PG21531.B00696
DRAWERS.--When dovetailing drawers or boxes it is necessary to square up the ends of all the stock and gauge them, as shown at Fig. 273. This illustration shows how to gauge the lines on a drawer side; the dovetailed joint in this case, however, does not run through the drawer front and leave the work unsightly, as the joint at Fig. 300 would do. The method used is shown at Fig. 309, and it is commonly known as lap-dovetailing. Most workers cut the dovetail pins on the drawer fronts and the drawer backs first, after which they mark the drawer sides with the marking awl. The dovetailing of the drawer back is shown at Fig. 310. This is the type known as "through dovetailing," the method being similar in regard to tool operations as the single joint shown at Fig. 300.

PG21531.B00697
[Illustration: Fig. 308.--Sawing the Dovetails.]

PG21531.B00698
[Illustration: Fig. 309.--Lap-dovetailing Drawer Front to Drawer Side.]

PG21531.B00699
[Illustration: Fig. 310.--Through Dovetailing.]

PG21531.B00700
[Illustration: Fig. 311.--Chipping Waste of Lap Dovetail.]

PG21531.B00701
When the pins on the drawer front have been sawn, the waste material is cut away, as at Fig. 311. First stab down with the vertical chisel, which must make the cut about 1/32 in. in front of the gauge line (see illustration). This commencing of the cut slightly in front of the gauge line is a very important feature. The chisel may be likened to a wedge, and if the chisel edge be placed exactly upon the gauge line and force be applied to the handle, it will force the timber away equally on each side of the gauge line, and the finished depth of the hole will therefore be too deep for the thickness of the drawer side; in other words, it will press itself over the gauge line on both sides.

PG21531.B00702
By taking the first vertical cut on the waste side of the gauge line, and then removing a small piece with the chisel held obliquely, as at Fig. 311, the wood is removed and less resistance is offered to the chisel when the next vertical cut is made. This overshooting the gauge line is a common fault with the beginner, who is puzzled at the result because he is certain he had his chisel exactly on the gauge line when he commenced his vertical cut. It is especially noticeable in soft-grained woods.

PG21531.B00703
To cut away the waste of a lap-dovetail (Fig. 311), the vertical and oblique cuts are repeated until the final trimming up is required, and now is the time to finish both the vertical and the horizontal cuts exactly on the gauge lines.

PG21531.B00704
Some workers prefer to cut the drawer sides first, and if this method is preferred (and it has its advantages for cheap work) several drawer sides are cut at once by placing four or six behind one another in the vice and sawing them all at one operation.

PG21531.B00705
The drawer front is placed in the vice, and the drawer side held upon it, whilst the saw blade is placed in the saw kerf and drawn smartly forward. This will give the required marks at the exact position desired. It must be remembered, however, to saw just inside these dovetail-pin lines, otherwise the finished joint will be too slack, owing to the removal of the sawdust, which is practically equal to the thickness of the saw blade.

PG21531.B00706
MACHINE-MADE DOVETAILS.--As a general rule machine-made drawer and box dovetails show both the pins and the tails of exactly the same size. The reason is obvious after an inspection of Fig. 314, which shows the position in which the pieces are held during the machining operations. In spite of a certain amount of prejudice they are satisfactory and thoroughly reliable and have their place in modern shop and office fittings.

PG21531.B00707
[Illustration: Fig. 312.--Machine-made Drawer Front and Side, Apart.]

PG21531.B00708
[Illustration: Fig. 313.--The Parts Together.]

PG21531.B00709
[Illustration: Fig. 314.--Position when Machined.]

PG21531.B00710
DOVETAIL GROOVING

PG21531.B00711
The dovetail housing joint should first be carefully marked out with a marking knife, so as to cut across the fibres of the wood. For obtaining the bevel on the edge of the wood a joiner's bevel may be used, and the angle should not be too acute. (See previous chapter.) Take a chisel and pare away a small channel as at A, Fig. 315, to form a small shoulder to guide the saw.

PG21531.B00712
[Illustration: Fig. 315.--Paring away Channel for Dovetail Grooving.]

PG21531.B00713
With a fine tenon or dovetail saw, cut the saw kerf as at Fig. 316. If any difficulty is experienced in cutting the kerf true and square, you may resort to the method shown at C, Fig. 315; a small temporary piece of timber has been screwed on the top of the work to form a guide for the saw.

PG21531.B00714
[Illustration: Fig. 316.--Cutting the Saw Kerf.]

PG21531.B00715
[Illustration: Fig. 317.--Old Woman's Tooth Plane.]

PG21531.B00716
[Illustration: Fig. 318.--Guide Block for Bevelling.]

PG21531.B00717
Fig. 315, B, shows the small channel formed by the chisel prior to the sawing operation. The sawing of the bevelled side is worked in a similar manner; but occasionally we find amateurs who adopt the method shown at Fig. 318. A block of wood (H) is first made by boring a 1-1/4-in. hole through its entire length, and afterwards making a saw cut at the desired bevel. The object of this block, which is kept specially for the purpose, is to form a guide for those who have not full control of the dovetail saw; the back of the saw clears the hole, and the required bevel is obtained. When a saw cut has been made at each side of the groove, the surplus timber is pared away in the following manner: Cut away portion E, Fig. 319; then cut away portion F, and lastly cut away the apex portion marked G. Continue by this method of paring until the approximate depth is reached. To ensure a correct depth throughout the entire groove, the router plane (or, as it is often called, "the old woman's tooth plane," Fig. 317) is used.

PG21531.B00718
[Illustration: Fig. 319.--Showing Method of Paring.]

PG21531.B00719
[Illustration: Fig. 320.--Channelling the Alternate Piece.]

PG21531.B00720
With regard to cutting the alternate piece, it is necessary to first plane the end of the shelf true and square. With a cutting gauge strike the line K, Fig. 320; the required bevel on the edge (J) is then set out, and with the chisel a small channel is again formed. With the tenon or dovetail saw cut down the line K to the required depth, and carefully pare away the wood with a sharp chisel to the correct shape.

PG21531.B00721
THE MITRED JOINT

PG21531.B00722
Although mitreing is used in everyday woodwork, it comes last in our list of regular joints simply because it has been partly dealt with in almost every previous chapter. For example, we have mitre halving in Fig. 34, a mitre bridle joint in Fig. 74, a tongued and grooved mitre in Fig. 116, mitred mortise and tenon joints in Figs. 148 and 159, a dowelled mitre frame in Fig. 202, and a mitred dovetail in Fig. 286.

PG21531.B00723
[Illustration: Fig. 321.--Mitred Skirting.]

PG21531.B00724
[Illustration: Fig. 322.--Curved Mitre.]

PG21531.B00725
[Illustration: Fig. 323.--Halving the Angle.]

PG21531.B00726
MITREING.--The term mitreing is generally used to denote the type of joint used at the corner of a picture frame; or where two pieces of wood are bevelled away so as to fit each other, as the skirting or plinth mould at Fig. 321. In these cases the timber is cut so that the joint is at 45 degrees to the face, and the two pieces, when placed together, form an angle of 90 degrees (a right angle).

PG21531.B00727
The term mitreing, however, is not confined to the fitting of timber around a right angle; it may be justly applied to the fitting of a moulding around an angle irrespective of the number of its degrees.

PG21531.B00728
One often hears such terms as "a half mitre," used to denote the fitting of a moulding around an octagonal column or pedestal, and probably it would be more correct to describe the joint as a mitre cut at 22-1/2 degrees. Mitreing consists of halving the angle and making each piece to fit the line of bisection. Should the angle be bounded by straight lines, as at Fig. 321, then the mitred joint will be a straight line, but should the angle be bounded by a curved and a straight line, as at Fig. 322, A, or by two curved lines, then the mitred joint will have to be a curved line if the mouldings are to be of the same section.

PG21531.B00729
[Illustration: Fig. 324.--Sawing Block for Mitreing.]

PG21531.B00730
FINDING THE ANGLE.--For straight mitres, the mitre joint line is found by bisecting the angle, as shown in the various examples, and the following instructions are given to enable the reader to follow the diagram (Fig. 323). Take a pair of compasses, or dividers, and with any convenient opening strike out the arc A, B. Put the point of the compasses on A, and mark another arc C; then, without altering the distance between the points of the compass, put the point on B, and mark the arc D. Draw the line E from the corner, so that it cuts through the intersection made by the arcs C and D. The angle A B is now halved by the line E, and this method may be applied to any angle.

PG21531.B00731
SAWING BLOCK.--For sawing mouldings, etc., to their approximate shape, a home-made sawing block is generally used, as shown at Fig. 324. Two pieces of wood are glued one on the top of the other, the required angle is transferred thereto, and the saw kerf made. In the sketch the saw kerfs are shown at 45 degrees, right and left, and other angles and kerfs may be made where desired.

PG21531.B00732
PLANING.--After sawing the piece to approximately the correct angle, it is necessary on high-class work to plane the cut end so as to give a perfect finish and enable a glued joint to be made. This may be accomplished by using the plane on the shooting board, as shown at Fig. 325, and, if the worker is constantly using mitres of various angles, it is an easy matter to make new angle blocks and fix them on to the board. Other workers prefer the screw mitre trap shown at Fig. 326. This apparatus takes wide plinth or cornice moulds, and the angle may be altered by fitting temporary packing pieces under the work so as to tilt the moulding to the desired angle. The method of using the plane is indicated in the illustration.

PG21531.B00733
Another method in everyday use by those workers who are constantly mitreing wide pieces of stock at 45 degrees is the "donkey's ear" shooting board illustrated at Fig. 327. The plane is laid on its side on the surface of the board marked A, and used in a similar manner to that shown at Fig. 325.

PG21531.B00734
[Illustration: Fig. 325.--Use of Plane and Shooting Board for Mitreing.]

PG21531.B00735
[Illustration: Fig. 326.--The Screw Mitre Trap.]

PG21531.B00736
A simple method and one that should always be remembered because it is handy when working without a shooting board is shown at Fig. 328. Set the marking or cutting gauge to the thickness of the wood to be mitred at 45 degrees; then gauge this distance on the wood, as shown at B; draw from the line to the edge, as shown, and saw and plane to a finish. The diagonals of a square give 45 degrees, and this is the method used to mark out the work. The end of the wood must, of course, be square with its edges before marking out in this manner.

PG21531.B00737
[Illustration: Fig. 327.--"Donkey's Ear" Shooting Board.]

PG21531.B00738
[Illustration: Fig. 328.--Gauging for Mitres.]

PG21531.B00739
[Illustration: Fig. 329.--Narrow Inner Moulding.]

PG21531.B00740
[Illustration: Fig. 330.--Wide Mitred Moulding.]

PG21531.B00741
Fig. 329 shows a bevelled framing into which has been mitred a narrow moulding M so as to show a correct margin around the panel.

PG21531.B00742
[Illustration: Fig. 331.--Door with Curved Mitres.]

PG21531.B00743
[Illustration: Fig. 332.--Method of Setting out for a Curved Mitre.]

PG21531.B00744
Fig. 330 shows a similar framing, but with a wide moulding M mitred around it. To obtain a correct intersection of this moulding, the angles A and B are bisected. The bisection of the angles meets before the width of the moulding is cleared, therefore the angle C will again have to be bisected, and the finished joint will appear as shown. One of the simplest of mouldings with a large flat face has been chosen to illustrate this. The moulding could be all in one width, as shown, or it could be built into the framing in separate pieces, the wide flat and the piece carrying the mould.

PG21531.B00745
CURVED MITRES.--We now come to what are probably the most difficult of all mitres, viz., curved mitres, and the writer well remembers in his apprenticeship days his first experience of attempting to fit the mouldings around the door shown at Fig. 331 by using straight mitres at A. This, of course, is impossible if the mouldings are of the same section and it is desired to make all the members correctly intersect. If straight mitres are used the section of the curved moulding will have to be of a different shape from the section of the straight moulding, and in these days of machine-made mouldings this method is seldom resorted to. It is better, cheaper, and easier to make curved mitres when the necessary machinery is at hand.

PG21531.B00746
TO SET OUT A CURVED MITRE (see Fig. 332).--Draw a section of the moulding full size, A, as shown at the left hand of the illustration, and project lines round the framing, as shown V, W, X, Y and Z. Where the lines V, W, X, Y and Z intersect at the corner D, it clearly shows that a straight mitre will not cut all the points of intersection. A curved line will cut all the intersections, and a template made of cardboard, sheet zinc, or veneer, should be made to this shape. At the left-hand side the geometrical setting out is shown for obtaining the curve without having to resort to drawing it freehand.

PG21531.B00747
Take half the width of the moulding, as shown by dotted line A, and where it cuts the approximation of the curved mitre place the point of the compasses and strike out a circle as shown; with the same radius place the compass point on B--that is, the inside point of the mitre, and cut the circle on the right and left with the small arcs shown at _aa_. With the same radius put the compass point at the junction of the circle and mitre line, C V, and cut the circle at right and left, viz., _ee_.

PG21531.B00748
[Illustration: Fig. 333.--Template for Mitreing.]

PG21531.B00749
Now rule a line through _aa_, and another line through _ee_, and where these lines cut each other it will give the correct radius of the curved mitre. The advantage of knowing the correct radius of a curved mitre is of great benefit to the skilled machinist, as it enables him to set up his machine so as to give a definite result.

PG21531.B00750
MITREING A MOULDED DOOR FRAME.--Fig. 333 illustrates the method of mitreing the moulded portion of a door frame where the joint is dowelled, not tenoned. A small wooden template is made out of beech or other hardwood, having its ends cut at 45 degrees. This template is placed on the rail, as shown, and held in position by placing both the rail and the template in the vice. The face of the template forms a guide for a wide chisel, and enables the worker to gradually pare away the moulding to the correct angle.

PG21531.B00751
[Illustration: Fig. 334.--Using Panel Saw in Mitre Box.]

PG21531.B00752
For sawing the mitres on large mouldings such as are used on the lid of a gramophone or wireless cabinet, a mitre sawing box and a panel saw may be used as indicated at Fig. 334.

PG21531.B00753
JOINTS FOR CURVED WORK

PG21531.B00754
Fig. 335 shows a circular frame made up in two thicknesses, the segments being screwed to each other and the joints crossed in two layers. This is a very strong method, and it is used for making circular frames and curbs up to 15 ft. in diameter. The segments can be either long or short, the only important condition being that they must be marked out and sawn to the correct radius. Fig. 337 shows a board marked out in segments for this class of work. The longer the boards the better will they cut up, as it gives more opportunities of cutting one piece out of the other as at A A.

PG21531.B00755
[Illustration: Fig. 335.--Circular Frame in Two Thicknesses.]

PG21531.B00756
[Illustration: Fig. 336.--Circular Rim in Halved Segments.]

PG21531.B00757
Fig. 338 shows how to begin to put the work together. To continue this, fit other segments in position and screw them to D and E respectively. The completed work is illustrated at Fig. 335.

PG21531.B00758
[Illustration: Fig. 337.--Board Marked for Circular Jointing.]

PG21531.B00759
[Illustration: Fig. 338.--Putting Circular Work Together.]

PG21531.B00760
[Illustration: Fig. 339., Fig. 340. Method of Building up Semicircular Head of Door Frame.]

PG21531.B00761
Fig. 336 shows a circular rim, or curb, made of segments which are halved together. This method is suitable for heavy work, where the timbers are of considerable size. The halvings are cut on the ends of the segments to any convenient shape or bevel, each one being marked so as to fit its fellow.

PG21531.B00762
[Illustration: Fig. 341.--Part of Laminated Table Frame.]

PG21531.B00763
[Illustration: Fig. 342.--Half of Laminated Core Box.]

PG21531.B00764
When extra length is required, semicircular or circular work is built up out of four or five thicknesses of wood, and the method is called laminating. The method of building up the semicircular head of a door frame by this method is shown at Figs. 339 and 340.

PG21531.B00765
The shaped framing for kidney-shaped writing tables and similar classes of work is built up by laminating pieces of 3/4-in. or 1-in. wood, after which the face side is veneered so as to hide the glued joints. Fig. 341 shows a sketch of one quarter of an elliptical table frame levelled up and ready for applying the veneer.

PG21531.B00766
LAMINATION.--If we apply to the dictionary for the word "lamination," we find that lamellar structure is the arrangements in thin plates or layers one over the other, usually having the end joints alternating, and it is a condition which allows of cleavage in one direction only. This method is used for nearly all descriptions of free or irregular curves, such as sweeps, bends, ogee shapes, and segments of circles. The timber is marked out in suitable lengths, rough-sawn and then planed true on the face, glued together, and when set the sides are cleaned up to the required shape. It is one of the strongest methods of construction, and necessarily costly. Pulleys, pulley rims, and a hundred and one other jobs are built by this method.

PG21531.B00767
Fig. 342 shows one half of a core box built by this method, ready to be worked to the required shape.

PG21531.B00768
MISCELLANEOUS JOINTS

PG21531.B00769
Weather boards.--For outdoor buildings, such as garages, garden sheds, toolhouses, etc., "weatherboarding" is often preferred to ordinary matchboarding, chiefly because of the facility with which it throws off the rain. The boarding can be bought ready prepared. Three methods of jointing are shown in the sections at Fig. 343. The method indicated at A shows one of the most satisfactory types, its boards being planed and moulded as shown. The other two examples are more common. The boarding at B is rebated, whilst at C each board overhangs its lower neighbour. The boards for C and D are always cut tapered as indicated.

PG21531.B00770
[Illustration: Fig. 343.--Weather Boards.]

PG21531.B00771
[Illustration: Fig. 344.--Ladder Rungs.]

PG21531.B00772
The end grain is usually protected by nailing on a strip of timber, chamfered on both edges.

PG21531.B00773
LADDERS.--Fig. 344 illustrates the method of fastening the rung (or stave) of a ladder to the side. At A the common method is shown, the stave being simply driven into the hole and wedged. At B a much better but more expensive method of construction is given. The stave here is socketed and the pin turned to a smaller diameter. In both cases the rung, or stave, is painted before being driven into the side and wedged.

PG21531.B00774
[Illustration: Fig. 345.--Cornice Pole Joint.]

PG21531.B00775
[Illustration: Fig. 346.--Veneer Keying.]

PG21531.B00776
Ladder sides are made in two distinct ways. One method is known as "a plank side," the side being cut from a plank as shown at the section D; the other method is called "a pole side," and is constructed by cutting a straight larch pole in half and using half of the pole for each side of the ladder, as at section C.

PG21531.B00777
HINGED CORNICE POLES.--Fig. 345 shows a hinged joint for cornice poles and should be of interest to those who are frequently removing from house to house. The joint will adapt itself to fit any bay window (even a square bay) and it is formed by turning and cutting the two pieces shown. To fix a cornice pole to a bay window one of these joints is required for each angle of the bay, the pole being cut into suitable lengths and fixed to the hinged joints by the use of the dowel screw and a little hot glue. It is perhaps needless to remark that the diameter of the joint should be of the same diameter as the cornice pole, to enable the rings to easily slide over the surface.

PG21531.B00778
For fastening a turned ornament (or "finial") to the end of a cornice pole a double pointed screw (known in the trade as a "dowel screw") is used, one half of which is screwed into each part of the pieces to be joined.

PG21531.B00779
VENEER KEYING.--Fig. 346 illustrates the method of strengthening the corners of boxes which are made of 1/4-in. or 3/8-in. timber, by securing the corners with veneer keys. The box is mitred and glued in the usual manner, and after allowing sufficient time for the glue to set, saw kerfs are made as shown at _a a_. A piece of thin saw-cut veneer is afterwards glued into the saw kerfs, and when dry the face is levelled off flush. This method is often used previous to veneering the face side of the box with rare veneers, and it is also useful for repair work. Note that the saw cuts are made at an angle. Small picture frames are sometimes keyed instead of nailed.

PG21531.B00780
MUNTIN AND SKIRTING JOINT.--In the case of panelled rooms it is usually necessary to scribe the muntins (or uprights) to the skirting. The method is shown in Fig. 347. The bead moulding of the skirting is only partly removed, as indicated, leaving a solid portion to which the muntin is skew-nailed.

PG21531.B00781
COT JOINT.--At Fig. 348 is shown an interesting joint used largely in the making of Indian cots. The illustrations indicate how the cross bar and end bar are mortised into the leg. A turned hardwood peg fits into a suitably provided hole and locks the tenons, which are dry jointed (not glued) in position. The head of this peg forms an ornament (A) at the top of the leg and should fit tightly in position. At B are seen the end and cross bars in their relative positions when apart from the leg. C shows the end bar and cross bar when the cot is fixed, but in this illustration the leg is purposely left out of the drawing for a clear representation. D shows the joints of the leg portion when the part of the leg above the line at A is sawn off. The hardwood peg is shown at E.

PG21531.B00782
[Illustration: Fig. 347.--Fixing Muntin to Skirting.]

PG21531.B00783
[Illustration: Fig. 348.--Joint for Home-made Cot.]

PG21531.B00784
SIDEBOARD PILLARS, ETC. (Fig. 349).--For economy, sideboard pillars are sometimes built up as indicated, the "shaft," the "base," and the "swell" being made up of three distinct pieces. Turned pins are left on the shaft and the base, and these are secured at the joint by the use of a double-pointed screw called a dowel screw. This does away with the necessity of reducing the squares at the top of the wood and thus getting the turning out of a large piece of wood.

PG21531.B00785
NOTCHED JOINTS.--Fig. 350 is a "notched joint," where two joists, or scantlings, cross each other, the object of the joint being to prevent the joists moving from their position without materially weakening them. For an end notch, see Fig. 352.

PG21531.B00786
[Illustration: Fig. 349.--Method of Building up Turnings.]

PG21531.B00787
[Illustration: Fig. 350.--Notched Joint.]

PG21531.B00788
[Illustration: Fig. 351.--The Saddle Joint.]

PG21531.B00789
The "saddle joint" (Fig. 351) is used for connecting upright posts to heads or sills of framing, and undoubtedly takes its name from its similarity to the way in which the saddle fits the horse. It does not weaken the framing as does a mortise and tenon joint, and shrinkage has little effect upon the joint. The "cogged joint," used for connecting purlins to rafter and joists to girders, is illustrated in Fig. 353.

PG21531.B00790
[Illustration: Fig. 352.--End Notch.]

PG21531.B00791
[Illustration: Fig. 353.--Cogged Joint.]

PG21531.B00792
[Illustration: Fig. 354.--Birdsmouth Joint.]

PG21531.B00793
[Illustration: Fig. 355.--Another type of Birdsmouth Joint.]

PG21531.B00794
BIRDSMOUTH JOINTS.--Fig. 354 is a "birdsmouth joint," a simple joint which can be readily made by the handsaw, used when a spar fits on the wall plate. A nail is shown securing it in position.

PG21531.B00795
Fig. 355 shows the birdsmouth joint where the spar runs over the _outside_ of the wall plate, thus allowing a fixing for an ornamental finish.

PG21531.B00796
[Illustration: Fig. 356.--Rafter and Tie Beam Joint.]

PG21531.B00797
RAFTER JOINT.--Fig. 356 shows an everyday joint, as used at the juncture of the principal rafter and the tie-beam in roof truss work. A sketch of piece A is shown separated, and it should be noted that the depth of the cut portion B should not be more than one-fourth of the total width of the tie-beam.

PG21531.B00798
[Illustration: Fig. 357.--Method of Pelleting the Corner of a Mitred Picture Frame.]

PG21531.B00799
PELLETING.--Fig. 357 indicates the method of pelleting and screwing the corner of a picture frame. The mitre joint is first screwed and a pellet of the same timber is made to fill the hole which has been bored to receive the screw head. The pellet is glued in position and levelled off.

PG21531.B00800
[Illustration: Fig. 358.--Patera Covers to Hide Screws.]
