child from underneath her heart, while I was unconsciously wandering. I fled to my wife and child, repeating the while to myself half wonderingly, “Wife and child? Wife and child?”—fled fast and faster than boat and steam-car, and yet must ever impatiently await them; away from the hard-voiced city, away from the flickering sea into my own Berkshire Hills that sit all sadly guarding the gates of Massachusetts.",
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      "ref": "PG408.B00373",
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      "text": "Up the stairs I ran to the wan mother and whimpering babe, to the sanctuary on whose altar a life at my bidding had offered itself to win a life, and won. What is this tiny formless thing, this newborn wail from an unknown world,—all head and voice? I handle it curiously, and watch perplexed its winking, breathing, and sneezing. I did not love it then; it seemed a ludicrous thing to love; but her I loved, my girl-mother, she whom now I saw unfolding like the glory of the morning—the transfigured woman. Through her I came to love the wee thing, as it grew strong; as its little soul unfolded itself in twitter and cry and half-formed word, and as its eyes caught the gleam and flash of life. How beautiful he was, with his olive-tinted flesh and dark gold ringlets, his eyes of mingled blue and brown, his perfect little limbs, and the soft voluptuous roll which the blood of Africa had moulded into his features! I held him in my arms, after we had sped far away from our Southern home,—held him, and glanced at the hot red soil of Georgia and the breathless city of a hundred hills, and felt a vague unrest. Why was his hair tinted with gold? An evil omen was golden hair in my life. Why had not the brown of his eyes crushed out and killed the blue?—for brown were his father’s eyes, and his father’s father’s. And thus in the Land of the Color-line I saw, as it fell across my baby, the shadow of the Veil.",
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      "text": "Within the Veil was he born, said I; and there within shall he live,—a Negro and a Negro’s son. Holding in that little head—ah, bitterly!—he unbowed pride of a hunted race, clinging with that tiny dimpled hand—ah, wearily!—to a hope not hopeless but unhopeful, and seeing with those bright wondering eyes that peer into my soul a land whose freedom is to us a mockery and whose liberty a lie. I saw the shadow of the Veil as it passed over my baby, I saw the cold city towering above the blood-red land. I held my face beside his little cheek, showed him the star-children and the twinkling lights as they began to flash, and stilled with an even-song the unvoiced terror of my life.",
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      "text": "So sturdy and masterful he grew, so filled with bubbling life, so tremulous with the unspoken wisdom of a life but eighteen months distant from the All-life,—we were not far from worshipping this revelation of the divine, my wife and I. Her own life builded and moulded itself upon the child; he tinged her every dream and idealized her every effort. No hands but hers must touch and garnish those little limbs; no dress or frill must touch them that had not wearied her fingers; no voice but hers could coax him off to Dreamland, and she and he together spoke some soft and unknown tongue and in it held communion. I too mused above his little white bed; saw the strength of my own arm stretched onward through the ages through the newer strength of his; saw the dream of my black fathers stagger a step onward in the wild phantasm of the world; heard in his baby voice the voice of the Prophet that was to rise within the Veil.",
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      "text": "And so we dreamed and loved and planned by fall and winter, and the full flush of the long Southern spring, till the hot winds rolled from the fetid Gulf, till the roses shivered and the still stern sun quivered its awful light over the hills of Atlanta. And then one night the little feet pattered wearily to the wee white bed, and the tiny hands trembled; and a warm flushed face tossed on the pillow, and we knew baby was sick. Ten days he lay there,—a swift week and three endless days, wasting, wasting away. Cheerily the mother nursed him the first days, and laughed into the little eyes that smiled again. Tenderly then she hovered round him, till the smile fled away and Fear crouched beside the little bed.",
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      "text": "Then the day ended not, and night was a dreamless terror, and joy and sleep slipped away. I hear now that Voice at midnight calling me from dull and dreamless trance,—crying, “The Shadow of Death! The Shadow of Death!” Out into the starlight I crept, to rouse the gray physician,—the Shadow of Death, the Shadow of Death. The hours trembled on; the night listened; the ghastly dawn glided like a tired thing across the lamplight. Then we two alone looked upon the child as he turned toward us with great eyes, and stretched his stringlike hands,—the Shadow of Death! And we spoke no word, and turned away.",
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      "text": "He died at eventide, when the sun lay like a brooding sorrow above the western hills, veiling its face; when the winds spoke not, and the trees, the great green trees he loved, stood motionless. I saw his breath beat quicker and quicker, pause, and then his little soul leapt like a star that travels in the night and left a world of darkness in its train. The day changed not; the same tall trees peeped in at the windows, the same green grass glinted in the setting sun. Only in the chamber of death writhed the world’s most piteous thing—a childless mother.",
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      "text": "I shirk not. I long for work. I pant for a life full of striving. I am no coward, to shrink before the rugged rush of the storm, nor even quail before the awful shadow of the Veil. But hearken, O Death! Is not this my life hard enough,—is not that dull land that stretches its sneering web about me cold enough,—is not all the world beyond these four little walls pitiless enough, but that thou must needs enter here,—thou, O Death? About my head the thundering storm beat like a heartless voice, and the crazy forest pulsed with the curses of the weak; but what cared I, within my home beside my wife and baby boy? Wast thou so jealous of one little coign of happiness that thou must needs enter there,—thou, O Death?",
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      "text": "A perfect life was his, all joy and love, with tears to make it brighter,—sweet as a summer’s day beside the Housatonic. The world loved him; the women kissed his curls, the men looked gravely into his wonderful eyes, and the children hovered and fluttered about him. I can see him now, changing like the sky from sparkling laughter to darkening frowns, and then to wondering thoughtfulness as he watched the world. He knew no color-line, poor dear—and the Veil, though it shadowed him, had not yet darkened half his sun. He loved the white matron, he loved his black nurse; and in his little world walked souls alone, uncolored and unclothed. I—yea, all men—are larger and purer by the infinite breadth of that one little life. She who in simple clearness of vision sees beyond the stars said when he had flown, “He will be happy There; he ever loved beautiful things.” And I, far more ignorant, and blind by the web of mine own weaving, sit alone winding words and muttering, “If still he be, and he be There, and there be a There, let him be happy, O Fate!”",
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      "text": "Blithe was the morning of his burial, with bird and song and sweet-smelling flowers. The trees whispered to the grass, but the children sat with hushed faces. And yet it seemed a ghostly unreal day,—the wraith of Life. We seemed to rumble down an unknown street behind a little white bundle of posies, with the shadow of a song in our ears. The busy city dinned about us; they did not say much, those pale-faced hurrying men and women; they did not say much,—they only glanced and said, “Niggers!”",
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      "text": "We could not lay him in the ground there in Georgia, for the earth there is strangely red; so we bore him away to the northward, with his flowers and his little folded hands. In vain, in vain!—for where, O God! beneath thy broad blue sky shall my dark baby rest in peace,—where Reverence dwells, and Goodness, and a Freedom that is free?",
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      "text": "All that day and all that night there sat an awful gladness in my heart,—nay, blame me not if I see the world thus darkly through the Veil,—and my soul whispers ever to me saying, “Not dead, not dead, but escaped; not bond, but free.” No bitter meanness now shall sicken his baby heart till it die a living death, no taunt shall madden his happy boyhood. Fool that I was to think or wish that this little soul should grow choked and deformed within the Veil! I might have known that yonder deep unworldly look that ever and anon floated past his eyes was peering far beyond this narrow Now. In the poise of his little curl-crowned head did there not sit all that wild pride of being which his father had hardly crushed in his own heart? For what, forsooth, shall a Negro want with pride amid the studied humiliations of fifty million fellows? Well sped, my boy, before the world had dubbed your ambition insolence, had held your ideals unattainable, and taught you to cringe and bow. Better far this nameless void that stops my life than a sea of sorrow for you.",
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      "text": "Idle words; he might have borne his burden more bravely than we,—aye, and found it lighter too, some day; for surely, surely this is not the end. Surely there shall yet dawn some mighty morning to lift the Veil and set the prisoned free. Not for me,—I shall die in my bonds,—but for fresh young souls who have not known the night and waken to the morning; a morning when men ask of the workman, not “Is he white?” but “Can he work?” When men ask artists, not “Are they black?” but “Do they know?” Some morning this may be, long, long years to come. But now there wails, on that dark shore within the Veil, the same deep voice, _Thou shalt forego!_ And all have I foregone at that command, and with small complaint,—all save that fair young form that lies so coldly wed with death in the nest I had builded.",
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      "text": "If one must have gone, why not I? Why may I not rest me from this restlessness and sleep from this wide waking? Was not the world’s alembic, Time, in his young hands, and is not my time waning? Are there so many workers in the vineyard that the fair promise of this little body could lightly be tossed away? The wretched of my race that line the alleys of the nation sit fatherless and unmothered; but Love sat beside his cradle, and in his ear Wisdom waited to speak. Perhaps now he knows the All-love, and needs not to be wise. Sleep, then, child,—sleep till I sleep and waken to a baby voice and the ceaseless patter of little feet—above the Veil.",
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      "text": "It seemed to us that the first time life ever struck Jones as a really serious thing was when the Dean told him he must leave school. He stared at the gray-haired man blankly, with great eyes. “Why,—why,” he faltered, “but—I haven’t graduated!” Then the Dean slowly and clearly explained, reminding him of the tardiness and the carelessness, of the poor lessons and neglected work, of the noise and disorder, until the fellow hung his head in confusion. Then he said quickly, “But you won’t tell mammy and sister,—you won’t write mammy, now will you? For if you won’t I’ll go out into the city and work, and come back next term and show you something.” So the Dean promised faithfully, and John shouldered his little trunk, giving neither word nor look to the giggling boys, and walked down Carlisle Street to the great city, with sober eyes and a set and serious face.",
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      "text": "Perhaps we imagined it, but someway it seemed to us that the serious look that crept over his boyish face that afternoon never left it again. When he came back to us he went to work with all his rugged strength. It was a hard struggle, for things did not come easily to him,—few crowding memories of early life and teaching came to help him on his new way; but all the world toward which he strove was of his own building, and he builded slow and hard. As the light dawned lingeringly on his new creations, he sat rapt and silent before the vision, or wandered alone over the green campus peering through and beyond the world of men into a world of thought. And the thoughts at times puzzled him sorely; he could not see just why the circle was not square, and carried it out fifty-six decimal places one midnight,—would have gone further, indeed, had not the matron rapped for lights out. He caught terrible colds lying on his back in the meadows of nights, trying to think out the solar system; he had grave doubts as to the ethics of the Fall of Rome, and strongly suspected the Germans of being thieves and rascals, despite his textbooks; he pondered long over every new Greek word, and wondered why this meant that and why it couldn’t mean something else, and how it must have felt to think all things in Greek. So he thought and puzzled along for himself,—pausing perplexed where others skipped merrily, and walking steadily through the difficulties where the rest stopped and surrendered.",
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      "text": "Thus he grew in body and soul, and with him his clothes seemed to grow and arrange themselves; coat sleeves got longer, cuffs appeared, and collars got less soiled. Now and then his boots shone, and a new dignity crept into his walk. And we who saw daily a new thoughtfulness growing in his eyes began to expect something of this plodding boy. Thus he passed out of the preparatory school into college, and we who watched him felt four more years of change, which almost transformed the tall, grave man who bowed to us commencement morning. He had left his queer thought-world and come back to a world of motion and of men. He looked now for the first time sharply about him, and wondered he had seen so little before. He grew slowly to feel almost for the first time the Veil that lay between him and the white world; he first noticed now the oppression that had not seemed oppression before, differences that erstwhile seemed natural, restraints and slights that in his boyhood days had gone unnoticed or been greeted with a laugh. He felt angry now when men did not call him “Mister,” he clenched his hands at the “Jim Crow” cars, and chafed at the color-line that hemmed in him and his. A tinge of sarcasm crept into his speech, and a vague bitterness into his life; and he sat long hours wondering and planning a way around these crooked things. Daily he found himself shrinking from the choked and narrow life of his native town. And yet he always planned to go back to Altamaha,—always planned to work there. Still, more and more as the day approached he hesitated with a nameless dread; and even the day after graduation he seized with eagerness the offer of the Dean to send him North with the quartette during the summer vacation, to sing for the Institute. A breath of air before the plunge, he said to himself in half apology.",
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      "text": "It was a bright September afternoon, and the streets of New York were brilliant with moving men. They reminded John of the sea, as he sat in the square and watched them, so changelessly changing, so bright and dark, so grave and gay. He scanned their rich and faultless clothes, the way they carried their hands, the shape of their hats; he peered into the hurrying carriages. Then, leaning back with a sigh, he said, “This is the World.” The notion suddenly seized him to see where the world was going; since many of the richer and brighter seemed hurrying all one way. So when a tall, light-haired young man and a little talkative lady came by, he rose half hesitatingly and followed them. Up the street they went, past stores and gay shops, across a broad square, until with a hundred others they entered the high portal of a great building.",
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      "text": "He was pushed toward the ticket-office with the others, and felt in his pocket for the new five-dollar bill he had hoarded. There seemed really no time for hesitation, so he drew it bravely out, passed it to the busy clerk, and received simply a ticket but no change. When at last he realized that he had paid five dollars to enter he knew not what, he stood stockstill amazed. “Be careful,” said a low voice behind him; “you must not lynch the colored gentleman simply because he’s in your way,” and a girl looked up roguishly into the eyes of her fair-haired escort. A shade of annoyance passed over the escort’s face. “You _will_ not understand us at the South,” he said half impatiently, as if continuing an argument. “With all your professions, one never sees in the North so cordial and intimate relations between white and black as are everyday occurrences with us. Why, I remember my closest playfellow in boyhood was a little Negro named after me, and surely no two,—_well_!” The man stopped short and flushed to the roots of his hair, for there directly beside his reserved orchestra chairs sat the Negro he had stumbled over in the hallway. He hesitated and grew pale with anger, called the usher and gave him his card, with a few peremptory words, and slowly sat down. The lady deftly changed the subject.",
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      "text": "All this John did not see, for he sat in a half-daze minding the scene about him; the delicate beauty of the hall, the faint perfume, the moving myriad of men, the rich clothing and low hum of talking seemed all a part of a world so different from his, so strangely more beautiful than anything he had known, that he sat in dreamland, and started when, after a hush, rose high and clear the music of Lohengrin’s swan. The infinite beauty of the wail lingered and swept through every muscle of his frame, and put it all a-tune. He closed his eyes and grasped the elbows of the chair, touching unwittingly the lady’s arm. And the lady drew away. A deep longing swelled in all his heart to rise with that clear music out of the dirt and dust of that low life that held him prisoned and befouled. If he could only live up in the free air where birds sang and setting suns had no touch of blood! Who had called him to be the slave and butt of all? And if he had called, what right had he to call when a world like this lay open before men?",
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      "text": "Then the movement changed, and fuller, mightier harmony swelled away. He looked thoughtfully across the hall, and wondered why the beautiful gray-haired woman looked so listless, and what the little man could be whispering about. He would not like to be listless and idle, he thought, for he felt with the music the movement of power within him. If he but had some master-work, some life-service, hard,—aye, bitter hard, but without the cringing and sickening servility, without the cruel hurt that hardened his heart and soul. When at last a soft sorrow crept across the violins, there came to him the vision of a far-off home, the great eyes of his sister, and the dark drawn face of his mother. And his heart sank below the waters, even as the sea-sand sinks by the shores of Altamaha, only to be lifted aloft again with that last ethereal wail of the swan that quivered and faded away into the sky.",
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      "text": "It left John sitting so silent and rapt that he did not for some time notice the usher tapping him lightly on the shoulder and saying politely, “Will you step this way, please, sir?” A little surprised, he arose quickly at the last tap, and, turning to leave his seat, looked full into the face of the fair-haired young man. For the first time the young man recognized his dark boyhood playmate, and John knew that it was the Judge’s son. The White John started, lifted his hand, and then froze into his chair; the black John smiled lightly, then grimly, and followed the usher down the aisle. The manager was sorry, very, very sorry,—but he explained that some mistake had been made in selling the gentleman a seat already disposed of; he would refund the money, of course,—and indeed felt the matter keenly, and so forth, and—before he had finished John was gone, walking hurriedly across the square and down the broad streets, and as he passed the park he buttoned his coat and said, “John Jones, you’re a natural-born fool.” Then he went to his lodgings and wrote a letter, and tore it up; he wrote another, and threw it in the fire. Then he seized a scrap of paper and wrote: “Dear Mother and Sister—I am coming—John.”",
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      "text": "“Perhaps,” said John, as he settled himself on the train, “perhaps I am to blame myself in struggling against my manifest destiny simply because it looks hard and unpleasant. Here is my duty to Altamaha plain before me; perhaps they’ll let me help settle the Negro problems there,—perhaps they won’t. ‘I will go in to the King, which is not according to the law; and if I perish, I perish.’” And then he mused and dreamed, and planned a life-work; and the train flew south.",
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      "text": "Down in Altamaha, after seven long years, all the world knew John was coming. The homes were scrubbed and scoured,—above all, one; the gardens and yards had an unwonted trimness, and Jennie bought a new gingham. With some finesse and negotiation, all the dark Methodists and Presbyterians were induced to join in a monster welcome at the Baptist Church; and as the day drew near, warm discussions arose on every corner as to the exact extent and nature of John’s accomplishments. It was noontide on a gray and cloudy day when he came. The black town flocked to the depot, with a little of the white at the edges,—a happy throng, with “Good-mawnings” and “Howdys” and laughing and joking and jostling. Mother sat yonder in the window watching; but sister Jennie stood on the platform, nervously fingering her dress, tall and lithe, with soft brown skin and loving eyes peering from out a tangled wilderness of hair. John rose gloomily as the train stopped, for he was thinking of the “Jim Crow” car; he stepped to the platform, and paused: a little dingy station, a black crowd gaudy and dirty, a half-mile of dilapidated shanties along a straggling ditch of mud. An overwhelming sense of the sordidness and narrowness of it all seized him; he looked in vain for his mother, kissed coldly the tall, strange girl who called him brother, spoke a short, dry word here and there; then, lingering neither for handshaking nor gossip, started silently up the street, raising his hat merely to the last eager old aunty, to her open-mouthed astonishment. The people were distinctly bewildered. This silent, cold man,—was this John? Where was his smile and hearty hand-grasp? “’Peared kind o’ down in the mouf,” said the Methodist preacher thoughtfully. “Seemed monstus stuck up,” complained a Baptist sister. But the white postmaster from the edge of the crowd expressed the opinion of his folks plainly. “That damn Nigger,” said he, as he shouldered the mail and arranged his tobacco, “has gone North and got plum full o’ fool notions; but they won’t work in Altamaha.” And the crowd melted away.",
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      "text": "The meeting of welcome at the Baptist Church was a failure. Rain spoiled the barbecue, and thunder turned the milk in the ice-cream. When the speaking came at night, the house was crowded to overflowing. The three preachers had especially prepared themselves, but somehow John’s manner seemed to throw a blanket over everything,—he seemed so cold and preoccupied, and had so strange an air of restraint that the Methodist brother could not warm up to his theme and elicited not a single “Amen”; the Presbyterian prayer was but feebly responded to, and even the Baptist preacher, though he wakened faint enthusiasm, got so mixed up in his favorite sentence that he had to close it by stopping fully fifteen minutes sooner than he meant. The people moved uneasily in their seats as John rose to reply. He spoke slowly and methodically. The age, he said, demanded new ideas; we were far different from those men of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,—with broader ideas of human brotherhood and destiny. Then he spoke of the rise of charity and popular education, and particularly of the spread of wealth and work. The question was, then, he added reflectively, looking at the low discolored ceiling, what part the Negroes of this land would take in the striving of the new century. He sketched in vague outline the new Industrial School that might rise among these pines, he spoke in detail of the charitable and philanthropic work that might be organized, of money that might be saved for banks and business. Finally he urged unity, and deprecated especially religious and denominational bickering. “To-day,” he said, with a smile, “the world cares little whether a man be Baptist or Methodist, or indeed a churchman at all, so long as he is good and true. What difference does it make whether a man be baptized in river or washbowl, or not at all? Let’s leave all that littleness, and look higher.” Then, thinking of nothing else, he slowly sat down. A painful hush seized that crowded mass. Little had they understood of what he said, for he spoke an unknown tongue, save the last word about baptism; that they knew, and they sat very still while the clock ticked. Then at last a low suppressed snarl came from the Amen corner, and an old bent man arose, walked over the seats, and climbed straight up into the pulpit. He was wrinkled and black, with scant gray and tufted hair; his voice and hands shook as with palsy; but on his face lay the intense rapt look of the religious fanatic. He seized the Bible with his rough, huge hands; twice he raised it inarticulate, and then fairly burst into words, with rude and awful eloquence. He quivered, swayed, and bent; then rose aloft in perfect majesty, till the people moaned and wept, wailed and shouted, and a wild shrieking arose from the corners where all the pent-up feeling of the hour gathered itself and rushed into the air. John never knew clearly what the old man said; he only felt himself held up to scorn and scathing denunciation for trampling on the true Religion, and he realized with amazement that all unknowingly he had put rough, rude hands on something this little world held sacred. He arose silently, and passed out into the night. Down toward the sea he went, in the fitful starlight, half conscious of the girl who followed timidly after him. When at last he stood upon the bluff, he turned to his little sister and looked upon her sorrowfully, remembering with sudden pain how little thought he had given her. He put his arm about her and let her passion of tears spend itself on his shoulder.",
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      "text": "The young man’s face flushed angrily, and then he laughed.",
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      "text": "“Oh,” said he, “it’s the darky that tried to force himself into a seat beside the lady I was escorting—”",
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      "text": "But Judge Henderson waited to hear no more. He had been nettled all day, and now at this he rose with a half-smothered oath, took his hat and cane, and walked straight to the schoolhouse.",
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      "text": "For John, it had been a long, hard pull to get things started in the rickety old shanty that sheltered his school. The Negroes were rent into factions for and against him, the parents were careless, the children irregular and dirty, and books, pencils, and slates largely missing. Nevertheless, he struggled hopefully on, and seemed to see at last some glimmering of dawn. The attendance was larger and the children were a shade cleaner this week. Even the booby class in reading showed a little comforting progress. So John settled himself with renewed patience this afternoon.",
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      "text": "“Now, Mandy,” he said cheerfully, “that’s better; but you mustn’t chop your words up so: ‘If—the-man—goes.’ Why, your little brother even wouldn’t tell a story that way, now would he?”",
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      "text": "“Naw, suh, he cain’t talk.”",
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      "text": "“All right; now let’s try again: ‘If the man—’",
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      "text": "“John!”",
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      "text": "The whole school started in surprise, and the teacher half arose, as the red, angry face of the Judge appeared in the open doorway.",
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      "text": "“John, this school is closed. You children can go home and get to work. The white people of Altamaha are not spending their money on black folks to have their heads crammed with impudence and lies. Clear out! I’ll lock the door myself.”",
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      "text": "Up at the great pillared house the tall young son wandered aimlessly about after his father’s abrupt departure. In the house there was little to interest him; the books were old and stale, the local newspaper flat, and the women had retired with headaches and sewing. He tried a nap, but it was too warm. So he sauntered out into the fields, complaining disconsolately, “Good Lord! how long will this imprisonment last!” He was not a bad fellow,—just a little spoiled and self-indulgent, and as headstrong as his proud father. He seemed a young man pleasant to look upon, as he sat on the great black stump at the edge of the pines idly swinging his legs and smoking. “Why, there isn’t even a girl worth getting up a respectable flirtation with,” he growled. Just then his eye caught a tall, willowy figure hurrying toward him on the narrow path. He looked with interest at first, and then burst into a laugh as he said, “Well, I declare, if it isn’t Jennie, the little brown kitchen-maid! Why, I never noticed before what a trim little body she is. Hello, Jennie! Why, you haven’t kissed me since I came home,” he said gaily. The young girl stared at him in surprise and confusion,—faltered something inarticulate, and attempted to pass. But a wilful mood had seized the young idler, and he caught at her arm. Frightened, she slipped by; and half mischievously he turned and ran after her through the tall pines.",
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      "text": "Yonder, toward the sea, at the end of the path, came John slowly, with his head down. He had turned wearily homeward from the schoolhouse; then, thinking to shield his mother from the blow, started to meet his sister as she came from work and break the news of his dismissal to her. “I’ll go away,” he said slowly; “I’ll go away and find work, and send for them. I cannot live here longer.” And then the fierce, buried anger surged up into his throat. He waved his arms and hurried wildly up the path.",
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      "text": "The great brown sea lay silent. The air scarce breathed. The dying day bathed the twisted oaks and mighty pines in black and gold. There came from the wind no warning, not a whisper from the cloudless sky. There was only a black man hurrying on with an ache in his heart, seeing neither sun nor sea, but starting as from a dream at the frightened cry that woke the pines, to see his dark sister struggling in the arms of a tall and fair-haired man.",
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      "text": "NEGRO SONG.",
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      "text": "[Illustration]",
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      "text": "They that walked in darkness sang songs in the olden days—Sorrow Songs—for they were weary at heart. And so before each thought that I have written in this book I have set a phrase, a haunting echo of these weird old songs in which the soul of the black slave spoke to men. Ever since I was a child these songs have stirred me strangely. They came out of the South unknown to me, one by one, and yet at once I knew them as of me and of mine. Then in after years when I came to Nashville I saw the great temple builded of these songs towering over the pale city. To me Jubilee Hall seemed ever made of the songs themselves, and its bricks were red with the blood and dust of toil. Out of them rose for me morning, noon, and night, bursts of wonderful melody, full of the voices of my brothers and sisters, full of the voices of the past.",
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      "text": "Little of beauty has America given the world save the rude grandeur God himself stamped on her bosom; the human spirit in this new world has expressed itself in vigor and ingenuity rather than in beauty. And so by fateful chance the Negro folk-song—the rhythmic cry of the slave—stands to-day not simply as the sole American music, but as the most beautiful expression of human experience born this side the seas. It has been neglected, it has been, and is, half despised, and above all it has been persistently mistaken and misunderstood; but notwithstanding, it still remains as the singular spiritual heritage of the nation and the greatest gift of the Negro people.",
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      "text": "Away back in the thirties the melody of these slave songs stirred the nation, but the songs were soon half forgotten. Some, like “Near the lake where drooped the willow,” passed into current airs and their source was forgotten; others were caricatured on the “minstrel” stage and their memory died away. Then in war-time came the singular Port Royal experiment after the capture of Hilton Head, and perhaps for the first time the North met the Southern slave face to face and heart to heart with no third witness. The Sea Islands of the Carolinas, where they met, were filled with a black folk of primitive type, touched and moulded less by the world about them than any others outside the Black Belt. Their appearance was uncouth, their language funny, but their hearts were human and their singing stirred men with a mighty power. Thomas Wentworth Higginson hastened to tell of these songs, and Miss McKim and others urged upon the world their rare beauty. But the world listened only half credulously until the Fisk Jubilee Singers sang the slave songs so deeply into the world’s heart that it can never wholly forget them again.",
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      "text": "There was once a blacksmith’s son born at Cadiz, New York, who in the changes of time taught school in Ohio and helped defend Cincinnati from Kirby Smith. Then he fought at Chancellorsville and Gettysburg and finally served in the Freedmen’s Bureau at Nashville. Here he formed a Sunday-school class of black children in 1866, and sang with them and taught them to sing. And then they taught him to sing, and when once the glory of the Jubilee songs passed into the soul of George L. White, he knew his life-work was to let those Negroes sing to the world as they had sung to him. So in 1871 the pilgrimage of the Fisk Jubilee Singers began. North to Cincinnati they rode,—four half-clothed black boys and five girl-women,—led by a man with a cause and a purpose. They stopped at Wilberforce, the oldest of Negro schools, where a black bishop blessed them. Then they went, fighting cold and starvation, shut out of hotels, and cheerfully sneered at, ever northward; and ever the magic of their song kept thrilling hearts, until a burst of applause in the Congregational Council at Oberlin revealed them to the world. They came to New York and Henry Ward Beecher dared to welcome them, even though the metropolitan dailies sneered at his “Nigger Minstrels.” So their songs conquered till they sang across the land and across the sea, before Queen and Kaiser, in Scotland and Ireland, Holland and Switzerland. Seven years they sang, and brought back a hundred and fifty thousand dollars to found Fisk University.",
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      "text": "Since their day they have been imitated—sometimes well, by the singers of Hampton and Atlanta, sometimes ill, by straggling quartettes. Caricature has sought again to spoil the quaint beauty of the music, and has filled the air with many debased melodies which vulgar ears scarce know from the real. But the true Negro folk-song still lives in the hearts of those who have heard them truly sung and in the hearts of the Negro people.",
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      "text": "What are these songs, and what do they mean? I know little of music and can say nothing in technical phrase, but I know something of men, and knowing them, I know that these songs are the articulate message of the slave to the world. They tell us in these eager days that life was joyous to the black slave, careless and happy. I can easily believe this of some, of many. But not all the past South, though it rose from the dead, can gainsay the heart-touching witness of these songs. They are the music of an unhappy people, of the children of disappointment; they tell of death and suffering and unvoiced longing toward a truer world, of misty wanderings and hidden ways.",
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      "text": "The songs are indeed the siftings of centuries; the music is far more ancient than the words, and in it we can trace here and there signs of development. My grandfather’s grandmother was seized by an evil Dutch trader two centuries ago; and coming to the valleys of the Hudson and Housatonic, black, little, and lithe, she shivered and shrank in the harsh north winds, looked longingly at the hills, and often crooned a heathen melody to the child between her knees, thus:",
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      "text": "[Illustration]",
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      "text": "The child sang it to his children and they to their children’s children, and so two hundred years it has travelled down to us and we sing it to our children, knowing as little as our fathers what its words may mean, but knowing well the meaning of its music.",
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      "text": "“You may bury me in the East, You may bury me in the West, But I’ll hear the trumpet sound in that morning,”",
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      "text": "—the voice of exile.",
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      "text": "Ten master songs, more or less, one may pluck from the forest of melody-songs of undoubted Negro origin and wide popular currency, and songs peculiarly characteristic of the slave. One of these I have just mentioned. Another whose strains begin this book is “Nobody knows the trouble I’ve seen.” When, struck with a sudden poverty, the United States refused to fulfill its promises of land to the freedmen, a brigadier-general went down to the Sea Islands to carry the news. An old woman on the outskirts of the throng began singing this song; all the mass joined with her, swaying. And the soldier wept.",
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      "text": "The third song is the cradle-song of death which all men know,—“Swing low, sweet chariot,”—whose bars begin the life story of “Alexander Crummell.” Then there is the song of many waters, “Roll, Jordan, roll,” a mighty chorus with minor cadences. There were many songs of the fugitive like that which opens “The Wings of Atalanta,” and the more familiar “Been a-listening.” The seventh is the song of the End and the Beginning—“My Lord, what a mourning! when the stars begin to fall”; a strain of this is placed before “The Dawn of Freedom.” The song of groping—“My way’s cloudy”—begins “The Meaning of Progress”; the ninth is the song of this chapter—“Wrestlin’ Jacob, the day is a-breaking,”—a paean of hopeful strife. The last master song is the song of songs—“Steal away,”—sprung from “The Faith of the Fathers.”",
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      "text": "There are many others of the Negro folk-songs as striking and characteristic as these, as, for instance, the three strains in the third, eighth, and ninth chapters; and others I am sure could easily make a selection on more scientific principles. There are, too, songs that seem to be a step removed from the more primitive types: there is the maze-like medley, “Bright sparkles,” one phrase of which heads “The Black Belt”; the Easter carol, “Dust, dust and ashes”; the dirge, “My mother’s took her flight and gone home”; and that burst of melody hovering over “The Passing of the First-Born”—“I hope my mother will be there in that beautiful world on high.”",
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      "text": "These represent a third step in the development of the slave song, of which “You may bury me in the East” is the first, and songs like “March on” (chapter six) and “Steal away” are the second. The first is African music, the second Afro-American, while the third is a blending of Negro music with the music heard in the foster land. The result is still distinctively Negro and the method of blending original, but the elements are both Negro and Caucasian. One might go further and find a fourth step in this development, where the songs of white America have been distinctively influenced by the slave songs or have incorporated whole phrases of Negro melody, as “Swanee River” and “Old Black Joe.” Side by side, too, with the growth has gone the debasements and imitations—the Negro “minstrel” songs, many of the “gospel” hymns, and some of the contemporary “coon” songs,—a mass of music in which the novice may easily lose himself and never find the real Negro melodies.",
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      "text": "In these songs, I have said, the slave spoke to the world. Such a message is naturally veiled and half articulate. Words and music have lost each other and new and cant phrases of a dimly understood theology have displaced the older sentiment. Once in a while we catch a strange word of an unknown tongue, as the “Mighty Myo,” which figures as a river of death; more often slight words or mere doggerel are joined to music of singular sweetness. Purely secular songs are few in number, partly because many of them were turned into hymns by a change of words, partly because the frolics were seldom heard by the stranger, and the music less often caught. Of nearly all the songs, however, the music is distinctly sorrowful. The ten master songs I have mentioned tell in word and music of trouble and exile, of strife and hiding; they grope toward some unseen power and sigh for rest in the End.",
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      "text": "The words that are left to us are not without interest, and, cleared of evident dross, they conceal much of real poetry and meaning beneath conventional theology and unmeaning rhapsody. Like all primitive folk, the slave stood near to Nature’s heart. Life was a “rough and rolling sea” like the brown Atlantic of the Sea Islands; the “Wilderness” was the home of God, and the “lonesome valley” led to the way of life. “Winter’ll soon be over,” was the picture of life and death to a tropical imagination. The sudden wild thunderstorms of the South awed and impressed the Negroes,—at times the rumbling seemed to them “mournful,” at times imperious:",
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      "text": "“My Lord calls me, He calls me by the thunder, The trumpet sounds it in my soul.”",
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      "text": "And the other earlier and homelier picture from the low coast lands:",
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      "text": "“Michael, haul the boat ashore, Then you’ll hear the horn they blow, Then you’ll hear the trumpet sound, Trumpet sound the world around, Trumpet sound for rich and poor, Trumpet sound the Jubilee, Trumpet sound for you and me.”",
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      "text": "Through all the sorrow of the Sorrow Songs there breathes a hope—a faith in the ultimate justice of things. The minor cadences of despair change often to triumph and calm confidence. Sometimes it is faith in life, sometimes a faith in death, sometimes assurance of boundless justice in some fair world beyond. But whichever it is, the meaning is always clear: that sometime, somewhere, men will judge men by their souls and not by their skins. Is such a hope justified? Do the Sorrow Songs sing true?",
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      "text": "The silently growing assumption of this age is that the probation of races is past, and that the backward races of to-day are of proven inefficiency and not worth the saving. Such an assumption is the arrogance of peoples irreverent toward Time and ignorant of the deeds of men. A thousand years ago such an assumption, easily possible, would have made it difficult for the Teuton to prove his right to life. Two thousand years ago such dogmatism, readily welcome, would have scouted the idea of blond races ever leading civilization. So wofully unorganized is sociological knowledge that the meaning of progress, the meaning of “swift” and “slow” in human doing, and the limits of human perfectability, are veiled, unanswered sphinxes on the shores of science. Why should Æschylus have sung two thousand years before Shakespeare was born? Why has civilization flourished in Europe, and flickered, flamed, and died in Africa? So long as the world stands meekly dumb before such questions, shall this nation proclaim its ignorance and unhallowed prejudices by denying freedom of opportunity to those who brought the Sorrow Songs to the Seats of the Mighty?",
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      "text": "Your country? How came it yours? Before the Pilgrims landed we were here. Here we have brought our three gifts and mingled them with yours: a gift of story and song—soft, stirring melody in an ill-harmonized and unmelodious land; the gift of sweat and brawn to beat back the wilderness, conquer the soil, and lay the foundations of this vast economic empire two hundred years earlier than your weak hands could have done it; the third, a gift of the Spirit. Around us the history of the land has centred for thrice a hundred years; out of the nation’s heart we have called all that was best to throttle and subdue all that was worst; fire and blood, prayer and sacrifice, have billowed over this people, and they have found peace only in the altars of the God of Right. Nor has our gift of the Spirit been merely passive. Actively we have woven ourselves with the very warp and woof of this nation,—we fought their battles, shared their sorrow, mingled our blood with theirs, and generation after generation have pleaded with a headstrong, careless people to despise not Justice, Mercy, and Truth, lest the nation be smitten with a curse. Our song, our toil, our cheer, and warning have been given to this nation in blood-brotherhood. Are not these gifts worth the giving? Is not this work and striving? Would America have been America without her Negro people?",
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      "text": "Even so is the hope that sang in the songs of my fathers well sung. If somewhere in this whirl and chaos of things there dwells Eternal Good, pitiful yet masterful, then anon in His good time America shall rend the Veil and the prisoned shall go free. Free, free as the sunshine trickling down the morning into these high windows of mine, free as yonder fresh young voices welling up to me from the caverns of brick and mortar below—swelling with song, instinct with life, tremulous treble and darkening bass. My children, my little children, are singing to the sunshine, and thus they sing:",
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      "text": "[Illustration]",
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      "text": "And the traveller girds himself, and sets his face toward the Morning, and goes his way.",
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      "text": "The Afterthought",
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